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Sustainable Transport:
A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Module 2b:
Mobility Management
i
1. Introduction 1 5.4 Public transport improvements 21
5.5 Commute trip
2. Basic concepts 3 reduction programs 21
2.1 Rationale for mobility How it is implemented 21
management 6 Travel impacts 21
3. Mobility management Best practices 22
planning and evaluation 7 Commute trip reduction
program resources 23
3.1 Introduction 7
5.6 Freight transport management 24
3.2 Best practices 8
Freight transport management resources 24
4. Mobility management policy 5.7 Tourist transport management 26
and institutional reforms 10
How it is implemented 26
Introduction 10
Travel Impacts 27
Best practices 11
Best practices 27
Institutional reform information resources 12
Tourist transport management resources 27
5. Examples of mobility 5.8 Parking management 27
management strategies 12 Parking management strategies 27
5.1 Smart growth – land use How it is implemented 30
management strategies 12 Travel impacts 32
Smart growth practices 12
Best practices 32
How it is implemented 14
Information resources for
Smart growth resources 14 parking management 33
5.2 non-motorised 5.9 Vehicle fees, restrictions
transport planning 15 and car-free planning 33
How it is implemented 15 Cordon / area pricing 33
Travel impacts 16 Odd / even schemes and their variations 35
Non-motorised transport resources 16
Mobility management resources 36
5.3 Transportation market
and pricing reforms 17
Vehicle tariffs and industrial development 17
Commuter financial incentives 17
Road pricing 18
Revenue-neutral tax shifts 18
Improved transportation pricing methods 18
Neutral planning and investment policies 18
How it is implemented 19
Travel impacts 19
Best practices 19
Transportation market reform resources 20
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Module 2b: Mobility Management
1
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
traffic congestion, and suffering high rates of vehicle assembly plants will find that the major-
traffic crashes. Put another way, mobility man- ity of manufacturing inputs are imported (raw
agement provides opportunities to governments, materials, components, technical expertise, etc.).
businesses and individual consumers to save Vehicles and fuel are the largest category of
money and avoid indirect costs. Investments in imported goods in many developing countries.
transportation alternatives and mobility manage- Shifting expenditures from vehicles and fuel to
ment programs are often far more cost effective more locally-produced goods tends to increase
than continual public investments in road and regional employment and business activity, sup-
parking facility expansion to accommodate porting economic development. Even countries
increased private automobile travel. that produce their own petroleum are better
off conserving fuel so there is more available to
Automobile dependency also tends to be harm-
export.
ful to the national economy. Most developing
countries import vehicles and parts, and many
import fuel. Even countries with domestic
2
Module 2b: Mobility Management
3
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
and negative incentives to discourage driving Mobility management involves prioritising travel
(“sticks” or “levelers”). based on the value and cost of each trip. It gives
higher value trips and lower cost modes priority
For example, just improving transit service
over lower value, higher cost trips. For example,
(perhaps by building a metro system or creating
transit and freight vehicles usually have relatively
busways) may by itself reduce urban-peak au-
high value, and so can be given priority over
tomobile travel by only 5%. Just implementing
private automobile travel. Transit, rideshare
parking management may reduce automobile
vehicles, bicycling and walking generally cost
travel by only 5%. But if implemented together,
society less per trip than single occupant auto-
they may produce a 15% reduction in urban-
mobile travel (in terms of road space, parking
peak automobile travel, because they provide
costs, crash risk imposed on other road users
a combination of positive and negative incen-
and pollution emissions), and so should receive
tives for middle-class commuters (those who
priority over private automobile travel. This is
have the option of driving) to use alternative
the opposite of conventional transport plan-
modes. A package of complementary mobility
ning practices (see text box “Traffic, mobility
management strategies is often more effective at
and accessibility”), which often give priority
reducing traffic congestion than far more costly
to automobile travel, for example, by widen-
roadway capacity expansion projects. Table 2
ing roadways to increase motor vehicle traffic
provides a broad overview of mobility manage-
speeds, and increasing the amount of urban land
ment options. Several are discussed in detail
devoted to automobile parking, at the expense
later in this module.
of walking facilities and transit.
Table 2: Examples of mobility management strategies. Mobility management includes more than
three dozen strategies that improve transportation options, encourage use of efficient modes,
crate more accessible land use patterns, and reform biased planning practices.
