FORENSIC PROJECT

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CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION TO EVIDENCE

The word 'Evidence' has been derived from the Latin word 'evidence' which implies to
show distinctly, to make clear to view or sight, to discover clearly, to make plainly certain,
to certain, to ascertain, to prove.

According to Sir Blackstone, 'Evidence' signifies that which demonstrates make clear or
ascertains the truth of the facts or points in issue wither on one side or the other.

According to Sir Taylor, Law of evidence means through argument to prove or dis approve
any matter of fact the truth of which is submitted to judicial investigation.

This is the approach of several writers. It has been found, however, that this formulation is
unsatisfactory as it includes both substantive and procedural rules. While the definition of
'Law of Evidence' has been considered by the courts,they have not attempted an
exhaustive definition.

“Evidence” means and includes—

Section 3 of The Evidence Act, defines evidence in following way:

 All statements which the Court permits or requires to be made before it by

witnesses, in relation to matters of fact under inquiry,such statements are called
oral evidence;

 All the documents including electronic records produced for the inspection of the
Court,such documents are called documentary evidence;

The definition of evidence given in this act is very narrow because in this evidence comes
before the court by two means only-

 The statement of witness.

 Documents including electronic records.

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KINDS OF EVIDENCES

The list below will show you the different types of forensic evidence that are commonly
found at crime scenes. Forensic Investigators will search for specific types of evidence
based on the type of crime they are investigating. For example, it makes sense to look for
bloodstains during a homicide investigation. But it makes more sense to look for
fingerprints or touch DNA on a simple vehicular burglary scene. Let's look at each type of
evidence in detail:

1. Oral evidences:

Section 60 of the Indian Evidence Act,1872 prescribed the provisions of recording oral
evidence. All those statement which the court permits or expects the witness to make in his
presence regarding the truth of the facts are called oral evidence.

2. Documentary evidences:

Section 3 of the Indian Evidence Act says that all those documents which are
presented in the court for inspection such documents are called documentary evidence.

3. Primary evidence:

Section 62 of the Indian Evidence Act says primary evidence is the top most class of
evidence. It is the proof which n any possible conditions gives the vital hint in a disputes
fact and established through documentary evidence on the production of an original
document for inspection by the court.

4. Secondary evidence:

Section 63 says that secondary evidence is the inferior evidence. It is evidence that
occupies a secondary position. It is such evidence that on the presentation of which it is
felt that superior evidence yet remain to be produced. It is such evidence that on the
presentation of which it is felt that superior evidence yet remains to be produced.

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5. Real evidence:

Real evidence means real or material evidence. Real evidence of a fact is brought to
the knowledge of the court by inspection of a physical object and not by information
derived from a witness or a document.

6. Hearsay Evidence:

Hearsay evidence is a weak evidence. It is only the reported evidence of a witness

which he has neither seen nor heard. Sometime it implies the saying of something which a
person has heard others say.

7. Judicial evidence:

Evidence received by court of justice in proof or disproof of facts before them is

called judicial evidence. The confession made by the accused in the court is also included
in judicial evidence. Statements of witness and documentary evidence and facts for the
examination by the court are also judicial evidence.

8. Direct evidence:

Direct evidence is that evidence which is very important for the decision of the matter
in issue. The main fact when it is presented by witness, things and witness is direct
evidence, whereby main facts may be proved or established that is the evidence of person
who had actually seen the crime being committed and has described the off.

