TECTONOPHYSICS

II Iill

ELSEVIER Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 99-104

Closing of the Central American Seaway and Neogene coastal

upwelling along the Pacific coast of South America
Masako Ibaraki *
Geoscience Institute, Faculty of Science, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka 422, Japan
Received 4 June 1996; accepted 27 December 1996

Abstract

The final closing of the Central American Seaway is estimated to have occurred at ca. 3.7-3 Ma, separating the
equatorial Pacific and Atlantic oceans and the Caribbean Sea. This event greatly influenced not only areas near the seaway
but also the larger Pacific Ocean. Two paleoceanographic events recorded by planktonic foraminifera on the Pacific coast of
South America in Pliocene times are considered to be responses to the closing of this ocean gateway. Event 1 involves an
expansion of coastal upwelling in the Southeast Pacific. Event 2 involves the abrupt cooling of surface water temperatures
along the coast of Ecuador. Both events occurred around 3.5 Ma, coincident with the closing of the Central American
Seaway.

Keywords: planktonic foraminifera; Central American Seaway; coastal upwelling; South America; Ecuador

1. Introduction
The age of the complete separation of the Pacific
and Caribbean seas due to the closing of the Central
American Seaway has been estimated at about 3 Ma
by Keigwin (1982), at 3.7-3.1 Ma by Duque-Caro
(1990a,b), and at 3.5 Ma by Coates et al. (1992).
An effective biogeographic barrier at about 8 Ma
has been suggested by Collins et al. (1996). The
closing of the Central American Seaway severed the
communication between the equatorial Pacific and
Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea (Fig. 1). Con-
sequences of this event include (a) increases in the
surface salinity of the Caribbean Sea and the western
Atlantic Ocean, (b) changes in oceanic circulation,
sedimentation rates, and marine climatic conditions
* Fax: 81-54-238-0491; e-mail: sbmibar@sci.shiuoka.ac.jp
in both the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and (c) as-
sociated biologic reorganizations (Hay and Brock,
1992). In addition, the locus of maximum diatom
sedimentation in the equatorial Pacific shifted east-
ward at about 4.4 Ma, causally linked to the final clo-
sure of the Panamanian seaway (Farrell et al., 1995).
Further, the Pliocene benthic foraminiferal fauna
from Punta Gorda, Ecuador shows little similarity
to age-equivalent microfaunas in the Caribbean, pre-
sumably due to the closing of the seaway (Hasson
and Fischer, 1986).
At the present time, the Peruvian coast is well
known as a major upwelling region, and thick
biosiliceous sediments have accumulated in the area
since Middle Miocene times. However, Pliocene and
younger biosiliceous sequences have also been found
in northern Chile, whereas biosiliceous facies are
very minor in Ecuador.

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PII S 0 0 4 0 - 1 9 5 1 ( 9 7 ) 0 0 1 6 1 - 3
I00 M. lbaraki / Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 99-104

