Sarah Crissman

Carbohydrates

● What are carbohydrates made of?

○ Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
● Where can carbohydrates be found?
○ Abundant in grains and other plants
○ Found in milk and dairy products
● What is the difference between whole grains, refined grains, and enriched
grains?
○ Whole grains contains all three parts, the bran, the germ, and the
endosperm.
○ Refined grains take out the bran and the germ.
○ Enriched grains are refined grains with vitamins added back in, folic acid,
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron
● What are the three components of Whole grains?
○ Bran, endosperm, germ
● What are the cons of consuming bread?
○ Could be hard to digest without proper soaking, sprouting or traditional
processes
○ Could contain gums and preservatives that irritate the GI,
○ May increase risk of inflammation, gluten intolerance or allergy,
○ Bread is typically high in sodium
● What are the two main functions of carbohydrates in food and the four
functions in the body?
○ Functions in food: Source of fiber and add sweetness and flavor
○ Functions in the body: source of energy for all of the cells in the body,
source of energy for the brain, regulate intestinal health, reduce the use of
protein of energy
● Classifications of Dietary Carbohydrates and their Chemical Composition:
○ Monosaccharides: sugars that are made up of one sugar unit
■ Glucose, fructose, galactose
○ Disaccharides: sugars made of two sugar units
■ Sucrose, lactose, maltose, raffinose
○ Oligosaccharides: units are absorbed by cells of the intestine and
dumped into the blood for all body cells to pick up and use for energy
■ Sucrose, lactose, maltose, raffinose
○ Polysaccharides: (more than 10 sugar units) chains (or polymers) of
more than one monosaccharide
 ■ Starch, glycogen, cellulose, fibers
● What is glycogen? When is glycogen used?
○ Storage form of carbohydrates in animals, consists of many glucose
molecules (liver and muscle)
○ Glycogen is used for energy for exercise (intense weightlifting)
● Non Nutritive sweeteners: Sweetness level and their chemical name…
○ Equal- aspartame, sweetness level 200 times sweeter than sugar.
○ Splenda- sucralose, sweetness level 600 times sweeter than sugar
○ Sweet n' low- saccharin, sweetness level 300-400 times sweeter than
sugar
● Sugar alcohols:
○ Mannitol: Laxative effects when recommended intake is exceeded
○ Erythritol: Best sweetener from sugar alcohols with minimum negative
effects, lowest in calories and net carbs has no effect on blood sugar
● How are cavities caused? Which carbohydrate is responsible?
○ Cavities are caused by the progression of tooth enamel and ultimately the
tooth itself, through the action of bacteria on carbohydrates in the mouth
○ Sucrose is the main carbohydrate responsible
● Dietary Fiber
○ Soluble- type of fiber that dissolves in water and often forms of viscous
gel that acts to slow digestion and lower blood cholesterol and the risk of
heart disease, they are also often readily fermented by bacteria in the
colon
○ Insoluble- a type of fiber that does not dissolve in water, increases transit
time through the GI tract, and contributes "bulk" to stool, fostering regular
bowel movements
○ Resistant Starch- starch that remains intact after cooking, in not broken
down by human digestive enzymes, and is not absorbed from the
intestines. Can be turned into short chain fatty acids by intestinal bacteria.
○ Functional Fiber- non digestible carbohydrates is isolated from plants
and animals and added to foods, which have a beneficial effect on health,
such as a psyllium and pectin
● Carbohydrate Digestion: which enzyme is active in each site / what is being
broken down
○ Mouth- salivary amylase breaks them down into shorter polysaccharides
chains
○ Stomach- salivary amylase is inactivated by gastric acid and starch
digestion stops
 ○ Small intestine- pancreatic amylase continues, starch digestion, breaking
it down to maltose and oligosaccharides
