March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

Chapter 1

Introduction

1. Introduction
1.1. Photons In, Electrons Out: The Photovoltaic Effect
1.1 Photons in, electrons out:
Solar photovoltaic The Photovoltaic
energy conversion iseffect
a one-step conversion process which
generates electrical energy from light energy. The explanation relies on ideas
Solar photovoltaic energy conversion is a one-step conversion process which generates electrical energy
from quantum theory. Light is made up of packets of energy, called photons,
from light energy. The explanation relies on ideas from quantum theory. Light is made up of packets of
whose energy depends
energy, called photons, whose energyonlydepends
upon the onlyfrequency, or colour,orofcolour,
upon the frequency, the light.
of theThe
light. The
energy of visible photons is sufficient to excite electrons, bound into solids, up to highersolids,
energy of visible photons is sufficient to excite electrons, bound into energy levels
up to
where they are higher
more free energy
to move.levels where example
An extreme they are of more freephotoelectric
this is the to move. An extreme
effect, the celebrated
example
experiment whichof wasthis is the photoelectric
explained effect,
by Einstein in 1905, the celebrated
where experiment
blue or ultraviolet whichenough
light provides
waselectrons
energy for explained by Einstein
to escape completelyin from
1905,thewhere
surfaceblue
of a or ultraviolet
metal. Normally,light
whenprovides
light is absorbed
by matter, photons
enough are given
energy for upelectrons
to excite electrons
to escape to higher energy from
completely states within the material,
the surface of a but the
excited metal.
electrons quickly relax
Normally, when back to their
light ground state.
is absorbed In a photovoltaic
by matter, photons device, however,
are given up tothere is
some built-in
exciteasymmetry
electronswhich pulls energy
to higher the excited electrons
states withinaway
thebefore they can
material, butrelax, and feeds them
the excited
them to an external circuit. The extra energy of the excited electrons generates a potential difference, or
electrons quickly relax back to their ground state. In a photovoltaic device,
electro-motive force (e.m.f.). This force drives the electrons through a load in the external circuit to do
electrical work.
p n
uv light light
metal

Current
e-
e-

Load

Fig.
Figure 1.1 1.1. Comparison
Comparison of theeffect
of the photoelectric photoelectric
(left), whereeffect
uv light(left), where
liberates uv light
electrons liberates
from the surface of electrons
a metal, with the
from effect
photovoltaic the surface of a(right).
in a solar cell metal,The with the photovoltaic
photovoltaic cell needs to haveeffect
somein a solar
spatial cell (right).
asymmetry, The with
such as contacts
photovoltaic cellelectronic
different needs toproperties,
have some spatial
to drive asymmetry,
the excited such asthecontacts
electrons towards with different
external circuit.
electronic properties, to drive the excited electrons through the external circuit.
The effectiveness of a photovoltaic device depends upon the choice of light absorbing materials and the
way in which they are connected to the external 1circuit. The following chapters will deal with the
underlying physical ideas, the device physics of solar cells, the properties of photovoltaic materials and
solar cell design. In this Chapter we will summarise the main characteristics of a photovoltaic cell
without discussing its physical function in detail.

1.2 Brief history of the solar cell

The photovoltaic effect was first reported by Edmund Bequerel in 1839 when he observed that the
action of light on a silver coated platinum electrode immersed in electrolyte produced an electric
current. Forty years later the first solid state photovoltaic devices were constructed by workers
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

2 The Physics of Solar Cells

however, there is some built-in asymmetry which pulls the excited electrons
away before they can relax, and feeds them to an external circuit. The extra
energy of the excited electrons generates a potential difference, or electro-
motive force (e.m.f.). This force drives the electrons through a load in the
external circuit to do electrical work.
The effectiveness of a photovoltaic device depends upon the choice of
light absorbing materials and the way in which they are connected to the
external circuit. The following chapters will deal with the underlying phys-
ical ideas, the device physics of solar cells, the properties of photovoltaic
materials and solar cell design. In this chapter we will summarise the main
characteristics of a photovoltaic cell without discussing its physical function
in detail.

1.2. Brief History of the Solar Cell

The photovoltaic effect was first reported by Edmund Bequerel in 1839

when he observed that the action of light on a silver coated platinum elec-
trode immersed in electrolyte produced an electric current. Forty years
later the first solid state photovoltaic devices were constructed by work-
ers investigating the recently discovered photoconductivity of selenium. In
1876 William Adams and Richard Day found that a photocurrent could
be produced in a sample of selenium when contacted by two heated plat-
inum contacts. The photovoltaic action of the selenium differed from its
photoconductive action in that a current was produced spontaneously by
the action of light. No external power supply was needed. In this early pho-
tovoltaic device, a rectifying junction had been formed between the semi-
conductor and the metal contact. In 1894, Charles Fritts prepared what
was probably the first large area solar cell by pressing a layer of selenium
between gold and another metal. In the following years photovoltaic effects
were observed in copper–copper oxide thin film structures, in lead sulphide
and thallium sulphide. These early cells were thin film Schottky barrier
devices, where a semitransparent layer of metal deposited on top of the
semiconductor provided both the asymmetric electronic junction, which is
necessary for photovoltaic action, and access to the junction for the inci-
dent light. The photovoltaic effect of structures like this was related to the
existence of a barrier to current flow at one of the semiconductor–metal
interfaces (i.e., rectifying action) by Goldman and Brodsky in 1914. Later,
during the 1930s, the theory of metal–semiconductor barrier layers was
developed by Walter Schottky, Neville Mott and others.
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

