sustainability

Article
Design and Thermal Analysis of an Air Source Heat
Pump Dryer for Food Drying
Haolu Liu, Khurram Yousaf, Kunjie Chen *, Rui Fan, Jiaxin Liu and Shakeel Ahmed Soomro
College of Engineering, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210031, Jiangsu, China;
2016112014@njau.edu.cn (H.L.); khuram_yousaf2298@hotmail.com (K.Y.); 2016812082@njau.edu.cn (R.F.);
30114307@njau.edu.cn (J.L.); shakeelsoomro@live.com (S.A.S.)
* Correspondence: kunjiechen@njau.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-139-5100-7707




Received: 18 July 2018; Accepted: 3 September 2018; Published: 8 September 2018


Abstract: In this study, an experimental heat pump dryer was designed. The specific moisture
extraction rate and moisture extraction rate were used as performance indicators to explore the
influence of environmental factors and the style of the hot air cycle on heat pump drying. The
average temperature and humidity in Nanjing’s summer, winter, and throughout the whole year
were taken as the experimental ambient temperature and humidity. Garlic slices 3 mm thick, with
an initial moisture content of 66.714% w.b., were dried until the end moisture content was 10% w.b.
Experimental results and thermal analysis showed that the open and semi-open heat pump dryers
were greatly affected by ambient temperature and humidity. The closed heat pump drying system
was greatly affected by the bypass air rate.

Keywords: heat pump dryer; ambient temperature and humidity; specific moisture extraction rate;
moisture extraction rate

1. Introduction
Food drying is an important part of production. There are significant drawbacks to the traditional
way in which heat for drying is gained by burning fuel: it consumes a large amount of energy and
it causes serious environmental problems, such as haze problems in China [1–4]. A heat pump is
a device that converts medium–low temperature heat energy into medium–high temperature heat
energy. Its characteristic is to obtain a large amount of medium–high temperature heat energy using a
small amount of high-grade energy, [5] which is energy saving and environmentally friendly. Using a
heat pump as a heat source in food drying can solve many problems caused by the burning of fossil
fuels and has attracted the attention of many researchers. Heat pump drying has the characteristics of
high energy utilization, low drying temperature, and easy control, which makes it widely used in the
drying process of wood, grain, and agricultural and sideline products [6–9].
A heat pump dryer (HPD) consists of a heat pump system and a dryer, and the performance of
the HPD is greatly affected by the performance of the heat pump system. A different refrigerant can
affect the performance of the heat pump system. It can improve the performance of the heat pump
system by selecting the right refrigerant as the working medium of the heat pump system, according
to the ambient temperature. Shen et al. [10] designed an air source HPD in which refrigerants R22 and
R134a are adopted as the working medium for the high-stage and low-stage, respectively. According
to their study, the supplying temperature can increase to 70 ◦ C. Lee et al. [11] designed a two-cycle
HPD, where one cycle used the refrigerant 124 to get a temperature greater than 80 ◦ C and the other
cycle used the refrigerant 134a.
Two cycles are performed in the HPD: (1) the refrigerant circulation in the heat pump system and
(2) the drying medium circulation in wind tunnel and drying chamber. The heat exchange between the

Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216; doi:10.3390/su10093216 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 2 of 17

drying medium and the refrigerant is carried out by an evaporator and condenser. The drying medium
absorbs moisture from material in the dryer and has a heat exchange with the heat pump system in the
HPD, so its nature will have a great impact on the performance of the HPD. Chapchaimoh et al. [12]
dried ginger in a closed heat pump dryer separately, using air and nitrogen as the drying medium.
According to their study, when the supplied air temperature is 50 ◦ C, the specific moisture extraction
rate (SMER) of ginger drying in air is 0.06 kg water/MJ compared with 0.07 kg water/MJ.
In this paper, the drying medium is air. Hot air circulation can affect the heat exchange between
the drying medium and the heat pump system, as well as affect the inlet temperature and humidity
of the drying chamber. According to the style of the hot air cycle, the HPD can be divided into an
open type, semi-open type, and closed type. Liu et al. [13] used a closed heat pump drying system
to dry carrot slices with a thickness of 3 mm. In the experiment, researchers compared the effects of
different supplied air temperatures and airflow rates on the drying performance of the heat pump
dryer. Taşeri et al. [14] dried pomace with drying air at a temperature of 45 ◦ C and different air
velocities in open type HPD and closed HPD. According to their study, the drying air velocity was
slightly effective on reducing the drying time; however, there was no significant effect on the power
consumption. They compared the energy consumption of the HPD and convective dryer and found
that the energy consumption was reduced by up to 51%.
Specific moisture extraction rate and moisture extraction rate (MER) are commonly used to
evaluate an HPD. Ganjehsarabi et al. [15] performed exergy and exergoeconomic analyses of a heat
pump tumbler dryer by using actual thermodynamic and cost data. They dried wet cotton fabric,
and the results showed that the SMER was equal to 1.08 kg/kWh. Mortezapour et al. [16] used a hybrid
photovoltaic–thermal solar dryer equipped with a heat pump system for drying saffron. According to
their study, a maximum dryer efficiency of 72% and a maximum SMER of 1.16 were obtained at an air
flow rate of 0.016 kg/s and air temperature of 60 ◦ C when using the heat pump.
Control strategy is very important in improving the performance of a heat pump [8]. Wei et al. [17]
used the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model for predicting the performance of the Heat Pump
(HP). Their study indicated that the ANN model was reliable and robust. Based on the ambient
temperature and water temperature, a new dual fuzzy controller was studied to understand the effect
of the initial opening and superheat of the electronic expansion valve on the performance of the
air source heat pump water heater [18]. Yang et al. [6] proposed a synchronous control strategy to
improve the control accuracy of a closed-loop HPD’s superheat and drying temperature. Ju et al. [19]
provided an evaluation method for the convection hot air-drying method to improve drying efficiency
and reduce energy consumption by controlling relative humidity. Although many studies have
been reported on HPD, the performance of HPD influenced by the hot air circulation method in
different ambient temperature and humidity conditions was seldom reported. In places like Nanjing,
which is located in a subtropical monsoon climate zone, there are large changes in temperature and
humidity. Thus, it is very significant for industrial manufacturers to explore the effect of different
hot air circulation modes on the performance of the HPD under different ambient temperatures and
humidity conditions. However, few existing works have considered the combined effects of ambient
temperature and humidity and different hot air circulation methods on the drying performance of
HPD. In order to fill the gaps in this research, this work studied the drying performance of HPD
with different hot air cycle modes under different environmental conditions and carried out thermal
analyses on this. In order to explore this question, an experimental HPD was designed. In this machine,
the style of the hot air cycle can be changed by switching the air duct valve, so we can evaluate the
performance of HPD with different styles of the hot air cycle. In the experiment, SMER and MER
are used as performance indicators to explore the influence of environmental factors and hot air
circulation on heat pump drying. The average temperature and humidity in Nanjing’s summer, winter,
and throughout the whole year were the experimental environmental conditions, and garlic slices were
used as the dried material. In the selected ambient temperature and humidity, garlic slices were dried
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selected ambient temperature and humidity, garlic slices were dried using different hot air
circulation methods of HPD, and an enthalpy–humidity diagram of circulated air and drying
using different hot air circulation methods of HPD, and an enthalpy–humidity diagram of circulated
kinetics were used to analyze the experimental results.
air and drying kinetics were used to analyze the experimental results.