○ Microvilli- the enzymes that break down sucrose, maltose and lactose in
the microvilli
● What are you left with to be transported out of the cells and into the blood?
■ The resulting monosaccharide are absorbed by the small intestine and are
then transported out of the cells into the blood.
● According to the Dietary Guidelines, what percentage of you total grain
intake be whole grains?
○ 50%
● What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
○ Type 1- an autoimmune disease characterized by elevated blood glucose
levels, caused by destruction of the cells in the pancreas that normally
produce insulin
○ Type 2- condition characterized by elevated blood sugar levels due to
insulin sensitivity or resistance and some impairment of insulin secretion
from the pancreas
● What is insulin and where is it produced?
○ Hormone that is produced in the pancreas that removes glucose from the
bloodstream for use by the cells. Produced in pancreas
● Insulin signals which cells to take up glucose?
○ Skeletal muscle and adipose tissue
● Insulin promotes the storage of excess glucose as what?
○ Glycogen
● When is glucose converted into fat?
○ Glucose converted into fat if there is too much glycogen in the body.
Converted in the liver and stored as adipose tissue
● What is glucagon and where is it produced?
○ A hormone that is produced in the pancreas that increases glucose
availability in the blood in response to blood glucose
● While insulin is responsible for signaling cells to take up glucose,
glucagon is responsible for signaling the liver to do what two things?
○ Signals the liver to release glucose by breaking down glycogen as well as
making new glucose molecules
● Can the brain use fatty acids for fuel?
○ The brain cannot use fatty acids for fuel, so it converts fatty acids to
ketone bodies
● How are ketones formed and when are they used for energy?
○ Compounds synthesized from fatty acids to ketone bodies
● What is the difference between ketosis and ketoacidosis?
○ Ketosis- low level of ketones in the blood, normal process of the body,
safe function of a low-carb ketogenic diet.
○ Ketoacidosis- extremely high level of ketones in blood, can turn the blood
acidic, deadly if untreated, occurs in diabetics who don't take enough
insulin or aren't well, people who are starving or alcoholics
● Hyperglycemia vs Hypoglycemia?
○ Hyperglycemia- higher than normal blood glucose levels (fasting plasma)
glucose > 100mg/dl
○ Hypoglycemia- abnormally low blood glucose levels, resulting in
symptoms of anxiety, hunger, sweating, and heart palpitations. (fasting
plasma glucose < 70 mg/dl
● Treatment for Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes?
○ Treatment 1- administering insulin. (injection, pump)
○ Treatment 2- change your diet, eat well, exercise, control sleep, manage
stress insulin (exogenous)
● Hemoglobin A1C and Fasting Plasma Glucose Test levels for normal,
prediabetic and diabetic?
○ Normal Hemoglobin A1C and fasting plasma glucose levels- 1C-
about 5%; fasting plasma glucose- 99 or below (mg/dL)
○ Prediabetic Hemoglobin A1C and fasting plasma glucose levels-
A1C- 5.7 to 6.4%; plasma fasting- 100-125 mg/dL)
● Glycemic Index vs Glycemic Load. Just know the difference, why it may not
be reliable and what factors influence this number.
○ Glycemic index- how drastically raises glucose levels
○ Glycemic load- extent of increase in blood glucose levels
● What is the main result of Epinephrine release?
○ Adrenaline, a hormone released from adrenal glands to help the body to
prepare for fight-or-flight response by increasing glucose availability in the
blood.
○ Increases blood glucose levels
● Four Stages Of Glucose Metabolism:
○ Brain’s source of fuel
■ Absorptive- Glucose
■ Postabsorptive- Glucose
■ Fasting- Glucose + Ketone Bodies
■ Starvation- Ketone bodies
● Activity of glucose, insulin, glycogen, glucagon
 ○ Blood glucose is high signaling the pancreas to release insulin to help the
glucose get Into the cell. Insulin also promotes the storage of excess
glucose as glycogen

