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MEE 2026
Dr. M. Sreekanth
Associate Professor
SMBS
VIT University, Chennai Campus
MODULE-1
Energy Transfer
Turbomachine-Definition
A Turbomachine is device in which energy is
transferred either to or from a continuously flowing
fluid by the dynamic action of one or more moving
blade rows
Turbo/Turbinis is a Latin word for something that
spins or whirls around
All turbomachines essentially have a rotating blade
row, known as a rotor or an impeller, changes the
stagnation enthalpy of the fluid by doing work-
positive or negative
3
Classification of Turbomachines
Turbomachines
Power Power
Producing Absorbing In-
Compressible compressi
ble
Axial Radial Mixed
Impulse Reaction
4
Classification (Direction of Power)
• Turbomachines produce (positive) power by
reducing the pressure (head) of the fluid (e.g.
Wind, hydraulic, steam and gas turbines)
• Machines absorb (negative) power by
increasing the pressure of the fluid (e.g. Fans,
compressors and pumps)
5
Classification (Pressure Change)
Impulse Machine: The pressure change takes
place outside the rotor. Most often, the pressure
change takes place in the nozzles and the high
velocity jet is directed onto the rotor blades (e.g.
Pelton turbine)
Reaction Machine: The pressure change takes
place entirely in the rotor itself (e.g. Francis,
Kaplan turbines)
6
Classification (Direction of Flow)
Axial Flow: The direction of flow is entirely or
mostly parallel to the axis of rotation (e.g. Single
stage compressor, table fan, wind mill)
Radial Flow: The direction of flow is entirely or
mostly in a plane perpendicular to the axis of
rotation (e.g. Multistage centrifugal compressor,
steam turbine)
Mixed Flow: The flow components in the radial and
axial directions are in significant amounts (e.g.
Francis , Kaplan turbines)
7
Classification (Type of Fluid)
Incompressible Fluid: The fluid flowing is
incompressible (e.g. Water). In cases where the
pressure changes are low, the fluid is treated to be
incompressible (e.g. Hydraulic turbines, pumps, fans,
low pressure blowers, wind mills)
9
Applications
10
Simple Turbine
A Simple Turbine
Exploded View
11
Operation of a Turbomachine
• The fluid flows directly into the device axially
• The stator blades turn the flow so as to align
the flow into the rotor blades
• The turbine blades turn the flow in the axial
direction and turn the output shaft
12
T-S and H-S Diagrams
For Ideal and Perfect gases, the enthalpy is
dependant on the temperature. Therefore, an
expansion process can be shown as below:
Temperature or Enthalpy
P=P1
1-2S: Isentropic Expansion Process
1 1-2: Actual Expansion Process
P: Pressure
(T or H)
P=P2
2S 2
Entropy, S
13
Fundamental Laws Applicable to
Turbomachines
• Continuity Equation
• 1st Law of Thermodynamics and the Steady
Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)
• Momentum Equation and
• 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
19
Stagnation Temperature (T0)
• Stagnation enthalpy is given by
1 2
h0 h c
2
• From definition, h=CpT
• Therefore 1
C pT0 C pT c 2
2
or
1 2
T0 T c
2C p
20
Stagnation Pressure
• The pressure of a fluid which is obtained by
decelerating it in a reversible adiabatic process
to zero velocity is known as the Stagnation
Pressure
• It can be calculated using the relation for
isentropic processes
P0 T0 1
P T
21
Stagnation Property Relations
1 2
h0 h c
2
T0 1 2
1 M
T 2
P0 1 2 1
1 M
P 2
1
0 1 2 1
1 M
2
22
SFEE (re-written)
Neglecting the change in potential energy and
conveniently using the equation for stagnation
enthalpy, the SFEE can be written as
h02 h01
Q Ws m
If there is no work or heat transfer involved, the
stagnation enthalpy remains constant
For machines operating adiabatically,
h02 h01
Ws m
23
Momentum Equation
• The Momentum Equation relates the sum of
external forces acting on it to its acceleration
• In turbomachines, it is used to calculate the
force exerted on a blade by the deflection or
acceleration of fluid passing through
• In a control volume, for a mass of fluid flowing
in ‘x’ direction, the Momentum Equation is
F x
cx 2 cx1
m
24
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
• The 2nd Law is useful in describing ideal processes
• The Clausius inequality is
dQ
T 0
• If all the processes in the cycle are reversible,
dQr
T 0
• For a reversible process between two states,
Entropy is defined as
2
dQr
S 2 S1
1
T 25
2nd Law of Thermodynamics…
• If the process is adiabatic, dQ=0, hence
s2 s1
• If the process is reversible and adiabatic,
s2 s1
• For a process that is reversible and adiabatic, the
entropy remains constant (isentropic)
• Most turbomachinery operate close to adiabatic
and hence isentropic compression or expansion is
the best possible process that must be achieved
26
Entropy
• Entropy is a useful property to analyze
turbomachines
• Any creation of entropy in a flow process
implies loss of work and hence loss of
efficiency
• Some useful relations obtained by combining
1st and 2nd laws are
Tds = du + pdV
Tds = dh-vdp
27
Turbine Efficiencies
• Overall Efficiency
Mechanical Energy Available at the Coupling of the OutputShaft in Unit Time
0
Maximum Energy Difference Possible for the Fluid in Unit Time
• Isentropic Efficiency
Mechanical Energy Supplied to the Rotor in Unit Time
t
Maximum Energy Difference Possible for the Fluid in Unit Time
• Mechanical efficiency
0
m
t 28
Nozzle Efficiency
General Case :
c22 c12 h1 h2
N 2
c2 s c1 h1 h2 s
2
Pa
30
Problem 1
Air at 2.05 bar and 417 K is expanded through a
row of nozzle blades to a pressure of 1.925 bar.
The stagnation pressure loss across the nozzle is
measured as 10 mm Hg. Determine the
efficiency of this nozzle and the velocity of air at
the exit. Take Cp =1005 J/kg-K and =1.4.
31
Problem 2
A gas turbine nozzle has a pressure ratio of 1.8.
The initial pressure and temperature are 3.5 bar
and 1050 K. The gas velocity at exit is 548 m/s.
Determine the efficiency of the nozzle and the
exit Mach number. Take R=287 J/kg-K, =1.4.
32
Problem 3
A diffuser at the exit of a gas turbine has an area
ratio of 2.0. If the static pressure at the diffuser
exit is 1.013 bar and the velocity of gas 30 m/s,
calculate the static pressure of the gas at the
turbine exit. Take diffuser efficiency equal to
77% and density of gas as 1.25 kg/m3 (constant).
Ans: 1 bar
33
Problem 4
A nozzle expands air from P1=8 bar, T1=540 K to
a pressure of 5.8 bar with an efficiency of 95%.
The air is then passed through a diffuser of area
ratio 4.0. the total pressure loss across the
diffuser is 367 mm Hg. Determine the efficiency
of the diffuser and the velocities of air at its
entry and exit. What is the static pressure at the
diffuser exit?
h01 h02
tt
h01 h02s
Actual Work
P1 P2 c12 c22
m g z1 z 2
2
37
Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps
• The Isentropic Efficiency of a Compressor (c)
or Hydraulic Efficiency of a Pump (h) is
c or h
Useful (hydrodynamic) energy input tofluid in unit time
Power input to the rotor
38
Efficiencies of Compressors and
Pumps…
• Compressor Efficiency is
Ideal (minimum) work input
c
Actual work input
h02s h01
h02 h01
39
Efficiencies of Compressors and
Pumps…
• For a pump, the hydraulic efficiency is
M inimum Work Needed
h
Actual Work Supplied
P2 - P1 c22 c12
m g z 2 z1
2
Actual Work
40
Small Stage or Polytropic Efficiency
• Polytropic Efficiency is useful in fairly
comparing the performance of turbomachines
having different pressure ratios
41
Small Stage or Polytropic Efficiency…
(p)
• Compressor Polytropic Efficiency is
P02
ln
1 P01
p
T02
ln
T01
• Turbine Polytropic Efficiency is
T02
ln
T01
p
1 P02
ln
P01
42
Reheat Factor
• The equations for compressors and gas
turbines basing on Perfect Gas relations
cannot be used for steam turbines as steam is
not a perfect gas
• The Reheat Factor is used to determine the
Polytropic Efficiency of a Steam Turbine
43
Reheat Factor…
• The Reheat Factor is defined by the equation
h is
h1 h2 s
44
Comparison of Turbine and Compressor
Turbine Compressor
1 1
T01 02s 1 T01 02 1
P P
P01 P01
T01 T02
tt tt
1
T02 T01 T02 T01
T01 1 02
P
P01
1
T01 2 s 1
P
P01
T01 T02
ts ts
1
T02 T01
T01 1 2
P
P01
45
Comparison of Turbine and
Compressor…
Turbine Compressor
Reheat Factor
w s
1 Preheat Factor
ws
1
ws ws
T st C st
46
Comparison of Turbine and
Compressor…
Turbine Compressor
1 1 1
P
P
P P
Const Const
T T
1 1 1
P
T2 P2 T2 P2 P
T1 P1 T1 P1
n 1 1 n
P P
n 1 n 1
47
Comparison of Turbine and
Compressor…
Turbine Compressor
P
n n
1 P 1 1 P
1 1
P
P2 P2
1 1
st P1
st P1
1 1 1
P2 P2 P
1 1
P1 P1
48
Problem 6
An axial flow compressor is designed to provide
an overall total to total pressure ratio of 8 to 1.