CHAPTER II

IMPRESSION EVIDENCE:

-Impression evidence includes any markings produced when one object comes into
contact with another, leaving behind some kind of indentation or print. Such evidence
encountered includes footwear impressions, tire marks, and markings created by tools
and similar instruments. Impression evidence is simply where several objects are
pressed or stamped against one another allowing the objects to transfer and retain
characteristics from one another.'Footwear, tire tracks, and tool marks 'may be some
of the most overlooked types of physical evidence left at a crime scene. Extreme

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patience and common sense are needed to find and recover these impressions. In
other impressions there are two categories or types of impressions likely to
be deposited at a crime scene. This impression evidence would be deposited
either on top of a hard surface or into a softer surface.' Two (2D)
dimensional impressions illustrating length and width, are usually found
indoors on surfaces like counter tops, glass, paper, cardboard, or ceramic
and waxed floors'.'Three(3D)dimensional'impressions that have 3
measurements, length, width and depth, are usually discovered outdoors in
surfaces like dirt, sand, clay, mud, tar, or snow. I can not explain to you how
to recover 3D impressions in snow. It is something that I have never had the
opportunity to do. The only white that is encountered down here comes in a
block referred to as a kilo.

* TYPES OF IMPRESSION EVIDENCE:

Edmond Locard, a pioneer in the field of forensic science, once said, “It is impossible
for a criminal to act, especially considering the intensity of a crime, without leaving traces
of this presence.” Basically no matter how careful a criminal thinks they are, Locard
theorized that they will leave something physical behind. Some impression evidence must
then be examined by a specialist. Take a look at this list of impression evidence, and see if
you can figure out which ones would require a specialist to analyze.

 Fingerprint

 Tire treads

 Footprints

 Bite marking

 Bullet marks

 Tool marking

1. Footwear Impressions
Whenever an individual takes a step, a footwear impression may potentially be left

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behind on the surface. Such an impression may be two-dimensional, the print left
behind on a flat surface in some deposited material, or three-dimensional, formed
in a soft surface such as soil. Numerous techniques are available for the
enhancement and recovery of footwear impressions, though non-destructive
methods should always be employed first if possible. Two-dimensional impressions
can often be treated in a similar way as fingerprints. The gentle application of a fine
powder may develop footprints on flat surfaces. Certain chemicals and dyes may
enhance impression on surfaces such as glass or tile. However paper and similar
porous surfaces will simply absorb such chemicals, rendering the impression
useless. The application of alternative light sources can enhance two-dimensional
footwear impressions. The light source should be positioned to give a low angle of
incident light, creating shadows to provide a contrast. One of the more common
methods of recovering three-dimensional impressions is to create a cast of the
impression, usually using plaster of Paris, dental stone, or a similar casting
material. The plaster is mixed with an appropriate amount of water and gently
poured into the impression. Once set, it can be removed and taken for examination
and comparison purposes. Impressions in dust are obviously extremely delicate,
though can be carefully recovered using electrostatic treatment. An electrostatic
lifter passes a voltage across a thin layer of conductive film, which is composed of a
lower layer of black insulating plastic with an upper layer of aluminum foil. The
electrostatic charges cause particles of the impressions to jump onto the black
underside, recovering the dust impression. As dental stone emits heat as it sets, it
is evidently not suitable for casting impressions in snow. In this instance aerosol
products exist, such as Snow Impression Wax. This is applied to the impression
numerous times at intervals of one to two minutes and then left to dry. The
impression can then be cast as normal. Alternatively flour sulfur may be used to
cast snow prints. This is boiled to produce a hot casting compound which, upon
contact with the cold snow, solidifies to produce a detailed cast.Any footwear
impressions collected from the crime scene may be useless unless there are suspect
samples available for comparison. By applying a film of light oil to the under-sole
of a shoe and pressing it into a sheet of oil-impregnated foam rubber, a test
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impression can be produced. Alternatively the under-sole is oiled and pressed onto
plain white paper, which is then dusted with fine black powder similar to that used
to develop latent prints. If a three-dimensional impression is to be obtained, it
should, if possible, be produced using the same methods and mediums as the
original impression. Even if no other samples are available for comparison, a
recovered shoe impression may yield a vast amount of information. Almost all
items of footwear will bear an under-sole with distinctive patterns, which
manufacturers are increasingly designing to be specific to them. In some locations
such patterns have been stored in databases for comparison purposes. Though
these patterns are identical for the same brand and type of shoe, a certain degree of
individuality may be imparted from the manufacturing process or general wear. As
a shoe is worn certain details fade in different places, depending on the weight and
walk of the wearer, and specific damages may be caused. The size of the shoe,
which may easily be obtained by examining the recovered impression, may prove
useful, though not as a positive identifier.