Introduction 3

However, it was not the photovoltaic properties of materials like sele-

nium which excited researchers, but the photoconductivity. The fact that
the current produced was proportional to the intensity of the incident light,
and related to the wavelength in a definite way meant that photoconductive
materials were ideal for photographic light meters. The photovoltaic effect
in barrier structures was an added benefit, meaning that the light meter
could operate without a power supply. It was not until the 1950s, with the
development of good quality silicon wafers for applications in the new solid
state electronics, that potentially useful quantities of power were produced
by photovoltaic devices in crystalline silicon.
In the 1950s, the development of silicon electronics followed the discov-
ery of a way to manufacture p–n junctions in silicon. Naturally n type silicon
wafers developed a p type skin when exposed to the gas boron trichloride.
Part of the skin could be etched away to give access to the n type layer
beneath. These p–n junction structures produced much better rectifying
action than Schottky barriers, and better photovoltaic behaviour. The first
silicon solar cell was reported by Chapin, Fuller and Pearson in 1954 and
converted sunlight with an efficiency of 6%, six times higher than the best
previous attempt. That figure was to rise significantly over the following
years and decades but, at an estimated production cost of some $200 per
Watt, these cells were not seriously considered for power generation for sev-
eral decades. Nevertheless, the early silicon solar cell did introduce the pos-
sibility of power generation in remote locations where fuel could not easily
be delivered. The obvious application was to satellites where the require-
ment of reliability and low weight made the cost of the cells unimportant
and during the 1950s and 60s, silicon solar cells were widely developed for
applications in space.
Also in 1954, a cadmium sulphide p–n junction was produced with an
efficiency of 6%, and in the following years studies of p–n junction pho-
tovoltaic devices in gallium arsenide, indium phosphide and cadmium tel-
luride were stimulated by theoretical work indicating that these materials
would offer a higher efficiency. However, silicon remained and remains the
foremost photovoltaic material, benefiting from the advances of silicon tech-
nology for the microelectronics industry. Short histories of the solar cell are
given elsewhere [Shive, 1959; Wolf, 1972; Green, 1990].
In the 1970s the crisis in energy supply experienced by the oil-dependent
western world led to a sudden growth of interest in alternative sources of
energy, and funding for research and development in those areas. Photo-
voltaics was a subject of intense interest during this period, and a range of
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

4 The Physics of Solar Cells

strategies for producing photovoltaic devices and materials more cheaply

and for improving device efficiency were explored. Routes to lower cost in-
cluded photoelectrochemical junctions, and alternative materials such as
polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, other ‘thin film’ materials and
organic conductors. Strategies for higher efficiency included tandem and
other multiple band gap designs. Although none of these led to widespread
commercial development, our understanding of the science of photovoltaics
is mainly rooted in this period.
During the 1990s, interest in photovoltaics expanded, along with grow-
ing awareness of the need to secure sources of electricity alternative to
fossil fuels. The trend coincides with the widespread deregulation of the
electricity markets and growing recognition of the viability of decentralised
power. During this period, the economics of photovoltaics improved pri-
marily through economies of scale. In the late 1990s the photovoltaic pro-
duction expanded at a rate of 15–25% per annum, driving a reduction in
cost. Photovoltaics first became competitive in contexts where conventional
electricity supply is most expensive, for instance, for remote low power ap-
plications such as navigation, telecommunications, and rural electrification
and for enhancement of supply in grid-connected loads at peak use [An-
derson, 2001]. As prices fall, new markets are opened up. An important
example is building integrated photovoltaic applications, where the cost of
the photovoltaic system is offset by the savings in building materials.

1.3. Photovoltaic Cells and Power Generation

1.3.1. Photovoltaic cells, modules and systems

The solar cell is the basic building block of solar photovoltaics. The cell can
be considered as a two terminal device which conducts like a diode in the
dark and generates a photovoltage when charged by the sun. Usually it is a
thin slice of semiconductor material of around 100 cm2 in area. The surface
is treated to reflect as little visible light as possible and appears dark blue
or black. A pattern of metal contacts is imprinted on the surface to make
electrical contact (Fig. 1.2(a)).
When charged by the sun, this basic unit generates a dc photovoltage of
0.5 to 1 volt and, in short circuit, a photocurrent of some tens of milliamps
per cm2 . Although the current is reasonable, the voltage is too small for
most applications. To produce useful dc voltages, the cells are connected to-
gether in series and encapsulated into modules. A module typically contains
 voltage which is some multiple of 12V, under standard illumination. For almost all applications the
illumination is too variable for efficient operation all the time and the photovoltaic generator must be
integrated with a charge storage system (a battery) and with components for power regulation
(Fig.1.2(d)). The battery is used to store charge generated during sunny periods and the power
conditioning ensures that the power supply is regular and less sensitive to the solar irradiation. For ac
electrical power, to power ac designed appliances and for integration with an electricity grid, the dc
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc
current supplied by the photovoltaic modules is converted to ac power of appropriate frequency using
an inverter.