At inlet and outlet, the stagnation temperatures
are 300 K and 586.4 K respectively. Determine
the overall total to total efficiency and the
polytropic efficiency for the compressor. =1.4.
A m r2c 2 r1c 1
51
Moment of Momentum
OR
Angular Momentum Equation
The net flow rate of
The sum of all The time rate of change
angular momentum
externalmoments of the angular momentum
acting on a CV of the contents of the CV out of the control
surface by mass flow
d
M
dt CV
r V dV r m V in r m V
out
The net Torque acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the
difference between the out going and incoming angular momentum flow rates.
52
Radial Flow Devices
M r m V in r m V
out
Wc A
U 2c 2 U1c 1
m m
• Euler’s Turbine Equation is
Wc A
U1c 1 U 2c 2
m m
56
Problem 7
• In a radial inward flow turbomachine, the radii
and the tangential velocity components at the
inlet and the outlet are 150 mm and 75 mm,
and 350 m/s and 60 m/s respectively. Find the
turning moment due to a mass flow rate of 1
kg/s.
Ans: 48 N-m
57
Problem 8
A steam turbine operates with a stagnation
pressure ratio of 15 and a small stage efficiency
of 0.87. for steam is 1.333. Calculate the
turbine total to total efficiency.
Ans: 90.4%
58
Problem 9
A 20 MW back pressure turbine receives steam
at 4 MPa and 300 0C, exhausting from the last
stage at 0.35 MPa. The stage efficiency is 0.85,
reheat factor 1.04, and external losses 2% of the
isentropic enthalpy drop. Determine the rate of
steam flow.
59
Losses in Turbomachines
• Internal Losses: Those losses that occur in the
inner passages of the turbomachine and could
be attributed to the internal flow. They cause
a rise in fluid temperature
• External Losses: Occur outside the main flow
passages and normally do not add heat to the
fluid
60
Internal Losses
• Hydraulic Losses: Losses due to friction,
separation of the flow on the vane, diffusion,
eddies and mixing of different energy level fluids
are included
• In the context of Thermal Turbomachinery, these
losses are called as aerodynamic losses
• At off-design conditions, the flow enters the
blade passages with incidence resulting in shock
loss which too is included in Hydraulic Loss
61
Internal Losses…
• Leakage Losses: Leakage of the fluid results in the
machine consume more power in case of power
absorbing machines (fan, pump, compressor) and
a loss in power developed in the case of a power
producing machine (turbine)
• Leakage occurs as tip leakage and along the
casing from the pressure side to the suction side
of the impeller between the casing and the
impeller
62
Internal Losses…
Leakage Losses
63
Internal Losses…
• Gland Leakage Losses: High pressure causes fluid
to leak into the atmosphere in areas with shafts
and bearings
• Glands and stuffing boxes can be used to prevent
this leakage but they cannot be tight as it will
reduce the speed of the shaft due to friction
• In radial machines leakage occurs in the gap
between the shaft and the ring
• In axial machines, the leakage occurs across the
narrow axial gap
64
Internal Losses…
• Disc Friction Losses: When a disc is rotated in an
enclosed chamber surrounded by fluid, a resistive
torque is set up and the power consumption in
the case of a fan or pump increases in order to
overcome this resistive torque
• This loss is high when the hub to tip dia ratio
(axial m/c) or outer to inner dia ratio (radial m/c)
is high
• The friction is dependent on the clearance
between the casing and disc, diameter of
impeller, roughness of the disc surfaces and
viscosity and density of the fluid
65
Internal Losses…
67
Internal Losses…
69
External Losses
• External losses, also known as mechanical
losses are external to medium
• Mostly occur in bearings, sealings, couplings
that may be directly connected to the shaft of
the turbomachine
70
MODULE-2
Cascading
Aerofoil Blade
• Aerofoil blade is a streamlined body having a
thick rounded leading edge and a thin trailing
edge
• When suitably shaped and properly oriented
in the flow, the force acting normal to the flow
direction is larger than that resisting it
• Aerofoil shapes are used in the blades (vanes)
of various turbomachines
72
Aerofoil Section
Chord: The straight line joining the centres of the curvature of the
leading and trailing edges
Camber Line: The meridian line of the section passing midway
between the upper and lower surfaces
Camber: Maximum height of the camber line above the chord line
Angle of Attack (or Incidence): The angle between the chord line and
the fluid flow 73
Forces on an Aerofoil
• The aerodynamic force on an aerofoil can be
resolved into Lift (perpendicular to the
direction of flow) and Drag forces (in the
direction of the flow)
74
Lift and Drag Coefficients
• The lift and drag forces are non-dimensionally
represented by the respective coefficients:
L D
Cl and Cd
1 2 1 2
c A c A
2 2
• The lift and drag coefficients are functions of
Reynolds number and angle of attack
75
Variation of Cl and Cd with Angle of
Attack (α)
• When α is zero, the lift will be
low
• As α increases, the lift
increases, upto an optimum
value
• Along with lift, the drag also
increases
• Beyond the optimum value of
α, the drag increases rapidly
and the lift decreases
• The drag is maximum when α
is 900
76
Cascade
• A cascade is a construction of an assembly of a
number of blades of a given shape and size at
the required pitch and staggering
• Also a succession of stages or operations or
processes or units
77
Isolated Aerofoil and a Cascade
79
Problem 10
A multi-stage high pressure steam turbine is supplied with steam at
a stagnation pressure of 7 MPa and a stagnation temperature of
500 0C. The corresponding specific enthalpy is 3410 kJ/kg. The
steam exhausts from the turbine at a stagnation pressure of 0.7
MPa, the steam having been in a superheated condition throughout
the expansion. It can be assumed that the steam behaves like a
perfect gas over the range of the expansion and that =1.3. Given
that the turbine flow process has a small stage efficiency of 0.82,
determine
i. The temperature and specific volume at the end of the
expansion
ii. The Reheat Factor
The specific volume of superheated steam is represented by
pv=0.231 (h-1943), where p is in kPa, v is in m3/kg, and h is in kJ/kg.
80
References for Modules 1 & 2
• Turbines, Compressors and Fans, S.M. Yahya,
Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Ltd., 4th
Edition, 2011
• Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of
Turbomachinery, S.L. Dixon and C.A. Hall,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 6th Edition, 2010
• Basic Concepts in Turbomachinery, Grant
Ingram, Grant Ingram & Ventus Publishing
ApS, free ebook from Bookboon.com, 2009
81
Projects in Turbomachines
Types of Projects
• Make animations to demonstrate the working of
turbomachines
• Make Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Calculations using software packages
• Make simple working models
• Develop software to carryout design and/or
performance calculations and simulations
• Dismantle an existing turbomachine, explain the
function of various components and reassemble
83
Velocity Triangles
Problem 1
Steam leaves the nozzles of a single row impulse
turbine at 900 m/s. The nozzle angle is 200 and
blade angles are 300 at inlet and outlet. Find the
blade velocity.
85
Problem 2
In a single stage, single row impulse turbine, the
steam is entering at a velocity of 1200 m/s with
a nozzle angle of 200 and leaving the blade in
the axial direction. The ratio of blade velocity to
the whirl velocity of steam is 0.6. Sketch the
velocity diagram and calculate the blade
velocity.
86
Problem 3
In an impulse turbine, the steam enters the
wheel through a nozzle with a velocity of 500
m/s and at an angle of 200 to the direction of
motion of the blade. The blade speed is 200 m/s
and the exit angle of the moving blade is 250.
Find the inlet angle of the moving blade, exit
velocity of steam and its direction.
88
Problem 5
An office desk fan rotates at 200 rpm. Air enters
the fan at 3 m/s, parallel to the axis of rotation.
Calculate the relative velocity at the hub of the
fan if the hub diameter is 10 cm.
