INTRODUCTION

Flexible AC Transmission System

A flexible alternating current transmission

system (FACTS) is a system composed of static equipment
used for the AC transmission of electrical energy. It is meant to
enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability
of the network. It is generally a power electronics-based
system.

FACTS is defined by the IEEE as "a power electronic based

system and other static equipment that provide control of one
or more AC transmission system parameters to enhance
controllability and increase power transfer capability.
According to Siemens "FACTS Increase the reliability of AC
grids and reduce power delivery costs. They improve
transmission quality and efficiency of power transmission by
supplying inductive or reactive power to the grid.
Contents

1 Introduction
1.1 History
1.2 Series compensation
1.3 Shunt compensation

2 Theory
2.1 Series compensation
2.2 Shunt compensation

3 Examples of series compensation

4 Examples of shunt compensation
5 See also
6 Applications
7 References
History
Dr. Narain Hingorani is the father of FACTS technology. The first FACTS installation was at the
C. J. Slatt Substation near Arlington, Oregon. This is a 500 kV, 3-phase 60 Hz substation, and
was developed by EPRI, the Bonneville Power Administration and General Electric Company.

FACTS Controller:
A power electronic-based system and other static equipment that provide control of one or
more AC transmission system parameters.
As new technology for power transmission system, FACTS and FACTS controllers not

only provide the same benefits as conventional compensators with mechanically-

controlled switches in steady state but also improve the dynamic and transient

performance of the power system. The power electronics-based switches in the function

blocks of FACTS can usually be operated repeatedly and the switching time is a portion

of a periodic cycle, which is much shorter than the conventional mechanical switches.

The advance of semiconductors increases the switching frequency and voltage-ampere

ratings of the solid switches and facilitates the applications. For example, the switching

frequencies of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) are from 3 kHz to 10 kHz

which is several hundred times the utility frequency of power system (50~60Hz). Gate

turn-off thyristors (GTOs) have a switching frequency lower than 1 kHz, but the voltage

and current rating can reach 5-8 kV and 6 kA respectively [8].

FACTS controllers have many configurations. In general, they can be categorized into

shunt-connected controllers, series-connected controllers and their combinations.

Series compensation
In series compensation, the FACTS is connected in series with the power system. It works as a
controllable voltage source. Series inductance exists in all AC transmission lines. On long lines,
when a large current flows, this causes a large voltage drop. To compensate, series capacitors
are connected, decreasing the effect of the inductance.

Shunt compensation
In shunt compensation, power system is connected in shunt (parallel) with the FACTS. It works
as a controllable current source. Shunt compensation is of two types:

1.Shunt capacitive compensation

This method is used to improve the power factor. Whenever an inductive load is connected to
the transmission line, power factor lags because of lagging load current. To compensate,
a shunt capacitor is connected which draws current leading the source voltage. The net result
is improvement in power factor.

2.Shunt inductive compensation

This method is used either when charging the transmission line, or, when there is very low load
at the receiving end. Due to very low, or no load – very low current flows through the
transmission line. Shunt capacitance in the transmission line causes voltage amplification
(Ferranti effect). The receiving end voltage may become double the sending end voltage
(generally in case of very long transmission lines). To compensate, shunt inductors are
connected across the transmission line. The power transfer capability is thereby increased
depending upon the power equation

power angle
Theory
In the case of a no-loss line, voltage magnitude at the receiving end is the same as
voltage magnitude at the sending end: Vs = Vr=V. Transmission results in a phase lag
that depends on line reactance X.

As it is a no-loss line, active power P is the same at any point of the line:

Reactive power at sending end is the opposite of reactive power at receiving end:

As is very small, active power mainly depends on whereas reactive power mainly
depends on voltage magnitude.

Series compensation
FACTS for series compensation modify line impedance: X is decreased so as to
increase the transmittable active power. However, more reactive power must be
provided.
 Shunt compensation
Reactive current is injected into the line to maintain voltage magnitude. Transmittable
active power is increased but more reactive power is to be provided.