2. Tire Impressions
As vehicles may be Tire Impressions present at crime scenes, before, during or
after the crime, tire impressions may be discovered at the scene, usually left behind
in soil. The enhancement and collection of these is similar to that of footwear
impressions. If a tire impression is discovered at a scene the impression
corresponding to the opposite tire should also be searched for, as the distance
between these may provide further information regarding the vehicle in question.
Tire impression evidence is of course, used to point to the culprit's vehicle.
Uniqueness by way of defects, skidding pattern, tire patching traces or uneven wear
must first be established before the court dismisses the tire track evidence as class
evidence. No used tires are alike thanks to amounts of thread wear, and the tire
thread pattern are what crime scene investigators are paying attention to when
they analyze this particular evidence.

Footprints impression

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- Foot prints may be caused by barefoot or may be left by footwear.

- The footprints or shoe prints may establish the presence of the culprit at the crime
scene.

- If the barefoot prints leave details of the planter surface then identification of ridge
details can be positive but most of the ridge details will not be very clear.

 NATURE OF FOOTPRINTS

a) Sunken Footprint impression :

May be in mud/dust/sand & snow or like substances.

Such impressions may be depressed & three dimensional type.

Generally found in outdoor.

b) Surface Footprints :

By deposition of material like dust, dirt,oil, blood, colored powdery substances

etc. on smooth & hard surface. These are two dimensional & found indoors.

 LOCATION OF FOOTPRINTS

- The crime scene

- Around the place of occurrence

- The route taken by the culprit

- At the places where the culprits gathered together for planning before action

- Besides the above, may be found in the fields, courtyards, floors of rooms, walls,
roofs, tables chairs, papers, boxes, drain pipes etc.

 PRESERVATION OF FOOTPRINTS

- Chances of footprints being damaged are greater than any other traces left behind
by the criminal.

- Wind, rain, earthworms, ants etc. may obliterate or damage the footprints.

- The place or places containing the footprints should be covered with pots cardboard
boxes, baskets, or any other suitable object.

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- Footprints on walls should be covered with paper

- All possible precautions should be taken to save the prints from being washed by
rain, attacked by ants, earthworms & other insects.

a)Photography

b)Tracing

a) Lifting –

(i) Photo bromide paper

(ii) Static electricity lift

b) Casting – can lift sunken foot impression. Cast can be made with plaster of
Paris, wax, resin, sulphur & various other materials.

Whenever an individual takes a step, a footwear impression may potentially be left behind
on the surface. Such an impression may be two-dimensional, the print left behind on a
flat surface in some deposited material, or three-dimensional, formed in a soft surface
such as soil. Numerous techniques are available for the enhancement and recovery of
footwear impressions, though non-destructive methods should always be employed first if
possible. Two-dimensional impressions can often be treated in a similar way as
fingerprints. The gentle application of a fine powder may develop footprints on flat
surfaces. Certain chemicals and dyes may enhance impression on surfaces such as glass or
tile. However paper and similar porous surfaces will simply absorb such chemicals,
rendering the impression useless. The application of alternative light sources can enhance
two-dimensional footwear impressions. The light source should be positioned to give a low
angle of incident light, creating shadows to provide a contrast.

Tool-marks evidence:

1. Tool-marks A tool-mark is defined as the impression left by the contact of a tool (or
a similar object) onto a surface. When the tool or object contacts the surface with
sufficient force to create an indentation, the pattern of the tool is permanently
reproduced onto that surface. Tool marks examination is an important discipline of
criminalization. Its goal is to establish a link between a tool mark and the tool that
created it. Such links are crucial in forensic sciences, as tools are often used in
criminal activities, particularly in burglaries, and can help to identify a criminal.