LIPIDS

● What is Dietary Fat?

○ A compound in plant and animal foods that serves as an important energy
source and among other functions is necessary for absorption and
transport of fat soluble vitamins
● Fat soluble vitamins
○ A, D, E, K
● What are Lipids?
○ Structurally diverse group of naturally occurring molecules that are
generally insoluble in water, but are solvents, examples include fatty
acids, triglycerides, sterols, and phospholipids
● 3 Main Parts Of A Fatty Acid
○ fatty acid
○ carboxyl group
○ methyl group
● Saturated vs Unsaturated Fats
○ Saturated- a fatty acid that contains no double bonds
○ Unsaturated Fats- a fatty acid that has one or more double bonds
● Unsaturated Fats:
○ Monounsaturated- a fatty acid with only one double bond
○ Polyunsaturated- a fatty acid with two or more double bonds
● Triglycerides:
○ Glycerol- a three carbon compound that makes up the backbone of a
triglyceride molecule
○ Fatty Acid- a chain of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms
● Triglycerides vs Cholesterol
○ Cholesterol is used by the body to produce hormones and cell
components such as the membranes of cells
○ Triglycerides is used primarily used as a storage form of energy
● Sterols
○ Precursor for steroid hormones
○ Cell membrane production
● Types of Sterols
○ Cholesterol a sterol that is produced by the body and required for steroid
production and cell membrane
● Two main sources of cholesterol
○ Phospholipid molecule that is both hydrophobic (water fearing) and
hydrophilic (water loving) and is required to form cell membranes: lecithin,
which can be found in egg yolks, liver, and some plant products, is a
phospholipid
● Phospholipid
○ Lecithin- the most abundant phospholipid in the body: frequently added to
food products like salad dressings as an emulsifier
● What is emulsification? Which lipids play a role in emulsification?
○ A process that allows lipids-fats- to mix with water. Micelles are lipid
molecules that play a role in emulsification
● Which enzyme is responsible for breaking down triglycerides? How does it
do this?
○ Lipase removes fatty acids from glycerol backbone
● What is a chylomicron?
○ Very large lipoprotein that transports triglycerides and other dietary lipids
away from the small intestine, then into the bloodstream and then in the
blood for circulation
● Three Types Of Lipoproteins
○ Very Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) a lipoprotein responsible for
transporting primarily triglycerides to adipose tissue, cardiac muscle, and
skeletal muscles
○ Low density Lipoprotein (LDL)- a lipoprotein responsible for transporting
primarily cholesterol from the liver through the bloodstream to the tissues
○ High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL)- a lipoprotein responsible for
transporting cholesterol from the bloodstream and tissues back to the liver
● What Are Chylomicrons Responsible For?
○ Transporting fats that we have absorbed and deliver to body tissues
● How Do The Fats From The Diet Arrive In The Small Intestine?
○ Fats arrive as lipid droplets, which are digested and emulsified into
micelles, which are absorbed into the intestinal cells as monoglycerides,
fat, cholesterol, and apoproteins
● How Is The Chylomicron Formed?!
○ Chylomicrons are formed in the absorptive cells of the small intestine after
fat absorption and travel through the lymphatic system to the bloodstream
● Chylomicrons Deliver Fatty Acids & Cholesterol To Muscle & Fat Tissues
To Be Used For Energy, The Remaining Is Transported Where?
○ Liver
● What Are The Two Types Of Lipoproteins that Liver Forms?
○ empty HDL and VLDL
● What Are The Two Main Fates Of Fatty Acids From VLDL?
○ Energy or storage
● Lipase Changes VLDL Into?
○ Intermediate Density Lipoprotein (IDL) or fatty acids
● LDL Has More _____ Than Any Other Lipoprotein?
○ Cholesterol
● Why Do Tissues Need Cholesterol? (2 reasons)
○ Hormones and maintaining cell membrane
● What Happens After LDL Gives tissues cholesterol?
○ LDL returns back to the liver by binding onto receptors, and recycling to
make more lipoproteins or excreting in bile
● How are these two MCTs digested differently, C8 (Caprylic acid) and C12
(Lauric acid)?
○ C8- acts as a ketogenic oil meaning it bypasses the digestive tract and
goes straight to the liver, where it is converted into fat burning ketones.
Ketone energy production
○ C12- behaves more like a typical fatty acid- it first goes through your
stomach, where the small intestine breaks it down, your blood then
absorbs it before your body turns it into energy
● The Omega 3 Pathway:
○ ALA - EPA- DHA
■ ALA- found 18 carbon omega- 3 fatty acid that can be produced in
the body or by the diet. Sources- chia seed, flaxseed, flax oil. (short
chain)
■ EPA- a 20- carbon omega- 3 fatty acid that can be produced in the
body by the metabolism of alpha- linolenic acid or provided in the
diet. Sources- fatty fishes such as salmon, marine plankton, fish oil
supplement (long chain)
■ DHA- 2 carbon omega- 3 fatty acid that can be produced in the
body from alpha-linoleic or absorbed by the diet. Sources- fatty fish,
eggs, fortified foods (long chain)
● Linoleic Acid VS Linolenic acid, what’s the difference?
○ Linoleic- double bond at 6th carbon molecule
○ Linolenic- double bond at the 3rd carbon molecule
● Hydrogenation
 ○ Chemical process by which hydrogen molecules are added to unsaturated
fatty acids
● Trans Fatty Acids
○ fatty acids creating by adding hydrogen to liquid vegetable oils (partial
hydrogenation) to make them more solid
● How do trans fats negatively affect health?
○ Trans fats raise your bad (LDL) cholesterol levels and lower your good
(HDL) cholesterol levels
○ increases your risk of developing heart disease and stroke
○ higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
● What Type of Disease is Cardiovascular?
○ Group of conditions that impair the heart and blood vessels (veins and
arteries as well
● How do the LDL’s harm the blood vessel?
○ Elevated levels of cholesterol-rich low density Lipoproteins (Ldls) in the
blood
● What is plaque, and how does it develop?
○ Waxy accumulation of cholesterol and triglycerides within the arterial wall.
○ Can develop due to smoking
● How does a heart attack occur?
○ Blocked blood flow in the coronary
● How does a stroke occur?
○ Clot impairs that supply of blood to the brain
● 5 risk factors associated with metabolic syndrome
○ Low HDL cholesterol
○ Visceral obesity
○ Insulin resistance
○ Hypertension
○ High triglycerides