The design and engineering of photovoltaic systems is beyond the scope of this book. A more detailed
introduction
Introduction
is given by Markvart [Markvart, 2000] and Lorenzo [Lorenzo, 1994]. Photovoltaic
5
systems
engineering essentially depends upon the electrical characteristics of the individual cells.

0V

+12V

(a) (b)

+V

Power
PV generator conditioning Load

Module

Storage
0 (Battery (dc)
or Grid (ac))

(c) (d)
Figure 1.2 (a) Photovoltaic cell (b) In a module, cells are connected in series to give a standard dc voltage of 12V (c) For any
Fig. 1.2. modules
application, (a) Photovoltaic
are connected incell showing
series surface
and parallel contact
into an patterns
array, which (b)sufficient
produces In a module, cells
current and voltage to meet the
are usually
demand. connected
(d) In most casesin
theseries to give
photovoltaic a standard
array dc voltage
should be integrated with of 12 V (c)forFor
components anyregulation
charge appli- and storage.
cation, modules are connected in series into strings and then in parallel into an array,
which produces sufficient current and voltage to meet the demand. (d) In most cases
the photovoltaic array should be integrated with components for charge regulation and
1.3.2. Some important definitions
storage.

solar cell battery

28 to 36 cells in series, to generate a dc output voltage of 12 V in stan-
dard illumination conditions (Fig. 1.2(b)). The 12 V modules can be used
singly, or connected in parallel and series into an array with a larger current
and voltage output, according to the power demanded by the application
A Cells within load
(Fig. 1.2(c)). a module are integratedB with bypass andload
blocking
diodes in order to avoid the complete loss of power which would result if one
Figure 1.3 The solar cell may replace a battery in a simple circuit.

The solar cell can take the place of a battery in a simple electric circuit (Fig. 1.3). In the dark the cell in
circuit A does nothing. When it is switched on by light it develops a voltage, or e.m.f., analogous to the
e.m.f. of the battery in circuit B. The voltage developed when the terminals are isolated (infinite load
resistance) is called the open-circuit voltage Voc . The current drawn when the terminals are connected
together is the short-circuit current Isc. For any intermediate load resistance RL the cell develops a
voltage V between 0 and Voc and delivers a current I such that V = IRL and I(V) is determined by the
current-voltage characteristic of the cell under that illumination. Thus both I and V are determined by
the illumination as well as the load. Since the current is roughly proportional to the illuminated area, the
short circuit current density Jsc is the useful quantity for comparison. These quantities are defined for a
 March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

6 The Physics of Solar Cells

cell in the series failed. Modules within arrays are similarly protected. The
array, which is also called a photovoltaic generator, is designed to generate
power at a certain current and a voltage which is some multiple of 12 V,
under standard illumination. For almost all applications, the illumination is
too variable for efficient operation all the time and the photovoltaic gener-
ator must be integrated with a charge storage system (a battery) and with
components for power regulation (Fig. 1.2(d)). The battery is used to store
charge generated during sunny periods and the power conditioning ensures
that the power supply is regular and less sensitive to the solar irradiation.
For ac electrical power, to power ac designed appliances and for integration
with an electricity grid, the dc current supplied by the photovoltaic modules
is converted
+V to +V
ac power of appropriate frequency using an inverter.
The design and engineering of photovoltaic systems is beyond the scope
of this book. A more detailed introduction is given by Markvart [Markvart,
2000] and Lorenzo [Lorenzo, 1994]. Photovoltaic systems engineering de-
pends to a large degree upon the electrical characteristics of the individual
Power Power
cells. PV generatorPV generator
conditioning conditioning Load Load

1.3.2. Some important definitions

Module Module

The solar cell can take the place of a battery

Storage Storagein a simple electric circuit
(Fig. 1.3).
0
In the0 dark the cell in circuit ( BatteryA (dc)( Battery
does (dc)
nothing. When it is switched
or Grid (ac)) or Grid (ac))
on by light it develops a voltage, or e.m.f., analogous to the e.m.f. of the
Figure 1.2 (a)Figure
battery
Photovoltaic
in circuit
1.2 (a) Photovoltaic
cell (b) In a module,
B.cells
cell (b) In
The voltage
a module,
are connected
developed
cells are
in connected
series to give
when
in series
thedcterminals
a standard
to give avoltage
standardofdc
are
12V
voltage
isolated
(c) For
ofany
12V (c) For any
application, modules
application,(infinite
are connected
modules areload resistance)
in connected
series and in
parallel is an
seriesinto
and called
parallel thean open
array,into
which array,
producescircuit
which voltage
sufficient
producescurrent Vocvoltage
sufficient
and . Thetoand
current current
meet
voltage
the to meet the
demand. (d) In mostdrawn
demand. cases
(d) Inthewhen
most casesthe
photovoltaic terminals
the photovoltaic
array beare
should array connected
integrated
should be
with together
integrated
components
with for is the
components
charge short
regulation
for circuit
charge
and storage.cur-
regulation and storage.
rent Isc . For any intermediate load resistance RL the cell develops a voltage
V between 0 and Voc and delivers a current I such that V = IRL and
1.3.2. Some 1.3.2.
important
Some
I(V )important
definitions
is determineddefinitions
by the current–voltage characteristic of the cell under

