Enhancing Power Quality With Improved Dynamic Voltage Register Based Three Phase Four Wire System

Enhancing Power Quality With Improved Dynamic Voltage Register Based Three Phase Four Wire System
1.0INTRODUCTION:
There is a widespread use of microelectronics, computers and high speed

communications for control and protection of present transmission system. However,
when operating signals are sent to the power circuits, where the final power control action
is taken, the switching devices are mechanical and there is little high-speed control.
Another problem with mechanical devices is that control cannot be initiated frequently,
because these mechanical devices tend to wear out very quickly compared to static
devices. In effect, from the point of view of both dynamic and steady-state operation, the
system is really uncontrolled. “Power Quality” as the concept of powering and Grounding
Sensitive Electronic equipment in a manner that is suitable to operation of that equipment.
Power system planners, operators, and engineers have learned to live with this limitation
by using a variety of ingenious techniques to make the system work effectively, but at a
price of providing greater operating margins and redundancies. These represent an asset
that can be effectively utilized with prudent use of FACTS technology on a selective, as
needed basis.
The FACTS have ability of controllers to control the interrelated parameters

that govern the operation of transmissions systems including series impedance, shunt
impedance, current, voltage, phase angle, and the damping of oscillations at various
frequencies below the rated frequency. These constraints cannot be overcome, while
maintaining the required system reliability, by mechanical means without lowering the
useable transmission capacity. FACTS Controllers can enable a line to carry power closer
to its thermal rating. Mechanical switching needs to be supplemented by rapid response
power electronics. It must be emphasized that FACTS is an enabling technology , and not
a one-on-one substitute for mechanical switches.
The FACTS technology is not a single high – power controller, but rather a
collection of controllers, which can be applied individually or in coordination with others
to control one or more of the interrelated system parameters mentioned. A well - chosen
FACTS Controllers represent applications of the same basic technology, their production
can eventually take advantages of technologies of scale. Just as the basic elements for a
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whole variety of microelectronics chips and circuits, the thyristor or high-power transistor
is the basic element for a variety of high power electronic controllers.
The power flow over a transmission line depends mainly on three important
parameters, namely voltage magnitude of the buses (V), impedance of the transmission
line ( Z ) and phase angle between buses (θ). The FACTS devices control one or more of
the parameters to improve system performance by using placement and coordination of
multiple FACTS controllers in large-scale emerging power system networks to also show
that the achieve significant improvements in operating parameters of the power systems
such as small signal stability, transient stability, damping of power system oscillations,
security of the power system, less active power loss, voltage profile, congestion
management, quality of the power system, efficiency of power system operations, power
transfer capability through the lines, dynamic performances of power systems, and the
load ability of the power system network also increased. As FACTS devices are
fabricated using solid state controllers, their response is fast and accurate. Thus these
devices can be utilized to improve the voltage profile of the system by using coordinated
control of FACTS controllers in multi machine power systems in this work.
1.1 Generation of FACTS Controllers:

The following generation of FACTS controllers for the development of FACTS
controllers:
a. First Generation of FACTS Controllers:

The following FACTS controllers such as Static Var Compensator (SVC),
Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), and Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting
Transformer (TCPST) are developed in the first generation of FACTS controllers.
b. Second Generation of FACTS Controllers:

The following FACTS controllers such as Static Synchronous Compensator
(STATCOM), Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), Unified Power Flow
Controller (UPFC), and Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) are developed in the
second generation of FACTS controllers.
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1.2 Concepts of FACTS Technology:
 Flexible AC Transmission System:
Alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronics based

and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability.
 FACTS Controller: Power electronics based system and other static equipment
that provides control of one or more AC transmission system parameters.
In general, FACTS controllers can be divided in following categories
 Series controllers such as Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Thyristor

Controlled Phase Angle Regulators (TCPAR or TCPST), and Static Synchronous
Series Compensator (SSSC)
 Shunt controllers such as Static Var Compensator (SVC), and Static Synchronous
Compensator (STATCOM)
 Combined series-series controllers such as Interline Power Flow Controller(IPFC)
 Combined series-shunt controllers such as Unified Power Flow Controller(UPFC)
we shall concentrate only on the TCSC, SVC, STATCOM, and UPFC devices.
A brief review of series, shunt, series-series, and series-shunt devices such as TCSC,
TCPAR or TCPST, SSSC, SVC, STATCOM, IPFC, and UPFC, GUPFC, HPFC are
presented in below.
Presently, the power quality is a big issue at the load end in the distribution system.
As the majority of loads in the power distribution system are linear/ nonlinear and
balanced/ unbalanced or combination in nature such as adjustable speed drives in fans and
pumps, variable frequency drives and power converters with poor power factor used in
industries as well as in home appliances. These loads increase the burden on the system
by drawing reactive power and injecting harmonics which influence the performance of
other loads connected to the same utility end.
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Moreover, unbalanced loads cause unbalanced voltages at the utility end. The
DVR (Dynamic Voltage Restorer) is used to mitigate such power quality problems at the
point of common coupling (PCC) [1- 10]. A three phase four wire DVR is used to
compensate the neutral current along with voltage regulation or power factor correction
with harmonics elimination and load balancing. The zigzag transformer is used to
compensate the load neutral current by providing a path for zero sequence current.
Moreover, the application of a zigzag transformer with the active compensation
techniques has less complexity. The performance of the conventional control scheme is
evaluated through various simulation studies The study results indicate that the proposed
control strategy: 1) limits the fault current to less than the nominal load current and
restores the PCC voltage within less than 10 ms, and interrupts the fault current within
two cycles; 2) it can be used in four-and three-wired distribution systems, and single-
phase configurations; 3) does not require phase-locked loops; 4) is not sensitive to noise,
harmonics, and disturbances and provides effective fault current interruption even under
arcing fault conditions; and 5) can interrupt the downstream fault current under low dc-
link voltage conditions. In this paper, modified ISCT (Instantaneous Symmetrical
Components Theory) based control algorithm is used to control the DVR in voltage
regulation without a major change in the program and hardware of controller. As the
supply currents are slow varying currents, the modified control algorithm is implemented
with indirect current control scheme to control the current of the DVR. A 3‐leg VSC with
a zigzag transformer as DVR is implemented with modified ISCT using DSPACE D.S.P.
The dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is a custom power device utilized to
counteract voltage sags [1], [2]. It injects controlled three-phase ac voltages in series with
the supply voltage, subsequent to a voltage sag, to enhance voltage quality by adjusting
the voltage magnitude, wave shape, and phase angle [3]–[6]. Figure shows the main
components of a DVR (i.e., a series transformer, a voltage- source converter (VSC), a
harmonic filter, a dc-side capacitor, and an energy storage device [7], [8]). The line-side
harmonic filter [5] consists of the leakage inductance of the series transformer and the
filter capacitor.
The DVR is conventionally bypassed during a downstream fault to prevent

potential adverse impacts on the fault and to protect the DVR components against the
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fault current. A technically elaborate approach to more efficient utilization of the DVR is
to equip it with additional controls and enable it also to limit or interrupt the downstream
fault currents. A control approach to enable a DVR to serve as a fault current limiter is
provided. The main drawback of this approach is that the dc-link voltage of the DVR
increases due to real power absorption during fault current-limiting operation and
necessitates a switch to bypass the DVR when the protective relays, depending on the
fault conditions, do not rapidly clear the fault. The dc-link voltage increase can be
mitigated at the cost of a slow-decaying dc fault current component using the methods.
To overcome the aforementioned limitations, this paper proposes an augmented control
strategy for the DVR that provides voltage-sag compensation under balanced and
unbalanced conditions a fault current interruption (FCI) function. It should be noted that
limiting the fault current by the DVR disables the main and the backup protection (e.g.,
the distance and the over current relays). This can result in prolonging the fault duration.
Thus, the DVR is preferred to reduce the fault current to zero and interrupt it and send a
trip signal to the upstream relay or the circuit breaker (CB). It should be noted that the
FCI function requires 100% voltage injection capability. Thus, the power ratings of the
series transformer and the VSC would be about three times those of a conventional DVR
with about 30%–40% voltage injection capability. This leads to a more expensive DVR
system. Economic feasibility of such a DVR system depends on the importance of the
sensitive load protected by the by the DVR and the cost of the DVR itself. The
performance of the proposed control scheme is evaluated through various simulation
studies in the Mat lab / simulation platform. The study results indicate that the proposed
control strategy: 1) limits the fault current to less than the nominal load current and
restores the PCC voltage within less than 10 ms, and interrupts the fault current within
two cycles; 2) it can be used in four- and three-wired distribution systems, and single-
phase configurations; 3) does not require phase-locked loops; 4) is not sensitive to noise,
harmonics, and disturbances and provides effective fault current interruption even under
arcing fault conditions; and 5) can interrupt the downstream fault current under low dc-
link voltage conditions.
Modern electric power utilities are facing many challenges due to ever
increasing complexity in their operation and structure. In recent years, one problem has
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that received wide attention is voltage instability. The lack of new generation and
transmission facilities and overexploitation of existing facilities together with the increase
in load demand make these problems more likely in modern power systems. Voltage
stability is the ability of a power system to maintain adequate voltage magnitude so that
when the system nominal load is increased, the actual power transferred to that load will
increase. The main cause of voltage instability is the inability of the power system to meet
the demand for reactive power. Voltage instability is the cause of system voltage collapse,
in which the system voltage decays to a level from which it is unable to recover. Voltage
collapse may lead to partial or full power interruption in the system.
There are two types of voltage stability based on simulation time; static
voltage stability and dynamic voltage stability. Static analysis involves only the solution
of algebraic equations, and therefore is computationally less extensive than dynamic
analysis. Static voltage stability is ideal for the bulk of studies in which a voltage stability
limit for many pre-contingency and post-contingency cases must be determined.
Providing adequate reactive power support at the appropriate location solves voltage
instability problems. There are many reactive compensation devices used by the utilities
for this purpose, each of which has its own characteristics and limitations. However, the
utility would like to achieve this with the most beneficial compensation device. Hence,
this paper compares the advantages and disadvantages of the currently available and most
commonly used shunt-compensation devices.
1.3 Static Voltage Stability:

Static voltage instability is mainly associated with reactive power imbalance.
Thus, the load ability of a bus in a system depends on the reactive power support that the
bus can receive from the system. As the system approaches the maximum loading point
or voltage collapse point, both real and reactive power losses increase rapidly. Therefore,
the reactive power supports have to be locally adequate. With static voltage stability,
slowly developing changes in the power system occur that eventually lead to a shortage of
reactive power and declining voltage. This phenomenon can be seen from a plot of power
transferred versus voltage at the receiving end.
These plots are popularly referred to as P–V curves or ‘Nose’ curves. As
power transfer increases, the voltage at the receiving end decreases. Eventually, a critical
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(nose) point, the point at which the system reactive power is out of usage, is reached
where any further increase in active power transfer will lead to very rapid decrease in
voltage magnitude. Before reaching the critical point, a large voltage drop due to heavy
reactive power losses is observed. The only way to save the system from voltage collapse
is to reduce the reactive power load or add additional reactive power prior to reaching the
point of voltage collapse.
The weakest bus is defined as the bus nearest to experiencing a voltage
collapse. If one were to think of this in terms of the received power versus bus voltage
(P–V) curve, the weakest bus would be the one that is closest to the turning point or
‘Nose’ point of the curve. Equivalently, the weakest bus is one that has a large ratio of
differential change in voltage to differential change in load (dV/dP Total).9 Changes in
voltage at each bus for a given change in system load is available from the tangent vector,
which can be readily obtained from the predictor steps in the continuation power flow
process.
1.4 Shunt Capacitor, SVC And STATCOM:

It is a well-known fact that shunt compensation can be used to provide
reactive power compensation. Traditional shunt capacitors or newly introduced FACTS
controllers can be used for this purpose. FACTS controllers are very expensive; Table 1
gives an idea of the cost of various shunt controllers.12,13 Descriptions of each of these
controllers, along with their terminal characteristics, are given in the next subsections.
Shunt capacitor Shunt capacitors are relatively inexpensive to install and maintain.
Installing shunt capacitors in the load area or at the point that they are needed will
increase the voltage stability. However, shunt capacitors have the problem of poor voltage
regulation and, beyond a certain level of compensation, a stable operating point is
unattainable. Furthermore, the reactive power delivered by the shunt capacitor is
proportional to the square of the terminal voltage; during low voltage conditions Var
support drops, thus compounding the problem. The characteristic of the shunt capacitor
Static Var compensator (SVC)
SVC is a shunt connected static Var generator/load whose output is

adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific
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power system variable. Typically, the power system control variable is the terminal bus
STATCOM is a voltage-source converter based device, which converts a DC input
voltage into an AC output voltage in order to compensate the active and reactive needs of
the system.15 STATCOM has better characteristics than SVC; when the system voltage
drops sufficiently to force the STATCOM output to its ceiling, its maximum reactive
power output will not be affected by the voltage magnitude. Therefore, it exhibits
constant current characteristics when the voltage is low under Static voltage stability
margin enhancement
Series compensation is a means of controlling the power transmitted

across transmission lines by altering or changing the characteristic impedance of the line.
The power flow problem may be related to the length of the transmission line. The
transmission line may be compensated by a fixed capacitor or inductor to meet the
requirements of the transmission system. When the structure of the transmission network
is considered, power flow imbalance problems arise. Inadvertent interchange occurs when
the power system tie line becomes corrupted. This is because of unexpected change in
load on a distribution feeder due to which the demand for power on that feeder increases
or decreases. The generators are to be turned on or off to compensate for this change in
load. If the generators are not activated very quickly, voltage sags or surges can occur. In
such cases, controlled series compensation helps effectively.
1.5 Series Compensator:

Series compensation, if properly controlled, provides voltage stability and
transient stability improvements significantly for post-fault systems. It is also very
effective in damping out power oscillations and mitigation of sub-synchronous resonance.
1.5.1 Voltage Stability:

Series capacitive compensation reduces the series reactive impedance to
minimize the receiving end voltage variation and the possibility of voltage collapse.
shows a simple radial system with feeder line reactance X, series compensating reactance
Xc and load impedance Z. The corresponding normalized terminal voltage Vr versus
power P plots, with unity power factor load and 0, 50, and 75% series capacitive
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compensation, are shown. The “nose point” at each plot for a specific compensation level
represents the corresponding voltage instability. So by cancelling a portion of the line
reactance, a “stiff” voltage source for the load is given by the compensator.
1.6 Types of Series Compensators:

Series compensation is accomplished either using a variable impedance type
series compensators or a switching converter type series compensator.
1.6.1 Variable impedance type series compensators:

The thyristor controlled series compensators are the variable type of
compensators. The type of thyristor used for the variable type series compensators has an
impact on their performance. The types of thyristors used in FACTS devices are Silicon
Controller Rectifier (SCR), Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO), MOS Turn-Off Thyristor
(MTO), Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (GCT or IGCT), MOS Controlled
Thyristor (MCT) and Emitter Turn-Off Thyristor (ETO). Each of these types of thyristors
has several important device parameters that are needed for the design of FACT
devices. These parameters are di/dt capability, dv/dt capability, turn-on time and turn-off
time, Safe Operating Area (SOA), forward drop voltage, switching speed, switching
losses, and gate drive power.
The variable impedance type series compensators are GTO
thyristor controlled series compensator (GCSC), Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor
(TSSC) and Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC).
1.6.2 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC):
A GCSC consists of a fixed capacitor in parallel with a GTO Thyristor as in

which has the ability to be turned on or off. The GCSC controls the voltage across the
capacitor (Vc) for a given line current.
In other words, when the GTO is closed the voltage across the
capacitor is zero and when the GTO is open the voltage across the capacitor is at its
maximum value. The magnitude of the capacitor voltage can be varied continuously by
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the method of delayed angle control For practical applications, the GCSC compensates
either the voltage or reactance.
1.6.3. Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC):

Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) is another type of variable
impedance type series compensators. The TSSC consists of several capacitors shunted by
a reverse connected thyristor bypass switch.
In TSSC, the amount of series compensation is controlled in a steplike
manner by increasing or decreasing the number of series capacitors inserted into the line.
The thyristor turns off when the line current crosses the zero point. As a result, capacitors
can only be inserted or deleted from the string at the zero crossing. Due to this, a dc offset
voltage arises which is equal to the amplitude of the ac capacitor voltage. In order to keep
the initial surge current at a minimum, the thyristor is turned on when the capacitor
voltage is zero.
The TSSC controls the degree of compensating voltage by either inserting
or bypassing series capacitors. There are several limitations to the TSSC. A high degree
of TSSC compensation can cause sub-synchronous resonance in the transmission line just
like a traditional series capacitor. The TSSC is most commonly used for power flow
control and for damping power flow oscillations where the response time required is
moderate. There are two modes of operation for the TSSC-voltage compensating mode
and impedance compensating mode.
1.6.4. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):

The basic Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) scheme. The TCSC
is composed of a series-compensating capacitor in parallel with a thyristor-controlled
reactor. The TCSC provides a continuously variable capacitive or inductive reactance by
means of thyristor firing angle control. The parallel LC circuit determines the steady-state
impedance of the TCSC.
The voltage level of the system changes when there is change in
load and the drop in the load voltage leads to an increased demand for the reactive power
that, if not met by the power system leads to a further decline in the bus voltage. This
decline eventually leads to a progressive rapid decline of voltage at that location, which
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may have a cascading effect on neighboring regions that causes voltage collapse. In this
paper, FACTS controllers such as Static VAR Compensators (SVC) and Thyristor
Controlled Voltage Regulators (TCVR) are used to maintain the voltage with in the
limits. SVC will either supply the reactive power or extract the reactive power and the
TCVR will inject series voltage at the load end so as to avoid voltage collapse. Smooth
variation of reactive power is possible by controlling the firing angle of the thyristors.
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2.0 LITERATURE SURVE:

The application of FACTS and HVDC technologies, in the form of Voltage
Sourced Converter (VSC) based designs, continue to be implemented throughout North
America and other parts of the world for improved transmission system control and
operation. FACTS and HVDC-link technologies allow more efficient utilization of
existing transmission networks and help to better facilitate needed transmission system
expansion. The wide-scale application of these technologies leads to numerous benefits
for electrical transmission system infrastructure, including increased capacity at minimum
cost; enhanced reliability through proven performance; higher levels of security by means
of sophisticated control & protection; and improved system controllability with state-of-
the-art technology concepts. Both conventional and advanced forms of FACTS and
HVDC transmission technologies exist and are in operation today. Advanced solutions
are in the form of VSC based designs, including configurations for Static Synchronous
Compensators (STATCOM), Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC), Static
Synchronous Series Compensators (SSSC), and VSC-based Back-to- Back DC Links
(VSC-BTB), to name a few. This project highlights the advantages provided by the VSC
design concept for FACTS and HVDC-Link system applications.
Voltage Source Converter (VSC) technology has been selected as the
basis for several recent projects due to its controllability, compact modular design, ease of
system interface and low environmental impact the rationale for selection of VSC
technology and the latest technical developments utilized in several recent projects.
HVDC transmission and reactive power compensation with voltage source converter
(VSC) technology has certain attributes which can be beneficial to overall system
performance. HVDC Light™ and SVC Light™ technology developed by ABB employs
voltage source converters (VSC) with series-connected IGBT (insulated gate bipolar
transistor) valves controlled with pulse width modulation (PWM). VSC converters used
for power transmission voltage support combined with an energy storage source permit
continuous and independent control of real and reactive power. Reactive power control is
also independent of that at any other terminal. Reactive power control can be used for
dynamic voltage regulation to support the interconnecting ac system following
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contingencies. This capability can increase the overall transfer levels. Forced
commutation with VSC even permits black start, i.e., the
converter can be used to synthesize a balanced set of three phase voltages much like a
synchronous machine.
2.1 Converters:
The converters are VSCs employing IGBT power semiconductors, one
operating as a rectifier and the other as an inverter. The two converters are connected
either back-to-back or through a dc cable, depending on the application.
2.2 Transformers:
Normally, the converters are connected to the ac system via transformers.
The most important function of the transformers is to transform the voltage of the ac
system to a value suitable to the converter. It can use simple connection (two-winding
instead of three to eight-winding transformers used for other schemes). The leakage
inductance of the transformers is usually in the range 0.1-0.2p.u
2.3 AC Filters:
The ac voltage output contains harmonic components, derived from the
switching of the IGBTs. These harmonics have to be taken care of preventing them from
being emitted into the ac system and causing malfunctioning of ac system equipment or
radio and telecommunication disturbances. High-pass filter branches are installed to take
care of these high order harmonics. With VSC converters there is no need to compensate
any reactive power consumed by the converter itself and the current harmonics on the ac
side are related directly to the PWM frequency. The amount of low-order harmonics in
the current is small. Therefore the amount of filters in this type of converters is reduced
dramatically required dc voltage. The objective for the dc capacitor is primarily to
provide a low inductive path for the turned-off current and energy storage to be able to
control the power flow. The capacitor also reduces the voltage ripple on the dc side
compared with natural commutated converters.
An LC circuit can store electrical energy oscillating at its resonant