89
Problem 6
In an impulse turbine, the mean diameter of the
blade is 1.05 m and speed is 3000 rpm. The
nozzle angle is 180. The ratio of blade speed to
steam speed is 0.42 and ratio of relative velocity
at outlet from the blades to that at inlet is 0.84.
The outlet angle of the blade is to be made 30
less than the inlet angle. The steam flow rate is
10 kg/s. Draw the velocity diagram and find the
unknown data.
90
MODULE-3
Centrifugal Compressors
Definitions
• Fan: A machine imparting only a small amount of
pressure rise to a flowing gas. The gas is
practically considered to be incompressible
(P=0.7 bar)
• Blower: Similar to a fan except the flow is radial.
Slightly higher pressures compared to fan
(P=1.5-2.5 bar)
• Compressor: A substantial amount of pressure
rise occurs. For a compressor, the density ratio
across the machine is above 1.05 and pressure
ratios above 2.5
92
Salient Features of Radial Compressors
• Suitable only for small mass flow rates
• Low mass flow rates result in lower energy
transfer
• Mechanically stronger
• Higher peripheral speeds result in higher
pressure ratio per stage (4)
• Mostly operate in single stage, rarely 3 stages
93
Application of Centrifugal (Radial)
Compressors
• Early supercharged aircraft reciprocating
engines
• Smaller Gas Turbines
• Large refrigeration units
• Petrochemical plants
• In small turbo-prop engines
• Auxiliary Power Units and Air Conditioning
Systems of air crafts
94
Centrifugal Compressor-Schematic
95
Working of a Centrifugal Compressor
• The flow approaches the machine in the axial
direction
• It is then turned through 900 and enters the impeller
• The rotor increases the angular momentum of the
fluid and it exits in the radial direction into the volute
casing
• In the volute casing, the cross sectional area
gradually increases, thus slowing down the fluid and
increasing the pressure
• For large pressure rises, a stator is needed between
the rotor and the volute 96
Radial Compressor Impeller
97
Centrifugal Impeller
98
Detailed Schematic of a Centrifugal
Compressor
99
Detailed View
100
Function of Various Parts
• Impeller: Increases the energy level of the fluid
by whirling it outwards, thereby rises the static
pressure and velocity
• Diffuser: Converts the kinetic energy of the fluid
exiting the impeller to pressure energy
• Scroll or Volute: Collects the flow from the
diffuser and delivers it to the outlet
• In low speed compressors and where cost
matters, the volute casing follows immediately
after the impeller
101
Function of Various Parts…
• Hub: It is the curved surface of revolution of the
impeller a-b. It divides the flow smoothly over
the impeller surface
• Shroud: It is a curved surface c-d forming the
outer boundary to the fluid. It prevents leakage
losses
• Inducer: Acts as a guide vane in directing the
approaching flow (which is in axial direction) into
the impeller. It is an integral part of the impeller
102
Inlet and Exit Velocity Triangles
• Backward Swept Blades
• Radial Blades
• Forward Swept Blades
103
Velocity Triangles (No Whirl
Component at Inlet)
C2 W2 C2
Cr2=
Cr2
W2
α2 β2 α2 β2
Cθ2
U2 Cθ2=U2
Backward Swept Blade Radial Blade
C2
W2
α2 β2
U2
cr 2 c2 Sin 2 w2 Sin 2
c 2 c2Cos 2 cr 2Cot 2 u2 cr 2Cot 2
106
Specific Work for a Centrifugal
Compressor (General Case)
From the inlet velo city triangle,
c c c
2
r1
2
1
2
1
Also
cr21 w12 u1 c 1
2
1 2
2
w1 w22 Change in the KE of the fluid in the relative frame of coordinates
108
Specific Work for a Centrifugal
Compressor (Special Case)
From Euler' s equation, w u2 c 2 u1c 1
For axial entry (in the absence of inletguide vanes, also called inducers), cθ1 0
w u2 c 2 u2 u2 cr 2Cot 2
Multiply and divide the above with u 2
c
w u22 1 r 2 Cot 2
u2
u22 1 2Cot 2
cr 2
Where, Flow Coefficient at exit,2
u2
For Radial blades, 2 900
w u22
w
Pr essure Coefficient,
u22
Pressure Coefficient is a measure of the pressure building ability of impellersof various sizes.
109
Pressure Coefficient Vs. Flow
Coefficient
w u2 c 2 c 2
Pressure Coefficien t, 2 2
u2 u2 u2
Also, β>900
110
Some Inferences
• Increased mass flow decreases the pressure on
the backward swept blade, remains same on the
radial blade and increases on the forward swept
blade
• For a given blade speed, the forward swept blade
impeller transfers maximum energy, radial blade
less and backward swept blade the least
• With forward swept blade impellers, a given
pressure rise can be achieved from a smaller
sized machine than with radial or backward
swept blades
111
Stage Pressure Rise
• Pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor takes
place in the Impeller, Diffuser and Volute
• In the Impeller, Energy Transfer and Energy
Transformation take place
• In the Diffuser and Volute, the pressure rise is
due to Energy Transformation and
deceleration of flow
112
Pressure Rise in Isentropic Process
(Case of Incompressible Fluid)
TdS Relation : TdS dh vdP
1
For an Isentropic Process, dS 0 , v Constant
ρ
dp
dh vdP
For the stagnation states at the inlet and outlet,
P0
h0 w u 22 1 2Cot 2
But ψ 1-2Cotβ2
P0 u 22
113
Pressure Rise in Isentropic Process
(Case of Compressible Fluid)
Assuming the fluid to be a perfect gas,
T02s
w h0 C p T02s T01 C pT01 1
T01
1
1
P02
C pT01 1 C pT01 Pr 0 1
P01
1 2 2
0 h3 h2 c3 c2
2
0 h03 h02
h02 h03
2
On grouping terms,
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2
h02 c2 h01 c1 w2 w1 u2 u1 0
2 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
h2 w2 u2 h1 w1 u1
2 2 2 2
1 2
h01rel Stagnation enthalpy at inlet in the relative system h1 w1
2
1 2
h02rel h2 w2
2
1 2 1 2
h02rel u2 h01rel u1
2 2
118
Stage Efficiency
Ideal workws
st
Actual workwa
wa h02 h01
But h 02 h03 h04
wa h04 h01
u22 1 2Cot 2 , for radial entry
For a Perfect gas, wa C p T04 T01 u22 1 2Cot 2
T04s
Ideal work, ws h04s h01 C p T04s T01 C pT01 1
T01
1
C pT01 Pr 0 1
119
Stage Efficiency…
P04s P04
Pr 0
P01 P01
1
C pT01 Pr 0 1
ws h04s h01
st 2
wa h04 h01 u 2 1 2Cot 2
From the above equation for Stage Efficiency ,
u22 1
Pr0 1 st 1 2Cot 2
C pT01
120
Degree of Reaction (R)
• It is a measure of the fraction of the pressure rise in the
impeller and that in the stator
Change in static enthalpy in the impeller h h
R 2 1
Change in stagnation enthalpy in the stage h02 h01
wa h02 h01
2
c2 c1 u2 u12 w12 w22
1 2 2 1 2
2
1
2
h2 h1 u22 u12 w12 w22
1 1
2 2
Also, wa h02 h01 u2 c 2 u1c 1
For no swirl at inlet, cθ1 0
h02 h01 u2 c 2
2
1 2
u2 u12 w12 w22
1
2 u22 w22 w12 u12
R
u2 c 2 2u2 c 2 121
Inlet Velocity Triangle (for no swirl)
w1
c1=cr1=cr2
u1
w u c c
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
r1
122
Exit Velocity Triangle
C2 W2
Cr2
α2 β2
Cθ2
u2
w c u2 c 2
2 2 2
2 r2
c u -2u2 cθ 2 c 2
2
r2
2
2
2
u w 2u2 cθ 2 c 2 c
2
2
2
2
2 2
r2
123
Degree of Reaction…
2u2 c 2 c22 cr22 cr22 c 2
R 1
2u2 c 2 2u2
But c 2 u2 cr 2Cot 2
u2 cr 2Cot 2 2u2 u2 cr 2Cot 2
R 1
2u2 2u2
1 1 cr 2Cot 2
1
2 2 u2
1 1 cr 2Cot 2
2 2 u2
1 1 cr 2Cot 2 1 1
R 2Cot 2
2 2 u2 2 2
124
Slip Factor
• The actual relative velocity at which the fluid
leaves the vane is different from the
theoretical relative velocity, due to eddies
• This difference is more for larger blade pitch
or smaller impeller blades
• This results in a reduction of whirl component
(tangential) at exit which results in reduction
of energy transfer
125
Slip Factor…
cs
c'2 w2
c2 w'2
c'θ2
cθ2
Vane
u
c' 2
Slip Factor,
c 2
Slip velocity, cs c 2 c' 2 1 c 2
126
Influence of Slip Factor
127
Problem-1
Determine the pressure ratio developed and the
power required to drive a centrifugal air
compressor (impeller dia=45 cm) running at
7200 rpm. Take zero swirl at the entry and
T01=288 K. Assume isentropic flow and radially
tipped impeller.
