A paper to be presented at tht' Il)7th 1l1eeting of

the A merica n Institute of Electrical Engineers,

New York, /l1ay 16, 1905.
Copyright 1905. By A. I. E. E

TIME-LIMIT RELAYS.

BY GEORGE F. CHELLIS.

In power. stations and sub-stations feeding large alternating-

and direct-current distribution systems, relays form a necessary
part of the station equipment for the protection of apparatus
and feeders, and for the purpose of rendering the operation of
a system automatic. In connection with the operation of oil-
switches on high-pressure alternating-current systems the
function of the relay is to close the control-circuit to the switch,
thereby opening the main circuit when the current exceeds
the value at which the relay is adjusted to operate. Not taking
into consideration the time-element of the switch, its operation
would be practically instantaneous if controlled by a simple
relay. Therefore, since heavy currents due to swings of the
load may often flow for such short periods that it would not be
desirable to open the circuit, relays are provided with some form
of time-limiting device by means of which the length of time
a given current may flow without operating the switch can be
adjusted to meet existing conditions.
Relays may be divided into three classes:
1. Differential relays, operating at a lower current value
when the direction of the flow of energy is reversed than when
flowing in its initial direction.
2. Straight overload relays, operating when the current
reaches a certain predetermined limit, irrespective of the direc-
tion of flow of energy.
3. Reverse-current relays, operating when the current reaches
a certain predetermined limit, upon reversal of the direction of
flow of energy.
253
254 CHELLIS: TIME-LIMIT RELA l,rs. [May 16

ALTERNATOR RELAYS.
The type and design of the ideal relay for the protection of
alternators will depend upon the conditions under which it is
to operate. A relay should operate on overload at normal
pressure; on short circuit at zero pressure, or reduced pressure, or
when the direction of the flow of energy is reversed. It can be
designed to operate in the event of any of these conditions pre-
vailing, and each at a different value, in which case a differential
relay would be required. The principal advantages of the
differential relay are that it can be so designed as to permit the
alternator to be loaded to its maximum current capacity at
normal pressure without danger of being cut out, and also op-
erate on short circuit, when the pressure is zero, at a point
sufficiently under the short-circuit current of the alternator
to allow a suitable factor of safety. Compared with the straight
overload relay, set to operate on, short circuit with an equal
factor of safety, at power-factor values usually attained (50%
and higher), it will permit a greater load being carried at any
operative pressure.
Assuming that the relay is to operate on short circuit and
reversal, but not on overload at normal pressure, the ideal
relay should have the following characteristics:
1. It should permit the alternator to be loaded to its max-
imum current capacity at normal pressure.
2. It should limit the current on short circuit to not more
than 75% of, the short-circuit current of the alternator.
3. It should limit the current on reversal to the lowest value
at which no difficulty is experienced when synchronizing.
4. It should be provided with a positive time-limiting device,
the time adjustment of which is independent of the current
value at which the 'relay is operated.
In existing forms of alternating-current relays of the dit-
Iererrtial type the energizing coils consist of two windings
with a common magnetic circuit. These windings, which for
convenience will be called a and b, receive current from a shunt
transformer, and a series transformer, respectively connected
with the alternator. Therefore, the current in a is de-
pendent upon the pressure, and that in b upon the current ..
Since with constant pressure the magnetomotive force due
to coil a is fixed in direction and magnitude, it serves to polarize
the relay. The action of coil b in conjunction with coil a,
at iOO% power-factor, depends therefore on the direction of
1905.] CHELLIS: TIME-LIMIT RELAYS. 255

the magnetomotive force due to coil b, and the ratio of arnpere-

turns of coil a to those of coil b. Under normal conditions
coils a and b act differentially; but if the direction of the magneto-
motive force of b is reversed their action is cumulative.
In Fig. 1, let 0 A represent the magnetomotive force of coil
a; 0 B / the magnetomotive force of coil b for normal conditions,
and the angle (supplement of q" as given in diagram) their
phase relation; the coils act differentially, the resultant mag-
netomotive force being 0 C/. On reversal of the direction of
flow of energy in coil b the magnetomotive force thereof will
be represented by 0 B; as will be seen, the action of the coils