2.
2.Design
Designof
ofthe
theHeat
HeatPump
PumpDryer
Dryer
To
Toimprove
improve the
the performance
performance and and develop
developaanewnew heat
heat pump
pump system,
system,many
manystudies
studies have
havefocused
focused
on
onimproving
improving the performance of
the performance of conventional
conventionalheat
heatpump
pumpsystems
systemsthrough
throughdifferent
differentmethods,
methods, such
such as
as improving compressor performance, using a new heat pump working medium,
improving compressor performance, using a new heat pump working medium, or using multi-stage or using
multi-stage
compression. compression. The performance
The performance of HPD is notof HPD
only is not only influenced
influenced by the performance
by the performance of the heat of the
pump
heat
system pump
but system
also thebut alsoofthe
style its style of cycle,
hot air its hottherefore
air cycle,we
therefore weadesigned
designed heat pump a heat pump
dryer. Thedryer.
HPD
The
structure diagram is shown in Figure 1. By opening and closing the air duct valve, the style the
HPD structure diagram is shown in Figure 1. By opening and closing the air duct valve, style
of its hot
of
airits hot air
cycle cancycle can be changed.
be changed.

99

12
12 66 10
10 77 88
11 44
55
13
13

22 Drying
Drying
11
11
chamber
chamber

33

Ⅰ Ⅱ Ⅲ
Duct valve Temperature
Temperature and
and humidity
humidity sensor
sensor Temperature sensor Quality sensor

Air flow sensor Compressor Expansion valve Fan

Condenser
Condenser Evaporator Electric heaters Humidifier
Note : In the figure , 1–13 are the air valve s numbe r, Ⅰ–Ⅲ are the he at pumps numbe r.

Figure 1. Heat pump dryer structure diagram.

Figure 1. He at pump drye r structure diagram.
2.1. Heat Pump System
2.1. Heat Pump System
The heat pump system is composed of three groups of air source vapor compression heat pump.
The heat
Because the pump system
frequency is composed
conversion ofhas
technology three groups
a limited of air for
capacity source vapor compression
compressor heat
power, researchers
pump. Because the frequency conversion technology has a limited capacity for compressor
can start and stop the heat pump units according to the actual working conditions of the HPD. power,
researchers
Compressorcan startisand
power stopin
shown the heat1.pump units according to the actual working conditions of the
Table
HPD. Compressor power is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Electric power.
Table 1. Ele ctric powe r.
Equipment Power Number
Equipment Power Number
Main fan 0.8 kw 1
Auxiliary fan Main fan 0.8kw
0.3 kw 1 1
Compressors Auxiliary fan 0.60.3kw
kw 1 3
Electric heater Compressors 10.6
kwkw 3 1
Electric heater 1 kw 1
For the heat pump system, the refrigerants selection for the heat pump is quite important. This is
For the
because heat
it not pump
only system,
affects the refrigerants
the performance selection
greatly forrestricts
but also the heatthe
pump is quite important.
application of an HPD,This
as it
is because it not only affects the performance greatly but also restricts the application of an HPD, as
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it has
has to to satisfy
satisfy thethe internationalstandard
international standardofofozone
ozonedepression
depressionpotential
potential(ODP).
(ODP).R407C
R407C is is aa new
new type
type
of environmentally
of environmentally friendly
friendly heat
heat pump
pump medium
medium withwith an
an ODP
ODP of
of 0,
0, which
which can
can effectively
effectively protect
protect the
the
ozone layer.
ozone layer.R407C
R407C hashas
veryvery similar
similar characteristics
characteristics and performance
and performance to R22makes
to R22 which which it amakes it a
long-term
long-term alternative
alternative to R22. R134a to R22. R134a
has good has good thermodynamic
thermodynamic properties
properties with an ODPwith
valueanofODP
0. Thevalue of 0.
ambient
The ambientoftemperature
temperature group 1, 2, and of 3group 1, 2, and
heat pumps (see3Figure
heat pumps (see increased.
1) gradually Figure 1) Different
graduallyrefrigerants
increased.
Different
are suitable refrigerants
for different areambient
suitabletemperatures.
for different Considering
ambient temperatures.
the cost andConsidering
feasibility ofthe
heatcost
pumpand
feasibility of the
development, heatworking
pump medium
development,of the the
threeworking medium
groups of heat pumpof the threewere
systems groups of heat R407C,
refrigerants pump
systems
R22, and were
R134a,refrigerants R407C, R22, and R134a, respectively.
respectively.

2.2. Air
2.2. Air Duct
Duct Layout
Layout

The style
The styleofofthe
thehot
hotairair cycle
cycle cancan be achieved
be achieved by adjusting
by adjusting the airthe air valves.
valves. According
According to the
to the degree
degree
of of ventilation
ventilation with the with the surroundings,
surroundings, the HPD can thebeHPD can be
divided intodivided into open,and
open, semi-open, semi-open, and
closed types.
closed types. Exhaust gas exiting the drying chamber often contains excess heat, and the outflow gas
Exhaust gas exiting the drying chamber often contains excess heat, and the outflow gas temperature
temperature
is is generally
generally higher than thehigher thantemperature.
ambient the ambient temperature. Therefore,
Therefore, it is it is usually
usually necessary necessary
to pass the gas to
pass theout
flowing gasofflowing out chamber
the drying of the drying chamber
through through the
the evaporator evaporator
of the heat pump of system.
the heatHowever,
pump system.
if the
However,
material toifbe
the material
dried to bemore
contains drieddust,
contains more
the dust dust,
will be the dustinto
mixed willthe
beexhaust
mixed into
gas.the exhaust
When gas.
flowing
When flowing
through through the
the evaporator, the dust
evaporator, the dust
will adhere to thewill adhere to
evaporator the evaporator
surface, surface,
affecting its affecting its
heat exchange. In
heat exchange. In this case, dust should be avoided for dry exhaust gas passing through the
this case, dust should be avoided for dry exhaust gas passing through the evaporator. The proportion
evaporator.
of the bypassed The air
proportion of thecirculation
in the closed bypassed air caninbethe closed circulation
adjusted by adjusting can bedegree
the adjusted by adjusting
of the opening
the degree
and closing ofof the
the opening and closing
air duct valves. of the
The fans’ air duct
power valves.
levels The fans’
are shown power
in Table levels
1. The mainarefan
shown
is a fanin
Table 1. The main fan is a fan close to the drying chamber.
close to the drying chamber.

2.3. Data Acquisition and Control System

2.3. Data Acquisition and Control System
The hardware of the data acquisition and control system is mainly composed of executive
The hardware of the data acquisition and control system is mainly composed of executive
components such as industrial personal computer, Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), sensors,
components such as industrial personal computer, Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), sensors,
and inverters. The main hardware configuration is shown in Table 2 below. Programmable Logic
and inverters. The main hardware configuration is shown in Table 2 below. Programmable Logic
Controller control programming is completed using STEP7 V4.0 and the configuration software is Win
Controller control programming is completed using STEP7 V4.0 and the con figuration software is
CC (Siemens, Berlin, Germany). Win CC does not have a PPI driver, so it cannot directly communicate
Win CC (Siemens, Berlin, Germany). Win CC does not have a PPI driver, so it cannot directly
with the S7-200 serial port. However, Win CC is driven by the Object Linking and Embedding for
communicate with the S7-200 serial port. However, Win CC is driven by the Object Linking and
Process Control (OPC) server. Therefore, communication between Win CC and S7-200 can be realized
Embedding for Process Control (OPC) server. Therefore, communication between Win CC and
through OPC. PC Access is used as the OPC server. The data acquisition and control process is shown
S7-200 can be realized through OPC. PC Access is used as the OPC server. The data acquisition and
in Figure 2.
control process is shown in Figure 2.