Peru. Based on planktonic foraminiferal biochronol-

ogy, these deposits are assignable to zones N6-N7
C~il~ean Sea

._.Qente~l American Seaway

of the Early Miocene (ca. 18 Ma). The beginning
of diatom-rich facies deposition is also recorded in
ODP Leg 112 Site 682A off Central Peru, where
it is assignable to calcareous nannoplankton Zone
NN4 (Suess et al., 1988), correlative with planktonic
ECU~:~OR,,"~. ~ +
7," "%' foraminiferal Zone N7 (ca. 18 Ma).
In fact, biosiliceous sediments formed by up-
welling in Peru have been accumulating along the
PERU '1
Peruvian coast since Zone N10 of the early Middle
+15 °' ~ ;( +
Miocene. In holes cored by ODP Leg 112 off the
central coast of Peru, laminated biosiliceous sedi-
CHILE~ ments caused by typical coastal upwelling are dated
as Middle Miocene and younger (Suess et al,, 1988).
-+30 ° + In northern Chile, the well exposed and con-
tinuous section at Caleta Herradura de Mejillones
contains little biosiliceous sediments in the Middle
Miocene (zones N1 I-N13) and Late Miocene suc-
cession (zones N15-N16). Thus, coastal upwelling
+45oS ,'-,, • .~ +
90ow ~ i, 60 ° apparently did not extend south of the Peruvian coast
during Middle and Late Miocene times.
The Caleta Herradura de Mejillones section is
unconformably overlain by diatomaceous sediment,
the basal part of which is assignable to calcareous
Fig. 1. Index map of the study area.
nannoplankton zones NN12-15 (planktonic forami-
niferal zone N19) of the Pliocene (Tsuchi et al.,
This paper examines changes in paleoceano- 1988). Biosiliceous sediments become dominant in
graphic conditions along the Pacific coast of South Pliocene and Pleistocene sequences of Cuenca del
America due to the closing of the Central American Tibron, Cuebrada Blanca and other areas in north-
Seaway from the viewpoint of planktonic foraminif- ern Chile. Some biosiliceous facies are found in
era. the Pliocene-Pleistocene sequences of Ecuador, al-
though no typical diatomaceous units have been
2. Coastal upwelling observed. These depositional patterns suggest that
coastal upwelling expanded southwards during later
Neogene biosiliceous sediments are extensively Neogene time.
developed along the coasts of Peru and Chile. These Farrell et al. (1995) observed that the locus of
deposits are considered to be the product of strong maximum opal mass accumulation rate was dis-
coastal upwelling, which commenced in latest Early placed from the Pacific Basin to the Galapagos
Miocene times (Yeats et al., 1976; Keller, 1981; region at 4.4 Ma, caused by the final closure of
Suess et al., 1988; Dunbar et al., 1990; Ibaraki, the Panamian seaway. In the Galapagos region, the
1990). opal percentage became elevated between 3 and 1.5
However, as shown in the accompanying cor- Ma, with a distinct maximum at about 1.9 Ma. The
relation chart (Fig. 2), the biosiliceous deposits maximum corresponds to a minimum in CaCO3.
formed by upwelling in Ecuador, Peru and Chile In line with the sedimentologic and foraminiferal
vary markedly in age and duration. evidence, Hay and Brock (1992) inferred a change
The oldest Neogene diatomaceous sequences are in circulation in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans with
found in the Cerro Las Salinas section in central the closing of the Central American Seaway, and
 M. lbaraki / Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 99-104 101

. o . r H <---- .--.), SOUTH

ECUAD~ PERU CHILE

ODP112 I
• 2 Site 682 3 8
Lyo~r ~ Rio Pisco C.MejUlones 10 11
. . . .

I~] C.del Cuebrada

Tibron Blanca

C.H.Mejillone ,-,,..,
5
Loma Cuesta
Chilcatay

•IOGOTA
N,.~S
N~
MAN'^ r QOVO
~ 6
2 ,PIURA ,~S~K
~" Rio Grande
~u~PERU , ..

• *F LIMA

7 20 + ~ ^
I Camana
4
L Serro "", ~ ANTOFAGAST
I Las Salinas

, I
J
I
,•.:'. NAVIDAD "SANYIA~

, I

I
1
: !
;.-.. :

f •
Siltstone ~ Sandstone
BiosUiceous sediment

Fig. 2. Correlation chart of selected marine Neogene sequences in Ecuador, Peru and Chile, on the Pacific coast of South America. C.
Mejillones = Costa Mejillones; C.H. Mejillones = Caleta Herradura de Mejillones; C. del Tibron = Cuenca del Tibron. Age assignments
are in accordance with Berggren et al. (1995b).
102 M. lbaraki / Tectonophysics 281 (1997) 99-104

suggested that expanded coastal upwelling occurred
in concert with this event along the Pacific coast of
South America.
3. Cooling of seawater in northwestern Ecuador
Upper Miocene-Pliocene sediments are exposed
continuously along the lower course of the Esmer-
aldas River in northwestern Ecuador. Late Miocene
to Pliocene planktonic foraminifera from the Esmer-
aldas section have been examined quantitatively to
obtain estimates of Neogene sea-surface temperature
in this region.
Based on the planktonic foraminiferal biochronol-
ogy, the Esmeraldas sequence spans Early Miocene
Zone N7 through Late Pliocene Zone N21 (Ibaraki,
1994). The base of Pliocene Zone N19 is defined
by the initial appearance of Sphaeroidinella dehis-
cens, the upper part of Zone N19 is defined by the
sinistral to dextral coiling change in Pulleniatina
primalis, and the base of Zone N21 is placed at
the horizon yielding both Globorotalia ungulata and
dextral-coiling Pulleniatina (Fig. 3). The base of
Zone NI9 is dated at 5.2 Ma, the coiling change in
Pulleniatina at 3.95 Ma, and the base of Zone N21
at 3,35 Ma (Berggren et al., 1995a).
Surface temperature is one of the major factors
controlling the distribution of planktonic foraminif-
era in the modem ocean. Planktonic foraminifera
can be divided into three basic groups represent-

