Content

Introduction 2

Geography in pre-historic period 3

Geography in ancient Greek period 4

Geography in ancient Roman period 5

Geography in ancient China 6

Geography in ancient Arabia 7

Geography in 18th century 9

Geography in 19th century 10

Geography in 20th century 11

Geography in present world 12

Uses of geographical science with its 15

development

Future of geographical science 16

Group Members 17

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 1. Introduction
The history of geography includes various histories of geography which have differed over
time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography
has become a distinct academic discipline.

“Geography” derives from the word Greek-geographia, a

literal translation of which would be “to describe or write
about the earth”. The first person to use the word
“geography” was Eratosthenes(276-194B.C). How ever
there is evidence for recognizable practices of geography,
such as cartography (or map making) prior to the use of the
term geography.

In Eratosthenes day, people already were exploration land

and water areas of the middle east and playing trade on the Mediterranean sea as well as across vast
expenses of desert knowledge of how to get to some place and ultimately to return home was
crucial to the salary or trader. While travelers were concern with practical matters of location,
scholars involved themselves in loftier goals of measurement of earth's size, calculation of
distance, and creation of a geometric system for accurately defining location. Eratosthenes is given
credit for making the first accurate determination of the size of earth.

Some of the first truly geographical studies occurred more than four thousand years ago.
The main purpose of these early investigation was to map features and places observed as explorers
traveled to new lands. At this time, Chinese, Egyptian and Phoenician civilization were beginning
to explore the places and spaces within and outside their home lands. The earliest evidence of such
explorations comes from the archaeological discovery of a Babylonian clay tablet map that date
back to 2300 B.C

These scientists and social scientists may spend month or years in foreign countries to
understand how regional, social, economic and other factors influence various group of people,
including indigenous peoples, minorities, woman, children or other poor. Globalization,
independence among countries, and unequal development are becoming vital issues in todays
world of rapid changes.

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 2. Geography in Pre-historic period
Geography the father of the all sciences is consisted of knowledge which cover a wide area
in physical and social environment. This knowledge is very essential for our day-to-day lives.
Some times we use geographical science without knowing that is an area of geography. In
summery we use geographical knowledge in the case of fulfilling our needs.

When we consider the man's evolution during 12,000 years ago, it is possible to
understand there was no a huge differences between the needs of today and the past human. Even
in the pre-historic man who lived before 12,000 years ago got try to fulfill his basic needs such as
food, water, shelter, wife/husband, cloths etc. In that case they used to use some knowledge which
we study today under name of geographical science. But on that time they never used that name,
but they used that knowledge.

As an example, pre-historic man used to draw some rough

drawing on their cave walls which shows the places around his abode
where the necessary resources are available for him. And even today
there are some survived drawings which used to show mountains,
rivers and so many other geographical changes in the environment
that he lived. That is the origin of modern maps that coming under
modern geography.

Pre-Historic cave drawings

Not only that but also, he studied the changes of climate
because it affected to his life cycle. Pre-historic man generated his own theories to predict the
situation of climate that can become in the future. Today these kind of studies identify under
climatology in geographical science.

Further more, they keep on attention on the

behaviors of animals to hunt them or survive from them.
They knew various animals behaviors under various
environmental condition. And also they tried to
understand the features of flora and fauna. That
knowledge was compulsory for them to provide food and
medicine for their needs. That is how they practice
environmental geography with their day to day lives.
Pre-historic cave drawings
So we can understand, there is a long history for
geographical knowledge which originated at the beginning of human evolution. Now it is
developed and developing further more.

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 3. Geography in ancient Greece

The early Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography
that was more than mere map making or cartography. Greek philosophers and
scientists were also interested in learning about spatial nature of human
physical feature found on the earth. One of the first Greek geographers was
Herodotus. Herodotus wrote a number of volumes that described the human and
the physical geography of the various regions of the Persian empire.