if
F/&.··

is now cumulative, the resultant magnetomotive force being

o C/.
Assuming the constants for an alternator in terms of the
secondary current to be: rated current, 2.2 amperes; short-
circuit current, 6.6 amperes, and minimum current permissible
on reversal (on account of sensitiveness when synchronizing),
1.1 amperes, a differential relay to comply with the previous
specifications should operate on short circuit (pressure' assumed
to be zero) at 75% of the short-circuit current of the alter-
nator = 0.75 x6.6 = 4.95 amperes for coil b. The current for
coil a, expressed in terms of the operating current for coil b,
must be 4.95 - 1.1 = 3.'85 amperes.
A relay having these characteristics would operate as fol-
Iows: short circuit = 4.95 amperes; overload' current at nor-
2.56 CHELLIS: TIME-LIMIT RELA YS. [May 16

mal pressure == 4.95 + 3.85 = 8.8 amperes; reversal == 4.95-

3.85 = 1.1 amperes.
Since at unity power-factor the value for coil a, in terms of
the operating current of coil b, is 4.95 - 1.1 = 3.85 amperes,
coil a bears to coil b the ratio of 0.775 to 1. This ratio is called
herein the ' , differential factor " of the relay. While this would
give the desired operative characteristics, it is doubtful if a relay
having so high a differential factor could be successfully con-
structed, and for the following reasons:
In general, relays of this type involve such principles of
operation as to include a partly-closed magnetic circuit, which
is closed by the operation of the relay. The reluctance of the
magnetic circuit therefore varies, being maximum at the starting
point, and minimum when the relay has operated. If started
in operation by a heavy current of short duration, due to an
exchange of current between the alternator and the bus-bars
at the moment of closing the circuit when synchronizing, the
magnetic conditions in the relay would so change that it would
operate at a much lower current than the normal if the current
did not drop sufficiently low to permit the core of the relay
to recover its normal position. The liability to this condition
is greatest when the time-limit is comparatively short. By a
series of experiments it was found that the highest permissible
differential factor was about 70%. With a differential factor
higher than 70% for the core-type relay, especially at low fre-
quencies, a rise in pressure with no current in coil b would set
up a series of vibrations of the armature in synchronism with
the alternations of the current, which in some cases would not
cease if the pressure were reduced to normal, the relay also
being so sensitive as to make synchronizing very difficult.
While the solenoid-type relay was free from this disadvantage,
it was found that after the relay had operated the flux due to
coil a was sufficiently great to prevent the relay core from re-
covering its normal position.
In Fig. 2, is shown the characteristic curves for a bellows-type
differential relay, having a differential factor of 61.8%~ and
in Fig. 3 the curves for a similar relay having a differential
factor of 25 per cent.
Differential relays are commonly so connected that the current
in coils a and b is in phase, when the alternator is operating at
100% power-factor. In a three-phase system this is accom-
plished by bringing out a tap from the centre of the secondary
1905.] CHELLIS: TIME-LIMIT RELAYS. 257

coils of the pressure transformers; which are 6 connected.

This gives, by Fig. 4, the pressures a b, c d, and e j, in phase
with the currents 1, 2, and 3 respectively, and at an angle of
30 degrees to the pressures a c, c e, and e a, which gives for the
relay pressure x cos 30°, where x = ~ pressure at secondary
of transformer.
The actual connections for a two-coil relay are shown in Fig.

._--- -
100r---~-"T"""'-1-----rT-----'----'-----rT----r-T-----'--- -

901---~--\---+--++-----+-------i

8O~---+------\lf----f-t----t----t-

70 I----+---~t---_+_ l---+----h~l---tBtl-----+---+__-_+_--1

a:
...
o
•
~60
~
a:
U.I
~ 501--,- - I - - - . t -
a.. i
...
Z
~ 4Ol----+---r--'
a:
U.I
a..
301-----!----1----.rl---+t--l'-t--+-----t----t-----t----t------1

201----+-----1---l----I-I--I-----+-----t----t---t-----t---1

10 1- - -+-- --1r--- -+-\---H+-+- -+--- --+- - -+--- -+- - -+--- --t

5 ·6 8
AMPERES
FIG. 2.
Characteristic curve of differential relay. Differential factor 61.8 per
cent. Current in A and B coils in phase at unity power-factor for the
alternator.