frequency. A capacitor stores energy in the electric field (E) between its plates, depending
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on the voltage across it, and an inductor stores energy in its magnetic field (B), depending
on the current through it.
Fig: 2.1 Basic L-C Filter
If a charged capacitor is connected across an inductor, charge will start to flow

through the inductor, building up a magnetic field around it and reducing the voltage on
the capacitor. Eventually all the charge on the capacitor will be gone and the voltage
across it will reach zero. However, the current will continue, because inductors resist
changes in current. The energy to keep it flowing is extracted from the magnetic field,
which will begin to decline. The current will begin to charge the capacitor with a voltage
of opposite polarity to its original charge. When the magnetic field is completely
dissipated the current will stop and the charge will again be stored in the capacitor, with
the opposite polarity as before. Then the cycle will begin again, with the current flowing
in the opposite direction through the inductor.
The charge flows back and forth between the plates of the capacitor, through
the inductor. The energy oscillates back and forth between the capacitor and the inductor
until (if not replenished by power from an external circuit) internal resistance makes the
oscillations die out. In most applications the tuned circuit is part of a larger circuit which
applies alternating current to it, driving continuous oscillations. The tuned circuit's action,
known mathematically as a harmonic oscillator, is similar to a pendulum swinging back
and forth, or water sloshing back and forth in a tank. For this reason the circuit is also
called a tank circuit. The oscillation frequency is determined by the capacitance and
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inductance values. In typical tuned circuits in electronic equipment the oscillations are
very fast, thousands to billions of times per second.
2.4 DC Capacitors:
On the dc side there are two capacitor stacks of the same size. The size of
these capacitors depends on the required dc voltage. The objective for the dc capacitor is
primarily to provide a low inductive path for the turned-off current and energy storage to
be able to control the power flow. The capacitor also reduces the voltage ripple on the dc
side.
The design of dc side capacitor is an important part for the design of an
HVDC system. Due to PWM switching action in VSC-HVDC, the current flowing to the
dc side of a converter contains harmonics, which will result in a ripple on the dc side
voltage. The magnitude of the ripple depends on the dc side capacitor size and on the
switching frequency. The design of the dc capacitor should not only be based on the
steady-state operation. During disturbances in the ac system (faults, switching actions)
large power oscillations may occur between the ac and the dc side. This in turn will lead
to oscillations in the dc voltage and dc over voltages that may stress the valves. It is
important to consider the transient voltage variation constraint when the size of the dc
capacitors is selected. Here, a small dc capacitor Cdc can be used, which should
theoretically result in faster converter response and to provide an energy storage to be
able to control the power flow. The dc capacitor size is characterized as a time constant τ,
defined as the ratio between the stored energy at the rated dc voltage and the nominal
apparent power of the converter Where Udc N denotes the nominal dc voltage and SN
stands for the nominal apparent power of the converter. The time constant is equal to the
time needed to charge the capacitor from zero to rated voltage Udc N if the converter is
supplied with a constant active power equal to SN. The time constant τ can be selected
less than 5ms to satisfy small ripple and small transient over voltage on the dc voltage,
which will be verified in the simulation. This relatively small time constant allows fast
control of active and reactive power. Controller speed of less than 5ms is not practical
because the connection will not react. This holds for the control of active power, not for
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the control of reactive power. Reactive power is generated locally and does not require
the dc link.
Voltage Source Converter is a standard application widely used in industry as a
rectifier, inverter and compensator system. This application is chosen as basic by leading
world electrical companies for its efficiency and simplicity. Although it is regarded as a
well known and established system, there are still some aspects worth analysing.
Concurrently to multilevel converter systems development the high precision control and
modulation systems of VSC are still considered. It is due to its simplicity and high
Efficiency.
Voltage source converters in medium-voltage networks, in which the most

relevant previous work is discussed. A classification of the papers is made based on the
nature of the references even though several of them cover more than one topic. However,
the references at the end of this thesis are sorted in alphabetical order.
2.5 The analytical description and the control of the VSC:

Since the power electronic devices bring the great influence to the network,
an exact mathematical description is appreciated. The analysis of the system is often
provided in time-domain using the iterative procedures. Most of commercial simulation
software use this technique in order to find the results. The piece-wise linear technique
for the STATCOM device is presented in The method uses the system symmetry in order
to find the steady-state solution. The analysis of the network commutated converters is
presented. This analysis is performed in state-space, and the steady sate solution has been
found. Another method for analyzing the periodically switched networks is the analysis in
frequency domain If the switching function is represented with its Fourier series, the
equivalent impedance matrix could be found. If the harmonic interaction of the converter
is not of the interest of the calculation, the averaged model is applied.
Different control and modulation techniques for the VSC are presented in
literature. The common used control techniques are the current prediction technique, the
virtual-flux control, and the hysteresis current control. Also different
modulation techniques are developed in order to minimize the harmonic contents of
the switching functions.
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2.6 Multilevel converters:

Since the actual voltage level of the IGBT is not so high, different multilevel
designs are proposed. The diode clamped multilevel converter is presented in and the
modulation strategies in. The proposed topology has the limit in the number of levels.
Also the cascade multilevel inverters are presented in. The cascade inverter has the
advantage that the output voltage can be tuned by the number of modules. However this
topology is not suitable for the back-to-back operation. In order to achieve the fine tuning
of the output voltage, and to make the back-to-back operation possible, the modular
multilevel converter is presented. The papers give the principle of operation of the MMC,
propose the modulation topology and give the simulation results the laboratory setup in,
and the first experimental results. The similar topology is analysed by, and simulation and
experimental results are presented. However, in the available literature, no analytical
description of the proposed topology could be found.
The inrush current phenomena is detected and presented
already in Since the inrush current can damage the power systems elements, different
techniques for the inrush elimination are proposed in All of these techniques use
additional equipment in order to limit the inrush current. The work presented in, uses the
serial connected VSC that measures the transformer current, and generates the
compensation voltage, that limits the inrush. Since all of these methods use the additional
equipment, and prolong the connection period, a new control algorithm should be found
that eliminates the inrush and minimizes the connection time.
The main task of the back-to-back converter system is to transfer the
power from one network to another. Different steady-state analysis techniques that
include the models of the FACTS devices are presented. All of these methods are based
on the Newton - Raphson iterative procedure. If the VSC based DC distributed system is
applied, different load sharing methods are proposed.
This is embedded in the field of the electric power distribution. Its
aim is the optimization of the VSC (Voltage Source Converter) behavior when it is used
as interface connected to the grid of electricity generation system, in order to deliver or to
demand energy to the grid with the best possible quality. To achieve this objective, the
design of more robust converters was proposed and the new control algorithms that
17
improve the behavior of the VSC in steady-state as well as under possible disturbances
were analyzed.
At the design framework, in this Thesis a back-to-back two level, as
well as the modular multilevel converter (MMC) is analyses and proposed for connecting
the power grids. In order to mathematically describe the converter behavior, the linear
Time - varying model (LTV) is developed for both the 2-level and modular multilevel
inverter. The system is considered linear between two switching instants. Since the
switching functions have a periodical nature, the steady-state of the system is calculated.
Using the (LTV) model, both balanced and imbalanced operations of the converter are
analyzed. Since the calculation of the steady-state requires a low computational effort, the
proposed method showed a good alternative to the numerical iterative procedures.
Applying the LTV method to the modular multilevel converter, the different operating
points are determined depending from the converter parameters. Special attention was
paid on finding the optimal operating point concerning the module current. Since the
presence of the second harmonic of the converter’s arm current and its dependence from
the converter parameters is determined, it is used to optimize the module current. The
resonance points of the converter’s arm current were also detected and presented.
The analysis in the frequency-domain was performed in order to find the
system’s partial impedances and admittances, and to find the analytical solution for each
harmonic component. The results obtained with the LTV model, were confirmed by the
frequency-domain analysis.
Connection and reconnection of the VSC to the power network is realized with the
Transformer flux controller. The controller estimates the transformer flux and generates
the reference voltage that keeps the transformer flux in the linear area and simultaneously
minimizes the connection time.
In order to secure the power supply for the critical load, the double controlled DC
Voltage controller was developed, meaning that the both converters of the back-to-back
systems control the DC voltage. The critical load is supplied by the third converter
connected to the DC bus. The algorithm for eliminating the influence of the DC voltage
measurement error, simultaneously providing the controlled load sharing is developed
and analyzed. At the end, the dynamic and the steady-state of the frequency based load
flow algorithm is presented.
18
Fig 2.2 Basic diagram of Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)
The concept of FACTS Controller conveys that the Voltage-Sourced Converter

is the basic block in STATCOM, SSSC, UPFC, IPFC, and some other controller.
Therefore, this chapter will discuss this converter. As already explained, the conventional
thyristor device has only the turn-on control; its turn-off depends on the current coming to
zero as per circuit and system condition. Devices such as the Gate Turn-off Thyristor
(GTO), Integrated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT), MOS Turn-off Thyristor (MTO),
integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT), and other similar devices have turn-on
and turnoff capability. These devices (referred to as switching devices) are more
expensive and/or have higher losses than the thyristor without turn-off capability.
However, switching devices enable converter concept that can have significant overall
system cost and performance advantages. In principle these advantages result from the
converters, which are self-commutating against the line-commutating converters.
Compared to the self-commutating converter, the line-commutating converter must have
an AC source connected to the converter, which consumes reactive power, and suffers
from occasional commutation failures in the mode converter of operation. Therefore,
unless a converter is required to operate in the two lagging current quadrants, only
(consuming reactive power while converting active power), converters applicable to
FACTS controllers would be of the self-commutating type.
There are two basic categories of self-commutating converters:

• Current-Sourced Converter in which the direct current always has one polarity and the
Power reversal takes place through both DC voltage polarities
• Voltage-Sourced Converter in which the direct voltage always has one polarity and the
power reversal takes place through several DC current polarities. Conventional thyristor-
based converters, being without turn-off capability, can only be Current Sourced
19
Converters, whereas turn-off device-based converters can be of either type. For economic
and performance reasons, Voltage-Sourced Converters are often preferred over Current-
Sourced Converters for FACTS applications. Here Voltage-Sourced Converters will be
discussed, which form the basis idea for several FACTS controller. Since the direct
current in a Voltage-Sourced Converter flows in either direction ,reverse, the switching
devices don’t need reverse voltage capability. Thus, a Voltage- Sourced Converter valve
is made up of an asymmetric switching device such as a GTO, which is shown in with
anti-parallel diode. Some devices, such as the IGBTs and IGCT, may have a parallel
reverse diode built in as part of a complete integrated device suitable for Voltage-Sourced
Converters. However, for high power converter, the provision of separate diodes is
advantageous. In reality, there would be several switching device-diode units in series for
high-voltage application. In general, the symbol of one switching device and with one
parallel diode, will present a valve of appropriate voltage and current rating required for
the converter. Within the category of voltage sourced-converter, there are also a wide
variety of converter concepts.
The basic functioning of Voltage Sourced-Converter is shown in Figure 2.1. The
Internal topology of the converter valves is represented in a box with a symbol inside. On
the DC side, the voltage is uni-polar and supported by a capacitor. This capacitor is large
enough to handle at least a unstained charge/discharge current that accompanies the
switching sequence of the converter valves and shifts in phase angle of switching valves
without significant change in the DC voltage. In this chapter, the DC capacitor voltage
will be assumed constant. It is also shown on the DC side that the Converter current can
flow in another direction. It can exchange DC power with connected DC System in the
either direction.
20
Fig:2.3 Basic concept of Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)
AC voltage connected to AC system via an inductor. An AC voltage source with

internal impedance, a series inductive interface with the AC system (usually through a
series inductor and/or a transformer) is essential to ensure that the DC capacitor is not
short-circuited and discharge rapidly into a capacitive load such as a transmission line.
Also, an AC filter may be necessary following the series inductive interface to limit the
consequent current harmonics entering the AC system. Basically, a VSC generates an AC
voltage from a DC voltage through its switching function. With a VSC, the magnitude,
the phase angle and the frequency of output voltage can be controlled. In order to further
explain the principles, shows a diagram of a single-valve operation. The DC voltage, the
Udc is assumed to be constant, supported by a large capacitor, with the positive polarity
side connected to the anode side of the switching devices. The operation of the half bridge
VSC is presented.
21
2.7 Half-bridge VSC:
Fig 2.4: The operation of the half-bridge VSC
When the switching device one is turned on, the positive DC terminal is
connected to the AC terminal A, and the AC voltage will jump to +Ud. If the current
happens to flow from +Ud to A (through the device 1), the power would flow from the
DC side to AC side (converter action). However, if the current flows from A to + Ud it
will flow through diode 1‘ even if the device 1 is called turned on, and the power would
flow from the AC side to the DC side (rectifier action). Thus, a valve with combination of
switching device and diode can handle the power flow in either direction, with the turnoff
device handling converter action, and with the diode handling rectifier action. This valve
combination and its capability to act as a rectifier or as a converter with the Voltage
source converters and the back-to-back system topology instantaneous current flow in
positive (AC to DC side) or negative direction, respectively, is a basic issue in the
Voltage- Sourced Converter concepts.
22
2.8 Full-bridge VSC :

The full bridge converter shown in Figure 2.3 can be either bipolar or uni-polar
switched. In the bipolar switching scheme, transistors T1 and T4 are switched on
together, when m(t) >c(t), as are T2 and T3, when m(t) <c(t), as presented in Figure 2.4.
The control voltage m(t) is sinusoidal of the frequency equal to the desired output
frequency and amplitude determined by the required RMS output voltage. The carrier
frequency is generally much higher than the frequency of the modulating waveform.
Regardless of the direction of current flow in the load, the load voltage waveform is
determined by the state of the switches.
Fig 2.5: The operation of the full-bridge VSC
The amplitude of each SPWM voltage pulse across the load is now ±Ud. This
switching scheme is called bipolar, as opposed to uni-polar in which both switches in a
diagonal pair may not be switched on or off simultaneously. Two switches in the same leg
of the converter are never turned on together because that causes the constitution of a
short circuit across the DC source. The bipolar scheme is obtained by a comparator based
on the following rule: When m(t) >c(t), T1 and T4 are on T2 and T3 are off, When
m(t)<c(t), T2 and T3 are on and T1 and T4 are off. If the PWM switching or carrier
23
frequency is far higher then the frequency of the modulating waveform it can be assumed
that the modulating wave changes a little over a switching period.
Average output voltage over each switching period is then equal to the depth of
Modulation (or the effective duty cycle over the switching period) times the supply
voltage, Ud. It should be expected that the fundamental output voltage waveform should
be given by the average voltage during each switching period.
2.9 Power Semi Conductor Devices
2.9.1 Bipolar Transistor:
In the Diode tutorials we saw that simple diodes are made up from two pieces of
semiconductor material, either silicon or germanium to form a simple PN-junction and we
also learnt about their properties and characteristics. If we now join together two
individual signal diodes back-to-back, this will give us two PN-junctions connected
together in series that share a common P or N terminal. The fusion of these two diodes
produces a three layer, two junction, three terminal device forming the basis of a Bipolar
Junction Transistor, or BJT for short.
Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different

semiconductor materials that can act as either an insulator or a conductor by the
application of a small signal voltage. The transistor’s ability to change between these two
states enables it to have two basic functions: “switching” (digital electronics) or
“amplification” (analogue electronics). Then Bipolar Transistors have the ability to
operate within three different regions:
 Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

 Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch and
Ic = I(saturation)
 Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and Ic = 0
24
The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the words Transfer

Varistor used to describe their mode of operation way back in their early days of
development
There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and
NPN, which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-
type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.
.
Fig: 2.6 Typical Bipolar Transistor.
The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three
connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other
two. These three terminals are known and labeled as the Emitter ( E ), the Base ( B ) and
the Collector ( C ) respectively.
Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current
flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base
terminal acting like a current-controlled switch. The principle of operation of the two
transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only difference being in their
biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.
25
2.9.2. Bipolar Transistor Construction:
Fig: 2.7 Bipolar Transistor Construction
The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor
are given above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of
“conventional current flow” between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The
direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-
type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
26
2.9.3 Bipolar Transistor Configurations:
As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three
possible ways to connect it within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common
to both the input and output. Each method of connection responding differently to its
input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each
circuit arrangement.
• Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
• Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.
• Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
Fig: 2.8 Bipolar Transistor Configurations:
27
A. Common Base (CB) Configuration
As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the
BASE connection is common to both the input signal AND the output signal with the
input signal being applied between the base and the emitter terminals. The corresponding
output signal is taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown with
the base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage point. The input
current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum of both the base current and
collector current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter
current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of “1” (unity) or less, in
other words the common base configuration “attenuates” the input signal.
Common Base Transistor Circuit:
Fig: 2.9 Common Base Transistor Circuit.
This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier

circuit, in that the signal voltages V - in and V - out are “in-phase”. This type of transistor
arrangement is not very common due to its unusually high voltage gain characteristics. Its
output characteristics represent that of a forward biased diode while the input
characteristics represent that of an illuminated photo-diode. Also this type of bipolar
transistor configuration has a high ratio of output to input resistance or more importantly
“load” resistance ( RL ) to “input” resistance ( Rin ) giving it a value of “Resistance
Gain”. Then the voltage gain ( Av ) for a common base configuration is therefore given as
28
Common Base Voltage Gain
Where: Ic/Ie is the current gain, alpha ( α ) and RL/Rin is the resistance gain.
The common base circuit is generally only used in single stage amplifier
circuits such as microphone pre-amplifier or radio frequency ( Rf ) amplifiers due to its
very good high frequency response.
B. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration:
In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is

applied between the base, while the output is taken from between the collector and the
emitter as shown. This type of configuration is the most commonly used circuit for
transistor based amplifiers and which represents the “normal” method of bipolar transistor
connection. The common emitter amplifier configuration produces the highest current
and power gain of all the three bipolar transistor configurations. This is mainly because
the input impedance is LOW as it is connected to a forward biased PN-junction, while the
output impedance is HIGH as it is taken from a reverse biased PN-junction.
Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit:
Fig.2.10 Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit
29
In this type of configuration, the current flowing out of the transistor must be
equal to the currents flowing into the transistor as the emitter current is given as
Ie = Ic + Ib. As the load resistance ( RL ) is connected in series with the collector, the
current gain of the common emitter transistor configuration is quite large as it is the ratio
of Ic/Ib. A transistors current gain is given the Greek symbol of Beta, ( β ). As the emitter
current for a common emitter configuration is defined as Ie = Ic + Ib, the ratio of Ic/Ie is
called Alpha, given the Greek symbol of α. Note: that the value of Alpha will always be
less than unity. Since the electrical relationship between these three currents, Ib, Ic and Ie
is determined by the physical construction of the transistor itself, any small change in the
base current ( Ib ), will result in a much larger change in the collector current ( Ic ). Then,
small changes in current flowing in the base will thus control the current in the emitter-
collector circuit. Typically, Beta has a value between 20 and 200 for most general
purpose transistors.
By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the

mathematical relationship between these parameters and therefore the current gain of the
transistor can be given as:
Where: “Ic” is the current flowing into the collector terminal, “Ib” is the
current flowing into the base terminal and “Ie” is the current flowing out of the emitter
terminal. Then to summaries a little. This type of bipolar transistor configuration has
greater input impedance, current and power gain than that of the common base
30
configuration but its voltage gain is much lower. The common emitter configuration is an
inverting amplifier circuit. This means that the resulting output signal is 180o “out-of-
phase” with the input voltage signal.
C. Common Collector (CC) Configuration:
In the Common Collector or grounded collector configuration, the collector is

now common through the supply. The input signal is connected directly to the base, while
the output is taken from the emitter load as shown. This type of configuration is
commonly known as a Voltage Follower or Emitter Follower circuit. The common
collector, or emitter follower configuration is very useful for impedance matching
applications because of the very high input impedance, in the region of hundreds of
thousands of Ohms while having a relatively low output impedance.
Common Collector Transistor Circuit:
Fig:2.11 Common Collector Transistor Circuit
The common emitter configuration has a current gain approximately equal to

the β value of the transistor itself. In the common collector configuration the load
resistance is situated in series with the emitter so its current is equal to that of the emitter
31
current. As the emitter current is the combination of the collector AND the base current
combined, the load resistance in this type of transistor configuration also has both the
collector current and the input current of the base flowing through it.
Common Collector Current Gain
This type of bipolar transistor configuration is a non-inverting circuit in that the

signal voltages of V-in and V-out are “in-phase”. It has a voltage gain that is always less
than “1” (unity). The load resistance of the common collector transistor receives both the
base and collector currents giving a large current gain (as with the common emitter
configuration) therefore, providing good current amplification with very little voltage
gain.
Bipolar Transistor Summary
Then to summaries, the behavior of the bipolar transistor in each one of the
above circuit configurations is very different and produces different circuit characteristics
with regards to input impedance, output impedance and gain whether this is voltage gain,
current gain or power gain and this is summarized in the table below.
Characteristics of the different transistor configurations given in the following table:
32
Common Common Common