The ancient Greeks were also interested in the form, size and geometric of
the earth. Aristotle hypothesized and scientifically demonstrated that the earth
had a spherical shape. Evidence for this idea
Herodotus came from observation of lunar eclipses.
Lunar eclipses occur when the earth cast its
circular shadow onto the moon's surface.
The first individual to accurately calculate the
circumference of the earth was the Greek geographer
Eratosthenes. Eratosthenes calculated the equatorial
circumference to be 40,223km using geometric relationships.
This primitive calculation was unusually accurate. Measurement
of the earth using modern satellite technology have computed the Calculate the circumference of
circumference to be 40,072km. earth
The ancient Greeks gave the western world its first
formal knowledge of the structure, size and general nature of the earth.
During the 2nd century A.D., the Greek astronomer Ptolemy compiled most Greek and Roman
geographical knowledge known up to that time. He also proposed new methods of cartography. His
maps showed that he understood the problems involved in projecting or representing a spherical
earth on flat surface.
The ancient Greeks saw the poet Homer as the founder of geography. His
works the Ilid and the Odyssey are works of literature, but both contain a great
deal of geographical information. Homer describes a circular world ringed by a
single massive ocean.

Homer

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 4. Geography in ancient Roman
Strabo's 17th volume work of geography is a most important source of
information on classical geography. None of Strabo's maps survives. But his
detailed descriptions give a clear picture of the stars of geographical knowledge
of time. After Strabo's, Ptolemy launched a similar undertaking by this time the
roman empire had spend through much of Europe and British isles had been
explored. The silk road was also in operation. Ptolemy's geography are opens
with a theoretical discussion about the nature and techniques of geographical
inquiry. Ptolemy listed number of cities, tribes and sites and places that in the
world. It is uncertain because of names correspond to in the modern world.
Ptolemy
Pliny the elders natural history also has sections on geography. There is little evidence that
maps or charts were used for navigation in ancient Greek history.

Most of the Greek accomplishments in geography were passed onto Romans. Roman
military commanders and administrators used this information to guide the expansion of their
empire. Strabo wrote a 17th volume series called “Geographia”. Strabo describes the cultural
geographies of various societies of people such as Britain to India, south to Ethiopia and as far
north as Iceland. In Strabo's definition suggests that the aim of geography was to “describe the
known parts of the inhabited world........to write the assessment of the countries of the world
….....to treat the differences between countries.”

Ptolemy world map

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 10. Geography in ancient China
The geographical writing history goes back to 5 th century B.C, during the period 481B.C-
221 B.C. According to the book called ”Classic of history”, there were nine provinces in China.
The geographical conditions of each province such as soil, lakes, rivers
caused for the economy, food production, and the agriculture. Earlier
days the works of the geographers were simpler than in modern China.
They were spread ed along the northern part of modern Shanxi province.
In the ancient China the geographical researchers had been based on Yu
gong's methodological figures . Parallel to those researches magic,
fantasy, folklore were created. Chinese geographical activities not such
high quality in Herodotus and Strabo era but it found rather complex
since 3rd century.
Map of the Tracks of Yu
Gong The earlier maps of archaeological facts in China were made in the
kingdom of Qin in 4th century B.C. But the correctly scaled maps had
been created later on by pei-Xiu . But there were huge descriptions on historical texts about
geographical facts dynastties taxable products since 1 st century A.D. Later on Ban-Gu chinese
historian initiated to make gnezeteers of geographical facts. Later on quality maps were created for
geographical studies.

According to 4th chapter of the book called “Master of

huainan(handinasty)”(202B.C-202A.D)Chinese geographical records got
lot more firm details with less legendary elements. The chapter says
further with the efforts of Lin Ann and Zuo Wu the topographies turned
out to be useful aids to study maps. The book called “Historical geography
of Sze chuan” describes about various tribes and trade routs apart from
rivers. Apart from that various maps and records showed the water
resources. According to water ways classic(3 rd century) 137 rivers were
found through out China. The “water ways” were modified later on by 40
times. Han Dynasty (202 BC
Geographical literature got lot more quality in later period (Song– 9 AD) silk map
and Ming Dynasties). During this period lot of records and treatises were created regarding
geographical literature based on these topics;
• Agricultural and economic products in south China.
• Written records of geography and hypothesis of land formation.
• Archaeological topography around northern area of yellow river.
• Geographical and topographical treatise comprised with lot of geographical features.