5, the b. coils of which are connected to the secondaries of the

current transformers in phases 1 and 2, and the a coils receive
respectively, the pressures a band c d of Fig. 4. By this
method of connection the power-factor of the relay is ap-
proximately that of the alternator.
When the load condition is such that a low power-factor of
the alternator is always caused by a lagging current, the average
2fj8 CHELLIS: TIJ..1E-J-JIJ..!JIT REI-J.A.1 [l\fay 16
TS.

power-factor of the relay may 1)e improved by the method of

connection shown for a two-coil relay, in Fig. 6. The b coils
are connected to the secondaries of the current transformers
in phases 1 and 2, and the a coils are connected, respectively,
across a c and a b, of Fig. 6a. This causes the current in the b
coils to lead that in the a coils 30 degrees at 100% power-factor
for the alternator, and to lag 30 degrees at 50% power-factor.

100,----.----,------r--.-

8 10
AMPERES
FIG. 3.
Characteristic curve' of differential relay. Differential factor 25 per cent.
Current. in A and B coils in phase at .unity power-factor for the
alternator.

Therefore, at a sacrifice of 14% at unity power-factor, the average

power-factor of the relay is kept high over a range of from
100% to 50%. At 50% power-factor for the alternator, that
of the relay would be 86.6%, as against 50% with the pre-
viously described method of connection.
Fig. 7 shows the characteristic curves of a relay with the cur-
rent in the b coils 30 degrees ahead of that in the a coils. A
1905.] CHELLIS: TIJIE-LIMIT RELA YS. 259

comparison of Fig. 7 with Fig. 2 will show the advantages of

the method of connection shown in Fig. 6.
A two-coil relay as shown in Figs. 5 and 6, would protect a
three-phase alternator, as follows: reversal at normal pressure,

2.
~/G.4.

poles 1 and 2 operate; short circuit between phases 1 and 2,

poles 1 and 2 operate; short circuit between phases 2 and 3,
pole 2 operates; short circuit between phases 1 and 3, pole 1
operates.
To the knowledge of the writer, no relay having a positive

rt l~ CONTROL CIRCUIr.

A COIl-S

POLE 2.

8 COILS

~~=~
{1 P07EN,IAL
r,q/iN~~ORHERS

L.-------lj~~P------+----_+_-_+_----..l~-- PHAse I.
2.
03.
CURRENT
TflAN,JFORHERS

FIGS.

time-limiting device has been placed upon the market. In

relays brought out recently, a fonn of pneumatic time-limiting
device has been adopted, such as a bellows, or dash-pot, which
is acted upon directly, or through a system of levers connected
260 CHELLIS: TIME-LIMIT RELA YS. [May 16

with the core of the solenoid, and provided with suitable means
for adjusting the air discharge. While ideal from the stand-
point of simplicity, these devices are not positive, the time
adjustment being inversely proportional to the current at which
the relay is operated.

[1 IP== CONTROL CIRCUIT

A COIL S A - - - - - - - - - - .
POLE 2.

~~=~
~ PO TEN T/;A. L
TRANSFORMERS.

L------j~~~---~--- - _+-_+_--PHAse I. .....

2.
J.
CURRENT
T.RANSFORM£RS

F/G6

In Fig. 8 is shown an ampere-time-curve for a bellows-type

overload relay. This curve was obtained by adjusting the
relay to operate with five amperes in 10 seconds, the current

rIG.6.A.

was then increased step by step and the times for the relay
to operate were noted. The" inverse" feature of this relay
as described later, may be used to advantage in connection with
the protection of feeders.
1905.] 261

FEEDER RELAYS.
The method of protecting feeders depends upon the operating
conditions. This subject may be most consistently discussed
by considering the conditions from the power-house altemating-
current bus-bar to the sub-station direct-current bus-bar.
To guard against overload, and to open the circuit in the event
of a short circuit, a relay is required at the power-house end of