Characteristic
Base Emitter Collector
Input Impedance Low Medium High
Output Impedance Very High High Low
Phase Angle 0o 180o 0o
Voltage Gain High Medium Low
Current Gain Low Medium High
Power Gain Low Very High Medium
Tab: 2.1 Characteristics of the different transistor configurations.
2.9.4 Gate turn-off thyristor.:
Fig:2.12 Gate turn-off thyristor.
Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) is a special type of thyristor, which is a high-power

semiconductor device. It was invented at General Electric.[1] GTOs, as opposed to normal
thyristors, are fully controllable switches which can be turned on and off by their third
lead, the GATE lead.
33
 Device description
 Reverse bias
A. Device description:
Fig; 2.13 Equivalent circuit of a GTO thyristor
Normal thyristors (silicon-controlled rectifiers) are not fully controllable

switches (a "fully controllable switch" can be turned on and off at will). Thyristors can
only be turned ON and cannot be turned OFF. Thyristors are switched ON by a gate
signal, but even after the gate signal is de-asserted (removed), the thyristor remains in the
ON-state until any turn-off condition occurs (which can be the application of a reverse
voltage to the terminals, or when the current flowing through (forward current) falls
below a certain threshold value known as the "holding current"). Thus, a thyristor behaves
like a normal semiconductor diode after it is turned on or "fired". The GTO can be turned
on by a gate signal, and can also be turned off by a gate signal of negative polarity. Turn
on is accomplished by a "positive current" pulse between the gate and cathode terminals.
As the gate-cathode behaves like PN junction, there will be some relatively small voltage
between the terminals. The turn on phenomenon in GTO is however, not as reliable as an
SCR (thyristor) and small positive gate current must be maintained even after turn on to
improve reliability. Turn off is accomplished by a "negative voltage" pulse between the
gate and cathode terminals. Some of the forward current (about one-third to one-fifth) is
"stolen" and used to induce a cathode-gate voltage which in turn induces the forward
current to fall and the GTO will switch off (transitioning to the 'blocking' state.)
34
Fig:2.14 Simplified cross section of a GTO thyristor
GTO thyristors suffer from long switch off times, whereby after the
forward current falls, there is a long tail time where residual current continues to flow
until all remaining charge from the device is taken away. This restricts the maximum
switching frequency to approx 1 kHz. It may be noted however, that the turn off time of a
GTO is approximately ten times faster that of a comparable SCR.
To assist with the turn-off process, GTO thyristors are usually constructed
from a large number (hundreds or thousands) of small thyristor cells connected in
parallel.
35
Parameters Symbols Thyristor GTO

(1600V, 350A) (1600V,350A)
ON State Vt ON 1.5V 3.4V

Voltage Drop
Turn on time Ton, Ig on 8us, 200ma 2us, 2A

gate current
Turn off time toff 150us 15us

Tab:2.2 Comparison of an SCR and GTO of same rating.
A distributed buffer gate turn-off thyristor (DB-GTO) is a thyristor with

additional PN layers in the drift region to reshape the field profile and increase the
voltage blocked in the off state. Compared to a typical PNPN structure of a conventional
thyristor, this thyristor would be a PN-PN-PN type structure in here.
B. Reverse bias:
GTO thyristors are available with or without reverse blocking capability.

Reverse blocking capability adds to the forward voltage drop because of the need to have
a long, low doped P1 region.GTO thyristors capable of blocking reverse voltage are
known as Symmetrical GTO thyristors, abbreviated S-GTO. Usually, the reverse blocking
voltage rating and forward blocking voltage rating are the same. The typical application
for symmetrical GTO thyristors is in current source inverters.
GTO thyristors incapable of blocking reverse voltage are known as

asymmetrical GTO thyristors, abbreviated A-GTO, and are generally more common than
Symmetrical GTO thyristors. They typically have a reverse breakdown rating in the tens
of volts. A-GTO thyristors are used where either a reverse conducting diode is applied in
parallel (for example, in voltage source inverters) or where reverse voltage would never
occur (for example, in switching power supplies or DC traction choppers). GTO thyristors
36
can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the same package. These are known
as RCGTO, for Reverse Conducting GTO.
2.9.5 MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT):
Fig: 2.15 Equivalent circuit of an MCT
An MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) is voltage-controlled fully controllable

thyristor. It was invented by IEEE. The MCT is similar in operation with GTO thyristor,
but it has a voltage controlled insulated gate. It has two MOSFETs of opposite
conductivity types in its equivalent circuit. One is responsible for turn-on and the another
is responsible for turn-off. A thyristor with only one MOSFET in its equivalent circuit,
which can only be turned on (like normal SCRs), is called an MOS-gated thyristor.
37
Fig:2.16 Schematic of a MOSFET-controlled thyristor
Positive voltage: On the gate terminal with respect to the cathode turns the thyristor to
the on state.
Negative voltage: On the gate terminal with respect to the anode, which is close to
cathode voltage during the on state, turns the thyristor to the off state.
Emitter turn off thyristor:
The Emitter Turn Off Thyristor (ETO) is a type of thyristor that uses a
MOSFET to turn on and turn off. It combines the advantages of both the GTO and
MOSFET. It has two gates - one normal gate for turn on and one with a series MOSFET
for turn off.
Contents
 A) Device Description
o a) Turn On
o b) Turn Off
The first generation ETO was developed in Center for Power Electronics,
Virginia Tech in 1999. Although the ETO concept was demonstrated, the first generation
ETO had limitations which prevented it from handling the real high power.
38
A).Device Description
Fig:2.17 PN structure of an emitter turn off thyristor
The first generation ETO was developed in Center for Power Electronics, Virginia Tech
in 1999. Although the ETO concept was demonstrated, the first generation ETO had
limitations which prevented it from handling the real high power.
Fig2.18 Circuit Symbol of an ETO
39
Fig;2.19 Equivalent Circuit of an ETO
Turn On
An ETO is turned ON by applying positive voltages to gates, gate 1 and gate 2.

When a positive voltage is applied to the gate 2, it turns on the MOSFET that is
connected in series with the cathode terminal of the PNPN thyristor structure. The
positive voltage applied to the gate 1 turns off the MOSFET connected to the gate
terminal of the thyristor.
Turn Off
When a turn-off negative voltage signal is applied to the MOSFET connected to

the cathode, it turns off and transfers all the current away from the cathode (N-emitter of
the NPN transistor in the thyristor) into the base gate via MOSFET connected to the gate
of the thyristor. This stops regenerative latching process and results in a fast turn-off.
Both the MOSFET connected to the cathode and MOSFET connected to the gate of the
thyristor are not subjected to high-voltage stresses irrespective of the magnitude of the
voltage on the ETO, due to the internal structure of the thyristor containing a P-N
junction. The drawback of connecting a MOSFET in series is that it has to carry the main
thyristor current and it also increases the total voltage drop by about 0.3 to 0.5V and its
corresponding losses. Similar to a GTO, the ETO has a long turn-off tail of current at the
end of the turn-off and the next turn-on must wait until the residual charge on the anode
side is dissipated through the recombination process.
40
2.9.6 Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) :
The Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT) is a power semiconductor

electronic device, used for switching electric current in industrial equipment. It is related
to the gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor. It was jointly developed by Mitsubishi and ABB.[1]
Like the GTO thyristor, the IGCT is a fully controllable power switch, meaning that it can
be turned both on and off by its control terminal (the gate). Gate drive electronics are
integrated with the thyristor device.
Contents
A). Device Description
B).Reverse Bias
C).Applications
A). Device Description:
Fig:2.20 Circuit symbol for an IGCT
An IGCT is a special type of thyristor similar to a GTO. They can be

turned on and off by a gate signal, have lower conduction loss as compared to GTOs, and
41
withstand higher rates of voltage rise (dv/dt), such that no snubber is required for most
applications.
The structure of an IGCT is very similar to a GTO thyristor. In an IGCT,

the gate turn off current is greater than the anode current. This results in a complete
elimination of minority carrier injection from the lower PN junction and faster turn off
times. The main difference is a reduction in cell size, plus a much more substantial gate
connection with much lower inductance in the gate drive circuit and drive circuit
connection. The very high gate currents plus fast dI/dt rise of the gate current means that
regular wires cannot be used to connect the gate drive to the IGCT. The drive circuit PCB
is integrated into the package of the device. The drive circuit surrounds the device and a
large circular conductor attaching to the edge of the IGCT is used. The large contact area
and short distance reduces both the inductance and resistance of the connection.
The IGCT's much faster turn-off times compared to the GTO's allows them
to operate at higher frequencies-up to several of kHz for very short periods of time.
However, because of high switching losses, typical operating frequency up to 500 Hz.
B). Reverse Bias:
IGCT are available with or without reverse blocking capability. Reverse

blocking capability adds to the forward voltage drop because of the need to have a long,
low doped P1 region. IGCT capable of blocking reverse voltage are known as
symmetrical IGCT, abbreviated S-IGCT. Usually, the reverse blocking voltage rating and
forward blocking voltage rating are the same. The typical application for symmetrical
IGCT is in current source inverters. IGCT incapable of blocking reverse voltage are
known as asymmetrical IGCT, abbreviated A-IGCT. They typically have a reverse
breakdown rating in the 10's of volts. A IGCT are used where either a reverse conducting
diode is applied in parallel (for example, in voltage source inverters) or where reverse
voltage would never occur (for example, in switching power supplies or DC traction
choppers). Asymmetrical IGCT can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the
same package. These are known as RC-IGCT, for reverse conducting IGCT.
42
C). Applications:
The main applications are in variable frequency inverters, drives and traction.
2.9.7 IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor):
The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power