Examples of series compensation

Examples of FACTS for series compensation

(schematic)
 Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)
 Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC): a series capacitor bank is shunted by
a thyristor-controlled reactor
 Thyristor-controlled series reactor (TCSR): a series reactor bank is shunted by a
thyristor-controlled reactor
 Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC): a series capacitor bank is shunted by
a thyristor-switched reactor
 Thyristor-switched series reactor (TSSR): a series reactor bank is shunted by a
thyristor-switched reactor
Examples of shunt compensation

Examples of FACTS for shunt compensation (schematic)

 Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM); previously known as a static
condenser (STATCON)
 Static VAR compensator (SVC). Most common SVCs are:
 Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR): reactor is connected in series with a
bidirectional thyristor valve. The thyristor valve is phase-controlled. Equivalent
reactance is varied continuously.
 Thyristor-switched reactor (TSR): Same as TCR but thyristor is either in zero- or
full- conduction. Equivalent reactance is varied in stepwise manner.
 Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC): capacitor is connected in series with a
bidirectional thyristor valve. Thyristor is either in zero- or full- conduction.
Equivalent reactance is varied in stepwise manner.
 Mechanically-switched capacitor (MSC): capacitor is switched by circuit-
breaker. It aims at compensating steady state reactive power. It is switched
only a few times a day.
SEE ALSO
1.3.1 Shunt-connected controllers

FACTS controllers can be impedance type, based on thyristors without gate turn-off

capability, which are called Static Var Compensator (SVC) for shunt-connected

application. Another type of FACTS controllers is converter-based which is usually in the

form of a Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM).

1.3.1.1 Static Var Compensator (SVC)

Static Var Compensator is “a shunt-connected static Var generator or absorber whose

output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control

specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage)” [5].

SVC is based on thyristors without gate turn-off capability. The operating principal and
characteristics of thyristors realize SVC variable reactive impedance. SVC includes two
main components and their combination: (1) Thyristor-controlled and Thyristor-switched

Reactor (TCR and TSR); and (2) Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC). In Figure 1.4

shows the diagram of SVC

Figure 1. 4 Static VAR Compensators (SVC): TCR/TSR, TSC, FC and Mechanically

Switched Resistor [2]

TCR and TSR are both composed of a shunt-connected reactor controlled by two parallel,

reverse-connected thyristors. TCR is controlled with proper firing angle input to operate

in a continuous manner, while TSR is controlled without firing angle control which

results in a step change in reactance.

TSC shares similar composition and same operational mode as TSR, but the reactor is

replaced by a capacitor. The reactance can only be either fully connected or fully

disconnected zero due to the characteristic of capacitor. With different combinations of

TCR/TSR, TSC and fixed capacitors, a SVC can meet various requirements to

absorb/supply reactive power from/to the transmission line.

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1.3.1.2 Converter-based Compensator

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is one of the key Converter-based

Compensators which are usually based on the voltage source inverter (VSI) or current

source inverter (CSI), as shown in Figure 1.5(a). Unlike SVC, STATCOM controls the

output current independently of the AC system voltage, while the DC side voltage is

automatically maintained to serve as a voltage source. Mostly, STATCOM is designed

based on the VSI.

Figure 1. 5 STATCOM topologies: (a) STATCOM based on VSI and CSI (b)

STATCOM with storage [5]

Compared with SVC, the topology of a STATCOM is more complicated. The switching

device of a VSI is usually a gate turn-off device paralleled by a reverse diode; this

function endows the VSI advanced controllability. Various combinations of the switching

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devices and appropriate topology make it possible for a STATCOM to vary the AC

output voltage in both magnitude and phase. Also, the combination of STATCOM with a

different storage device or power source (as shown in Figure 1.5(b)) endows the

STATCOM the ability to control the real power output.

STATCOM has much better dynamic performance than conventional reactive power

compensators like SVC. The gate turn-off ability shortens the dynamic response time

from several utility period cycles to a portion of a period cycle. STATCOM is also much

faster in improving the transient response than a SVC. This advantage also brings higher

reliability and larger operating range. Figure 1.6 shows the V-I characteristics of

STATCOM and SVC [9].