solar cell solar cell battery battery

A A load load B B load load

(a) (b)
Figure 1.3 The
Figure
solar1.3
cellThe
maysolar
replace
cell amay
battery
replace
in aasimple
batterycircuit.
in a simple circuit.
Fig. 1.3. The solar cell may replace a battery in a simple circuit.

The solar cell

Thecan
solartake
cellthe
can
place
takeofthea battery
place ofina abattery
simpleinelectric
a simple circuit
electric
(Fig.
circuit
1.3). (Fig.
In the1.3).
darkInthethecell
dark
in the cell in
circuit A does
circuit
nothing.
A doesWhennothing.
it is When
switched
it isonswitched
by lightonit develops
by light itadevelops
voltage, or
a voltage,
e.m.f., analogous
or e.m.f., analogous
to the to the
e.m.f. of the
e.m.f.
battery
of the
in circuit
batteryB. in The
circuit
voltage
B. The developed
voltage developed
when the terminals
when theareterminals
isolatedare(infinite
isolatedload(infinite load
resistance)resistance)
is called theis open-circuit
called the open-circuit
voltage Vocvoltage Voc . The
. The current drawn
current
whendrawn
the terminals
when the are terminals
connectedare connected
together istogether
the short-circuit
is the short-circuit
current Isc.current
For anyIscintermediate
. For any intermediate
load resistance
load resistance
RL the cellRdevelops
L the cella develops a
voltage V between
voltage V0 between
and Voc and0 and Voc and
delivers a current
deliversI asuch
current
thatI Vsuch
= IRthat
L and
V I(V)
= IR is
L and
determined
I(V) is determined
by the by the
current-voltage
current-voltage
characteristiccharacteristic
of the cell of
under
the cell
that under
illumination.
that illumination.
Thus both Thus
I and both
V areI determined
and V are determined
by by
the illumination
the illumination
as well as theas well
load.asSince
the load.
the current
Since theis roughly
current isproportional
roughly proportional
to the illuminated
to the illuminated
area, the area, the
short circuit
short
current
circuit
density
current
Jsc density Jsc is quantity
is the useful the usefulforquantity
comparison.
for comparison.
These quantities
These are
quantities
definedare fordefined
a for a
simple, ideal
simple,
diodeideal
model diode
of amodel
solar cell
of ainsolar
section
cell 1.4
in section
below.1.4 below.
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

Introduction 7

that illumination. Thus both I and V are determined by the illumination

as well as the load. Since the current is roughly proportional to the illumi-
nated area, the short circuit current density Jsc is the useful quantity for
comparison. These quantities are defined for a simple, ideal diode model of
a solar cell in Sec. 1.4 below.

Box 1.1. Solar cell compared with conventional battery

The photovoltaic cell differs from a simple dc battery in these respects:

the e.m.f. of the battery is due to the permanent electrochemical potential
difference between two phases in the cell, while the solar cell derives its
e.m.f. from a temporary change in electrochemical potential caused by light.
The power delivered by the battery to a constant load resistance is relatively
constant, while the power delivered by the solar cell depends on the incident
light intensity, and not primarily on the load (Fig. 1.4). The battery is
completely discharged when it reaches the end of its life, while the solar cell,
although its output varies with intensity, is in principle never exhausted,
since it can be continually recharged with light.
The battery is modelled electrically as a voltage generator and is char-
acterised by its e.m.f. (which, in practice, depends upon the degree of dis-
charge), its charge capacity, and by a polarisation curve which describes
how the e.m.f. varies with current [Vincent 1997]. The solar cell, in con-
trast, is better modelled as a current generator, since for all but the largest
loads the current drawn is independent of load. But its characteristics de-
pend entirely on the nature of the illuminating source, and so Isc and Voc
must be quoted for a known spectrum, usually for standard test conditions
(defined below).