100
( I \
00

J-SO
z
l&J
a::
a:
g ,'0
~
z
goo
-c
..J
a:
0
.- 50
0 I
<{
tt
a: I
~ 40
0
CL

~ so
w
0
a::
~20

10
\ II
0 o
U
\ 4 5 6 8 9 10
AMPERES
FIG. 7.
Characteristic curve of differential relay. Differential factor 61.8 per
cent. Current in coil B 30° ahead of coil A at unity power-factor
for the al ternator.

each feeder. A relay is also required at the sub-station end,

where the feeders are operated in parallel,. being connected to a
common sub-station bus-bar, or where the sub-station bus-bar
is divided, leaving groups of two or more feeders in parallel.
This can be seen by considering the diagram, Fig. 9, in which
four feeders, a, b, c, d, are shown in parallel, and four con-
verters connected to the sub-station alternating-current bus-bar
262 CHELLIS: TIJ.\fE-LIMIT RELA YS. [May 16

and feeding the direct-current bus-bar. Should a short circuit

occur at the point x on b feeder-there would be a rush of current
{rOITl the power-house bus-bar, and also from the sub-station
bus-bar to the point x. In a, C, and d the current would be
increased, due to the short circuit being fed by these feeders.
through the sub-station bus-bar.
Since a synchronous converter generates an alternating cur-
rent electromotive force corresponding to rated pressure at
synchronous speed, in case the point x is near the power-house
it is possible that the direction of the flow of energy in feeders.

Fig. 8.
Ampere-time curve for bellows-type overload relay.

a, C, and d would be reversed, due to the synchronous converters

feeding the short circuit ·back through the power-house bus-
bar, as well as directly over the short-circuited feeder.
Because of the great amount' of energy stored in the synchron-
ous converters, it is also possible for all the sub-stations to
feed back into a short circuit in this manner. To fulfil require-
ments properly an ideal combination would be an overload
time-limit relay at the power-house end and an instantaneous
reverse-current relay. at the sub-station end of' each feeder.
The writer does not know of an alternating current reverse-cur-
rent relay, the operation of which does not .depend upon the
pressure of the system, nor a relay that depends upon the pres-
 CURRENT TRANV'. -> CURflENTTRANS. <,
::JTAT/C T/fANt3rORMERS
uWITCH / / ~SWITCH~ "a /CONVERTZR / REVE,RSEC~RENTRELAY
JIC /C/RCi//T8REAIfER.
F£ED£R.A
I

TR/PPIN61 COIL .

OVERLOAD RELAY

FEEDER.B.
-.
~
~
~
~

~t-+-O-O I I I 10-0 I. I 0-0 8~C.-.D. LIKE A.

FEEOER.C.
~

~
~
~. g
~ ttl
~ ~
~
FEEDER.D.
~
~

~
\ TOCONTROLLING CIRCUIT ~
\I)