Repeat the problem for a stage efficiency of 0.82
and a slip factor of 0.8.
128
Problem 2
A centrifugal compressor is to deliver 14 kg/s of air
when operating at a stagnation pressure ratio of 4:1
and a speed of 200 rps. The inlet stagnation
conditions may be taken as 288 K and 1 bar.
Assuming a slip factor of 0.9, pressure coefficient of
0.749 and overall isentropic efficiency of 0.8,
estimate the overall diameter of the impeller.
Ans: 0.813 m
129
Problem-3
Air at a stagnation temperature of 22 0C enters the
impeller of a centrifugal compressor in the radial
direction. The rotor, which has 17 radial vanes,
rotates at 15,000 rpm. The stagnation pressure
ratio between the diffuser outlet and impeller inlet
is 4.2 and the overall efficiency is 83%. Determine
the impeller tip radius and power required to drive
the compressor when the mass flow rate is 2 kg/s
and the mechanical efficiency is 97%. The slip factor
is given as =1-2/Z where Z is the number of vanes.
130
Problem-4
The air entering the impeller of a centrifugal
compressor has an absolute axial velocity of 100
m/s. At rotor exit, the relative air angle measured
from the radial direction is 26036’, the radial
component of velocity is 120 m/s, and the tip
speed of the vane is 500 m/s. Determine the power
required to drive the compressor when the air flow
rate is 2.5 kg/s and the mechanical efficiency is
95%.
Ans: 579 kW
131
Problem-5
A 580 kW motor drives a centrifugal compressor
of 480 mm outer diameter at a speed of 20,000
rpm. At the impeller outlet, the blade angle is
26.50 measured from the radial direction and
the flow velocity at exit from the impeller is 122
m/s. If a mechanical efficiency of 95% is
assumed, what air flow is to be expected?
132
MODULE-4
Axial Compressors
Axial Compressor-Applications
• Suitable for multiple stage compression due to
better control of pressure rise per stage
• Industrial applications
• Gas turbine applications in power plants and
aircrafts
134
Advantages of Axial Compressor
• Higher efficiency than radial compressors
• Higher pressure ratio with good efficiency
• Pressure ratio of 8 and more can be achieved
using multiple stages
• High thrust per unit frontal area
• Can handle large amount of air
135
Axial Compressor-Construction
136
Blade Arrangement and Pressure and
Velocity Variation
Pressure
Velocity
Shaft Axis
137
Velocity Triangles
x: Axial Direction
y: Tangential Direction
Note that u1=u2=u
138
Trigonometric Relations from the
Velocity Triangles
Inlet Triangle Outlet Triangle
1 2 2 1 2
1 2
w c2 c1 u2 u1 w1 w2
2 2
2
2
2
But u1 u2
1 2 2 1 2
w c2 c1 w1 w22
2 2
141
Blade Loading and Flow Coefficients
w
Blade Loading Coefficien t (Pressure Coefficien t), 2
u
cx
Flow Coefficien t
u
Using the Euler' s equation and trigonome tric ratios,
c y 2 c y1
u u
tan 2 - tan1 tan1 - tan 2
142
Stage Pressure Rise
Pressure Rise across the Rotor (1 - 2) :
Assumptions : Isentropic, Constant Axial Velocity and
Incompressible flow.
TdS dh-vdP
dS 0 (Isentropic)
1
dh vdP dP
From the 1st law,
Q - W h KE PE
-W h KE (with the usual assumptions)
2
1 2 2 1 2
2
1 2
c2 c1 u2 u1 w1 w22 h KE
2
2
P2 P1 1 2 2
2
1 2 2 1 2
1 2
c2 c1 u2 u1 w1 w2
2
2
2
2
c2 c1
2
u1 u2 u
P2 P1
1 2
w1 w2
2
2
1
Protor w12 w22
2
w12 w22 c x21 wy21 c x22 wy22 wy21 wy22 c x1 c x 2
144
Stage Pressure Rise…
w y1 w y1
tan 1 wy1 c x tan 1
cx1 cx
wy 2 wy 2
Also tan 2 wy 2 cx tan 2
cx 2 cx
w12 w22 c x tan 1 c x tan 2 cx2 tan 2 1 tan 2 2
2 2
1 2
Protor cx tan 2 1 tan 2 2
2
145
Stage Pressure Rise…
Pressure Rise in the Diffuser (2 - 3) :
The 1st law : Q-W Δh KE PE
Due to standard reasons, Δh KE 0
dP ΔP
But dh Δh
ρ ρ
ΔP
ΔKE 0
ρ
P3 P2 1 2 2
c2 c3
2
Pdiffuser
1 2
2
c x tan 2 2 tan 2 3
If 1 3
Pdiffuser
1 2
2
c x tan 2 2 tan 2 1 147
Stage Pressure Rise…
Pstage Protor Pdiffuser
1 2
c x tan 2 1 tan 2 2 tan 2 2 tan 2 1
2
But tan α2 - tan α1 tan 1- tan 2 from previous equations
148
Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram
• Process 1-2s-3s is the isentropic process
• Process 1-2-3 is the actual process
• Process 1-2 takes place in the rotor
• Process 2-3 takes place in the diffuser
• h02=h03
149
Efficiencies
Ideal Work h h
Total to Total Efficiency , tt 02s 01
Actual Work h02 h01
Between states 2 and 3 (in the diffuser) there is no work done.
h 02s h 03s and h 02 h 03
h03s h01 c p T03s T01 T03s T01
tt
h03 h01 c p T03 T01 T03 T01
From Euler' s equation, Actual Work h03-h01 u c y 2 c y1
From velocity triangles,
h03-h01 u c y 2 c y1 uc x tan 2 tan 1 uc x tan 1 tan 2
Also, h03-h01
2
1 2 2 1 2
c2 c1 w1 w22
2
M ore relations can be obtained between loading coefficien t,
efficiency and pressure rise by using known equations
and also for special cases like incompressible flow and constant
axial velocity. Refer Yahya.
150
Degree of Reaction
Isentropic enthalpy change in rotor
For reversible process, R
Isentropic enthalpy change in stage
h2 s h1 P2 P1
for small pressure changes
h3 s h1 P3 P1
Actual enthalpy change in rotor h2 h1
For actual process, R
Actual enthalpy change in stage h3 h1
For equal absolute velocitie s at inlet and outlet (c1 c3 ) and
constant axial velocity
1 1 cx
R tan 1 tan 2
2 2 u
151
Low Reaction
• A low reaction stage has a lesser pressure rise
in the rotor compared to the diffuser
• This happens when α1>β2
• wy1<cy2
• In a low reaction stage, the diffuser is
burdened by a large pressure rise and hence
not desirable for higher efficiencies
152
Fifty Per Cent Reaction
• To reduce the burden of pressure rise in a blade
row, the reaction is equally divided between the
rotor and diffuser
• h2-h1=h3-h2=0.5(h3-h1)
• R=0.5, α1=β2 , α2=β1
• This results in symmetric velocity triangles at the
inlet and outlet of the rotor
• c1=w2; c2=w1
• cy1=wy2; cy2=wy1
153
High Reaction
• The pressure rise in the rotor is greater than in
the diffuser
• R>0.5
• α1<β2
• wy1>cy2
154
Work Done Factor
• As the flow progresses through the axial
compressor, the boundary layer becomes
thicker
• This means larger variation between the
maximum and mean velocity
w ucx tan 1 tan 2
ucx tan α1 tan β1 cx tan α1 tan β2
But u cx tan α1 tan β1
w uu cx tan α1 tan β2
• If α1, β1 and u are fixed, the work depends
only on cx
155
Workdone Factor…
157
Stall
• It is a local disruption of flow within a
compressor
• The effectiveness of the compressor
diminishes
• It is caused by flow separation on the rotor
blade due to change in the angle of attack
• The resultant stagnant pockets of air rotate
around the circumference of the compressor
rather than move in the axial direction
158
Formation of Stall
159
Surge
• Surge is the complete breakdown of
compression resulting in reversal of flow
• It is due to the compressors inability to
continue working against already compressed
air
• The situation will get rectified when the
engine pressure ratio reduces to a
manageable level
160
Problem 1
The following data refers to an axial flow
compressor. 1=600, 2=300, Cy=132 m/s,
degree of reaction 50%, speed 36,000 rpm,
mean blade diameter 140 mm, inlet pressure
and temperature 2 bar and 570C respectively.