PPI
Computer CPU Expansion module

Sensor system Inverter

Temperature Motor
Humidity
Quality
Air flow

Figure
Figure2.2.He at pump
Heat pumpdrying
dryingdedevice
vice data
data acquisition
acquisition and control process
and control proce ssdiagram.
diagram.
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Table 2. Data acquisition and control syste m of the main hardware configuration.
Table 2. Data acquisition and control system of the main hardware configuration.
Equipment Manufacturer Type Number
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
Equipment Sie me ns
Manufacturer S7-200 (CPU224XP)
Type 1
Number
PLC Exte
Programmable nsion
Logic Module (PLC)
Controller Sie me ns
Siemens EM231 S7-200
(The rmal resistance type )
(CPU224XP) 11
PLC Extension
PLC Exte nsionModule
Module Sie me ns
Siemens EM231 resistance
EM231 (Thermal (AI4) type) 12
PLC Extension
PLC Exte nsionModule
Module Sie me ns
Siemens EM232
EM231(AO4)
(AI4) 21
PLC Extension Module Siemens EM232 (AO4) 1
PLC Exte nsion Module Sie me ns EM235 (AI4, AO1) 1
PLC Extension Module Siemens EM235 (AI4, AO1) 1
Inve rte
Inverter r Sie me
Siemens ns MM440
MM440 44
Industrial Compute r
Industrial Computer Yanhua
Yanhua Ipc610l
Ipc610l 11
Te mpe ratureand
Temperature andHumidity
HumiditySensor
Se nsor Be ijingJiuchunjian
Beijing Jiuchunjian JCJ200W
JCJ200W 55
Te mpe ratureSensor
Temperature Se nsor She nzhe n
Shenzhen RBDRBD PT100
PT100 44
Air flow
Air flowSensor
Se nsor E+E
E+E EE65
EE65 11
Solid State Relay Omron G3N 1
Solid State Re lay Omron G3N 1
Mass Sensor Tecsis EX301B 1
Mass Se nsor
Signal Amplifier Te csis
Interface EX301B
SGA/A 11
Signal Amplifie r Inte rface SGA/A 1

The sensor
The sensor transmits
transmitsthe thetemperature,
temperature, humidity,
humidity, airairflow velocity,
flow and and
velocity, massmass
signals collected
signals from
collected
from the site to the PLC expansion module. After the A/D conversion of the Analogy Input (AI) port
the site to the PLC expansion module. After the A/D conversion of the Analogy Input (AI) port of the
of the expansion module, the analog signal is converted into a digital signal and stored in the input
expansion module, the analog signal is converted into a digital signal and stored in the input image
image register.
register. The Central
The Central Processing
Processing Unit (CPU)
Unit (CPU) convertsconverts the digital
the digital quantity
quantity into theintoactual
the actual
valuevalueand
and stores it in the variable memory. The data is transmitted to the upper Industrial Computer the
stores it in the variable memory. The data is transmitted to the upper Industrial Computer via via
the
PointPoint to Point
to Point Interface
Interface (PPI)(PPI) communication.
communication. PC Access
PC Access on the on IPC
the will
IPC will
obtainobtain
data datafromfromthe PLC the
PLC
data data registers
registers as the asOPC theserver.
OPC server. The con figuration
The configuration softwaresoftwareWin CC Win CC will
will read datareadfromdata from PC
PC Access as
Access as an OPC client and display it on the monitor screen in real time.
an OPC client and display it on the monitor screen in real time.
Traditional
Traditional PID PID (proportion-integral-derivative)
(proportion-integral-derivative) control control has has the
the advantages
advantages of of having
having a a simple
simple
algorithm, good robustness, and high reliability, and it has been widely used in industrial
algorithm, good robustness, and high reliability, and it has been widely used in industrial production
productionThe
processes. processes.
HPD realizedThe HPD realizedcontrol
closed-loop closed-loop
of thecontrol
temperature of theand
temperature
air flow atand air flow of
the entrance at the
the
entrance of the drying
drying chamber. The air chamber. The air flowsignals
flow and temperature and temperature
in the dryingsignals chamber in collected
the drying by chamber
the data
collected
acquisition bysystem
the data areacquisition system are
used as feedback usedThe
signals. as feedback signals. The
control algorithm controlPID
adopted algorithm
control,adopted
and the
PID control, and
key parameters thecontrol
in the key parameters
process were in determined
the control through process the were
PIDdetermined
adaptive and through the PID
tuning function
adaptive and tuning function of STEP7 V4.0. PID control process diagram is as shown in Figure 3.
of STEP7 V4.0. PID control process diagram is as shown in Figure 3.
The
The specific
specific control
control process
process is is as
as follows.
follows. The The flow
flow raterate determined
determined by by the
the air
air flow
flow will cause aa
will cause
disturbance
disturbance totothe the temperature.
temperature. TheThe control
control strategystrategy is to the
is to control control
air flowthefirst,
air then
flowthe first, then the
temperature.
temperature. The control process of the air flow is as follows. The PLC’s expansion module outputs
The control process of the air flow is as follows. The PLC’s expansion module outputs the analog
the analog
signal signalthe
to control to control
frequency the converter,
frequency and converter, and the of
the frequency frequency
the blower of the blower
drive motor drive motor is
is controlled
controlled by theconverter.
by the frequency frequencyThen, converter.
the blowerThen,speedthe blower speed is
is controlled, controlled,
and the air flow and is the air flow
controlled andis
controlled and adjusted through the blower speed. The process of temperature control is similar to
adjusted through the blower speed. The process of temperature control is similar to the control of air
the
flowcontrol
and also of air
uses flow and also uses frequency-converting
frequency-converting control. control.
The temperature control process is as follows. When the
The temperature control process is as follows. When the temperature
temperature of of the drying chamber
the drying chamber
differs greatly from the set temperature, the researchers start or stop the compressors and
differs greatly from the set temperature, the researchers start or stop the compressors and thethe electric
electric
heater accordingtoto
heater according thethe actual
actual situation.
situation. When When the drying
the drying chamber chamber
temperaturetemperature
is stable,isit is stable, it is
controlled
controlled by PLC. Programmable Logic Controller controls the frequency converter. The frequency
by PLC. Programmable Logic Controller controls the frequency converter. The frequency converter
converter
controls the controls the compressor
compressor drive motor drive motor then
frequency frequency
controls then thecontrols the motor
motor rotation rotation
speed speed and
and adjusts the
adjusts
heat pump the heat pump
heating amountheating amountthe
to achieve to achieve
purposethe purpose of the
of controlling controlling
temperature.the temperature.

PID Controlled
D/A Actuator
Controller object

A/D Sensor

Figure
Figure3.3.PID
PID(proportion-inte gral-de rivative ) control
(proportion-integral-derivative) control proce ssdiagram.
process diagram.
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3. Experiment
3. Experiment
3.1. Experimental Materials
3.1. Experimental Materials
The fresh garlic was harvested in Shouguang, Shandong Province, according to Chinese
The standard
national fresh garlic was harvestedThe
GB5009.3-2016. in Shouguang, Shandong
wet basis moisture Province,
content according
of garlic to Chinese
was 66.714%. national
Fresh garlic
standard GB5009.3-2016. The wet basis moisture content of garlic was 66.714%. Fresh garlic was
was peeled and sliced into thin slices, according to Yan’s study [20]. The garlic slice thickness waspeeled
set
and
to sliced into thin slices, according to Yan’s study [20]. The garlic slice thickness was set to 3 mm.
3 mm.
3.2. Experimental Setup
3.2. Experimental Setup
The HPD described above is shown in Figure 4. The air duct valves are divided into a total of six
The HPD described above is shown in Figure 4. The air duct valves are divided into a total of six
grades (0–5), where 0 is fully closed and 5 is fully open, as shown in Figure 5. The style of the hot air
grades (0–5), where 0 is fully closed and 5 is fully open, as shown in Figure 5. The style of the hot air
cycle in the heat pump drying process is changed by adjusting the air duct valves. The heat pump
cycle in the heat pump drying process is changed by adjusting the air duct valves. The heat pump
operating state parameters are shown in Table 3.
operating state parameters are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Heat pump operating state parameters.
Table 3. He at pump ope rating state parame te rs.
Type Heat Pump 1 Heat Pump 2 Heat Pump 3
Type Heat Pump 1 Heat◦Pump 2 Heat Pump◦ 3
Evaporating temperature 0 ◦C 0 C 0 C
Evaporating
Evaporating pressuretemperature500 kPa 0 °C 4980kPa
°C 0 °C293 kPa
Evaporating
Condensing temperature pressure 55 ◦ C 500 kPa 498◦
55 C kPa 293 kPa55 ◦ C
Condensing temperature kPa 55 °C
Condensing pressure 2200 218155 °C
kPa 55 °C kPa
1491
Condensing pressure 2200 kPa 2181 kPa 1491 kPa

Drying
Heat pump chamber
Control
system
Industrial
Personal Computer

Figure
Figure4.4.Multi-functional
Multi-functionalhe at pump
heat pump drying
drying te st device.
test de vice .