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For example, when a burglar uses a pry bar to force entry into a house, the marks
left by the tool on the door frame are direct evidence of the presence of that tool for
that particular use at the crime scene. If the tool is found with, or near, a suspect, it
permits the establishment of a link between the suspect and the crime scene. Thus,
the recognition and collection of tool marks at the crime scene and their
examination at the laboratory are paramount.

2. Tool marks bear two kinds of characteristics: class and individual.

The class characteristics of a tool-mark include the type of impression, its general shape,
and its general dimensions. Class characteristics typically allow the examiner to determine
what type of tool created the impression and how the mark was created. Conversely, they
do not permit for the identification of the exact tool that created the impression. This
means that if only class characteristics are available on a tool-mark, it will not be possible
to distinguish which tool, among a series of similar tools, made the impression. Individual
characteristics, also called accidental characteristics, are the striations and small
particularities exhibited by the tool that are individual to one unique tool. They consist of
small, commonly microscopic, indentations, ridges, and irregularities present on the tool
itself. For example, the tip of a screwdriver is never perfectly flat, but shows small ridges
along its edge. These are created by the history of the tool such as its use and misuse, its
cleaning, and its maintenance. These characteristics are the only ones that permit a formal
identification. If such characteristics are present in the tool-mark, it is possible to identify
the actual individual tool that created the impression, even among a series of identical
tools.

There are two main types of tool-marks that can be distinguished: slipped and molded
impressions. The slipped impression occurs as the tool drags or slides across the surface.
The resulting tool-mark is a series of striations running parallel to each other following the
direction of the drag. For example, such impressions are created by slipping a key across
the door of a vehicle, by cutting with a knife (not used in a sawing motion) through a given
material, or by cutting an electrical wire using a pair of line mans pliers. The molded
impressions are the result of the contact of a tool onto a surface with no lateral motion (no
drag nor slip). The resulting tool-marks are a three-dimensional mold of the part of the
tool that contacted the surface. Examples of such impressions are the leverage of a door
from its frame with a pry bar, or the serial number stamped onto a fire-arms barrel. Some
tool-marks are made of a combination of molded and slipped impressions.

2. Tool-mark examination is a term that includes a wide variety of impressions that are not
necessarily directly related to tools but that are created via the same fashion and are,
therefore, examined with the same techniques. A clear example is the impression left by a
firearms barrel onto a bullet or by the firearm onto the cartridge. These are a specialized

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category of tool-marks. Other examples include the impressions left by human teeth or
even the impressions left by shoes or tires. Very often, the tool-mark examiner is the
person responsible for examining and rendering expert opinions on such impressions
identifications.

The examination of tool-marks is conducted in different phases. First, the tool-mark is

observed,measured, and described. Second, a photograph perpendicular to the tool-mark,
is taken. This provides a permanent record of the class and some individual characteristics
of the tool-mark. Then, if the support onto which the tool-mark is located cannot be
collected as evidence, a cast of the tool-mark is made. This cast is usually made with
polymeric dental paste. When a tool is discovered and its class characteristics match the
ones exhibited by the tool-mark, the comparison process is started. Usually, the tool is
observed and photographed. Then, comparison tool-marks are made with the tool on a
soft material so that extra marks are not created on the tool. A comparison microscope is
used to perform the comparison process. The incriminated tool-mark is placed on the left
side of the microscope and the comparison mark on the right side. If a match exists
between the individual characteristics, the common origin between the incriminated tool-
mark and the tool is established.

Importance of Tool marks

1. Frequency A criminal often uses some tools in commission of a crime. If he is

prying open a window, he uses a crow bar or a screw driver; if he is opening a lock,
he uses a ghost key, a master key or a cutter; if he is felling a tree, he uses axe or a
saw, if he has entered a house after digging a hole in the wall he uses some digging
implements; like spade or shovel. If he has stolen copper wire or cable he must have
used some wire cutter. Thus, the occurrence of tool marks is almost universal in all
type of crimes.