Find α1, the pressure rise, the amount of air
handled and power, if the blade height is 20
mm.
161
Problem 2
An axial compressor stage has a mean diameter
of 60 cm and runs at 15000 rpm. If the actual
temperature rise and pressure ratio developed
are 30 0C and 1.4 respectively, determine
a. The power required to drive the compressor
while delivering 57 kg/s of air, assume
mechanical efficiency of 86% and an initial
temperature of 35 0C and
b. The stage loading coefficient
162
Problem 3
In an axial flow compressor, air enters the
compressor at stagnation pressure and
temperature of 1 bar and 292 K respectively. The
pressure ratio of the compressor is 9.5. If the
isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 0.85,
find the work of compression.
163
Problem 4
An axial flow compressor has a tip diameter of
0.95 m and a hub diameter of 0.85 m. The inlet
absolute velocity of air makes an angle of 280
measured from the axial direction and relative
velocity angle is 560. The absolute velocity outlet
angle is 560 and the relative velocity outlet angle
is 280. The rotor rotates at 5000 rpm and the
density of air is 1.2 kg/m3. Determine the axial
velocity, mass flow rate, power required and the
degree of reaction.
164
References for Modules 3 & 4
• Turbines, Compressors and Fans, S.M. Yahya,
Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Ltd., 4th
Edition, 2011
• Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of
Turbomachinery, S.L. Dixon and C.A. Hall,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 6th Edition, 2010
165
MODULE-5
Radial Turbines
Inward Flow Radial Turbine (IFR)
• Commonly used in hydraulic turbines (Francis
Turbine) for large power generation
• Also used in closed cycle gas turbines for low
power generation in space
• They can employ high pressure ratio (~4) per
stage with low flow rates
• Variable nozzle angles can give higher stage
efficiencies even at off design conditions
167
Radial Turbine Stage
• High pressure fluid on entering the turbine
through a duct, a volute casing distributes it
around the nozzle ring or rotor blades
• In some cases, the nozzles may be absent and
hence the flow acceleration is carried out in the
volute itself
• The rotor transfers the energy in the fluid to the
shaft
• If the energy of the exiting fluid is high, the fluid
is passed through an exhaust diffuser to recover
some energy
168
Types of IFR Turbines
Radial turbines are designed in order to provide
a large amount of tangential component of fluid
velocity at the entry and almost nothing at the
outlet (work=u1cθ1-u2cθ2)
•Cantilever Turbine
• 900 IFR Turbine
169
Cantilever Turbine
• The blades are limited to the rotor tip
extending in the axial direction
• The flow leaving the rotor blades has to turn
in the axial direction to exit from the turbine
170
Cantilever Turbine…
171
900 IFR Turbine
• Preferred to cantilever turbine due to better
structural strength
• The thin blades extend from a purely radial
direction at the entry to the axial section of the
rotor
• The rotor vanes extend radially inward and turn
the flow into axial direction
• The exit part of the vanes, called exducer is used
to remove the tangential component of the
velocity
172
900 IFR Turbine
173
Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram
h01 h02
Actual work, wa h02 h03
174
Degree of Reaction
Static enthalpy drop in the rotor
Degree of Reaction, R
stagnation enthalpy drop in the stage
h2 h3 T2 T3 c22 c32
R 1
h01 h03 T01 T03 2u2 c 2
For constant radial velocity, cr 2 cr 3
1 1 2 cot 2
c 2 1 1
R 1
2u2 2 2
1 2
u2 u32 w32 w22
1
R 2 2
u2 c 2
For an impulse stage, R 0 2 (highly loaded)
For 50% reaction stage, R 0.5 1 (uniformly loaded)
175
Steam Turbine Governing
Governing is necessary to maintain a constant
speed of the turbine irrespective of the load.
Power=mh
• Throttle Governing
• Nozzle Governing and
• By-Pass Governing
176
Throttle Governing
• The pressure of steam is decreased by
throttling it to a lower pressure but at the
same enthalpy
177
Nozzle Governing
• Mass flow rate of steam is controlled by this
method
178
By-Pass Governing
• Steam necessary for normal loads passes
through the main throttle valve
• Additional steam when needed for extra load
is sent through By-Pass valve
179
By-Pass Governing…
180
Gas vs. Steam Turbines
Gas Turbine Steam Turbine
• Weight per unit power • Weight per unit power
low high
• Short start up time • Longer startup time
• Compact • Large space needed
• Low initial and • Higher initial and
maintenance cost maintenance cost
• Lower Efficiency • Higher efficiency
• Simple operation • Complex operation
• Suitable for peak loads • Suitable for base load
181
Problem-1
A cantilever blade type IFR turbine receives air at 3
bar and 373 K. The rotor tip diameter is 50 cm,
rotor exit diameter is 30 cm, speed is 7200 rpm,
rotor blade width at entry is 3 cm, air angle at rotor
entry is 600, air angle at nozzle exit is 250 and nozzle
efficiency is 97%. The radial velocity is constant and
the swirl at the rotor exit is zero. Determine (a) the
flow and loading coefficients (b) the air angle at the
rotor exit (c) the degree of reaction, (d) the mass
flow rate and (e) the power developed. All the
angles are measured with respect to the blade
speed.
182
Problem-2
A single stage 900 IFR turbine fitted with an
exhaust diffuser has the following data: Overall
pressure ratio=4; Temperature at entry=557 K,
diffuser exit pressure=1 bar, mass flow rate=6.5
kg/s, flow coefficient=0.3, rotor tip diameter=42
cm, mean diameter at rotor exit=21 cm,
speed=18000 rpm. Determine the nozzle exit
angle, the power developed and the rotor width
at entry.
183
MODULE-6
Axial Turbines
Turbines
• Work producing machine
• Axial/Radial/Impulse/Reaction turbines
• Works under a favourable pressure gradient
• Has to handle hot fluids unlike compressors
• Axial Turbines are used extensively in power
generation involving steam and gas turbines
• Radial Turbines are used in turbochargers,
auxiliary power units of air crafts and small scale
power generation in space
185
Axial Turbine
186
Axial Turbine Stage
• An axial turbine stage comprises of a row of
nozzles (stator) and a row of moving blades
(rotor)
• The nozzle receives the fluid and accelerates it
towards the rotor blades
• After transferring a part of its energy to the
rotor, the fluid leaves the rotor blades towards
the next stage
187
Axial Turbine Stage…
Net flow
direction
188
Axis
Velocity Triangles
189
Trigonometric Relations
Inlet Triangle Outlet Triangle
cx 2 c2 cos 2 w2 cos 2 cx 3 c3 cos 3 w3 cos 3
c y 2 c2 sin 2 wy 2 u w2 sin 2 u c y 3 c3 sin 3 wy 3 u w3 sin 3 u
191
Work
w u c y 2 c y 3 u c y 2 c y 3
cy 2 cy3
Also, w u 2
u u
For axial discharge, c y 3 0
cy2 2 c2 sin 2
wc y 3 0 u
2
u
u u
192
Blade Loading and Flow Coefficients
w
Loading Coefficien t, ψ 2
u
cx
Flow Coefficien t,
u
w u c y 2 c y 3 c y 2 c y 3
ψ 2 2
u u u u
c x tan 2 c x tan 3
u u
tan 2 tan 3 tan 2 tan 3
193
Blade Efficiency (b)or
Blade Utilization Factor ()
Rotor Blade Work w
b
Energy Supplied to the blades ei
w u 2 c y 2 u3c y 3
2
c2 c3 u2 u32 w32 w22
1 2 2 1 2
2
1
2
ei c22 u22 u32 w32 w22
1 1 1
2 2 2
b
c22 c32 u22 u32 w32 w22
c22 u22 u32 w32 w22
u 2 u3 u
b
c 2
c32 w32 w22
c22 w32 w22
2
w u 2 c y 2 u3c y 3
2
1 2 2 1 2
2
1
c2 c3 u2 u32 w32 w22
2
1
2
1
2
1
ei c22 u 22 u32 w32 w22
2
c22 c32 w32 w22
c22 w32 w22
In the absence of friction, w2 w3
With c x 2 c x 3 c x and w2 w3
2 3
c 2
c32 w32 w22 u c y 2 c y 3
2
c2 w3 w2
2 2 2
1 2
c2 195
2
Single Impulse Stage…
But c y 2 c y 3 w2 sin 2 w3 sin 3
w2 w3 and 2 3
4uw2 sin 2
c22
But w2 sin 2 c2 sin 2 u
4u c2 sin 2 u
c22
u
Blade to gas speed ratio
c2
4 sin 2 2
196
Optimum Blade to Gas Speed Ratio
(opt)
d
For maximum , 0
d
d
d
4 sin 2 2 0
sin 2 2 0
u sin 2
opt
c2 2
On substitution in the equation for ,
Also, for the obtained optimum condition,
max sin 2
2
it can be shown that c y3 0.