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Air
Air valve
valve..
Fresh garlic slices with a mass of 15 kg were spread on a drying tray with fine holes in a drying
Freshwhich
chamber garlicasslices
shownwith
in aFigure
mass 6of(1
15×kg1×were
0.6 spread
m). Theon a drying
mass sensortray with
on the fine holes
drying plateincan
a drying
weigh
chamber which
the quality of theasgarlic
shown in Figure
slice. 6 (1 ×garlic
Therefore, 1 × 0.6slices
m). The
can mass sensor in
be weighed onthe
thedrying
dryingprocess
plate can weigh
without
the quality
taking themofout
theofgarlic slice. Therefore,
the drying garlic slices
chamber, reducing can be
the effect ofweighed
heat lossin
onthe
thedrying processresults.
experimental without
taking them out of the drying chamber, reducing the effect of heat loss on the experimental results.
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Figure
Figure6.
6. Drying
Dryingchambe r.
chamber.

3.3. Experimental
3.3. Experimental Ambient Conditions
Ambient Conditions

In order
In to study
order to study the
the mean
mean annual
annual efficiency
efficiency andand the
the performance
performance under
under cold
cold ambient
ambient
temperatures, three kinds of typical climatic conditions in Nanjing were chosen as experimental
temperatures, three kinds of typical climatic conditions in Nanjing were chosen as experimental
◦ C, RH1 = 76%), July (T2 = 27.8 ◦ C, RH2 =
ambient conditions
ambient conditions in
in the
the experiment:
experiment: January
January (T1
(T1 == 2.4
2.4 °C, R H1 = 76%), July (T2 = 27.8 °C, R H2 =
◦ C, RH3 = 76%).
81%), and
81%), and the
the yearly
yearly average
average temperature
temperatureandand relative
relativehumidity
humidity(T3(T3== 15.4
15.4 °C, RH3 = 76%).

3.4. Experimental Cases

3.4. Experimental Cases
Adjustment of the air duct valves and the style of the hot air cycle selected are shown in Table 4.
Adjustment of the air duct valves and the style of the hot air cycle selected are shown in Table 4.
The semi-open heat pump drying systems were grouped according to the indraft of fresh air volume
The semi-open heat pump drying systems were grouped according to the indraft of fresh air volume
into the environment. For closed heat pump drying systems, they were divided into six groups
into the environment. For closed heat pump drying systems, they were divided into six groups
according to hot air bypass rate (BAR), as follows.
according to hot air bypass rate (BAR), as follows.
ArAr Quantity
Quantity Bypass
Bypass
BAR==
BAR (1)
(1)
AirQuantity
Air Quantity Flowing
Flowing Through the
Through theEvaporator
Evaporator

Table 4. The style of the hot air cycle .

Table 4. The style of the hot air cycle.
Number The Style of the Hot Air Cycle Regulation
Number The Style of the Hot Air Cycle Regulation
Case 1 Open type Open air valves 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 12
Case 2 1
Case Semi-open type
Open 1
type Open air valves
Open air 1, 3valves
(60%),1, 5,
3, 7, 9 (60%),
5, 7, and 12
9, and 12
Case 2 Semi-open type 1 Open air valves 1, 3 (60%), 5, 7, 9 (60%), and 12
Case 3 Semi-open type 2 Open air valves 1,3 (20%), 5, 7, 9 (20%), and 12
Case 3 Semi-open type 2 Open air valves 1,3 (20%), 5, 7, 9 (20%), and 12
Case 4
Case 4 Closed type BAR = 0
Closed type BAR = 0 OpenOpenair valves
air valves2, 5,
2, 7, and
5, 7, and1212
Case 5 5
Case ClosedClosed
type BAR = 0.2= 0.2 OpenOpen
type BAR air valves 1 (20%),
air valves 2, 5,
1 (20%), 2, 7, 8 (20%),
5, 7, 8 (20%),and
and12
12
Case 6 6
Case ClosedClosed
type BAR = 0.4= 0.4 OpenOpen
type BAR air valves 1 (40%),
air valves 2, 5,
1 (40%), 2, 7, 8 (40%),
5, 7, 8 (40%),and
and12
12
Case 7 Closed type BAR = 0.6 Open air valves 1 (60%), 2, 5, 7, 8 (60%), and 12
Case 7 Closed type BAR = 0.6 Open air valves 1 (60%), 2, 5, 7, 8 (60%), and 12
Case 8 Closed type BAR = 0.8 Open air valves 1 (80%), 2, 5, 7, 8 (80%), and 12
Case 8 9
Case Closed Closed
type BAR
type=BAR
0.8 = 1 Open air valves
Open air 1 (80%),
valves 2,
1, 5,
2, 7, 8 (80%),
5, 7, and 12
8, and 12
Case 9 Closed type BAR = 1 Open air valves 1, 2, 5,
Note: In the experiment, air valves not mentioned in the table were closed.
7, 8, and 12
Note : In the e xpe rime nt, air valve s not me ntione d in the table we re close d.

3.5. Experimental
3.5. Experimental Procedures
Procedures
Every experiment
Every experimentwas wasperformed
performed under
under a constant
a constant drying drying temperature
temperature of 50 ◦of 50 °C
C and an and an air
air velocity
velocity of 1 m/s. Under the three selected ambient conditions, every experimental
of 1 m/s. Under the three selected ambient conditions, every experimental case was performed three case was
performed
times threeto
according times according to the
the experimental experimental procedure.
procedure.
For all
For allexperiments,
experiments, thethe drying
drying system
system wasfor
was run run
about for 20about 20obtain
min to min steady-state
to obtain steady-state
conditions,
conditions, and when the drying chamber temperature ◦ reached 50 °C, 15 kg
and when the drying chamber temperature reached 50 C, 15 kg of fresh garlic slices were put in of fresh garlic slices
the
were put
drying in the drying
chamber. chamber.
When the moistureWhen the moisture
content content
of the garlic slicesofreached
the garlic
10%slices
w.b.,reached 10%
the garlic w.b.,
slices the
were
garlic out
taken slices
ofwere taken out
the drying of the drying
chamber. chamber.
Flow chart Flow chart of
of experimental experimental
operating operating
procedures is asprocedures
shown in
is as shown
Figure 7. in Figure 7.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 8 of 17
Susta ina bility 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Step 1
Run Run Run for 20 minutes to
Indoor air Indoor
obtain steady-state
conditioner humidifier
ambient conditions

Step 2
Run Run for 20 minutes to
Air valves Air fan
Run Compressor obtain steady-state drying
Set
according to chamber temperature
Table 4

Step 3
Put into Monitoring and recording
Drying
Material system operation using
chamber
Industrial Personal Computer

Step 4
Indoor air
conditioner
stop stop stop The experiment
Air fan Compressor
was terminated
Indoor
humidifier

Figure
Figure7.7.Flow
Flowchart
chartof
ofeexperimental
xpe rime ntal operating
ope ratingprocedures.
proce dure s.