Figure 1. 6 V-I characteristics of SVC and STATCOM: (a) SVC; (b) STATCOM [24]

1.3.2 Series-connected controllers

As shunt-connected controllers, series-connected FACTS controllers can also be divided

into either impedance type or converter type. The former includes Thyristor-Switched

Series Capacitor (TSSC), Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Thyristor-

Switched Series Reactor, and Thyristor-Controlled Series Reactor. The latter, based on

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VSI, is usually in the form of a Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC). The

composition and operation of different types are similar to the operation of the shunt-

connected peers.

Figure 1.7 shows the diagrams of various series-connected controllers.

Storage

Figure 1. 7 Series-connected FACTS controllers: (a) TCSR and TSSR; (b) TSSC; (c)

SSSC [5]

1.4 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)

As discussed in the previous section, STATCOM is a very popular FACTS controller

application effective in transmission system voltage control. Since 1980 when the first

STATCOM (rated at 20 Mvar) using force-commutated thyristor inverters was put into

operation in Japan [10], many examples have been installed and the ratings have been

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increased considerably. In 1991, KEPCO and Mitsubish Motors installed a ±80MVar

STATCOM at Inuyama Switching Station [11]. In 1996, TVA, EPRI and Westinghouse

installed a ±100MVar STATCOM at Sullivan 500 kV Substation [12]. In 2001, EPRI and

Siemens developed a ±200MVar STATCOM at Marcy 345kV substation [13]. It is expected

that more STATCOMs will be installed due to the advances in technology and commercial

success.

STATCOM could have many topologies, but in most practical applications it employs the DC

to AC converter, which can also be called a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) in 3-phase

configuration as the primary block. The basic theory of VSI is to produce a set of controllable

3-phase output voltages/ currents at the fundamental frequency of the AC

bus voltage from a DC input voltage source such as a charged capacitor or a DC energy

supply device. By varying the magnitude and phase angle of the output voltage and current,

the system can exchange active/reactive power between the DC and AC buses, and regulate

the AC bus voltage.

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Table I: Shunt Connected FACTS Controllers
Name Classification Main Function Subsidiary Functions
BESS 1P-FC-HF-BES- Load Levelling Voltage stabiliser,
Battery energy storage DC active filter, UPS
system
SSC 1P-FC-HF-CES- Voltage control VAR compensation,
Static synchronous DC damp- ing of
compensator
oscillation, transient
SSG 1P-FC-MF-EES- Exchanging stability
Static synchronous DC independently
generator
controllable real and
reactive power with
power system.
SVC 1P-NC-LF-ZES- Voltage control VAR compensation,
Static VAR compensator NDC steady state and
dynamic stability
SVG 1P-NC-LF-ZES- Generating or Steady state and
Static VAR generator NDC absorbing reactive dynamic stability
power (TCR and TSC in
parallel)
SVS 1P-NC-LF-ZES- Stability limit Voltage control
Static VAR systems NDC extender at the
midpoint of a long
transmis- sion line.

SMES 1P-FC-HF-SES- Dynamical control of As SSC, the energy

Superconducting DC power flow in ac storage is
magnetic
system superconducting
energy storage
reactor
TCBR 1P-NC-LF-ZES- Aiding to damp
Thyristor controlled NDC power flow
braking
oscillation and
Resistor
decrease risk of
losing synchronism

TCR 1P-NC-LF-ZES- Continuous reactive

Thyristor controlled NDC power absorber
resistor
TSC 1P-NC-LF-ZES- Stepwise reactive
Thyristor switched NDC power generator
capacitor
TSR 1P-NC-LF-ZES- Stepwise reactive
Thyristor switched NDC power absorber
reactor
BVI (parallel connected) 1P-FC-HF-CES- Voltage
14 stabiliser
bootstrap variable NDC and/or load power
inductance factor corrector
Table II: Series Connected FACTS Controllers