Also, we can get
Also, w opt 2u 2
1
tan 2 tan 3
tan 2
2
For maximum blade utilization factor, the
rotor blade angles are fixed by the nozzle exit angle 197
Compounding of Turbines
• Necessary when there is high pressure drop
available
• To avoid high peripheral rotor speed which
could cause high rotational stresses
• Done in two ways-Velocity Compounding and
Pressure Compounding
198
Velocity Compounding (Curtis Stages)
Nozzle Rotor-1 Fixed blade Rotor-2
Velocity
Pressure
199
Velocity Triangles-Velocity Compounding
200
Work Done
Number of stages n
Assumptions :1. Equiangula r flow through rotor and guide blades
2 3 ; 3 2' ; 2' 3'
2. Frictionless flow over the blades
w2 w3; c3 c'2 ; w2' w3'
Work done in i th stage, w i 22n i 1u 2
Total work in n stages, w t 2n 2u 2
2
wt 2 u
Blade Utilization Factor, max 4n 4n 2 2
1 2 c2
c2
2
1
For n stages, opt sin 2
2n
max sin 2 2 201
Problems with Velocity Compounding
• Nozzle blade rows are difficult to design and
expensive
• High velocity at the nozzle exit leads to higher
cascade losses
• Shock waves are generated if the flow is
supersonic
202
Pressure Compounding (Rateau Stages)
Nozzle-1 Rotor-1 Nozzle-2 Rotor-2
Velocity
Pressure
203
Velocity Triangles-Pressure Compounding
204
Reaction Stages
Fixed-1 Rotor-1 Fixed-2 Rotor-2
Velocity
Pressure
205
Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram
• Process 1-2: Nozzle
• Process 2-3: Turbine
• h01=h02
• ws=h02s-h03s=Cp(T02s-T03s)
• wa=h02-h03=Cp(T02-T03)
206
Degree of Reaction
Isentropic enthalpy change in rotor h2 s h3s P2 P3
Rs
Isentropic enthalpy change in stage h1 h3s P1 P3
Actual enthalpy change in rotor h2 h3 w32 w22
R
Actual enthalpy change in stage h1 h3 2u c y 2 c y 3
R
cx
tan 3 tan 2 tan 3 tan 2
2u 2
x tan 3 tan 2
1 c
2 2u
1 tan 3 tan 2
cx
2u
207
Zero Degree Reaction Stages
• No useful pressure/enthalpy drop in the rotor
• This is the case for an impulse turbine
208
50% Reaction Stages
• R=0.5
• h1-h2=h2-h3=0.5(h1-h3)
• The inlet and outlet velocity triangles at the
rotor will be symmetric
2 3
2 3
w3 c2
w2 c3
209
100% Reaction Stages
• Entire enthalpy drop in the rotor
• R=1
• h1=h2
• c2=c3
• α2=α3
• Rotor blades are highly staggered
210
Negative Reaction
• Undesirable, implies that there is diffusion in
the rotor
• h3>h2
• w3<w2
• β2>β3
211
Problem-1
One stage of an impulse turbine consists of a ring of
converging nozzles and one ring of moving blades. The
nozzles are inclined at 220 to the direction of blade
movement, whose tip angles are both 350. (i) If steam
velocity from exit of nozzle is 660 m/s, find blade
speed which ensures steam inlet without shock. (ii)
Find the blade efficiency. (iii) If the relative velocity of
steam with respect to blade at the outlet is reduced by
15%, find the blade efficiency. (iv) If power developed
is 1700 kW, what is the steam flow rate? All angles are
measured with respect to blade speed.
212
Problem-2
A velocity compounded turbine has two rows of
symmetrical moving and guide vanes. There is
no friction. The nozzle issues steam at a velocity
of 750 m/s, at an angle of 150 to the whirl
direction. The blade speed is 150 m/s. Find the
specific work transfer and velocity of steam
leaving the turbine.
213
Problem 3
The data pertaining to an impulse turbine is as
follows:
Steam velocity=500 m/s, blade speed=200 m/s. Exit
angle of moving blade=250 measured from
tangential direction, nozzle angle=200. Neglecting
the effect of friction when passing through blade
passages, calculate: (a) Inlet angle of moving blade
(b) exit velocity and direction (c) work done per kg
of steam (d) axial thrust and power developed for a
steam flow rate of 5 kg/s and (e) blade efficiency.
214
Problem 4
The high pressure stage of an axial turbine has
the following data: Degree of reaction=50%. Exit
air angle of the fixed blade ring=700 (with the
axial direction), Mean diameter of the
stage=1m, Rotational speed=3000 rpm, Power
developed=5 MW. Determine the blade to gas
speed ratio, utilization factor, flow coefficient,
inlet and exit air angles for the rotor, and the
mass flow rate of the gas. Assume maximum
utilization factor.
215
References for Modules 5 & 6
• Turbines, Compressors and Fans, S.M. Yahya,
Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Ltd., 4th
Edition, 2011
• Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of
Turbomachinery, S.L. Dixon and C.A. Hall,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 6th Edition, 2010
216
MODULE-7
Hydraulic Machines
Types of Pumps
• Rotodynamic Pumps: Impart momentum to
the fluid by a rotating impeller
• Reciprocating Positive Displacement Pumps:
They trap the liquid in a cylinder by suction
and push it against pressure
• Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps:
Principle same as reciprocating pump but
carried out by rotating elements
218
Features of Various Pumps
• Reciprocating pumps have low speeds, handle
low volumes and have high delivery pressures
• Rotary positive displacement pumps have low
speeds, handle low volumes and have low
delivery pressures. Used where reciprocating
motion needs to be avoided
• Rotodynamic pumps can handle large volumes of
flow and operate at high speeds and have low
delivery pressures. They can handle corrosive
fluids and also slurries. They are most commonly
used
219
Centrifugal Pumps
Volute Casing
Impeller
Vane
220
Major Components of a Centrifugal
Pump
• Impeller: This is the rotating part which raises
liquids from a lower level to a higher level by
imparting the required pressure by the help of
centrifugal action
• Casing: It is an air tight chamber surrounding
the pump impeller. It guides the liquid to and
from the impeller and partially converts the
kinetic energy into pressure energy at the exit
of impeller
221
Major Components of a Centrifugal
Pump…
• Suction Pipe: This pipe connects the eye of
the impeller to the water in the sump. At its
lower end, the pipe is provided with a strainer
to prevent the entry of any debris and a foot
valve
• Delivery Pipe: Connects the outlet of the
pump to the height where the liquid needs to
be discharged
222
Types of Casings
• Volute Casing: The area of the flow gradually
increases from the impeller outlet to the delivery
pipe thereby reducing the velocity of flow and
increasing the discharge pressure
• Vortex Casing: An annular space is provided
between the impeller and the volute chamber. It
is used to arrest the formation of eddies
• Casing with Guide Vanes: The impeller is
surrounded by stationary guide vanes mounted
on a ring called as a diffuser. The diffuser
increases the delivery pressure
223
Types of Casings…
224
Work Done in a Centrifugal Pump
Euler' s Equation :
w u2 cθ 2 -u1cθ1
For maximum work transfer,
the entry is radial.