3.6.
3.6. Evaluation
Evaluation Parameters
Parameters
The
The HPD
HPD should
should input
input the
the energy
energy and
andextract
extract the
the water
water for
for the
thematerial.
material. To
Toevaluate
evaluatethe
thesystem
system
efficiency
efficiency of an HPD, SMER was always used. For this study, this was defined as the ratio of water
of an HPD, SMER was always used. For this study, this was defined as the ratio of water
extracted
extractedfrom
from material
materialto
tothe
thetotal
totalenergy
energyconsumption
consumption(including
(includingthe
theelectric
electricenergy
energy consumed
consumed by by
compressors,
compressors,electric
electricheater,
heater,and
andfans)
fans)in
inwhole
wholedrying
dryingprocess,
process,asasfollows.
follows.
TheDehumidification
The DehumidificationQuantity
Quantity
SMER==
SMER (2)
(2)
ElectricEnergy
Electric EnergyConsumption
Consumption total
total
where SMER is measured in kg/(kWh).
where SMER is measured in kg/(kWh).
For HPD evaluation, in addition to considering energy consumption, the efficiency of the
For HPD evaluation, in addition to considering energy consumption, the efficiency of the drying
drying process is also an important indicator. In this study, MER was used to evaluate the drying
process is also an important indicator. In this study, MER was used to evaluate the drying efficiency of
efficiency of HPD, as follows.
HPD, as follows.
TheDehumidification
The Dehumidification Quantity
Quantity
MER==
MER
Time Used (3)
(3)
Time Used
where
where“Time
“TimeUsed”
Used”refers
refersto
tothe
thetime
timethe
thematerial
materialisisplaced
placedin
inthe
thedrying
dryingchamber
chamberuntil
untilthe
thedrying
dryingisis
completed, and MER is measured in kg/h.
completed, and MER is measured in kg/h.
4. Results and Discussions
4. Results and Discussions
4.1. Experimental Results
4.1. Experimental Results
Comparing the data in the table, it is easy to find that the higher the degree of closure of HPD, the
smallerComparing the data
the influence in the environmental
of external table, it is easyfactors.
to find When
that the
thehigher
hot airthe degree ofmode
circulation closure of HPD,
of the HPD
the smaller the influence of external environmental factors. When the hot air circulation
is the open type, the performance of the HPD is greatly affected by ambient conditions. When the hot mode of the
HPD is the open type, the performance of the HPD is greatly affected by ambient
air circulation mode of the HPD is the semi-open type, the performance of the HPD is affected both conditions. When
thefresh
by hot air
air indraft
circulation mode
rate and theofambient
the HPD is the semi-open
conditions. When the type,
hot airthe performance
circulation modeofofthe HPD is
the HPD is
affected
the closed both
type,bythe
fresh air indraftof
performance rate
theand
HPD theisambient conditions.
greatly affected When
by the theTherefore,
BAR. hot air circulation mode
the discussion
of the HPD is the closed type, the performance of the HPD is greatly affected by the BAR. Th erefore,
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 9 of 17

and analysis of the three hot air circulation methods of HPD are presented separately in the following
sections. Experimental Results is as shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Experimental results.

Ambient Condition 1 Ambient Condition 2 Ambient Condition 3

Number (T = 2.4 ◦ C, RH = 76%) (T = 15.4 ◦ C, RH = 76%) (T = 27.8 ◦ C, RH = 81%)
MER SMER MER SMER MER SMER
d f f 1.031 ± 0.003 e h 1.037 ± 0.003 e
Case 1 2.215 ± 0.003 1.028 ± 0.002 2.093 ± 0.001 1.927 ± 0.001
Case 2 2.200 ± 0.001 d 1.120 ± 0.002 b 2.065 ± 0.003 c 1.118 ± 0.003 bc 2.067 ± 0.003 f 1.122 ± 0.002 bc
Case 3 2.087 ± 0.002 b 1.109 ± 0.002 c 2.113 ± 0.003 d 1.108 ± 0.002 cd 2.113 ± 0.002 d 1.115 ± 0.002 c
Case 4 2.152 ± 0.001 c 1.093 ± 0.002 e 2.190 ± 0.001 a 1.101 ± 0.001 d 2.189 ± 0.002 a 1.095 ± 0.004 d
Case 5 2.139 ± 0.001 c 1.102 ± 0.001 d 2.146 ± 0.001 b 1.103 ± 0.003 d 2.144 ± 0.002 b 1.109 ± 0.001 c
Case 6 2.121 ± 0.002 c 1.130 ± 0.002 a 2.128 ± 0.002 e 1.134 ± 0.004 a 2.128 ± 0.002 c 1.136 ± 0.001 a
Case 7 2.083 ± 0.001 ab 1.121 ± 0.002 b 2.082 ± 0.003 g 1.122 ± 0.002 b 2.083 ± 0.003 e 1.125 ± 0.002 b
Case 8 2.067 ±0.003 ab 1.109 ± 0.002 c 2.072 ± 0.001 h 1.113 ± 0.003 c 2.073 ± 0.003 f 1.113 ± 0.004 c
Case 9 2.058 ± 0.002 a 1.107 ± 0.002 cd 2.050 ± 0.002 i 1.107 ± 0.002 cd 2.053 ± 0.002 g 1.111 ± 0.004 c
Note: Mean ± standard error. Different shoulder letters in the same column indicate a significant p < 0.05 difference,
as below. Where T is temperature, RH is relative humidity, MER is moisture extraction rate, SMER is specific
moisture extraction rate.

4.2. Theory
In the equations that follow, the following symbols with subscripts and superscripts are used,
as follows.

Symbol Name Units

SMER Specific moisture extraction rate kg/(kW·h)
MER Moisture extraction rate kg/h
COP Coefficient of performance -
cp Specific heat at constant pressure kJ/(kg·K)
T Temperature K
RH Relative humidity -
d Absolute humidity kg water vapor/kg dry air
DR Drying rate g/(g·h)
rs Evaporative latent heat of water kJ/kg
h Enthalpy kJ/kg
m Mass flow rate kg/s
QL Cooling capacity of heat pump kW
QH Heating capacity of heat pump kW
TM Torque of the compressor N·m
n Rotation rate of the compressor r/min
W Power consumption kW
x Fresh air entering rate -
Subscript Name
dr drying chamber
evap evaporator
cond condenser
ref refrigerant
air circulated air
in inlet
out outlet
comp compressor
HPD heat pump dryer
eh electric heater
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 10 of 17

A HPD without an electric heater consists of a heat pump system and drying chamber.
In the ideal model, the process of heating hot air in the drying chamber can be regarded as a hot
air adiabatic cooling process, as follows.

cp (Tair,dr,in − Tair,dr,out ) = (dair,dr,out − dair,dr,in )rs (4)

However, in practice, the hot air enthalpy decreases when hot air flows through the drying
chamber, as follows.

∆hair,dr = cp (Tair,dr,in − Tair,dr,out ) − rs (dair,dr,out − dair,dr,in ) (5)

For materials, there is the following formula.

Mt − Mt+∆t
DR = (6)
∆t
where t1 and t2 are the drying times (in h), and Mt and Mt+∆t are the moisture contents (in db) at times
t and (t + ∆t), respectively.
In the drying chamber, the lost moisture of the material migrates to circulated air. The following
formula can be obtained according to the law of conservation of mass.

DR
mair,dr (dair,dr,out − dair,dr,in ) = G (7)
3, 600, 000

where G is the mass of the absolute drying material.

There are two heat exchange processes with the heat pump system during the hot air cycle,
as follows.

 
QL = mair,evap hair,evap,in − hair,evap,out = mref,evap href,evap,out − href,evap,in (8)

QH = mair,cond (hair,cond,out − hair,cond,in ) = mref,cond (href,cond,in − href,cond,out ) (9)

The enthalpy value of circulated air is calculated as follows.

hair = cp,air T + rs d (10)

cp,air = 1.01 + 1.84d (11)

For the heat pump system, there is the following formula.

TM n
Wcomp = QH − QL = (12)
9550
By adjusting the motor frequency, the compressor speed and the compressor power can
be controlled.
The heating coefficient of performance (COP) formula is as follows.