2. Permanency A tool made of a hard metal. The surface on which it makes marks is
ordinarily, made of softer material. The tool is not damaged in the process to any
appreciable extent. If the tool is not extensively used or misused and if the same is
properly maintained, the marks are reproducible almost indefinitely. Thus a
criminal can be linked even after a long interval through the tool (recovered from
the criminal) and the tool marks collected from the scene.

3. Individuality : The tool marks like finger print, foot and footwear marks and marks
on bullet and cartridges provides a definite link between the crime and the criminal.
For example, a piece of wire is stolen (by cutting). The cut end left is send to the
laboratory along with the tool recovered from the suspect, the wire is found to have
been cut from the tool recovered from the suspect, the theft is pinned to him. This is

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because no two tools even of the same make and batch, made one after the other
will have identical surface leave identical marks on the surface cut, graced or
scratched by them.

4. Linkage : A culprit usually uses the same set of tools in the same type of crime. If
the tools marks from various crimes are compared inter se and found identical, the
crime are linked.

5. Reconstruction : Carefully study of the nature, position, direction and number of

tool marks help in reconstruction of crime and thus it is possible to verify the
prosecution or defense version of the crime.

"Tool marks and its forensic significance"

1. Relative motion of one surface over the other

2. Magnitude of force applied
3. Relative hardness
4. A tool mark is defined as the mark left by the forcible contact of any implement with
a softer surface.
The nature and quality of the tool mark can be determined by;
Criminal often uses some sort of tools to commit crimes Like:
Removal of expensive parts from vehicles
Hit and run cases
Steeling electric wires
Entering a house

Bite Mark Evidence

A crime scene investigator must have a keen eye for detecting a bite mark on a dead body.
Upon concluding that a bite mark has been impressed on the body, a forensic dentist will
be called to measure and record the bite mark. This must be done immediately as bite
marks loses its original impression over time. When the dentist confirms that it is a human
bite, it will be swabbed for DNA. The serial killer, Ted Bundy, who confessed to 30
murders, was linked to two of his murders by bite mark evidence. When done right, the
recording and analysis of a bite mark on a victim can provide a great deal of evidence in
legal proceedings. When faced with a potential bite mark, it is important firstly to
recognise it as such, so that steps can be taken to maximise the chances of collecting as
much evidence as possible before the mark’s characteristics change, and for the
appropriate personnel to be contacted so that expert examination of the mark takes place
as soon as possible. A bite mark can also be thought of as a form of ‘tool mark’ – a term

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used in forensic science to describe a mark made by an object or implement which can be
analysed to provide some information about the characteristics of that which made
it.Other authors (Gall et al 2003) classify bite marks as examples of ‘crush’ injuries, where
each tooth compresses the skin and soft tissues, crushing them. This action leaves
indentations and/ or breaks in the skin. Marks made on skin (from teeth ) during punching
are termed ‘reverse bite marks’. It is these wounds that carry a high risk of infection, and
joint involvement, and must be thoroughly examined and irrigated prior to any definitive
treatment Bite marks can provide useful evidence in cases of assault (particularly in cases
of Non Accidental Injur y (NAI cases) – the evidence is of a comparative nature, and this
section will outline the means by which this evidence can be collected and analysed. Bite
marks may also provide a source of assailant DNA - assessment of these injuries must
therefore take place after collection of biological trace evidence, where relevant (Sweet et
al 1997).

CHAPTER -III

PATTERN EVIDENCE

PATTERN EVIDENCE

The largest area of observer-based disciplines is that of pattern evidence.

Pattern evidence includes fields such as firearm and tool mark examination,
handwriting analysis and forensic ontology. P attern evidence is defined as any
forensic evidence that can be read and analyzed from a specific type of pattern left by the
physical contact between different people (such as victim and assailant), persons and
objects (such as victim and automobile), and different objects (such as automobile and
tree). These types of pattern evidence can result in various designs such as depositions,
imprints, recesses, residues, and striped markings. When injuries result on the victim's
body, so-called patterned injuries can oftentimes identify the features of the assailant or
object and describe the specific characteristics of injuries. For example, burns result when
an assailant shoves a victim into a container of hot water. Burns that are characterized as
symmetrical (balanced) and bilateral (appearing on both sides) provide a reasonable initial
indication that they were intentional. Specific examples of sources that often result in
pattern evidence include blood splatters (such as from a bullet's exit wound), fire burns
(such as from accelerate residue), footwear, furniture positions (such as what results after