cθ1 0
w u2 cθ 2
225
Various Heads in a Centrifugal Pump
• Suction Head (hs): It is the vertical height
between the central axis of the pump and the
water surface in the sump
• Delivery Head (hd): The vertical distance
between the centre axis of the pump and
point of discharge
• Static Head (Hs): The sum of suction and
delivery head (Hs=hs+hd)
226
Various Heads in a Centrifugal Pump…
227
Various Heads in a Centrifugal Pump…
• Manometric Head (Hm): It is the head against
which the pump has to work to deliver the
liquid
u2 c 2
Hm loss of head in pump
g
H m hs hd h f hs hd h fs h fd
h f Friction Head
P2 c22 P1 c12
Hm
z2 z1
g 2 g g 2 g
228
Efficiencies in a Centrifugal Pump
mechanical manometric
Shaft Impeller Delivery
overall
229
Efficiencies in a Centrifugal Pump…
• Manometric Efficiency (man): It is the ratio of
the manometric head to the ideal head (head
imparted to water by the impeller)
M anometric Head
man
Head imparted by impeller to water
Hm gH m
u 2 c 2 u 2 c 2
g
230
Efficiencies in a Centrifugal Pump…
• Mechanical Efficiency (m): It is the ratio of
the power available at the impeller to the
power at the shaft of the pump
Power at the impeller
m
Power at the shaft
m u2 cθ 2
Power at the shaft
232
Priming of Centrifugal Pump
• Priming is an operation in which the suction pipe,
pump casing and part of the delivery pipe are
filled with the liquid to be pumped
• This is done to remove air
• Presence of air decreases the suction head
developed by the impeller and the liquid may not
rise
• Head generated = U2Cθ2/g in terms of air column
if impeller runs in air or in terms of water column
if it runs in water
233
Minimum Starting Speed
• A centrifugal pump will start delivering liquid
only if the head developed by the impeller is
greater than the manometric head (Hm)
• If the head is less than Hm, no discharge takes
place even if the impeller is rotating
• When the impeller is rotating, the liquid in
contact with the impeller also rotates causing
a forced vortex, where the head rises
234
Minimum Starting Speed…
2 r22
u 22 u12 2 r12
Increase in head due to impeller rotation
2g 2g 2g 2g
For discharge to take place
u 22 u12
Hm
2g 2g
Substituting
D1 N D2 N gH m
u1 , u2 and man
60 60 u2 c 2
120 man c 2 D2
The minimum starting speed, N
D22 D12
235
Specific Speed (Ns)
• The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is
defined as the speed of a geometrically similar
pump which delivers a discharge of 1 m3 per
second against a head of 1m
• Specific speed is used to compare the
performance of similar pumps having different
sizes
• To choose among different pumps, the one with
highest specific speed is a good choice as it works
at high speed and has compact size
N Q
N s 3/ 4
Hm 236
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps
• A multistage centrifugal pump has two or
more identical impellers mounted on the
same shaft or different shafts
• It is used to produce greater heads with
constant discharge (series) or greater
discharges with a constant head (parallel)
237
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps…
242
Main Characteristic Curves
Speed
243
Operating Characteristic Curves
• They are obtained by plotting variation of
manometric head, power and efficiency with
respect to discharge at a constant speed
244
Observations
• Input power curve does not pass through
origin even for zero discharge as some power
is needed to overcome losses
• The maximum value of head (called shut-off
head) is obtained when discharge is zero
• The efficiency is zero when discharge is zero
• The output is zero when the discharge is zero
245
Constant Efficiency Curves
• They are obtained from the operating
characteristic curves ( vs. Q and h vs. Q)
• They depict the operation of the pump over
its entire range of operation
246
Axial Flow Pumps
• Axial pumps are used where the head to be
developed is low and the flow rate large
• Commonly used to handle sewage from
commercial, municipal and industrial sources
• Used in power plants to pump water from
reservoir to a refrigeration line
• Used in chemical industry to circulate large
masses of liquid in evaporators and crystallizers
• Also used in sewage treatment
247
Schematic of Axial Flow Pump
248
Features of an Axial Flow Pump
• Flow is purely axial and the axial velocity is
constant
• Guide vanes are placed behind the impeller to
guide the flow in axial direction without whirl
• Twisted blades or aerofoil sections are used
for blades
• In some models, the pitch of the blades can be
varied to operate at high efficiency even at
off-design conditions
249
Velocity Triangles
Work Transferred u 2 c 2
Head Developed
u 2 c 2
c22 c12
w12 w22
g 2g 2g
250
Vibration and Noise in pumps
Vibration and noise during pump operation
could be due to:
• Cavitation
• Misalignment of pump shaft
• Worn out bearings
• Improper foundation
251
Problem-1
A centrifugal pump is running at 900 rpm. The
internal and external diameters of the impeller
are 25 cm and 50 cm and the vane angles at
inlet and outlet are 300 and 400 respectively,
measured with respect to the blade tip velocity.
The water enters the impeller axially and
velocity of flow is constant. Find the work done
by the impeller per kg of water.
Ans: 363.8 J/kg
252
Problem-2
The inlet and outlet diameters of the impeller of
a centrifugal pump are 25 cm and 50 cm
respectively. The velocity of flow at outlet is 2.5
m/s and the vanes are set back at an angle of
450 (with respect to the blade velocity) at the
outlet. Find the minimum starting speed of the
pump if the manometric efficiency is 0.8.
253
Problem-3
A single stage centrifugal pump with impeller
diameter of 25 cm rotates at 2000 rpm and lifts
2.5 m3/s to a height of 25 m. The manometric
efficiency is 75%. Find the number of stages of a
similar multistage pump to lift 5 m3/s to a height
of 200 m while rotating at 1500 rpm.
254
Problem-4
A centrifugal pump draws water through a 15 m
long and 150 mm dia suction pipe. The
maximum pumping capacity is 75 l/s. Determine
the static suction. Assume the maximum
vacuum as 5.5 m of water. Take loss in bend as 8
cm of water and coefficient of friction f=0.006.
255
Problem-5
A four stage centrifugal pump in series has
impellers of diameter 30 cm and width 2 cm at
the outlet. The vanes are curved back at the
outlet at 450 (with the blade velocity). The
overall efficiency is 80% and the manometric
efficiency is 90%. What is the head generated by
the pump when the speed is 800 rpm and
discharge is 50 l/s. Find the shaft power. Assume
equal pressure rise distribution in each impeller.
256
Problem-6
A centrifugal pump impeller of 260 mm
diameter runs at 1400 RPM and delivers 0.03
m3/s of water. The impeller has a backward
curved facing blades inclined at 300 to the
tangent at outlet. The blades are 20 mm in
depth at the outlet. Calculate the theoretical
head developed by the impeller.
257
Problem-7
An axial flow pump discharges water at the rate
of 1.3 m3/s and runs at 550 rpm. The total head
is 10 m. Assume mean blade velocity as 22 m/s,
the flow velocity as 4.5 m/s and overall pump
efficiency as 83%. Find (i) the power delivered to
the water, and power input, (ii) the impeller hub
and tip diameter, and (iii) the inlet and outlet
blade angles for the rotor.
258
Problem-8
A three stage centrifugal pump has impellers 40
cm in diameter and 2 cm wide at outlet. The
vanes are curved back at the outlet at 450 (with
the blade tip velocity) and they reduce the
circumferential area by 10%. The manometric
efficiency is 90% and the overall efficiency is
80%. Determine the head generated by the
pump when running at 1000 rpm delivering 50
litres/s. What should be the shaft power?
259
Problem-9
A centrifugal pump rotating at 1000 rpm delivers
160 litres/s of water against a head of 30 m. The
pump is installed at a place where atmospheric
pressure is 1 bar and water is at 25 0C. The head
loss in suction pipe is equivalent to 0.2 m of
water column. If the minimum NPSH is 3 m, find
the maximum allowable height of the pump
above the free surface of water in the sump.
260
Problem-10
The performance data for a centrifugal water
pump are shown in the table below: For each
row of data, calculate the pump efficiency and
estimate the volume flow rate and net head at
the Best Efficiency Point (BEP) of the pump.