QH
COP = (13)
Wcomp

4.3. Discussion and Analysis of the Closed Type HPD

The enthalpy–humidity diagram of circulated air is used to analyze and discuss the closed type
HPD. As shown in Figure 8, the air flowed through 1-2(1’-2’) in the drying chamber. It was expected
that point 2 was delegated the outlet parameter from the mainly drying chamber, as shown in Formula
(4).∆h1−2 is enthalpy loss of circulated air when the hot air passes through the drying chamber. When
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 11 of 17

the BAR was zero, the air flowed through 2-3-4 (2’-3’-4’) in the evaporator. The heat absorbed from
condenser
Susta through
ina bility 2018, 10, x 4-1(4’-1’).
FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

h 1'
1
2'

6'
3 3'
5' 4'
4

d
Figure
Figure8.8.Enthalpy–humidity
Enthalpy–humiditydiagram
diagram of
of aa close
closeddtype
typeHPD.
HPD.

According
According toto the
the second
second law
law of
of thermodynamics,
thermodynamics, heat
heat will
will not
not flow
flow spontaneously
spontaneously from
from aa cold
cold
object to a hot one, so Wcomp is indispensable for HPD. According to the first law of
object to a hot one, so W comp is indispensable for HPD. According to the first law of thermodynamics,
thermodynamics, for a the
for a closed type HPD, closed type HPD,
formula the formula is as follows.
is as follows.

WWcomp+
comp
+W
Weh =m
eh = mair ∆hair,dr
air∆h + ∆Q
air,dr + ∆Q HPD (14)
(14)
HPD
where ∆Q HPD is HPD’s heat change value per unit time, in kJ/s.
where ∆QHPD is HPD’s heat change value per unit time, in kJ/s.
When HPD is in a steady-state, Wcomp is greater than mair ∆hair,dr . Many researchers use the
When HPD is in a steady-state, Wcomp is greater than mair ∆hair,dr . Many researchers use the
auxiliary condenser to remove excess heat from the system. As we all know, this will waste a lot of
auxiliary condenser to remove excess heat from the system. As we all know, this will waste a lot of
energy. For a clos ed type HPD, if the inlet of the drying chamber maintains a constant temperature,
energy. For a closed type HPD, if the inlet of the drying chamber maintains a constant temperature,
∆Q HPD should be small to save en ergy. The compressor power can be controlled by adjusting the
∆QHPD should be small to save energy. The compressor power can be controlled by adjusting the
frequency converter, so it is achievable to decrease ∆Q HPD .
frequency converter, so it is achievable to decrease ∆QHPD .
It is known that if Wcomp decrease, Q L will decrease. As shown in Figure 5, 1-2-3-4 is the cycle
It is known that if Wcomp decrease, QL will decrease. As shown in Figure 5, 1-2-3-4 is the cycle
of circulated air when compressor frequency is high and 1’-2’-3’-4’ is the cycle of circulated air when
of circulated air when compressor frequency is high and 1’-2’-3’-4’ is the cycle of circulated air when
compressor frequency is low. In the experiment, we found that drying rate (DR) will decrease when
compressor frequency is low. In the experiment, we found that drying rate (DR) will decrease when
the air humidity at the inlet of the drying chamber increases. This is consistent with Hao-Yu’s
the air humidity at the inlet of the drying chamber increases. This is consistent with Hao-Yu’s research
research conclusions [21]. According to Formula (7), ∆d2−1 > ∆d 2′ −1′ . This increases the time for
conclusions [21]. According to Formula (7), ∆d2−1 > ∆d20 −10 . This increases the time for drying the
drying the material to the specified moisture content and the electric energy consumed by the fan.
material to the specified moisture content and the electric energy consumed by the fan. This, in turn,
This, in turn, affects the MER and SMER values of HPD.
affects the MER and SMER values of HPD.
As we know from experimental data, when the hot air circulation mode of the HPD is the closed
As we know from experimental data, when the hot air circulation mode of the HPD is the closed
type, the performance of the HPD is greatly affected by the BAR. As shown in Figure 5, if the system
type, the performance of the HPD is greatly affected by the BAR. As shown in Figure 5, if the system
operated at different BARs, air flow from the main drying chamber divided into two paths. One was
operated at different BARs, air flow from the main drying chamber divided into two paths. One
2’-3’-5’ which flowed through the evaporator and extracts the moisture from the air. The other path
was 2’-3’-5’ which flowed through the evaporator and extracts the moisture from the air. The other
flows through the air bypass duct. The two airs mixed at point 6’. The heat absorbed from the
path flows through the air bypass duct. The two airs mixed at point 6’. The heat absorbed from
condenser from 6’ to 1’. Thus, the HPD with air bypass duct could decrease the heat absorption as
the condenser from 6’ to 1’. Thus, the HPD with air bypass duct could decrease the heat absorption
follows.
as follows.
QQLL =
=m mair,dr (h20′ − h660′)) = (15)
air,dr(h2 −h = ccp,air
p,air((T −T
T22′0 − T66′0 )) +
+ rrss(d
(d22′0 −
− dd66′0)) (15)

QQ + Weh =
=m mair,dr ( h10′ −
− hh660′)) =
= ccp,air (TT11′0 −
−TT66′ 0))++rrss(d
(d1′10−−dd6′60)) (16)
HH+ Weh air,dr(h 1 p,air ( (16)
QH
WW comp==Q QH − −Q QL = = QH (17)
(17)
comp H L COP
COP
After HPD enters steady-state conditions, the COP of the heat pump system tends to be stable.
Compared with the HPD without an air bypass duct, the heating capacity of the HPD with an air
bypass duct is reduced, and the compressor work is reduced as follows.

∆Q L = ∆Q H = mair,dr (h6′ − h4′ ) (18)

Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 12 of 17

After HPD enters steady-state conditions, the COP of the heat pump system tends to be stable.
Compared with the HPD without an air bypass duct, the heating capacity of the HPD with an air
bypass duct is reduced, and the compressor work is reduced as follows.

∆QL = ∆QH = mair,dr (h60 − h40 ) (18)

Susta ina bility 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW ∆QH 12 of 17

∆Wcomp = (19)
COP
∆Q H
According to the fluid flow continuity equation, (19)
∆Wcomp =a closed HPD’s circulated air can be calculated
using the equation as follows. COP
According to the fluid flow continuity equation, a closed HPD’s circulated air can be calculated
using the equation as follows.mair,dr = mair,evap + mBypass = mair,cond (20)

Point 6’ is the confluence ofmmair,dr = mair,evap + m,Bypass = mfollowing

air,cond (20)
air,evap and mBypass with the equation.
Point 6’ is the confluence of mair,evap and mBypass , with the following equation.
BAR 1
d60 = BAR d20 + 1 d50 (21)
d6′ =1 + BAR d2′ +1 + BAR d5′ (21)
1 + BAR 1 + BAR
BAR
BAR h 0 + 11
h60 = h0 (22)
h6′ =1 + BAR h2 2′ +1 + BAR h55′ (22)
1 + BAR 1 + BAR
Circulated air at the outlet of the drying chamber is at a high temperature and high humidity,
Circulated air at the outlet of the drying chamber is at a high temperature and high humidity, it
it needs to flow through the evaporator to reduce its temperature and humidity. As BAR increases,
needs to flow through the evaporator to reduce its temperature and humidity. As BAR increases, the
the amount of air flowing through the evaporator decreases, and the heat exchange effect of evaporator
amount of air flowing through the evaporator decreases, and the heat exchange effect of evaporator
will increase. However, the improvement of the heat transfer effect of the evaporator is not unlimited
will increase. However, the improvement of the heat transfer effect of the evaporator is not
and, as the BAR increases, the flow of air through the evaporator drops to a certain amount, and d5’
unlimited and, as the BAR increases, the flow of air through the evaporator drops to a certain
can no longer be reduced.
amount, and d5’ can no longer be reduced.
The following formula can be derived based on Formula (10).
The following formula can be derived based on Formula (10).
BAR
BAR
11

0 =
h6h ′ =
6 1 + BAR
c(c
p,air TT
2 0 ′++rsrdd
2 ++
0 ′) cp,air TT50′ +
(c + rrs d
d5 0 )
′ (23)
(23)
1 + BAR p,air 2 s 2
BAR p,air 5
11++BAR s 5

According to
According to the
the above
above analysis,
analysis, under
under the the premise
premise of of keeping unchanged or
keeping d𝑑𝑑660 ′ unchanged or slightly
slightly
increasing, increasing the value of ℎ ′ can improve the HPD performance
increasing, increasing the value of h606 can improve the HPD performance index. According toindex. According to the
the
experimentalresults,
experimental results,under
underthe
theconditions
conditionsof ofthis
thispaper,
paper,thethebest
bestSMER
SMER value
valueisisobtained
obtainedwhen
whenthe the
BARisisequal
BAR equalto
to0.4.
0.4.However,
However,with
withthetherise BAR,dd6’6’ will
riseofofBAR, willalso
alsorise,
rise,which
whichwill willaffect
affectthe
theHPD’s
HPD’sDR DR
andMER,
and MER, asasshown
shownin inFigure
Figure9.9.