Chinese not only bound inside there home. They got firm details of the geography of
foreign regions such as Middle east, India, Central Asia.
since traveller Zhang Qian (2nd century B.C) . China has a lot of geographical facts in
abroad based on:
• Wealth and geographical information of Central India
• Illustrated records on Persian gulf culture.
• Accounts of a voyage around Korea.
• The geography of medieval Colombia.

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 6. Geography in ancient Arabia
✔ In the middle east, Muslim geographers such as al-Idrisi, al-Yaqubi, al-Masudi, ibn
Khurdhbih, Ibn al-Faqih, al-Istakhri, Iban Battuta, Iban Khaaldum etc. maintain the Greek and
roman techniques and developed new ones.

✔ There were some representative of the west that produced geographical works of
quality. But this played in comparison to the virtual mountain of work published by Islamic writers
in the middle age.

✔ During the Muslim conquests of the 7 th and early centuries, Arab armies established
the Islamic Arabic empire reaching from central Asia to the Iberian peninsula.

✔ In the 19th century, Alkindus was the first to introduce experimentation into the earth
sciences.

✔ An early from globalization began emerging during the Islamic golden age, when
the knowledge, trade & economies from many previously isolated regions and civilizations began
integrating due to contacts with Muslim explorers, sailors, scholars, traders and travelers.

✔ Abu Rayhan al-Biruni was a polymath who is considered a pioneer in

anthropology, geodesy and geology.
✔

✔ In mathematical geography, Abu Rayhan al Biruni, around 1025, was

the first to describe a polar equip-azimuthal equidistant projection of the
celestial sphere.

✔ He was also regarded as the most skilled when it came to mapping

cities and measuring the distances between them, which he did for many
Abū Rayhān al- cities in the middle east and western Indian subcontinent.
Bīrūnī
✔ He also discussed human geography and the planetary habitability of
the earth.

✔ He hypothesized that roughly a quarter of the earth's surface is habitable by humans

and also argued that the shores of the Asia and Europe were “seperated by a vast sea, too dark and
dense to navigate and too risky to try” in reference to the Atlantic and Pacific ocean.

✔ Important contribution to geodesy and geography were also made by al-Biruni. He

introduced techniques to measure the earth and distances on it using triangulation. He found the
radius the earth to be 6339.6 km, a value not obtained in the west until the 16th century.

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 ✔ The Arabic geographer Al-
Idrisi's Mappa mundi incorporated the
knowledge of Africa, the Indian ocean and
far east gathered by Arab merchants and
explorers with the information inherited
from the classical geographers to create one
of the most accurate maps of the world to
date.
The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Al-Idrisi

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 7. Early modern period.
Journey of Marco Polo made geography more interesting around the Europe. In
circa 1400 Ptolemy and his associates' records helped to make link in
geographical facts. Great voyages of exploration always hailed the accurate
geographical details. Geographia generalized by Bernhardus Varenius and
Geradus Mercator's world maps are turned a new era in scientific geography.
The Mongols had a sound knowledge of European geography because they ruled
those areas and used for their military operations.

Portrait of 18th Century

Marco Polo By the 18th century geography was turned out to be a university curriculum in
Europe, around especially in Paris and Berlin.