Flow Rate, lit/min H, m bhp, W
0 47.5 133
6 46.2 142
12 42.5 153
18 36.2 164
24 26.2 172
30 15 174
36 0 174 261
Hydraulic Turbines
• Turbines which convert the power stored in the water
of a reservoir to shaft power are known as Hydraulic
Turbines
Hydraulic turbine is a part of hydro electric power plant
which comprises of
• A dam constructed across a river
• A conveyance system to carry water to a temporary
storage system called Forebay
• Large diameter high pressure pipes called Penstocks to
convey water from the Forebay to the turbine
• A power house that houses the turbine and a
generator and
• A tail race to collect water exiting the turbine
262
Schematic of a Hydro-Electric
Power Plant
263
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines
Based on location of pressure drop:
• Impulse Turbine: Entire pressure drops outside
the turbine
• Reaction Turbine: Entire Pressure drops in the
turbine
Based on Gross Head available:
• High Head (H>250 m)
• Medium Head (60m<H<250 m)
• Low Head (H<60 m)
264
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines…
Based on the Direction of Flow:
• Axial flow
• Radial Flow
• Tangential Flow
• Mixed Flow
Based on Specific Speed:
• Low Specific Speed (Ns: 8.5-50)
• Medium Specific Speed (Ns: 51-255)
• High Specific Speed (Ns: 255-860)
265
Heads Involved
• Gross Head: The difference in water levels
between the reservoir on the upstream and
the tail race is known as the Gross Head
• Net Head: The head actually available at the
inlet to the turbines is known as the Net Head
• The difference between gross and net heads is
the loss due to friction and other fittings
266
Efficiencies
267
Pelton Wheel
• In a Pelton wheel the water from upstream
reservoir flows through the penstock at the
end of which a nozzle is fitted
• Water in the form of high velocity jet strikes
the buckets on the runner along a tangent to
the circumference of the runner
• The inlet and outlet pressures of the runner
are atmospheric
268
Schematic of a Pelton Wheel
Major Components:
• Nozzle with a spear and needle
•Runner and buckets
•Casing
•Breaking Jet
•Deflector
269
Features of a Pelton Wheel
• The nozzle with spear controls the quantity of
flow striking the blade depending on the load
• The runner consists of a circular disc on the
periphery of which a number of evenly spaced
buckets are placed
• Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical
parts by a dividing wall called the splitter
• The buckets are of double hemispherical or
double ellipsoidal shape
270
Features of a Pelton Wheel…
• The runner and nozzle are enclosed in a steel
casing to prevent splashing of water and to
discharge water into the tail race
• The deflector is used to direct the jet away
from the blades during low loads
• A small breaking jet is used to bring the
turbine to rest after shutting down
271
Bucket
272
Velocity Triangles of a Pelton Wheel
u1=u2=u
cθ1=c1=cf1
273
Work Done and Efficiency
w u1c 1 u2 c 2 u c 1 c 2
u c 1 c 2
Hydraulic Efficiency h
1 2
c1
2
From the velocity triangles, c 1 c1 and w1 c1-u
If friction is absent, w1 w2
w2 c1 u
Also, cθ 2 w2 cos β2 u c1-u cos β2 u
2u c1 c1-u cos β2 u 2u c1-u 1 cos β2
h 2
c1 c12
274
Maximum Hydraulic Efficiency
For a given c1 , efficiency will be maximum when
d
h 0
du
d 2u c1 u 1 cos 2
2 0
du c1
d u c1 u
2 0
du c1
c1
c1 2u 0 u
2
On substitution,
1 cos 2
h
max
2 275
Francis Turbine
• Francis turbine is a reaction turbine where the
pressure drop continuously takes place in the
impeller
276
Schematic of a Francis Turbine
277
Main Components of a Francis Turbine
• Casing: The impeller (runner) is completely
surrounded by a casing made of concrete or steel.
The water from the penstock enters the casing
which is of spiral shape and whose area of cross
section keeps decreasing gradually
• Guide Vanes (Wicket Gates): The guide vanes are
fixed on a stationary circular wheel around the
runner. They direct the water to strike the runner
vanes without shock at inlet. They also regulate
the flow rate
278
Flow Control by Guide Vanes
279
Main Components of a Francis
Turbine…
• Runner: It is a circular wheel on which a series of
curved vanes are mounted. The vanes are so
designed that the water enters and leaves the
runner without shock. They are made of cast or
stainless steel
• Draft Tube: It is used to recover the kinetic
energy of water leaving the runner and to guide
the same water to the tail race. It is a tube having
increasing cross sectional area and it also enables
the location of the turbine above the tail race
280
Velocity Triangles of a Francis Turbine
281
Kaplan Turbine
• Kaplan turbine is a reaction turbine where the
flow direction is predominantly axial
• It is suitable for low available heads (4-80 m)
but high flow rates
• A Kaplan turbine in which the rotor blades are
fixed and not adjustable is called a Propeller
Turbine
282
Schematic of a Kaplan Turbine
283
Construction of a Kaplan Turbine
• The shaft is vertical and the lower end of the
shaft is made larger which is known as the hub
or boss
• The vanes are mounted on the hub which acts
as a runner
• The number of blades are few (3-10) and
hence the frictional losses are low
• The runner is enclosed in a cylindrical casing
which joins the draft tube
284
Working of a Kaplan Turbine
• The water from the supplies enters the spiral
casing
• The guide vanes direct the water into a chamber
above the runner at a proper direction and
quantity
• The blade angles too are changed depending on
the load
• The controls are executed by speed governors
• The water exiting the runner enters the tail race
through the draft tube
285
Velocity Triangles
286
Specific Speed (Ns)
• Specific Speed is defined as the speed of a
geometrically similar turbine while working
under a unit head develops unit power or has
unit discharge
N Q N P
N s 3/ 4 5/ 4
H H
• For the same power, the specific speed
increases for lower heads
287
Specific Speed for Different Turbines
288
Draft Tube Theory
• The water leaving the reaction turbine has
considerable amount of kinetic energy
• This energy is recovered by employing a draft
tube
• A draft tube is a pipe with a gradually increasing
area connecting the turbine to the tail race
• It also enables the setting of the turbine above
the tail race so that the turbine can be emptied
completely for inspection purposes
289
Types of Draft Tubes
290
Head Recovered and Efficiency of a
Draft Tube
c c 2 2
Hg Hs hf
1 2
2g
c12 c22
hf
2g
c12
2g
Hg=Head recovered
Hs=Height of draft tube inlet above the tail race
hf=Head lost due to friction in the draft tube
c1=Velocity at draft tube inlet
c2=Velocity at exit of draft tube
291
Problem-1
A conical draft tube has a diameter of 2.5 m at
the inlet and the pressure is 7m of water
(vacuum). The discharge is 20 m3/s and the
velocity at the outlet is 1.1 m/s. The frictional
losses in the tube are 0.15 m. The total length of
the tube is 8m. (a) Find the depth of immersion
of the tube in the tail race and (b) Find the
efficiency of the draft tube.
Take Patm= 10.3 m of water column.
292
Problem-2
A Francis turbine develops 365 kW at an overall
efficiency of 80% when working under a net
head of 5 m. The draft tube is cylindrical and has
a diameter of 2.5 m. What increase in power of
the turbine would you expect if a tapered draft
tube having an outlet diameter of 4 m is
substituted for the cylindrical one. It may be
presumed that head, inlet velocity and discharge
remain constant in both cases. Also assume no
loss due to friction.
293
Problem-3
A Kaplan turbine operating under a head of 7.5
m develops 1835 kW with an overall efficiency
of 87%. The turbine is set 2.5 m above the tail
water level and vacuum gauge inserted at
turbine outlet records a suction head of 3.15 m.
Calculate the efficiency of the draft tube if it has
an inlet dia of 3 m and the loss of head due to
friction in the draft tube equals 25% of the
kinetic head at outlet.
294
Governing of Hydraulic Turbines
Features of Governing:
• To maintain a constant speed of the turbine
irrespective of the load
• To cut off water supply when the electric circuits
trip
• The governor must be sensitive to small changes
and should act fast
• It must not cut off water supply abruptly in order
to avoid pen stock damage
• Governing is mostly done by controlling the
amount of water flow
295
Governing System for Pelton Wheel
296
Deflector and Nozzle Opening Control
297
Governing System for a Reaction
Turbine
298
Performance of Pelton Wheel
300
Comparative Performance
301
Selection of Turbines
Factors affecting the choice of turbines are:
• Head available
• Variation in head
• Fluctuations in load and
• Speed
302
Problem-4
A Pelton wheel works under a gross head of 300
m and the frictional losses in the penstock
upstream of the turbine are 100 m. The rate of
flow of water through the nozzle at the end of
the penstock is 2 m3/s. The angle of deflection
of the jet is 1600. Find the power delivered by
the water to the runner and the hydraulic
efficiency. Given the blade speed to jet velocity
ratio is 0.45.
303
Problem-5
A Francis turbine works at 450 rpm under a
head of 120 m. The diameter at inlet is 120 cm
and the flow area is 0.4 m2. The angles made by
absolute and relative velocities at inlet are 200
and 600 respectively with the tangential velocity.
Find (a) the volume flow rate, (b) the power
developed and (c) the hydraulic efficiency.
Assume whirl at outlet is zero.
304
Problem-6
A reaction turbine works under a head of 200 m
while running at a speed of 250 rpm. The flow
rate through the turbine is 4.5 m3/s. The internal
and external diameters of the runner are 2 m
and 2.75 m respectively. The width of the runner
at inlet is 200 mm and is the same at outlet.
Taking discharge radial at outlet and neglecting
thickness of vanes, find (a) velocity of flow at
inlet and outlet and (b) vane angles at inlet and
outlet.
305
Problem-7
Determine the number of turbines required for
a hydro power station where a total flow of 150
m3/s is available under a head of 35 m. The
speed and overall efficiency of each machine
should be 175 rpm and 90% respectively. The
specific speed of each machine should not
exceed 250 rpm.
306
References for Module-7
• Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, B.C.S. Rao,
Mc. Graw Hill, 2nd Edition
• Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering,
D.S. Kumar, S.K. Kataria and Sons, 7th Edition
307
Topics for PBL
• Make animations of turbomachines
• Make simulations using CFD
• Open an existing pump, explain the parts with
pictures and reassemble
• Produce a software to make simulations
• Fabricate simple working models of
fans/turbines/wind mills
• Produce a software to calculate and simulate and
to plot graphs
• Carry out extensive experiments in the lab
308