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Expe rime ntal drying
Experimental kine tic curves
drying kinetic curve sof
ofgarlic
garlicslices.
slice s.

4.4. Discussion and Analysis of Open Type and Semi-Open Type HPD

The enthalpy–humidity diagram of circulated air is used to analyze and discuss the open type
HPD. As shown in Figure 10, point a (a’) indicates parameters of the outside ambient air. The heat
was absorbed from the condenser through a–b (a’–b’), and the circulated air that flowed through b-c
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 13 of 17

4.4. Discussion and Analysis of Open Type and Semi-Open Type HPD
The enthalpy–humidity diagram of circulated air is used to analyze and discuss the open type
HPD. As shown in Figure 10, point a (a’) indicates parameters of the outside ambient air. The heat was
absorbed from the condenser through a–b (a’–b’), and the circulated air that flowed through b-c (b’-c’)
in the drying chamber, as shown in Formula (7).∆hb−c is the enthalpy loss of circulated air when the
hot air passes through the drying chamber. The air flowed through c-d-e (c’-d’-e’) in the evaporator
Sustawas
and ina bility 2018, 10, x FOR
discharged PEER
to the REVIEW
outside environment. 13 of 17

h b'
b
c'

a’

a
d d'
e'
e

d
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Enthalpy–humidity
Enthalpy–humidity diagram of the
diagram of theopen
ope ntype
typeHPD.
HPD.

As
As we
we know
know fromfrom experimental
experimental data,data, when
when thethe hot
hot air
air circulation
circulation mode
mode ofof the
the HPD
HPD is is open
open
type,
type, the performance of the HPD is greatly affected by ambient conditions. As shown in Figure 10,
the performance of the HPD is greatly affected by ambient conditions. As shown in Figure 10,
a-b-c-d-e
a-b-c-d-eisisthe
thecycle
cycleof of circulated
circulatedair air when
whenthethe ambient
ambient temperature
temperature andand ambient
ambient humidity
humidity are
are low,
low,
and
anda’-b’-c’-d’-e’
a’-b’-c’-d’-e’isisthe
thecycle
cycleofof
circulated
circulatedairair
when
whenthethe
ambient
ambienttemperature andand
temperature ambient humidity
ambient humidityare
high. According to the first law of thermodynamics, for the open type HPD, the
are high. According to the first law of thermodynamics, for the open type HPD, the formula is asformula is as follows.
follows.
Wcomp + Weh = mair (∆hair,dr + hair,HPD,out − hair,HPD,in ) (24)
Wcomp + Weh = mair (∆hair,dr + hair,HPD,out − hair,HPD,in ) (24)
Point a shows the inlet air state parameters of the HPD when the HPD works in a high ambient
Point a shows the inlet air state parameters of the HPD when the HPD works in a high ambient
temperature and high ambient humidity, and point a’ shows the inlet air state parameters of HPD
temperature and high ambient humidity, and point a’ shows the inlet air state parameters of HPD
when the HPD works in a low ambient temperature and low ambient humidity. Ta is greater than Ta’,
when the HPD works in a low ambient temperature and low ambient humidity. Ta is greater than
so if the lower temperature air is heated to the same temperature, the HPD needs to consume more
Ta’, so if the lower temperature air is heated to the same temperature, the HPD needs to consume
power for the compressor and electric heater, and this would affect the HPD’s SMER. According to
more power for the compressor and electric heater, and this would affect the HPD’s SMER.
the experimental results, ∆db−c > ∆db0 −c0 , so a high ambient temperature and high ambient humidity
According to the experimental results, ∆db−c > ∆db ′ −c ′ , so a high ambient temperature and high
reduce the open type HPD’s MER and material’s DR.
ambient humidity reduce the open type HPD’s MER and material’s DR.
The enthalpy–humidity diagram of circulated air is used to analyze and discuss the semi-open
The enthalpy–humidity diagram of circulated air is used to analyze and discuss the semi-open
type HPD. As shown in Figure 11, point F(F’) indicates parameters of outside ambient air, circulated air,
type HPD. As shown in Figure 11, point F(F’) indicates parameters of outside ambient air, circulated
and outside ambient air mixed at point A (A’). The heat was absorbed from the condenser through A–B
air, and outside ambient air mixed at point A (A’). The heat was absorbed from the condenser
(A’–B’), and circulated air flowed through B-C (B’-C’) in the drying chamber, as shown in Formula (7).
through A–B (A’–B’), and circulated air flowed through B-C (B’-C’) in the drying chamber, as shown
∆hB−C is the enthalpy loss of circulated air when the hot air passes through the drying chamber. The
in Formula (7). ∆hB−C is the enthalpy loss of circulated air when the hot air passes through the
air flowed through C-D-E (C’-D’-E’) in the evaporator and then divided two paths. One path mixed
drying chamber. The air flowed through C-D- E (C’- D’-E’) in the evaporator and then divided two
paths. One path mixed with the outside ambient air at point F (F’), and the other path discharged to
the outside environment. Point A’s state parameters can be calculated as follows.
x 1
dA = dF + dE (25)
1+x 1+x
x 1
hA = h + h (26)
1+x F 1+x E
Air Quantity Fresh air entering
x= (27)
Air Quantity Still circulated air
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 14 of 17

with the outside ambient air at point F (F’), and the other path discharged to the outside environment.
Point A’s state parameters can be calculated as follows.

x 1
dA = dF + dE (25)
1+x 1+x

x 1
hA = hF + hE (26)
1+x 1+x
Air Quantity Fresh air entering
x= (27)
Air Quantity Still circulated air
Susta ina bility 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

h B'

B C'

F’
A’
D D'
A E'
F E

d
Figure
Figure11.
11.Enthalpy–humidity
Enthalpy–humiditydiagram
diagram of the semi-open
of the se mi-ope ntype
typeHPD.
HPD.