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 8. 19th Century

Kosmos a great work with brief details of universe by Alexander von Humboldt, which
published in 1845 which caused for the creation of “Physical geography” by dr. Mary somerville.
A physioography published by Thomas Henry Huxly in university angle based on natural
environment. This publication opened a new era of geography which caused the micro level and
macro level applications of geographical studies. This creation hails practical data instead of
theories. Though Halford John Mackinder in 1887 tried in same way for his investigation the
integration of the natural environment was soon traken over by Davisian geomorphology.
The knowledge and and ways have been improved over the ancient time.
Geography is linked with sciences of geology. Botany and some social
sciences.
The royal geographical Society started in 1830 in England. Halford John
Makinder was the real knowledgeable person for geography in UK during
that time.
The national geographic society was established in 1888 which initiated to
publish the national geographic magazine. It turned out to be a popular
source for geographical sources.
Halford John
Makinder

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 9. 20th century
After 1900's geographers extended their ideas on the studies which started at the 18 th
century. They used descriptive methods to test research questions and there was a shift in
methodology.
In this century there was a quantitative revolution which affected to various areas.
Geography also was affected by it. Most of geographers used quantitative techniques for their
studies to improve the scientific quality of those studies. Simultaneously there was a development
in computer and software technology was a great support to the ease of usage of quantitative
techniques.
As to the article of journal of geography by William Pattison in 1964
suggested geography was now composed of four academic tradition.

• Spatial tradition
• Area studies tradition
• Human land tradition
• Earth science tradition

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 11. Geography in present world
As we studied, the science of geography has been developing for thousands of years. Man
firstly used those knowledge when he was at the first step in his evolution. Then era by era man
made and collected knowledge under this subject. Today, the geography is a science which has a
wide scope.
As a result of geographers enthusiasm in subject, number of difference areas have been
included under the study of geography. Today geography is mainly study under two branches
human geography and the physical geography. Now geography is classified as a social science
As a result of development of this subject, definition of geography also changed in time to
time. Recently science of geography is defined as a study of spatial variation on earth's surface.
The geographers deal with and searches for relationships among variables over space. Briefly, in
present, geography is included every physical and social process that affect to the peoples' lives.
A very special point to note that, today geography has called “The world discipline.” As
“the bridge between human and physical sciences.”

➔ Branches of Physical geography

Biogeography Climatology Env. geog. &

Coastal
and management
geography
paleoclimatol
ogy

Hydrology &
Hydrography
Geodesy
Physical Geography

Landscape Geomorphology
ecology

Glaciology
Oceanography Quaternary Palaeogeogra
science Pedology phy

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 ➔ Branches of Human geography

Cultural
geography
Economic Health
Tourism geography geography
geography

Development
geography
Human Geography

Religion
geography
Social
geography

Political geog. Urban Pop. geog. or Historical &

Transportatio & Geopolitics geography Time geog.
Demography
n geography

Modern technologies that use for Geography

● Cartography
Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with
abstract symbols (map making). Although other sub disciplines of
geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making
of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has
grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.

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 ● Geographic information systems
Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the storage
of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a
computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's
purpose. In addition to all of the other sub disciplines of geography,
GIS specialists must understand computer science and database
systems.

● Remote sensing
Remote sensing is the science of obtaining information about Earth features
from measurements made at a distance. Remotely sensed data comes in many
forms such as satellite imagery, aerial photography and data obtained from
hand-held sensors.

● Quantitative methods
Geo statistics deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the application of statistical
methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geo statistics is used extensively in a
variety of fields including: hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban
planning, logistics, and epidemiology.

● Qualitative methods
Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographic; research techniques, are used by human
geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques
also used in anthropology and sociology. Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide
human geographers with qualitative data.

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 12. Uses of geographical science with its development
In this chapter, we study on the increase of the usage of geographical science with its
development during 12,000 years. When you study this chapter, you can clearly understand how
this science developed time to time; because this knowledge was always used by people to solve
the problems that occurred era by era.