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a fight between victim and assailant), projectile trajectories (such as a bullet's path from
an assailant's gun, through a victim, and into an object), shattered glass fractures (such as
from vehicle windshields), and tire and Forensic experts examine all forms of pattern
evidence in order to eliminate any possible accidental and natural causes for the pattern.
For example, fires from flammable liquids often leave behind certain residue patterns.
Such fires will normally burn downward unless specifically forced to burn upward.
Specifically, accelerants poured from a container will often flow to the lowest spot and
accumulate in a pool. After being ignited, the liquid will generally scorch the floor in a
puddle configuration. Well-defined boundary lines between the burned and unburned
areas will often be obvious to the investigator. In addition, flammable liquids will
frequently penetrate cracks and other similar holes, and flow beneath surfaces. The ignited
liquid may burn beneath the surface where it was first poured. Areas around such holes
will often burn more rapidly when liquid concentrates in those places. All such actions
must be considered by the forensic expert. Pattern evidence, which is for the most part
permanent in nature, is often compared to transient evidence, which is evidence that is
temporary in nature. Examples of transient evidence that can easily change or disappear
include odors, temperatures, and vapors. Forensic scientists, when specializing in pattern
evidence, use many different types of instruments and methods to determine the chemical
and physical characteristics of pattern evidence. Such professionals also perform
investigations of crime scenes to collect and preserve pattern evidence in order to
reconstruct relevant events through the analysis of such patterns.

Pattern Analysis Subjectivity:

Analysis of pattern evidence can be highly subjective, relying heavily on human
interpretation. A scientist analyzing tool marks, fingerprints or firearms
develops a discerning eye only through rigorous training that involves years of
experience and working on hundreds of cases. It is also useful to understand
that human beings are very good at pattern recognition and comparison. When
a peer reviews a completed pattern analysis—or when a jurist tries to grasp how
the scientist arrived at his or her conclusion, the subjective nature of the
analysis might cause others to disagree with the findings. But a conscientious
analyst can take certain steps to give that peer or jurist a better chance at
following the thought process. For instance, a fingerprint examiner can mark
what is considered common minutiae in the latent and known samples, or

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describe the common minutiae and their position in the images through
detailed lab notes.

Pattern Evidence Categories:

The characteristics of pattern evidence fall into one of two categories:

 Class characteristics:

These are those that are common to a group of objects or people. In one
potential scenario, tire treads are found in the dirt at a crime scene. The
forensic analyst identifies the brand and style of tire. While the suspects car
has those tires, so do tens of thousands of other cars. That is a comparison to a
class of characteristics – the physical qualities shared by a group of like
objects. Stating that the sample was a match to a particular tire or car would be
a scientifically invalid statement.

 Individual characteristics:

These are those that are common to one specific object or person. In that same
scenario, if the pattern in the dirt was left by a sneaker with worn edges and
cracks in the sole, and shared several points of similarity with a shoe in the
suspects closet, then this comparison would be between individual
characteristics. The impression is consistent with physical qualities unique to a
specific object or person, and should be given significantly more weight than
class characteristics. That said, some scientists do not agree on what qualifies
as an individual characteristic. Some may maintain that the wear pattern found
at the scene might be the same for people with the same shoes and same build,
who gave their shoes the same amount of wear. Additionally, a ‘combination of
characteristics’ may be individualistic even if the individual characteristics are
not. A certain amount of characteristics occurring together could likely prove
individuality, however, without population statistics to back that up, there is no
way of deciding how many characteristics are needed, or if one characteristic is
more valuable or probative than another.

 Footwear impression:

Generally, impressions occur when a patterned object, for example, the sole of a
shoe or the

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ridges of a finger, interacts with a surface leaving a patterned impression either on the
surface or indented. As the following illustration shows, impressions can be either 2D or
3D.