know from experimental

As we know experimental data,
data, when the hot air circulation mode of the HPD HPD is open
type, the performance
type, the performance of the HPD greatly affected
HPD is greatly affected by ambient conditions.
ambient conditions. As shown in Figure 11,
E, F-A-B-C-D-E
E, F-A-B-C-D- E is the
the cycle
cycle ofof circulated
circulated air
air when
when the
theambient
ambient enthalpy
enthalpy andand ambient
ambient humidity
humidity areare
lower than circulated air’s
lower than circulated air’s enthalpy and
and humidity at the outlet of the evaporator respectively, and E’,
respectively, and E’,
F’-A’-B’-C’-D’- E’ is the
F’-A’-B’-C’-D’-E’ the cycle
cycleofofcirculated
circulatedair
airwhen
whenthe theambient
ambiententhalpy
enthalpyand ambient
and humidity
ambient humidityare
higher
are than
higher circulated
than circulatedair’s enthalpy
air’s enthalpy and
and humidity
humidity atatthe
theoutlet
outletofofthe
theevaporator,
evaporator, respectively.
According to the first law of thermodynamics, for the semi-open type HPD,
According to the first law of thermodynamics, for the semi-open type HPD, the the formula
formula is as
is as follows.
follows.
Wcomp + Weh = mair [∆hair,dr + x(hair,HPD,out − hair,HPD,in )] (28)
Wcomp + Weh = mair [∆hair,dr + x�hair,HPD,out − hair,HPD,in �] (28)
Point
Point AA shows
shows thethe inlet
inlet air
air state
state parameters
parameters of of the
the condenser
condenser when
when thethe HPD
HPD works
works in
in aa high
high
ambient temperature and high ambient humidity, and point A’ shows the inlet
ambient temperature and high ambient humidity, and point A’ shows the inlet air state parameters air state parameters of
the condenser
of the condenserwhen
when thethe
HPD HPDworks
worksin in
a low
a lowambient
ambient temperature
temperature and low
and ambient
low ambient humidity.
humidity.TATAis
greater than TA’, so if the lower temperature air is heated to the same temperature,
is greater than TA’, so if the lower temperature air is heated to the same temperature, the HPD needs the HPD needs to
consume
to consumemore power
more powerfor the
for compressor
the compressorand electric heater,heater,
and electric and this
and would affect the
this would HPD’s
affect the SMER.
HPD’s
According to the experimental results, ∆d B − C > ∆d B 0 −C0 , so a high ambient temperature and high
SMER. According to the experimental results, ∆dB−C > ∆dB′ −C′ , so a high ambient temperature and
ambient humidity
high ambient reduce
humidity the open
reduce the type
openHPD’s MER and
type HPD’s MERthe andmaterial’s DR. DR.
the material’s
4.5. Discussion on Energy Consumption and Economic Considerations
4.5. Discussion on Energy Consumption and Economic Considerations
As shown in Figure 12, the analysis of the HPD’s electricity consumption through the heat
As shown in Figure 12, the analysis of the HPD’s electricity consumption through the heat
pump, fan, electric heater, and control system accounted for 50, 39, 10, and 1% of total consumption,
pump, fan, electric heater, and control system accounted for 50, 39, 10, and 1% of total consumption,
respectively. The fan consumes much power. This is mainly because the HPD uses a lot of duct valves
respectively. The fan consumes much power. This is mainly because the HPD uses a lot of duct
valves and a complex duct layout to achieve the experimental requirements, and this affects SMER
as shown in Formula (2). Thus, this machine needs more fluid mechanics analysis and optimization.
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 15 of 17

and a complex duct layout to achieve the experimental requirements, and this affects SMER as shown
Susta ina bility 2018,
in Formula (2). 10, x FOR
Thus, PEER
this REVIEWneeds
machine
more fluid mechanics analysis and optimization. 15 of 17

Figure
Figure12.
12.HPD’s
HPD’se le ctricity consumption
electricity consumption pe rce ntage .
percentage.

Global garlic
Global garlicproduction
productionis approximately
is approximately 25 million tons annually,
25 million and China’s
tons annually, andgarlic production
China’s garlic
is about 10 million tons. In order to improve product quality, dehydrated garlic
production is about 10 million tons. In order to improve product quality, dehydrated garlic slices have a larger
slices
market. At present, drying dehydrated garlic slices in China generally using hot air
have a larger market. At present, drying dehydrated garlic slices in China generally using hot air circulation drying.
The energy drying.
circulation consumption per unit
The energy product of the
consumption perhot air product
unit circulation dryer
of the hotis air (kw·h)/kg. dryer
2.8 circulation In practical
is 2.8
production,In
(kw·h)/kg. after reducing
practical the energy after
production, consumption
reducingofthe the fan, energy
energy consumption
consumption of per
the unit
fan, product
energy
of HPD can beper
consumption reduced to 1 (kw
unit product of·h)/kg.
HPD can This
beisreduced
becausetotraditional hotThis
1 (kw∙h)/kg. air circulation drying mainly
is because traditional hot
uses electric heaters as heat sources. A large amount of heat energy in the air
air circulation drying mainly uses electric heaters as heat sources. A large amount of heatflowing out of the drying
energy in
chamber is wasted. This heat can be recovered using the evaporator in the
the air flowing out of the drying chamber is wasted. This heat can be recovered using theHPD.
The traditional
evaporator hot air circulation drying model is as follows.
in the HPD.
The traditional hot air circulation drying model is as follows.
Weh = mair (hair,dr,in − hair,HPD,in ) (29)
Weh = mair (hair,dr,in − hair,HPD,in ) (29)
The formula for open type HPD model is Formula (24), that for the semi-open type HPD is
The formula for open type HPD model is Formula (24), that for the semi-open type HPD is
Formula (28), and that for the closed type is Formula (14).
Formula (28), and that for the closed type is Formula (14).
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a multifunctional air source heat pump dryer was designed, and an experimental
In this paper,
investigation a multifunctional
on drying performance airfor source heatwith
this dryer pump dryer styles
diffident was designed,
of hot airand
cycleanwas
experimental
conducted
investigation
by drying 3 mm garlic chips in three typical conditions of ambient temperature and cycle
on drying performance for this dryer with diffident styles of hot air was
humidity.
conducted by drying 3 mm garlic chips in three typical conditions of ambient temperature
The enthalpy–humidity diagram of circulated air was used to analyze the drying rate and energy and
humidity.
consumption Theof
enthalpy–humidity
the HPD’s different diagram of circulatedmodes
hot air circulation air was
in used to analyze
different ambientthetemperature
drying rate and
and
energy consumption of the HPD’s different hot air
humidity conditions. The following conclusions could be reached. circulation modes in different ambient
temperature and humidity conditions. The following conclusions could be reached.
1. The open type HPD is more affected by the environmental temperature and humidity conditions.
1. The open type HPD is more affected by the environmental temperature and humidity
In summer, the high temperature and humidity of the ambient air makes the MER smaller and
conditions. In summer, the high temperature and humidity of the ambient air makes the MER
makes SMER larger. However, in winter, the low temperature and low humidity of the ambient
smaller and makes SMER larger. However, in winter, the low temperature and low humidity
air makes MER larger and makes SMER smaller.
of the ambient air makes MER larger and makes SMER smaller.
2. The semi-open type HPD is affected by the combined effect of ambient temperature and humidity
2. The semi-open type HPD is affected by the combined effect of ambient temperature and
conditions and the proportion of fresh air in the environment. Under different conditions of
humidity conditions and the proportion of fresh air in the environment. Under different
ambient temperature and humidity, changing the ratio of the indraft fresh air by adjusting the
conditions of ambient temperature and humidity, changing the ratio of the indraft fresh air by
duct valves can significantly improve the performance of the system.
adjusting the duct valves can significantly improve the performance of the system.
3. The closed type HPD is less affected by ambient temperature and humidity conditions and is
3. The closed type HPD is less affected by ambient temperature and humidity conditions and is
greatly affected by the bypass air rate. When the BAR is 0.4, the HPD’s SMER is maximal. As the
greatly affected by the bypass air rate. When the BAR is 0.4, the HPD’s SMER is maximal. As
BAR increases, MER decreases.
the BAR increases, MER decreases.
4. Through a thermodynamic analysis of the HPD, it is very easy to find that low humidity inlet
air in the condenser can improve drying rate. A high enthalpy of the condenser inlet air can
reduce energy consumption, and low humidity and high enthalpy of the condenser inlet air
Sustainability 2018, 10, 3216 16 of 17

4. Through a thermodynamic analysis of the HPD, it is very easy to find that low humidity inlet
air in the condenser can improve drying rate. A high enthalpy of the condenser inlet air can
reduce energy consumption, and low humidity and high enthalpy of the condenser inlet air can
be obtained by adjusting the HPD hot air circulation method in different ambient temperature
and humidity conditions.

Author Contributions: H.L. and K.C. conceived and designed the experiments; J.L. performed the experiments;
H.L. and K.Y. analyzed the data; R.F. contributed analysis tools; H.L. and S.A.S. wrote the paper.
Funding: The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the Jiangsu Agricultural Science and
Technology Innovation Fund [CX (17)1003].
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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