1.4. Characteristics of the Photovoltaic Cell: A Summary

1.4.1. Photocurrent and quantum efficiency

The photocurrent generated by a solar cell under illumination at short cir-

cuit is dependent on the incident light. To relate the photocurrent density,
Jsc , to the incident spectrum we need the cell’s quantum efficiency, (QE).
QE(E) is the probability that an incident photon of energy E will deliver
one electron to the external circuit. Then
Z
Jsc = q bs (E)QE(E)dE (1.1)
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

8 The Physics of Solar Cells

Voltage Solar cell

Battery e.m.f.
Battery

Increasing light intensity

Current
Fig. 1.4. Voltage–current curves of a conventional battery (grey) and a solar cell under
Fig 1.4
different levels of illumination. A battery normally delivers a constant e.m.f. at different
levels of current drain except for very low resistance loads, when the e.m.f. begins to
fall. The battery e.m.f. will also deteriorate when the battery is heavily discharged. The
solar cell delivers a constant current for any given illumination level while the voltage
is determined largely by the resistance of the load. For photovoltaic cells it is usual to
plot the data in the opposite sense, with current on the vertical axis and voltage on the
horizontal axis. This is because the photovoltaic cell is essentially a current source, while
the battery is a voltage source.

where bs (E) is the incident spectral photon flux density, the number of
photons of energy in the range E to E + dE which are incident on unit area
in unit time and q is the electronic charge. QE depends upon the absorption
coefficient of the solar cell material, the efficiency of charge separation and
the efficiency of charge collection in the device but does not depend on
the incident spectrum. It is therefore a key quantity in describing solar
cell performance under different conditions. Figure 1.5 shows a typical QE
spectrum in comparison with the spectrum of solar photons.
QE and spectrum can be given as functions of either photon energy or
wavelength, λ. Energy is a more convenient parameter for the physics of
solar cells and it will be used in this book. The relationship between E and
λ is defined by
hc
E= (1.2)
λ
where h is Planck’s constant and c the speed of light in vacuum. A con-
venient rule for converting between photon energies, in electron-Volts, and
wavelengths, in nm, is E/eV = 1240/(λ/nm).
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

Introduction 9

QE of gallium arsenide cell

Photon flux density / a.u.

Solar photon flux density

QE / a.u.

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Wavelength / nm

Figure 1.5 efficiency of GaAs cell compared to the solar spectrum. The vertical
Fig. 1.5. Quantum
scale is in arbitrary units, for comparison. The short circuit photocurrent is obtained
by integrating the product of the photon flux density and QE over photon energy. It is
desirable to have a high QE at wavelengths where the solar flux density is high.

1.4.2. Dark current and open circuit voltage

When a load is present, a potential difference develops between the termi-

nals of the cell. This potential difference generates a current which acts in
the opposite direction to the photocurrent, and the net current is reduced
from its short circuit value. This reverse current is usually called the dark
current in analogy with the current Idark (V ) which flows across the device
under an applied voltage, or bias, V in the dark. Most solar cells behave
like a diode in the dark, admitting a much larger current under forward
bias (V > 0) than under reverse bias (V < 0). This rectifying behaviour is
a feature of photovoltaic devices, since an asymmetric junction is needed
to achieve charge separation. For an ideal diode the dark current density
Jdark (V ) varies like

Jdark (V ) = Jo (eqV/kB T − 1) (1.3)

where Jo is a constant, kB is Boltzmann’s constant and T is temperature

in degrees Kelvin.
The overall current voltage response of the cell, its current–voltage char-
acteristic, can be approximated as the sum of the short circuit photocurrent
and the dark current (Fig. 1.6). This step is known as the superposition ap-
proximation. Although the reverse current which flows in reponse to voltage
in an illuminated cell is not formally equal to the current which flows in the
dark, the approximation is reasonable for many photovoltaic materials and
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

10 The Physics of Solar Cells

Jsc

Current density, J
Light current

Dark current
Voc

Bias voltage, V

Fig. 1.6. Current–voltage characteristic of ideal diode in the light and the dark. To
Figure 1.6
a first approximation, the net current is obtained by shifting the bias dependent dark
current up by a constant amount, equal to the short circuit photocurrent. The sign
convention is such that the short circuit photocurrent is positive.

will be used for the present discussion. The sign convention for current and
voltage in photovoltaics is such that the photocurrent is positive. This is
the opposite to the usual convention for electronic devices. With this sign
convention the net current density in the cell is

J(V ) = Jsc − Jdark (V ) , (1.4)

which becomes, for an ideal diode,

J = Jsc − Jo (eqV/kB T − 1) . (1.5)

This result is derived in Chapter 6.

When the contacts are isolated, the potential difference has its maximum
value, the open circuit voltage Voc . This is equivalent to the condition when
the dark current and short circuit photocurrent exactly cancel out. For the
ideal diode, from Eq. 1.5,
 
kT Jsc
Voc = ln +1 . (1.6)
q J0
Equation 1.6 shows that Voc increases logarithmically with light intensity.
Note that voltage is defined so that the photovoltage occurs in forward bias,
where V > 0.
Figure 1.6 shows that the current–voltage product is positive, and the
cell generates power, when the voltage is between 0 and Voc . At V < 0, the
illuminated device acts as a photodetector, consuming power to generate a
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

difference between the cell terminals but a smaller current though the load. The diode thus provides the
photovoltage. Without the diode, there is nothing to drive the photocurrent through the load.
Introduction 11

+
V
Jsc J
dark -
Fig. 1.7. Equivalent circuit of ideal solar cell.