semiconductor device primarily used as an electronic switch which, as it was developed,
came to combine high efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric power in many
modern appliances: variable-frequency drives (VFDs), electric cars, trains, variable speed
refrigerators, lamp ballasts, air-conditioners and even stereo systems with switching
amplifiers. Since it is designed to turn on and off rapidly, amplifiers that use it often
synthesize complex waveforms with pulse width modulation and low-pass filters. In
switching applications modern devices boast pulse repetition rates well into the ultrasonic
range frequencies which are at least ten times the highest audio frequency handled by the
device when used as an analog audio amplifier.
The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of MOSFETs

with the high-current and low-saturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors. The
IGBT combines an isolated gate FET for the control input, and a bipolar power transistor
as a switch, in a single device. The IGBT is used in medium- to high-power applications
like switched-mode power supplies, traction motor control and induction heating. Large
IGBT modules typically consist of many devices in parallel and can have very high
current handling capabilities in the order of hundreds of amperes with blocking voltages
of 6000 V, equating to hundreds of kilowatts.
The first-generation IGBTs of the 1980s and early 1990s were prone to
failure through such modes as latch up (in which the device will not turn off as long as
current is flowing) and secondary breakdown (in which a localized hotspot in the device
goes into thermal runaway and burns the device out at high currents). Second-generation
devices were much improved, and the current third-generation ones are even better, with
speed rivaling MOSFETs, and excellent ruggedness and tolerance of overloads.
43
Device structure:
2.21 Cross section of a typical IGBT showing internal connection of MOSFET and
Bipolar Device
An IGBT cell is constructed similarly to a n-channel vertical

construction power MOSFET except the n+ drain is replaced with a p+ collector layer,
thus forming a vertical PNP bipolar junction transistor.
IGBT positions. The IGBT is a hybrid device exhibiting the low forward drop of a
bipolar transistor as a conducting device. Instead of the regular current controlled base,
the IGBT has a voltage-controlled capacitive gate, as in the MOSFET device. A complete
IGBT position consists of an IGBT, an anti parallel diode, a gate unit, a voltage divider,
and a water-cooled heat sink. Each gate unit includes gate-driving circuits, surveillance
circuits, and optical interface. The gate-driving electronics control the gate voltage and
current at turn-on and turn-off, to achieve optimal turn-on and turn-off processes of the
IGBT. To be able to switch voltages higher than the rated voltage of one IGBT, many
positions are connected in series in each valve similar to thyristors in conventional HVDC
valves. All IGBTs must turn on and off at exactly the same moment, to achieve an evenly
distributed voltage across the valve. Higher currents are handled by paralleling IGBT
components or press packs.
44
3.0 CONTROL STRATEGY:

The adopted DVR converter is comprised of three independent H-bridge
VSCs that are connected to a common dc -link capacitor. These VSCs are series
connected to the supply grid, each through a single-phase transformer. The proposed FCI
control system consists of three independent and identical controllers one for each single-
phase VSC of the DVR.
Assume the fundamental frequency components of the supply voltage , load voltage
, and the injected voltage , are
(1)
(2)
(3)
Two identical least error squares (LES) filters are used to estimate the
magnitudes and phase angles of the phase FCI function requires a phasor parameter
estimator (dig-ital filter) which attenuates the harmonic contents of the measured signal.
To attenuate all harmonics, the filter must have a full -cycle data window length which
leads to one cycle delay in the DVR response. Thus, a compromise between the voltage
injection speed and disturbance attenuation is made. The designed LES filters utilize a
data window length of 50 samples at the sampling rate of 10 kHz and, hence, estimate the
voltage phasor parameters in 5 ms depicts the frequency response of the LES filters and
indicates significant attenuation of voltage noise, harmonics, and distortions at
frequencies higher than 200 Hz and lower than 50 Hz. demonstrates the effectiveness of
this filter in attenuating the noise, harmonics, and distortions for the sag compensation
mode of operation as well. The next section shows that this filter also performs
satisfactorily in the FCI operation mode, even under arcing fault conditions where the
45
measured voltage and current signals are highly distorted.
Fig:3.1 per-phase block diagram of DVR.
Fig.3.1 shows a per-phase block diagram of the proposed DVR control

system corresponding to the FCI operation mode where is the nominal r.m.s phase
voltage. The control system of Fig. 2 utilizes , , the dc-link voltage , and the
harmonic filter capacitor current as the input signals. The reported studies in this
paper are based on the over current fault detection method of [7] and [12]. The fault
detection mechanism for each phase is activated when the absolute value of the
instantaneous current exceeds twice the rated load current.
The proposed multi loop control system [3], includes an outer control loop
(voltage phasor control) and an inner control loop (instantaneous voltage control). The
inner loop provides damping for the transients caused by the DVR harmonic filter and ,
and improves the dynamic response and stability of the DVR. The inner loop is shared by
the sag compensation and the FCI functions. When a downstream fault is detected, the
outer loop controls the injected voltage magnitude and phase angle of the faulty phase(s)
and reduces the load-side voltage to zero, to interrupt the fault current and restore the
PCC voltage. The DVR “outer” voltage phasor control and “inner” instantaneous voltage
control, corresponding to each phase, are described in the following two subsections.
46
3.1 Voltage Phasor Control System:

In the FCI operation mode, the required injected voltage phasor is equal to the source
voltage phasor, but in phase opposition. Performance of the voltage phasor control.
In terms of transient response, speed, and steady-state error, is enhanced by

independent control of voltage magnitude and phase, and incorporating feed forward
signals to the feedback control system [17], [18], [21]–[27]. Fig. 2 shows two propor-
tional-integral (PI) controllers ( and ) that are used to eliminate the steady -state
errors of the magnitude and phase of the injected voltage, respectively. Parameters of
each controller are determined to achieve a fast response with zero steady-state error. The
magnitude and the phase angle of are independently calculated and the magnitude is
passed through a limiter (Fig. 2). The resulting phasor magnitude and phase angle are
converted to the sinusoidal signal , which is the reference signal for the instantaneous
voltage control.
3.2 Instantaneous Voltage-Control System:
Under ideal conditions, voltage sag can be effectively compensated if the

output of the phasor – based controller is directly fed to the sinusoidal pulse width
modulation (SPWM), Unit. However resonance of the harmonic filter cannot be
eliminated under such conditions. Therefore, to improve the stability and dynamic
response of the DVR, an instantaneous injected voltage controller and a harmonic filter
capacitor current controller are used to attenuate resonances.
A Large Kv results in amplification of the DVR filter resonance and can

adversely impact the system stability [18]. Thus, the transient response of the DVR is
enhanced by a feed forward loop, and a small proportional gain is utilized as the voltage
controller. A large damps the harmonic filter resonance more effectively, but it is
47
limited by practical considerations (e.g., amplification of capacitor current noise,

measurement noise, and dc offset [18]). Therefore, the lowest value of the propor-tional
gain which can effectively damp the resonances is uti-lized. The output of the current
controller is added to the feed-forward voltage to derive the signal for the PWM
generator.
3.3 Least Square Filters;
The method of least squares is a standard approach to the approximate

solution of over determined systems, i.e., sets of equations in which there are more
equations than unknowns. "Least squares" means that the overall solution minimizes the
sum of the squares of the errors made in the results of every single equation.
The most important application is in data fitting. The best fit in the least-
squares sense minimizes the sum of squared residuals, a residual being the difference
between an observed value and the fitted value provided by a model. When the problem
has substantial uncertainties in the independent variable (the x variable), then simple
regression and least squares methods have problems; in such cases, the methodology
required for fitting errors-in-variables models may be considered instead of that for least
squares.
Least squares problems fall into two categories: linear or ordinary least
squares and non-linear least squares, depending on whether or not the residuals are linear
in all unknowns. The linear least-squares problem occurs in statistical regression analysis;
it has a closed-form solution. A closed-form solution (or closed-form expression) is any
formula that can be evaluated in a finite number of standard operations. The non-linear
problem has no closed-form solution and is usually solved by iterative refinement; at each
iteration the system is approximated by a linear one, and thus the core calculation is
similar in both cases. When the observations come from an exponential family and mild
conditions are satisfied, least-squares estimates and maximum-likelihood estimates are
identical. The method of least squares can also be derived as a method of moments
estimator.
48
The following discussion is mostly presented in terms of linear functions

but the use of least-squares is valid and practical for more general families of functions.
Also, by iteratively applying local quadratic approximation to the likelihood (through the
Fisher information), the least-squares method may be used to fit a generalized linear
model. For the topic of approximating a function by a sum of others using an objective
function based on squared distances, see least squares (function approximation).
3.4 Different types of faults in power system:
The faults in a power system could be classified as symmetrical or unsymmetrical faults
Fig: 3.2 Types of power system Faults
3.4.1. Symmetrical faults:

They involve 3-phase short-circuit. Symmetrical faults are the least probable type of
faults. Symmetrical faults represent the most severe type of faults i.e. maximum short-
circuit current. Therefore the breaking (rupturing) capacity of circuit-breakers is
determined by that type of fault.
49
3.4.2. Unsymmetrical faults:

Comprise the following types of faults:
i. Line-to ground faults
This is the most common type of faults. It usually results from a flashover on the
insulator string, thus electrically connecting the conductor to ground
ii. Line-to-line fault
This usually results when conductors of different phases touch each other. This can
happen as a result of swinging of over-head conductors by wind.
iii. Double line-to ground fault
This is similar to line-to-tine fault, but also involves fault to earth.
50
4.0 SOFTWARE USED:

The name MATLAB stands for Matrix Laboratory. MATLAB was written
originally to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK (linear
system package) and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects.
4.1 MATLAB: MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing.