Patterns lying on the surface—2D patterns—are classified as latent (invisible) or patent

(visible). Examples are fingerprints, footwear impressions, and tire track impressions,

among others. Dust impressions are usually classified or defined as 2D impressions, but in
reality they are 3D impressions because they have depth and surface topology, all be it shall
Impressions that occur when an object impresses its pattern into a softer surface, such

as when someone steps into wet mud and leaves a footwear impression, are 3D impressions.

Neil Armstrong’s famous footwear impression on the moon is an example of a 3D

impression . Another example is when someone transfers ridge detail from a

finger by handling a soft surface, such as wet soap (as in Figure 11.5), putty, or chewing

gum. These are classified as plastic prints.

Classifying Footwear Impressions

Footwear impressions are classified into three categories:

 Visible: Those that occur after someone steps into a foreign substance and then
trans-

refs the substance to a clean surface. Depending upon the background color, a visible

print may be a simple impression made from the dust on the sole of the shoe.

 Plastic: Those that occur when someone steps into a malleable (soft) surface and

leaves a 3D impression. Typically, this could be an impression in mud or cement.

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 Latent: Those that are invisible to the naked eye and typically require an aided eye

to render them visible.

Finding Footwear Evidence at the Scene

Not surprisingly, most footwear impressions are found on floors. Probative impressions,

those having evidential value, will likely be where the perpetrator entered or exited the

premises, and tiled or hardwood foyer entries or linoleum tile are prime candidates for

finding impressions. Footwear evidence should also be expected in areas of activity or at

entrance and egress points. The list in Figure 11.9 is not all inclusive but is provided to

give examples of possible locations where impression evidence might be found, with the

understanding that each scene has its own peculiarities and that finding impression

evidence requires an intimate relationship between the scene scientist/investigator and

the scene is where a burglar entered the house. After breaking the window, s/he stepped
onto the

As the burglar moved through the house toward where the body was found, the residue

on the shoes would gradually diminish and, after stepping on the carpet, the remaining

residue would be gone after only a few steps. Examining the entry point outside the

residence, where the burglar stood before climbing through the window, might reveal

additional impressions. If the area had been wet and the area under the window muddy,

the footwear impression might be impressed in the mud, which means the patterned sole

might be visible. Photography and casting would preserve it. Another consideration has to

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do with another type of evidence—glass. If the burglar stepped onto broken glass, shards

might be imbedded in the sole. These might have been imbedded in the sole of the shoe or

just scratched or nicked it, creating what some might consider a unique pattern.

If the burglar had entered through ―Entry Point 2‖ (top of the diagram) logic suggests

that footwear impressions should be on the outside deck leading into the carpeted living
area.

Common Footwear Transfers

Scene scientists/investigators should be aware, minimally at least, of the most common

types of footwear transfers. These can include

 Dirt and/or dust

 Wet grass

 Grease, oil, wax, or furniture polish

 Blood or other fluids

Dirt or dust on the shoe may have come from outside the crime scene where a perpe-

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tratory stood waiting until it was the correct time to enter. Since footwear (and tire track)

impressions are commonly found in dirt and/or dust, it is important that the scene
scientist/investigator examine the components of soil and dust in the area of the crime, for

example, whether it is muddy, sandy, dusty, and so on.

A perpetrator may have stepped onto a grassy lawn that was wet from dew or rain and
then onto a paved sidewalk before entering the scene. After entering the scene, an impres-

sion may result from stepping onto a freshly waxed floor or onto a piece of furniture while

climbing through a window. The fact is that impressions can be found on almost any
surface: kicked-in doors, vegetation, snow, and tiled or carpeted floors. Impressions in
blood

can be incriminating. Impressions from other liquids that spill during the commission of

a crime can help trace a perpetrator’s movements. The scene scientist/investigator who is

―one‖ with the scene should be able to identify the location of these more difficult types of

impression transfers.

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