Figure 1.7. Equivalent circuit of ideal solar cell.

photocurrent which is light dependent but bias independent. At V > Voc ,
the device again consumes power. This is the regime where light emitting
diodes operate. We will see later that in some materials the dark current is
1.4.3 Efficiency
accompanied by the emission of light.
Electrically, the solar cell is equivalent to a current generator in parallel
The operating regime of the solar cell is the range of bias, from 0 to Voc, in which the cell delivers
power. The cellan
with asymmetric,
power nonbylinear resistive element, i.e., a diode (Fig. 1.7).
density is given
When illuminated, the ideal cell produces a photocurrent proportional to
the light intensity. That P = JV
photocurrent is divided between the variable resis-
(1.7)
tance of the diode and the load, in a ratio which depends on the resistance
P reachesof athe
maximum at the
load and thecell’s
leveloperating point or maximum
of illumination. power
For higher point. Thismore
resistances, occursofatthe
some
voltage Vm with a corresponding current density Jm, shown in Fig. 1.8. The optimum load thus has sheet
photocurrent flows through the diode, resulting in a higher potential differ-
resistance given by Vm J m . The fill factor is defined as the ratio
ence between the cell terminals but a smaller current though the load. The
diode thus provides the photovoltage.
J mVm Without the diode, there is nothing
to drive the photocurrent FF =through the load. (1.8)
J scVoc

1.4.3.
and describes the 'squareness' J–V curve.
Efficiencyof the

The operating regime of the solar cell is the range of bias, from 0 to Voc , in
which the cell delivers power. The cell power density is given by

P = JV . (1.7)

P reaches a maximum at the cell’s operating point or maximum power

point. This occurs at some voltage Vm with a corresponding current density
Jm , shown in Fig. 1.8. The optimum load thus has sheet resistance given
by Vm /Jm . The fill factor is defined as the ratio

Jm V m
FF = (1.8)
Jsc Voc

and describes the ‘squareness’ of the J–V curve.

8
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

12 The Physics of Solar Cells

Maximum
power point
Current density
Jsc

Jm
Current density, J

Power
density

Vm Voc
Bias voltage, V

Fig. 1.8. The current voltage (black) and power–voltage (grey) characteristics of an
ideal cell. Power density reaches a maximum at a bias Vm , close to Voc . The maximum
power density Jm × Vm is given by the area of the inner rectangle. The outer rectangle
Fig. 1.8
has area Jsc × Voc . If the fill factor were equal to 1, the current voltage curve would
follow the outer rectangle.

The efficiency η of the cell is the power density delivered at operating

point as a fraction of the incident light power density, Ps ,
Jm V m
η= . (1.9)
Ps
Efficiency is related to Jsc and Voc using F F ,
Jsc Voc F F
η= . (1.10)
Ps
These four quantities: Jsc , Voc , F F and η are the key performance char-
acteristics of a solar cell. All of these should be defined for particular il-
lumination conditions. The Standard Test Condition (STC) for solar cells
is the Air Mass 1.5 spectrum, an incident power density of 1000 W m−2 ,
and a temperature of 25◦ C. (Standard and other solar spectra are discussed
in Chapter 2.) The performance characteristics for the most common solar
cell materials are listed in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 shows that solar cell materials with higher Jsc tend to have
lower Voc . This is a consequence of the material used, and particularly of
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc
crystalline GaAs 3.9 1.022 28.2 87.1 25.1

poly-Si 1.1 0.654 38.1 79.5 19.8

a-Si 1.0 0.887 19.4 74.1 12.7

Introduction 13
CuInGaSe2 1.0 0.669 35.7 77.0 18.4
Table 1.1. Performance of some types of PV cell [Green et al., 2001].
Cd Te 1.1 0.848 25.9 74.5 16.4
Cell Type Area (cm2 ) Voc (V) Jsc (mA/cm2 ) FF Efficiency (%)

crystalline
Table 1.1 shows that Si 4.0
solar cell materials 0.706
with 42.2
higher Jsc tend 82.8 V . This
to have lower 24.7
is a consequence of
oc
crystalline GaAs 3.9 1.022 28.2 87.1 25.1
the material used, and
poly-Si particularly
1.1 of the band gap
0.654 of the semiconductor.
38.1 79.5 In Chapter
19.82 we will see that
there is a fundamental
a-Si compromise
1.0 between
0.887 photocurrent
19.4 and voltage
74.1 in 12.7
photovoltaic energy
conversion.CuInGaSe
Figure 1.9 1.0
2 illustrates 0.669 between J35.7
the correlation 77.0
sc and Voc for 18.4
the cells in Table 1.1, together
CdTe for a cell of1.1
with the relationship maximum 0.848
efficiency. 25.9 74.5 16.4

80

70
theoretical limit
60
-2
Jsc / mA cm

50 c-Si

40 poly-Si
GaAs
30 CIGS CdTe
a-Si
20

10

0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2

Voc /V

Fig. 1.9. Plot of Jsc against Voc for the cells listed in Table 1.1. Materials with high
VocPlot
Figure 1.9. tend
of Jto have lower
sc against Voc forJthe
sc .cells
This is due
listed to the
in Table 1.1.band gapwith
Materials of the
highsemiconductor material.
Voc tend of have lower Jsc. This is due to
The
the grey
band gap line
of theshows the relationship
semiconductor material. The expected
grey line in the the
shows theoretical
relationshiplimit.
expected in the theoretical limit.