It integrates computation, visualization, and programming environment. Furthermore,
MATLAB is a modern programming language environment: it has sophisticated data
structures, contains built-in editing and debugging tools, and supports object-oriented
programming. These factors make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching and research.
MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g.,
C, FORTRAN) for solving technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose
basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The software package
has been commercially available since 1984 and is now considered as a standard tool at
most universities and industries worldwide.
It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of
computations. It also has easy to use graphics commands that make the visualization of
results immediately available. Specific applications are collected in packages referred to
as toolbox. There are toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic computation, control
theory, simulation, optimization, and several other applied science and engineering.
4.2 Basic features:

As we mentioned earlier, the following tutorial lessons are designed to get you
started quickly in MATLAB. The lessons are intended to make you familiar with the
basics of MATLAB.
4.2.1 Starting MATLAB:

After logging into your account, you can enter MATLAB by double-clicking
on the MATLAB Short cut icon (MATLAB 7.0.4) on your Windows desktop. When you
start MATLAB, a special window called the MATLAB desktop appears. The desktop is a
window that contains other windows. The major tools within or accessible from the
desktop are:
VGTN M.TECH EEE(EPS) 51

 Command Window
 Command History
 Workspace
 Current Directory
 Help Browser
 Start button
Getting started
After learning the minimum MATLAB session, we will now learn to use some additional
operations. Creating MATLAB variables.
MATLAB variables are created with an assignment statement. The syntax of variable as-
Sign is variable name = a value (or an expression)
For example,
>> x = expression
where expression is acombination of numerical values, mathematical operators, variables,
and function calls. On other words, expression can involve:
manual entry
built-in functions
user-de¯ned functions.
4.2.2 Managing the workspace:
The contents of the workspace persist between the executions of separate
commands. There- fore, it is possible for the results of one problem to have an e®ect on
the next one. To avoid this possibility, it is a good idea to issue a clear command at the
start of each new independent calculation.
>> clear
The command clear or clear all removes all variables from the workspace. This frees
up system memory. In order to display a list of the variables currently in the memory,
type.
>> who
while, whos will give more details which include size, space allocation, and class of
the variables.

>>Getting help
To view the online documentation, select MATLAB Help from Help menu or
MATLAB Help directly in the Command Window. The preferred method is to use the
Help Browser. The Help Browser can be started by selecting the ? icon from the desktop
toolbar. On the other hand, information about any command is available by typing
>> help Command
Another way to get help is to use the lookfor command. The lookfor command
from the help command. The help command searches for an exact function name match,
while the lookfor command searches the quick summary information in each function for
a match. For example, suppose that we were looking for a function to take the inverse of
a matrix. Since MATLAB does not have a function named inverse, the command help
inverse will produce nothing. On the other hand, the command lookfor inverse will
produce detailed information, which includes the function of interest, inv.
>> look for inverse
At this particular time of our study, it is important to emphasize one main point.
Because MATLAB is a huge program; it is impossible to cover all the details of each
function
one by one. However, we will give you information how to get help. Here are some
examples:
Use on-line help to request info on a specific function
>> help sqrt
In the current version (MATLAB version 7), the doc function opens the on-line
version of the help manual. This is very helpful for more complex commands.
4.3 Simulink:
Simulink is a software add-on to mat lab which is a mathematical tool developed

by The Math works,(http://www.mathworks.com) a company based in Natick. Matlab is
powered by extensive numerical analysis capability. Simulink is a tool used to visually
program a dynamic system (those governed by Differential equations) and look at results.
Any logic circuit, or control system for a dynamic system can be built by using standard
building blocks available in Simulink Libraries. Various toolboxes for different

techniques, such as Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks, DSP, Statistics etc. are available with
Simulink, which enhance the processing power of the tool. The main advantage is the
availability of templates / building blocks, which avoid the necessity of typing code for
small mathematical processes.
4.3.1 Concept of signal and logic flow:

In Simulink, data/information from various blocks are sent to another block by
lines connecting the relevant blocks as shown in Fig4.1. Signals can be generated and fed
into blocks dynamic / static). Data can be fed into functions. Data can then be dumped
into sinks, which could be scopes, displays or could be saved to a file. Data can be
connected from one block to another, can be branched, multiplexed etc. In simulation,
data is processed and transferred only at discrete times, since all computers are discrete
systems. Thus, a simulation time step (otherwise called an integration time step) is
essential, and the selection of that step is determined by the fastest dynamics in the
simulated system.
Fig.4.1: Simulink Library Browser
You can use Simulink to model a system and then simulate the dynamic
behavior of that system. The basic techniques you use to create a simple model in this
tutorial are the same techniques that you use for more complex models.

To create this simple model, you need four Simulink blocks:
 Sine Wave — Generates an input signal for the model.

 Integrator — Processes the input signal.
 Bus Creator — Combines the input signal and processed signal into one signal.
 Scope — Visualizes the signals.
Fig:4.2 Simulink Simple Model
Simulating this model integrates a sine wave signal to a cosine signal and then displays
the result, along with the original signal, in a scope window.
4.3.2 Open the Simulink Library Browser:
From the Simulink Library Browser, you can create a new model (block
diagram) and search for blocks that you want to use in your model. You need MATLAB®
running before you can open the Simulink Library Browser.
1. From the MATLAB Tool strip, click the Simulink Library button or in the
Command Window, enter Simulink
A short delay occurs the first time you open the Simulink Library Browser.

Fig:4.3 Simulink Library Browser-1
2. Set the Library Browser to stay on top of the other desktop windows. On the
Library Browser toolbar, select the Stay on top button .
4.3.3 Browse or Search for Specific Blocks:
To browse through the block libraries, select a Math Works® product and a functional
area in the left pane. Alternatively, you can search all of the available block libraries at
once.
1. Search for a Sine Wave block. In the search box on the browser toolbar, enter
sine, and then press the Enter key. Simulink searches the libraries for blocks with
sine in their name, and then displays the blocks.

Fig: 4.4Simulink Library Browser-2
2. Get detailed information about a block. Right-click a block, and then select Help
for the <block name>. The Help browser opens with the reference page for the
block.
3. View block parameters. Right-click a block and then select Block Parameters. The
block parameters dialog box opens.
4.3.4 Open a New Model in the Simulink Editor:
In the Simulink Editor, you can build and simulate models of your system. You need the
Simulink Library Browser open before you can create a new Simulink model.
1. From the Simulink Library Browser toolbar, click the New Model button . A
Simulink Editor window opens with an new block diagram.
Fig:4.5 New model block

Fig:4.6 Simulink Untitled
2. Select File > Save as. In the File name text box, enter a name for your model. For
example, enter simple model, and then click Save.
Simulink saves your model with the file name simple_model.slx.
4.3.5 Add Blocks to a Model:
To build a model, begin by copying blocks from the Simulink Library Browser
1. In the Simulink Library Browser, select the Sources library. The Library Browser
displays the source blocks in the library.
2. Select the Sine Wave block.
Fig:4.7 Simulink Library Browser-3
3. Drag the Sine Wave block to the Simulink Editor. A copy of the Sine Wave block
appears in your model.

Fig:4.8 Simulink simple model
4. Add the following blocks to your model, using the same approach that you used to
add the Sine Wave block
Library Block
Sinks Scope
Continuous Integrator
Signal Routing Bus Creator
Tab 4.1 Library and Block list
5. Your model now has the blocks you need for the simple model.

Fig:4.9 Simulink simple model-1
4.3.6 Move and Resize Blocks:
Before you connect the blocks in your model, arrange them logically to make
signal connections as straightforward as possible.
1. Move the Scope block after the Bus block output. You can either:
 Click and drag a block.
 Select the block, and then press the arrow keys on your keyboard.
2. Move the Sine Wave and Integrator blocks before the Bus block.
Move the blocks until your model looks similar to the following figure.

4.3.7 Simulink Block Connections:
After you add blocks to your model, connect them with lines. The connecting lines
represent the signals within your model.
Most blocks have angle brackets on one or both sides. These angle brackets represent
input and output ports:
 The > symbol pointing into a block is an input port.

 The > symbol pointing out of a block is an output port.
Fig 4.10 integrator block

4.3.7 Draw Signal Lines Between Blocks:
Connect the blocks by drawing lines between output ports and input ports.
1. Position the cursor over the output port on the right side of the Sine Wave block.
The pointer changes to a cross hair (+) while over the port.
2. Click, and then drag a line from the output port to the top input port of the Bus
block.
While you are holding down the mouse button, the connecting line appears as a
red dotted arrow.
3. Release the mouse button when the pointer is over the output port.
Simulink connects the blocks with a line and an arrow indicating the direction of
signal flow.

4. Connect the output port of the Integrator block to the bottom input port on the Bus
Connector block using this alternative procedure:
a. Select the Integrator block.
b. Press and hold the Ctrl key.
c. Click the Bus Connector block.
The Integrator block connects to the Bus Connector block with a signal line.
Connect the Bus Connector block to the Scope block by aligning ports:
Click and drag the Scope block until its input port is aligned with the Bus
Connector output port. A light blue line appears between the ports.
. Release the mouse button, and then click the blue line to create a black
signal line.

4.3.8: Draw Branched Signal Lines:
Your simple model is almost complete. To finish the model, connect the Sine Wave block
to the Integrator block.
This connection is different from the other connections, which all connect output ports to
input ports. Because the output port of the Sine Wave block is already connected, you
must connect this existing line to the input port of the Integrator block. The new line,
called a branch line, carries the same signal that passes from the Sine Wave block to the
Bus block.
1. Hold down the Ctrl key.

2. Position the cursor where you want to start a branch line. Click, and then drag the
cursor away from the line to form a dotted-red line segment.

3. Drag the cursor to the Integrator input port, and then release the mouse button.
4. Drag line segments to straighten and align with blocks. Your model is now
complete.

4.3.9 Define Simulation Parameters:
Before you simulate the behavior of a model, define the simulation parameters.
Simulation parameters include the type of numerical solver, start and stop times, and
maximum step size.
1. From the Simulink Editor menu, select Simulation > Model Configuration
Parameters. The Configuration Parameters dialog box opens to the Solver pane.
2. In the Stop time field, enter 20. In the Max step size field, enter 0.2
3. Click OK.
Fig:4.17 Simulink Configuration Parameters
4.3.10 Run Simulation:
After you define Model Configuration Parameters, you are ready to simulate your model.
1. From the Simulink Editor menu bar, select Simulation > Run.
The simulation runs, and then stops when it reaches the stop time specified in the
Model Configuration Parameters dialog box.

