In considering the experience of loneliness, Weiss (1973) made a distinction between the loneliness of social isolation and

that of emotional isolation. The loneliness of social isolation, according to Weiss, results from the absence of an engaging
social network that can only be remedied by access to a satisfying social network. In contrast, the loneliness of emotional
isolation stems from the absence or loss of a close attachment relationship. This type of loneliness, Weiss postulates, can
only be alleviated by the instalment of a satisfactory attachment relationship where one is absent, or by the reinstatement or
replacement of one that has been lost.
Underlying Weiss’ (1973, 1974) theoretical examination of loneliness has been his focus on what people get from
relationships with others. He argued that “. . . different types of relationships make different provisions, all of which may be
required by individuals, at least under some conditions” (p. 21, Weiss, 1974). Weiss identified six social provisions:
attachment, social integration, reliable alliance, guidance, reassurance of worth and opportunity for nurturance. Since each
provision has a difference underlying assumption, he postulated that relationships must be specialized in their provisions.
Therefore, no single relationship can meet all the needs, although intimate relationships (e.g. spousal relationships) can
satisfy a multiplicity of these needs. Weiss (1974) emphasized that individuals have requirements (needs) for well-being
that can only be met by relationships, and therefore must maintain a number of different specialized relationships to stay
healthy.
Weiss (1973) theorized that loneliness is a response to the absence of a particular social provision or a constellation of them.
Thus, he proposed that underlying the loneliness of emotional isolation (emotional loneliness) is the social provision of
attachment, whereas underlying the loneliness of social isolation (social loneliness) is the social provision of social
integration. He speculated that all resulting loneliness syndromes are characterized by a yearning for relationships that
motivate the individual to attain the missing provisions. The social provisions are distinct from loneliness in that they reflect
specific relational needs emanating from relationships. On the other hand, loneliness reflects the subjective evaluation of
actual and desired levels of satisfaction with one’s relationships. Loneliness is a global evaluation of relationships across all
relational needs.
Weiss (1973) further postulated different symptomatological patterns that accompany each type of loneliness. Emotional
loneliness was expected to produce a sense of utter aloneness, anxiety, hyperalertness, oversensitivity to minimal cues,
constant focusing on potential solutions to the problem, feeling of abandonment, vigilance to threat, nameless fear and
constant appraisal. He speculated social loneliness would be associated with boredom, depression, aimlessness, marginality,
meaninglessness and a drive to search and move among people, along with behavioral deviations such as self-talk and
alcoholism. Additionally, Weiss proposed that both types of loneliness share a common core of symptoms including poor
concentration, distress, tension, disturbed sleep and disengagement, along with restless depression and amorphous,
unfocused dissatisfaction.
Empirical examination of Weiss ‘s typology of loneliness
Weiss’ (1974) six social provisions have been operationalized by Russell and Cutrona (1984) and have been used in a number
of studies to examine different aspects of Weiss’ mode1 (e.g. Cutrona, Russell & Rose, 1984; Kraus, Davis, Bazzini, Church
& Kirchman, 1993; Mancini & Blieszner, 1992; Mullins & Dugan, 1991; Russell, Cutrona, Rose & Yurko, 1984; Spinner
& Byers, 1986; Vaux, 1988).
Table 1 summarizes the results of five studies that have examined the relationship between the social provisions and
loneliness. Attachment is a consistent predictor of emotional loneliness across all five studies, and social integration predicts
social loneliness in three of the five studies. However, there are also some inconsistencies across the studies.
One possible reason for the difference in findings may be the use of different measures of loneliness (all of the studies used
the Social Provisions Scale to assess Weiss’ social provisions). Both Weiss (1987) and Marangoni and Ickes (1989) have
noted the need for theoretically derived measurement instruments to assess the multidimensional nature of loneliness. As
indicated in Table 1, only the study by Spinner and Byers (1986) used the Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults
(SELSA; DiTommaso & Spinner, 1993) a reliable and valid measure of loneliness that distinguishes between the forms of
loneliness that Weiss proposed. Three of the remaining studies (Cutrona et al., 1984; Kraus et al., 1993; Russell et al., 1984)
used a single item to assess each of social and emotional loneliness yielding results that were not completely in agreement.
Loneliness and mental health
Considering the many proposed definitions of loneliness that depict it as a rather aversive and distressing state (Sullivan,
1953; Weiss, 1973), it is not surprising that it has been linked to mental health problems. Loneliness has been closely
associated with depression and similar mood state disruptions (e.g. Hojat, 1983; Horowitz, DeSales-French & Anderson,
1982; Pepiau, Perlman & Heim, 1979; Rook, 1984; Weeks, Michela, Peplau & Bragg, 1980) with correlations ranging from
0.40 to 0.71 in mostly college age samples (Young, 1982). Loneliness has also been associated with various other behavioral
and mental health problems. Loneliness has been linked to greater anxiety (Hojat, 1983; Russell et al., 1984; Russell, Peplau
& Cutrona, 1980), greater neuroticism (Hojat, 1983; Safloske & Yackulic, 1989), lower self-esteem (e.g. Hojat, 1983;
Safloske & Yackulic, 1989) and higher potential for suicide on Zung’s Clinical index (Diamant & Windholz, 1981).
Lonelinesshas also been linked to a number of psychosomatic symptoms (e.g. headaches, poor appetite, fatigue) and poor
physical health (Baum, 1982; Lynch, 1977; 1985; Lynch & Convey, 1979; Rubenstein & Shaver, 1980). However, previous
research relating loneliness to mental health has either not distinguished between emotional and social loneliness, or has
used measures of unknown reliability and validity.
The purposes of the present study were: (1) to examine Weiss’ (1973) model linking the social provisions to his typology of
loneliness using a reliable and valid multidimensional measure of loneliness; and (2) to examine the mental health
symptomatology associated with social and emotional loneliness and relational provisions. Based on the preceding
discussion, it is hypothesized that:
1. Individuals who receive low levels of the social provision of attachment will experience high
levels of emotional loneliness.
2. Individuals who receive low levels of the social provision of social integration will experience
high levels of social loneliness.
3. High levels of depression will be associated with high social loneliness.
4. High levels of anxiety will be associated with high levels of emotional loneliness.
5. High levels of overall frequency and severity of mental health problems will be associated with
both high levels of emotional and social loneliness.
Since previous research has often indicated gender differences in depression (e.g. Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990) and is
inconclusive with regard to such differences in loneliness (e.g. Borys & Perlman, 1985). the present study also examined
gender effects on the various measures.