1.4.4 Parasitic resistances

the band gap of the semiconductor. In Chapter 2 we will see that there is a
In real cells power iscompromise
fundamental between
dissipated through the photocurrent and
resistance of the voltage
contacts andin through
photovoltaic
leakage currents
around energy
the sidesconversion.
of the device. Figure
These 1.9 illustrates
effects the correlation
are equivalent between
electrically to Jsc and
two parasitic resistances in
Vsoc
series (R forinthe
) and cells(Rin
parallel sh) Table
with 1.1,
the cell together
(Fig. 1.9).with the relationship for a cell of
maximum efficiency.
Rs
1.4.4. Parasitic resistances +
In real cells power is dissipated through the
Rsh resistanceVof the contacts and
through leakage currents around the J sides of the device. These effects are
Jsc dark -

Fig 1.9. Equivalent circuit including series and shunt resistances.

10
 Voc /V

Figure 1.9. Plot of Jsc against Voc for the cells listed in Table 1.1. Materials with high Voc tend of have lower Jsc. This is due to
the band gap of the semiconductor material. The grey line shows the relationship expected in the theoretical limit.
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc
1.4.4 Parasitic resistances

In real cells power is dissipated through the resistance of the contacts and through leakage currents
around the sides of the device. These effects are equivalent electrically to two parasitic resistances in
14 The Physics of Solar Cells
series (Rs) and in parallel (Rsh) with the cell (Fig. 1.9).

Rs
+
The series resistance arises from the resistance of the cell material to current flow, particularly through
Rmaterial
The series resistance arises from the resistance of the cell sh V flow, particularly through
to current
the front surface to the contacts, and from resistive contacts. Series resistance is a particular problem at
Jsc underunder
high current densities, for instance
J
the front surface to the contacts, and from resistive
concentrated
contacts. Series resistance is a particular problem at
darklight. The parallel or shunt resistance arises from
high current densities, for instance concentrated - or shunt resistance arises from
light. The parallel
leakage of current through the cell, around the edges of the device and between contacts of different
leakage of current through the cell, around the edges of the device and between contacts of different
polarity. It is a problem in poorly rectifying devices.
polarity. It is a problem in poorly rectifying devices.
Fig. 1.10. Equivalent circuit including series and shunt resistances.
Fig 1.9. Equivalent circuit including series and shunt resistances.

Current
Current
Current

Current

Rs increasing
Rs increasing
10 Rsh decreasing
Rsh decreasing

Bias Bias Bias

Bias
(a) (a) (b)(b)
(a) (b)
Figure Figure
1.10: 1.10: Effect of (a) increasing
seriesseries andreducing
(b) reducing parallel resistances. In each case
thethe outer curve hasRsR=s =0 0
Fig. 1.11. Effect of (a)of
Effect increasing
(a) increasing and (b)
series andparallel
(b) resistances.
reducing In each
parallel case outer
resistances. curve
Inhas
each
and Rshand ∞.
=case ∞. Incase
RshIn=each eachthe
case the effect
effect of theof the resistances
resistances isreduce
is toR to reduce the area
the area of the
of the maximum
maximum power
power rectangle
rectangle comparedtotoJscJsc× ×
compared
the outer curve has R s = 0 and sh = ∞. In each case the effect of the resistances
Voc. V oc.
is to reduce the area of the maximum power rectangle compared to J sc × Voc .