4.3.11 Observe Simulation Results:
After simulating a model you can view the simulation results in a Scope window.
1. Double-click the Scope block.
The Scope window opens and displays the simulation results. The plot shows a
sine wave signal with the resulting cosine wave signal.
Fig: 4.18 Simulink Scope
2. From the Scope block toolbar, click the Parameters button . Select the Style tab.
The Scope Parameters dialog box displays figure editing options.
Fig:4.19 style tab

3. Change the appearance of the figure. For example, select white for the Figure
color and Axes background color (icons with a pitcher).
4. Select black for the Ticks, labels, and grid colors (icon with a paintbrush).
5. Change the signal line colors for signal 1 to blue and for signal 2 to green. To see
your changes, click OK.

4.4Simulink Blocks used in the Simulation:
Three-Phase Source:
Purpose: Implement three-phase source with internal R-L impedance
Description: The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source
with internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral
connection that can be internally grounded or made accessible. You can specify the source
internal resistance and inductance either directly by entering R and L values or indirectly by
specifying the source inductive short-circuit level and X/R ratio
Scope:
Purpose: Display signals during simulation.
Description: While the simulation is running, the Scope block displays the output of the
block driving it. Opening a scope block produces a scope window. The title of this
window matches the name of the block.
Bus bar:
Purpose: Implement a labeled network node

Description: The Bus Bar block is used to interconnect components. It allows multiple
electrical block outputs and inputs to be connected together.

Current Measurement:
Purpose: Measure a current in a circuit

Description: The Current Measurement block is used to measure the instantaneous
current flowing in any electrical block or connection line. The first output provides a
Simulink signal that can be used by other Simulink blocks.
Voltage Measurement:
Purpose: Measure a voltage in a circuit

Description: The Voltage Measurement block is used to measure the instantaneous
voltage between two electric nodes. The output is a Simulink signal that can be used by
other Simulink blocks.
Distributed Parameter Line:
Purpose: Implement an N-phase distributed parameter transmission line model with

lumped losses
Description: The Distributed Parameter Line block implements an N-phase distributed
parameter line model with lumped losses.

Three-Phase Series RLC Load
Implement three-phase series RLC load with selectable connection.
Purpose:
Description: The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase

balanced load as a series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the
load exhibits a constant impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load
are proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
Three-Phase Fault:
Purpose: Implement programmable single line to ground phase-to-phase and phase-to-

ground fault breaker system.
Description: Three-Phase Fault block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where

the opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink® signal
(external control mode), or from an internal control timer (internal control mode).

Three-Phase Section Line:
Purpose: Implement three-phase transmission line section with lumped parameters
Description: The Three-Phase Section Line block implements a balanced three-phase

transmission line model with parameters lumped in a section. Contrary to the Distributed
Parameter Line model where the resistance, inductance, and capacitance are uniformly
distributed along the line, the Three-Phase Section Line block lumps the line parameters.
Line parameters R, L, and C are specified as positive- and zero-sequence parameters

that take into account the inductive and capacitive couplings between the three phase
conductors, as well as the ground parameters. This method of specifying line parameters
assumes that the three phases are balanced.
Phase Transformer :
Purpose: Implement three-phase transformer with configurable winding connections

Description: This block implements a three-phase transformer using three single-phase

transformers. For a detailed description of the electrical model of a single-phase
transformer, see the Linear Transformer block.
SIMULATION RESULTS
4.5 THREE PHASE DOWNSTREAM FAULT WHEN DVR IS INACTIVE:
Fig.4.22 (a) Voltages at Bus3. (b) Fault currents, during downstream Three-phase
fault when the DVR is inactive (bypassed
The system is subjected to a three-phase short circuit with An eligible fault resistance at t
= 20 ms at Bus5. Prior to the fault inception, the DVR is inactive (in standby mode) (i.e.,
the primary windings of the series transformers are shorted by the DVR). During the fault
if the DVR is bypassed, the voltage at Bus3 drops to 0.77 p.u. and the fault current
increases to about 17 times the rated load current (Fig5.1).

4.6 PHASE-TO-PHASE DOWNSTREAM FAULTS WHEN DVR IS INACTIVE
Fig.4.23 (a) Voltages at Bus3. (b) Fault currents, during downstream phase-to phase
fault when the DVR is inactive (bypassed).
The system of Fig. 2 is subjected to a phase-A to phase-C fault with the resistance of
0.05Ω at 10% of the cable length connecting Bus4to Bus5, at t = 20 ms. When the DVR is
inactive (bypassed) during the fault (Fig. 5), the PCC voltage drops to 0.88 p.u., and the
fault current increases to about 11times the rated load current.
4.7. SINGLE-PHASE-TO-GROUND DOWNSTREAM FAULT WHEN DVR IS

INACTIVE:
Fig.4.24 .(a)Voltages at Bus3. (b) Fault currents, during the

downstream single phase-to-ground fault when the DVR is inactive (bypassed).

Phase-A of the system of Fig5.3 is subjected to a fault with the resistance

of 0.2Ω at 10% length of the cable connecting Bus4to Bus5, at t = 20 ms. If the DVR is
inactive (Fig. 2), the PCC voltage does not considerably drop and the fault current is
about 2.5 p.u. It must be noted that although the PCC voltage drop is not considerable, the
fault current must be interrupted by the DVR to prevent possible damages to the VSC
before the fault is interrupted by the relays. The reason is that the operation time of the
over current relays is considerable for a fault current of about 2.5p.u.
4.8 SIMULATION PROCESS:
i).THREE PHASES DOWNSTREAM FAULT INTERRUPTION WITH DVR.:
Fig.4.25.Simulation block diagram of three phases downstream fault

Interruption with DVR.

Fig.4.25 a).Injected voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis
Fig.4.25 (b).Supply voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis
Fig.4.25(c).Line current with time on x-axis and current on y-axis

Fig:4.25 (d).Dc link voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis
ii) PHASE TO PHASE DOWNSTREAM FAULT CURRENT INTERRUPTION

WITH DVR:
Fig 4.26 Simulation block diagram of Phase to Phase downstream fault Current
Interruption with DVR.
Fig .4.26 (a).Injected voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis

Fig.;4.27(b).Supply voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis
Fig.4.26(c).Load voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis
iii). SINGLE PHASE TO GROUND DOWNSTREAM FAULT

INTERRUPTION WITH DVR
Fig 4.28 Simulation block diagram of Phase to Phase downstream fault Current
Interruption with DVR

Fig.4.28 (a) Injected voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis
Fig.4.28(b) Supply voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis
Fig.4.28(c) Load voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis

Fig4.28(d) Line current with time on x-axis and current on y-axis
Fig.4.28 (e) Dc link voltage with time on x-axis and voltage on y-axis

4.9 PROPOSED CONTROL OF 3 LEG VSC BASED THREE-PHASE

FOUR-WIRE DVR USNG MODIFIFED INSTATANEOUS
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT THEORY
Fig. 4.29Simulation block diagram of proposed control of 3 leg vsc based 3-phase 4- wire DVR using
modified instantaneous symmetrical component theory
Fig.4.29(a) PERFORMANCE DVR IN PFC MODE FOR LINEAR LOADS.

5.1 CONCLUSION: The proposed multi loop control system provides a desirable
transient response and steady-state performance and effectively damps the potential
resonant oscillations caused by the DVR LC harmonic filter. The proposed control system
detects and effectively interrupts the various downstream fault currents within two cycles
(of 50 Hz). In future enhancement simultaneous operation of Fault current interruption
and voltage sag compensation can be obtained by Dynamic voltage restorer.
REFERENCES

[1] Firouz Badrkhani Ajaei, StudentMember, IEEE, Shahrokh Farhangi, and Reza
Iravani, Fellow, IEEE, “Fault Current Interruption by the Dynamic Voltage Restorer”,
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 28, No. 2, April 2013.
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Enhancing Power Quality With Improved Dynamic Voltage Register Based Three Phase Four Wire System

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Enhancing Power Quality With Improved Dynamic Voltage Register Based Three Phase Four Wire System

There is a widespread use of microelectronics, computers and high speed

The FACTS have ability of controllers to control the interrelated parameters

1.1 Generation of FACTS Controllers:

a. First Generation of FACTS Controllers:

b. Second Generation of FACTS Controllers:

1.2 Concepts of FACTS Technology:

 Flexible AC Transmission System:

Alternating current transmission systems incorporating power electronics based

In general, FACTS controllers can be divided in following categories

 Series controllers such as Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), Thyristor

The DVR is conventionally bypassed during a downstream fault to prevent

1.3 Static Voltage Stability:

1.4 Shunt Capacitor, SVC And STATCOM:

SVC is a shunt connected static Var generator/load whose output is

Series compensation is a means of controlling the power transmitted

1.5 Series Compensator:

1.5.1 Voltage Stability:

1.6 Types of Series Compensators:

1.6.1 Variable impedance type series compensators:

1.6.2 GTO Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC):

A GCSC consists of a fixed capacitor in parallel with a GTO Thyristor as in

1.6.3. Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC):

1.6.4. Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):

2.0 LITERATURE SURVE:

An LC circuit can store electrical energy oscillating at its resonant

Fig: 2.1 Basic L-C Filter

If a charged capacitor is connected across an inductor, charge will start to flow

Voltage source converters in medium-voltage networks, in which the most

2.5 The analytical description and the control of the VSC:

2.6 Multilevel converters:

Fig 2.2 Basic diagram of Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)

The concept of FACTS Controller conveys that the Voltage-Sourced Converter

There are two basic categories of self-commutating converters:

Fig:2.3 Basic concept of Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC)

AC voltage connected to AC system via an inductor. An AC voltage source with

2.7 Half-bridge VSC:

Fig 2.4: The operation of the half-bridge VSC

2.8 Full-bridge VSC :

Fig 2.5: The operation of the full-bridge VSC

2.9 Power Semi Conductor Devices

2.9.1 Bipolar Transistor:

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different

 Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

The word Transistor is an acronym, and is a combination of the words Transfer

Fig: 2.6 Typical Bipolar Transistor.

2.9.2. Bipolar Transistor Construction:

Fig: 2.7 Bipolar Transistor Construction

2.9.3 Bipolar Transistor Configurations:

• Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

• Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.

• Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

Fig: 2.8 Bipolar Transistor Configurations:

A. Common Base (CB) Configuration

Common Base Transistor Circuit:

Fig: 2.9 Common Base Transistor Circuit.

This type of amplifier configuration is a non-inverting voltage amplifier

Common Base Voltage Gain

B. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration:

In the Common Emitter or grounded emitter configuration, the input signal is

Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit:

Fig.2.10 Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit

By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the