Name Classification Main Function Subsidiary Functions

SSSC 1S-FC-HF-CES- Controlling Increase or decrease
Static synchronous DC transmitted elec- tric resistive voltage drop
series compensator
power by increasing across the
or decreasing reactive transmission line to
voltage drop while enhance dynamic
expecting no SSR behaviour
effect
TCSC 1S-NC-LF-ZES- Capacitive reactance
Thyristor controlled NDC compen- sator in a
series capacitor
continuous manner
TCSC 1S-NC-LF-ZES- Capacitive/inductive
Thyristor controlled NDC reactance compensator
series compensator in a continuous manner
TCSR 1S-NC-LF-ZES- Inductive reactance
Thyristor controlled NDC compen- sator in a
series reactor
continuous manner
TSSC 1S-NC-LF-ZES- Capacitive reactance
Thyristor switched series NDC compen- sator in a
capacitor
stepwise manner
TSSC 1S-NC-LF-ZES- Capacitive/inductive
Thyristor switched series NDC reactance compensator
compensation in a stepwise manner
TSSR 1S-NC-LF-ZES- Inductive reactance
Thyristor switched series NDC compen- sator in a
reactor
stepwise manner
BVI (series connected) 1S-FC-HF-CES- Capacitive/inductive Transient stability
bootstrap Variable NDC reactance compensator improve- ment, fault
Inductance without SSR current limiter

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Table III: Two-Port FACTS Controllers
Name Classification Main Function Subsidiary Functions
IPC 2-NC-LF-ZES- Independent active
Interphase power NDC and reactive power
controller
controller
TCPST 2-NC-LF-ZES- Controlling power
Thyristor controlled DC flow distri- bution and
phase shift
providing high speed
Transformer
variable phase angle to
control power system
UPFC 2-FC-HF-CES- transient
Terminal and dynamic VAR compensation
voltage
Unified power flow DC stability phase angle
control,
controller
regulation, series line
compensation

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REFERENCES

[1] Zhang, B.M.; Ding, Q.F “The development of FACTS and its control”, Advances in
Power System Control, Operation and Management, APSCOM-97. Fourth International
Conference, Vol.1, Nov. 1997, pp: 48 – 53

[2] Paserba, J.J.; “How FACTS controllers benefit AC transmission systems”, Power
Engineering Society General Meeting, IEEE, Vol.2, June 2004, pp:1257 - 1262

[3] Edris, A, “FACTS technology development: an update”, Power Engineering Review,

IEEE, Vol.20, Issue 3, March 2000, pp: 599 - 627

[4] L. Gyugyi, “Application characteristics of converter-based FACTS controllers”, IEEE

Conference on Power System Technology, Vol. 1, pp. 391 - 396, Dec. 2000.
[5] N.G. Hingorani, L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS, Concepts and Technology of
Flexible AC Transmission systems, IEEE Press 2000

[6] N.G. Hingorani, “High power electronics and flexible AC transmission system”,
IEEE Power Engineering Review, Vol.8, No.7, pp.3-4, July 1988.

[7] IEEE FACTS Terms & Definitions Task Force of the FACTS Working Group of the
DC and FACTS subcommittee, “Proposed terms and definitions for Flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS)”, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp.
1848-1853, Oct. 1997.

[8] A.D. Rajapakse, A.M. Gole, and P.L. Wilson, “Electromagnetic transient’s simulation
models for accurate representation of switching losses and thermal performance in power
electronic systems”, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 20, Issue 1, pp. 319 – 327, Jan
2005.

[9] A.D. Rajapakse, A.M. Gole, and P.L. Wilson, “Electromagnetic transient’s simulation
models for accurate representation of switching losses and thermal performance in power
electronic systems”, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 20, Issue 1, pp. 319 – 327, Jan
2005.

[10] Sumi Yoshihiko, Harumoto Yoshinobu, Hasegawa T, et al, “New Static Var Control
Using Force-Commutated Inverters”, IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems,
1981, PAS-100(9); 4216-4224

[11] Matsuno, K., Iyoda, I., Oue, Y., “An experience of FACTS developed 1980s and
1990s”, Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia Pacific,
IEEE/PES, Volume: 2, 6-10 Oct. 2002, 1378-1381 vol.2

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