SeriesSeries and parallel resistances reduce the fill factor as shown in Fig. 1.10. For an efficient cell we want
and parallel resistances reducetothe fill parasitic
factor as shown in Fig. 1.10. For an efficient cell we want
Rs equivalent
to be as small electrically two
and Rsh to be as large as possible. resistances in series (R s ) and in par-
Rs to be allel
as small and R sh to be as large as possible.
(R ) with the cell (Fig. 1.10).
sh
The series
When parasitic resistance
resistances arises
are included fromequation
the diode the resistance
becomes of the cell material to
When parasitic resistances are included the diode equation becomes
current flow, particularly through the front surface to the contacts, and
V +is JAR
from resistive J =contacts.
J sc − Jqo((Ve+Series kT
− 1)V− + JAR
q (V + JARs )/resistance a particular
s
. problem
(1.11) at high
J = J
current densities, sc − J ( e JARs )/ kT
− 1 )
ofor instance under concentrated− R sh
s
. light.(1.11)
The parallel or
Rsh
shunt resistance arises from leakage of current through the cell, around
1.4.5 Non-ideal diode behaviour
the edges
1.4.5 Non-ideal diodeofbehaviour
the device and between contacts of different polarity. It is a
The ‘ideal’ diode behaviourrectifying
problem in poorly of eqn. 1.5 devices.
is seldom seen. It is common for the dark current to depend
The ‘ideal’ Serieson
diode
more weakly and
bias.parallel
behaviour eqn.resistances
Theofactual 1.5 is seldom
dependence reduce
on Vseen. Itthe fillby
is common
is quantified factor foras
theshown
an ideality inand
Fig.
dark current
factor, m to 1.11.
the depend
current–
more voltage
weakly on bias. The actual
For characteristic
an efficient cellby
given dependence
wethe want
non-ideal on Vto
Rsdiode is quantified
be as small
equation, by anand ideality
Rshfactor,
to bem and
as the current–
large as
voltage characteristic
possible. given by the non-ideal diode equation,
When parasitic Jresistances= J sc − J o (are e qV / mk B T − 1) (1.12)
qV / mk B Tincluded, the diode equation becomes
J = J sc − J o (e − 1) (1.12)
m typically lies between 1 and 2. The reasons for non-ideal behaviour V + JAR will
s be discussed in later
chapters.
J = Jsc − Jo (eq(V+JARs )/kT − 1) − . (1.11)
m typically lies between 1 and 2. The reasons for non-ideal behaviour Rshwill be discussed in later
chapters.

1.5 Summary of Chapter 1

1.5 Summary of Chapter 1
A photovoltaic cell consists of a light absorbing material which is connected to an external circuit in an
asymmetric manner. Charge carriers are generated in the material by the absorption of photons of light,
A photovoltaic cell consists of a light absorbing material which is connected to an external circuit in an
and are driven towards one or other of the contacts by the built-in spatial asymmetry. This light driven
asymmetric manner. Charge carriers are generated in the material by the absorption of photons of light,
charge separation establishes a photovoltage at open circuit, and generates a photocurrent at short
and are driven towards one or other of the contacts by the built-in spatial asymmetry. This light driven
circuit. When a load is connected to the external circuit the cell produces both current and voltage and
charge separation establishes a photovoltage at open circuit, and generates a photocurrent at short
can do electrical work.
circuit. When a load is connected to the external circuit the cell produces both current and voltage and
can do electrical work.
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

Introduction 15

1.4.5. Non-ideal diode behaviour

The ‘ideal’ diode behaviour of Eq. 1.5 is seldom seen. It is common for the
dark current to depend more weakly on bias. The actual dependence on V
is quantified by an ideality factor, m and the current–voltage characteristic
given by the non-ideal diode equation,

J = Jsc − Jo (eqV/mkB T − 1) (1.12)

m typically lies between 1 and 2. The reasons for non-ideal behaviour will
be discussed in later chapters.

1.5. Summary

A photovoltaic cell consists of a light absorbing material which is connected

to an external circuit in an asymmetric manner. Charge carriers are gener-
ated in the material by the absorption of photons of light, and are driven
towards one or other of the contacts by the built-in spatial asymmetry. This
light driven charge separation establishes a photovoltage at open circuit,
and generates a photocurrent at short circuit. When a load is connected to
the external circuit, the cell produces both current and voltage and can do
electrical work.
The size of the current generated by the cell in short circuit depends
upon the intensity and the energy spectrum of the incident light. Photocur-
rent is related to incident spectrum by the quantum efficiency of the cell,
which is the probability of generating an electron per incident photon as a
function of photon energy. When a load is present, a potential difference is
created between the terminals of the cell and this drives a current, usually
called the dark current, in the opposite direction to the photocurrent. As
the load resistance is increased, the potential difference increases and the
net current decreases until the photocurrent and dark current exactly cancel
out. The potential difference at this point is called the open circuit voltage.
At some point before Voc is reached, the current–voltage product is max-
imum. This is the maximum power point and the cell should be operated
with a load resistance which corresponds to this point.
The solar cell can be modelled as a current generator in parallel with an
ideal diode, and the current–voltage characteristic given by the ideal diode
equation, Eq. 1.5. In real cells, the behaviour is degraded by the presence
of series and parallel resistances.
March 12, 2003 15:18 WSPC/The Physics of Solar Cells psc

16 The Physics of Solar Cells

References
D. Anderson, Clean Electricity from Photovoltaics, eds. M.D. Archer and R.D.
Hill (London: Imperial College Press, 2001).
M.A. Green, “Photovoltaics: Coming of age”, Conf. Record 21st IEEE Photo-
voltaic Specialists Conf., 1–7 (1990).
E. Lorenzo, Solar Electricity: Engineering of Photovoltaic Systems (Progensa,
1994).
T. Markvart, Solar Electricity (Wiley, 2000).
J.N. Shive, Semiconductor Devices (Van Nostrand, 1959).
C.A. Vincent, Modern Batteries (Arnold, 1997).
M. Wolf, “Historical development of solar cells”, Proc. 25th Power Sources Sym-
posium, 1972. In Solar Cells, ed. C.E. Backus (IEEE Press, 1976).