\ ~
-"',--<I~----,-
OF SWITCH. ~
lI)
4j>-'t)
~~~
~t:~
e
ct ~ ~
~ <,
ClJQJ~
~

111111 11 111111 1111 +

POTENT/AL TRANS.

rYPICAL LAVOUTFORTHR£E PHA..5E .5YSTE,-4f

e5HOW/NG LOCATION ~NO CONNECT/ONO,F

~O.AFFERENr/ALRELAy- AL TE RNA "TOR-FEEDEFr I1IYO ROTARY RELAYo.

FIG. 9.

esc.
1905.] CI-{ELLIS: TI1V1E-LIMIT RELA YS. 263

sure operating on a reversal only, that would not become com-

pletely inoperative at zero pressures or at comparatively low
pressures. If differential relays were used, with a " differential
factor" sufficiently high to render the relays of any appreciable
value at low pressures, it is probable that they would be so sen-
sitive that any disturbance causing a momentary reversal,
without a serious decrease in pressure, would cut the station
out unnecessarily.
This theory is borne out by the experience of the Interborough
Rapid Transit Company in the sub-stations of the Manhattan
division, where instantaneous differential relays were installed
at the sub-station end of the feeders. When feeders were op-
erated in parallel, it was found in most all cases where a feeder
became short circuited that all the differential relays at the
sub-station end would operate, and also those of one or more
of the other sub-stations; this caused the remaining relays in
the other stations to operate because of overload, thus resulting
in a total shutdown. After straight overload time-limit
relays were substituted for the differential relays,' on the occa-
sion of several very severe short circuits the affected sub-
station cleared itself in a perfectly satisfactory manner and
without .disturbing the rest of the sys~em. It would appear,
then, that the straight overload time-limit relay is the most
satisfactory device obtainable for the protection of feeders at
the sub-station end.
With synchronous converters a straight overload time-limit
relay in the high-pressure side of the transformers will give
satisfactory protection for the alternating-current side; while
for the direct-current side a reverse-current relay, operating
the direct-current breaker, will be required to open the circuit
and thereby prevent the synchronous converter 'from attaining
destructive speeds, in the event of the field circuit being opened.
Satisfactory direct-current reverse-current relays are obtain-
able; they are commonly of the motor type, having an armature
separately excited from a source of constant pressure, such as a
storage-battery. They are provided with a stop to prevent
continuous rotation; the field depending for its intensity and
direction upon the line current. This type of relay, as installed
on the lS00-kw. synchronous converters of the Interborough
Rapid Transit Co., will operate at about 15% rated current on
reversal.
The relative value of the time adjustments for the various
264 CHELLIS: TIME-UlJJIT RELA YS. [May 16

relays depends on the order in which it is desired to open the

switches. If feeders are operated in parallel, when a short circuit
takes place on any given feeder there will be a rush of current to
the point of short circuit from the power-house and also from the
sub-station bus-bars; the comparative value of these cur-
rents depending upon the location of the point of short circuit,
the number of feeders in parallel, and the ratio of the kilowatt
capacity of generators to the synchronous converters in service
at the. time. While the overload current limit may be ex-
ceeded in all feeders, both at the power-house and sub-station
ends, the current in the short-circuited feeder at the sub-station
end with n feeders in parallel will be n - 1 times as great as
that in the other feeders, plus the current supplied by the
synchronous converters; or the current may be supplied entirely
by the synchronous converters, and the direction of the flow
of energy in the unaffected feeders reversed; in any case the
current in the latter will be the same at both ends. The current
at both ends of the affected feeder will, therefore, reach a higher
value than in' the other feeders, and to clear it necessitates
opening the switches at both ends.
To break the circuit at the lowest possible current value it
is necessary first to op~n the switch at that end of the feeder
which has the highest current value. Since the circuit will
still be closed from the other side, there will not be a high pres-
sure across the terminals of the switch at the point of breaking.
This permits making the .final break with the resistance of the
other feeders, plus the resistance of the affected feeder in series
therewith to the point of short circuit, in which case the current
at the time of the final breaking of the circuit will be much
lower than in the event of the operation being made in reverse
order.
Since the current in the affected feeder will always be heavier
than in the others, a relay having an inverse time-limiting
device may be used to advantage. A series of tests carried out
with the bellows-type time-limit overload relay, showed that
with equal current adjustment, by adjusting the time of two
relays in the ratio of 0.5 to 1, when operated in series, they
would discriminate properly at all loads-the one with the
shorter time adjustment operating a sufficient time in advance
to leave ample contact clearance on the one with the longer time
adjustment.
Therefore, with equal time adjustments at a given current
1905.] CHELLIS: TIJ.lV!E-LIMIT RELA YS. 265

value, the relay having the heavier current will operate in a

correspondingly shorter time, and thereby disconnect only the
affected feeder. The time-limit for these relays should be ad-
justed at the current value at which they are intended to operate,
and so as to make the final break at the lower current value ~
the time and current adjustment at both ends should be the
same, the time being that at which it is desired to limit the over-
load on the feeders. In all cases the time-limit of the alter-
nator relays should be greater than that of the feeders to permit
the operation of the latter without operating the former.
Assuming the safe time-limit of the alternators to be twice
that of the fe.eders, and that of the synchronous converters
equal to that of the feeders, but at a lower current value, the
numerical value of the time ajdustments may be three seconds
for the alternators, and 1.5 seconds for the feeders and syn-
chronous converters, which values are within the range of most
relays.
Special operative conditions may demand adjustments vary-
ing greatly from these values, but in all cases they should be
so made as to give the desired protection for emergency condi-
tions, as far as these can be predetermined.