Knowledge of geography enables people to develop an understanding of the relationship

between people, places and environment. Based on that characteristic of geographical science,
geographical knowledge was able to increase its usages for human in time to time.
Pre-historical age man used mapping knowledge under geography to
remember the locations of resources that around his living area. And
also they drew the changes on earth surface as rivers, mountains and
forests. Not only that but also they studied the behavior of plants and
animals.
Those drawings and studies helped them to find their needs like food,
water and shelter. They also survived from risks by using the
knowledge that they gathered from those geographical studies.
Advantages of the geographical studies was around the basic needs of
the human.
After thousands of years when the human brain developed to a critical point, some people
tried to find reasons for some happenings in the environment. So they used to find the shape of the
earth, its size and many more things. In this time geographical knowledge not only around basic
needs, but also around human curiosity.
Then human needed to spread his power into a wider area. Rulers of
many nations tried to fight with other rulers and undertake areas. In this
case people made maps to use in wars. And also geographical knowledge
was used for political aspects. During this period geography was used for
people's need of power additional to the basic needs and curiosity.
As a result of changing of the thinking pattern of man, man tried to be
economically strong. So they need to spread their business activities not
only locally but also internationally. Then they traveled to other countries
not only through land but also through oceans. In this case they made maps and found new lands by
using geographical knowledge. Economical aspects also connected with geography addition to the
basic needs, curiosity, need of power.
As results of many changes, during hundreds of years, many problems
are arising in both physical and social environments. Environment pollution is
there in world and geographical knowledge is the main source which use to
understand and evaluate the situation. Addition to that geography knowledge is
used to efficiently manage natural and human made resources in world.
As a result of busy and complex life style of human, many social
problems have being arisen. As a side of social geography, geographers are
trying to understand about various social facts that can be useful for develop the relationship
among people.
It is crystal clear that many stages of human thinking pattern made ” wants ” for people and
it was the reason for the development of this geographical science.

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 13. Future of the geographical science

As we studied, geography has being used by people since the basic stages of
their evolution. Time to time, the range of this subject was increased with
the changes of human mind. Era by era new knowledge was taken under to
this science and increased ability to describe any spatial variation which
occurred in any period.
Even in the present, same thing is happening. New areas are included to this
subject by geographer and try to analyze variation of space which happens
in the present world. When we consider the past, most of times geographers
studied only about physical variations on earth. But today study of social
variations also coming up as social geography which identify as one of main side in geography.
In future there will be deep changes in human mind. Technology will develop in speedy
manner. Addition to that environment pollution, population pressure, economical depression, ase of
inequality and ethical crashes will increase in future.
So, the possibility to see a huge spatial variation in social environment is not less than the
physical spatial variation. In future, geographers studies may very essential for world to analyze
and find the solutions for the problems that is going to occur. According to the way that the world
is going, there will be remarkable improvements in following subtopics under geography.

• Biogeography
• Climatology and paleoclimatology
• Environment geography and management
• Pedology
• Oceanography
• Cultural geography
• Development geography
• Social geography
• Religion geography
• Demography
• Urban geography

Additional to those improvements many new branches can be arise in future according to
new problems that man can be face within the space.
With the development of software and computer science, analysis part of geographical
information will improve in a greater speed. There will be new physical and methodological
innovations which can make easy the study of geography.
Value of geographical science is increasing more and more in future than today.
Universities will pay a great attention on providing more skilled geographers to fulfill the needs of
a more complex world that we will be offered in future.

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 Group Members
Group No:3

Madugalle E.R.My.D.B UWU/IIT/10/0027

Nanayakkra N.H.L.M.D UWU/IIT/10/0029
Ranasinghe R.M.I.S UWU/IIT/10/0032
Rathnayake S.N UWU/IIT/10/0033
Rubasinghe R.T.T UWU/IIT/10/0035
Senadheera S.P.T.P UWU/IIT/10/0037
Seneviratne S.M.U.C UWU/IIT/10/0038
Sonali U.G.R.S UWU/IIT/10/0041
Thilakaratne D.M.M UWU/IIT/10/0043
Wickramasinghe W.A.Y.I UWU/IIT/10/0046
Yapa D.T.D.K UWU/IIT/10/0048
Zimara N.M UWU/IIT/10/0049

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