Esmeraldas Section
Ma
0 zw N23
LU
L)
0
1
o9 Percent of warm-water
i~ N22 planktonic foraminifera
..J
n
2 St-"'~tD 0% 50% 100%
I" I I I I I ! 1 I I I

N21
3
W
Z
LU
0
4 _.li
3.95Ma
o-i N19

5
: Q.-
'N18

6 ~ N17
a
~. + k,J PERU +5oS
80 ° W 75 °
7'
Fig. 3. Changes in coiling ratio (sinistral or dextral) in Pulleniatina and changes in the ratio of warm-water planktonic foraminifera to
the total foraminiferal assemblage through the upper part of the Esmeraldas section in northwestern Ecuador.
 M. Ibaraki/ Tectonophysics281 (1997)99-104
ing tropical-subtropical, eurythermal and cold-water
dwellers. Planktonic foraminiferal faunas from zones
N19-N21 in the Esmeraldas section were examined
and assessed as warm, temperate and cool, and the
results noted as ratios of warm-water taxa to the
total assemblages in each sample analyzed (Fig. 3).
The ratio of tropical-subtropical dwellers to the total
assemblage decreases abruptly in the upper part of
zone N19 in the Esmeraldas section, whereas eury-
thermal dwellers (Neogloboquadrina spp.) increase
inversely.
Neogloboquadrina dutertrei is known to occur
abundantly in modern coastal boundary currents and
in upwelling regions (Be, 1977) and in areas adja-
cent to upwelling centres (Ibaraki, 1992). The abrupt
appearance of Neogloboquadrina in the Esmeraldas
section is, therefore, interpreted as evidence of in-
creased coastal upwelling in this region. Planktonic
foraminiferal assemblages of Zone N21 in this se-
quence are characterized by abundant occurrences of
the cold-water species Globigerina bulloides and of
eurythermal dwellers, including the increasing abun-
dance of Globigerinita glutinata. Ratios of warm-
water dwellers within Zone N21 are all lower than
those recorded in Zone N17 and the early part
of Zone N19. The associated decrease in seawater
temperature and abundant occurrences of Neoglobo-
quadrina spp. in the upper part of Zone N19 are
therefore considered to be due to increased coastal
upwelling in this region coincident with the effective
closing of the Central American Seaway and correla-
tive with the later part of Zone N19 (3.95-3.35 Ma).
Thus, coastal upwelling was accelerated along the
Pacific coast of South America at the end of Pliocene
Zone N19 and into Zone N21, as marked by the
appearance of diatomaceous deposits of these ages
in northern Chile (Ibaraki, 1990).
4. Summary
Based on biochronologic analysis of Neogene
biosiliceous sediments exposed along the Pacific
coast of South America and in ODP Leg 112 cores
off Peru, upwelling is considered to have been active
along the Peruvian coast during Middle and Late
Miocene times.
Pliocene and Pleistocene biosiliceous sediments
occur in northern Chile and Ecuador and suggest
103
that coastal upwelling expanded during this time,
coincident with the closing of the Central American
Seaway.
The ratio of tropical-subtropical planktonic fora-
minifera to the total assemblage recorded from the
Pacific coast of northwestern Ecuador abruptly de-
creases in the upper part of Zone N19 (ca. 3.95-3.35
Ma). These data indicate an abrupt cooling of sea
surface temperature at this time. The abrupt decrease
in surface temperatures and the abundant occurrence
of Neogloboquadrina spp. in the upper part of Zone
N I 9 at about 3.5 Ma also suggest that increased
coastal upwelling commenced in this region during
and subsequent to the closing of the Central Ameri-
can Seaway.
Acknowledgements
The field work in Ecuador was supported by the
Tokyo Geographic Society of Japan in 1993. The
present author expresses her cordial thanks to Pro-
fessor R. Tirado of the Central University of Ecuador
and Professor R. Martinez-P of the University of
Chile for their kind collaboration during field work
in their countries. The author is grateful to Professor
James C. Ingle of Stanford University, Dr. J. Barron
of U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California,
Dr. Alan Beu of Institute of Geological and Nuclear
Sciences, New Zealand and Dr. R. Tsuchi, Profes-
sor Emeritus of Shizuoka University for their kind
reviewing of the manuscript.
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