Incentives to Reduce Parking and Land Use Programs and Policy
Improve Transport Options
Driving Management Reforms
Alternative Work Walking And Cycling Bicycle Parking Access Management
Schedules Encouragement Car-Free Districts and Carfree Planning
Bicycle Improvements Commuter Financial Pedestrianised Streets Commute Trip Reduction
Bike/Transit Integration Incentives Clustered Land Use Programs
Carsharing Congestion Pricing Location Efficient Market Reforms
Flextime Distance-Based Development Context Sensitive Design
Pricing New Urbanism
Guaranteed Ride Home Freight Transport
Fuel Taxes Parking Management Management
Individual Actions for
Efficient Transport HOV (High Occupant Parking Solutions Institutional Reforms
Vehicle) Priority
Park & Ride Parking Evaluation Least Cost Planning
Parking Pricing
Pedestrian Shared Parking Regulatory Reform
Improvements Pay-As-You-Drive
Vehicle Insurance Smart Growth School Transport
Ridesharing Smart Growth Management
Road Pricing
Shuttle Services Planning and Policy Special Event
Speed Reductions Reforms Management
Small Wheeled
Transport Street Reclaiming Transit Oriented TDM Marketing
Taxi Service Vehicle Use Development (TOD) Tourist Transport
Improvements Restrictions Management
Telework Transport Management
Traffic Calming Associations
Transit Improvements
Universal Design
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Module 2b: Mobility Management
5
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Influencing the demand Table 3: Examples of mobility management travel impacts. Different types of mobility
to travel: a wide range of management strategies cause different types of travel changes.
possible measures
“TDM Planning”, www.vtpi.org/tdm/ Strategy Mechanism Travel Changes
tdm50.htm
Traffic calming Roadway redesign. Reduces traffic speeds
Not all mobility management
strategies affect travel Flextime Improved transport choice Shifts travel time (when trips occur)
directly. Some provide a Road/congestion Shifts travel time, and route, reduces peak-
Pricing
foundation for other strategies. pricing period vehicle traffic
Mobility management Distance-based charges Pricing Reduces overall vehicle travel
strategies use a variety of Transit improvements Improved transport choice Shifts mode, increases transit use
mechanisms to change travel
Rideshare promotion Improved transport choice Increases vehicle occupancy, reduces trips
patterns, including facility
Pedestrian and bicycle Improved transport choice,
design, improved transport Shifts mode, increases walking and cycling
improvements facility improvements
options, pricing, and land use
Carsharing Improved transport choice Reduces vehicle ownership and trips
changes. These affect travel
behaviour in various ways, Smart Growth, New More efficient land use, Shifts mode, reduces vehicle ownership and
including changes in trip Urbanism improved travel choices trip distances
scheduling, route, destination,
and frequency, plus traffic 2.1 RATIONALE FOR MOBILITY ment can greatly expand the range of solutions
speed, mode choice and land
MANAGEMENT for addressing transport problems, and allows
use patterns. Table 3 sum-
solutions to be tailored to a particular situation.
marises travel changes that Mobility management can provide multiple ben-
It can often be implemented quickly, and target
result from various mobility efits including congestion reduction, road and
a particular location, time period or user group.
management strategies. parking facility cost savings, consumer savings,
improved consumer choice, road safety, environ-
Fig. 16 mental quality, community liveability, efficient “It is usually best to implement a
Traditional transport land use, and equity. Mobility management can variety of strategies”
planning in developing provide significant savings to consumers and
cities prioritises car travel society by reducing and deferring roadway ca- To understand why such large benefits are pos-
(and hence drivers) over pacity expansion costs. As a result, total benefits sible it is useful to consider some basic market
all other transport modes are often much greater than solutions that only principles. Efficient markets have certain
(and people). address one or two problems. Mobility manage- requirements, including consumer choice,
Karl Fjellstrom, 2000 (Surabaya) competition, cost-based pricing, and economic
neutrality in public policies. Most markets
generally reflect these principles: consumers pay
directly for housing, food and clothing. But
transportation markets tend to violate these
principles: consumers often have few viable
options, many costs are external or fixed, and
government policies often favour one mode over
others. Mobility management strategies can help
correct these market distortions, creating a more
efficient and equitable transportation system, as
described in Table 4.
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Module 2b: Mobility Management
Table 4: Mobility management helps correct market distortions that encourage excessive automobile use, resulting in a
more efficient and equitable transport system.
Market Requirements Current Market Distortions Management Solutions
Choice. Consumers need viable Consumers sometimes have few viable Mobility management strategies can
transport and location options to alternatives to owning and driving an increase transport options, for example
choose from automobile, and living in automobile by improving transit, cycling and walking
dependent communities conditions, and pricing options
Competition. Producers must face Most roads and transit services are public Mobility management strategies
competition to encourage innovation monopolies. There is often little competition can remove barriers, and encourage
and efficient pricing or incentive for innovation competition and innovation
Cost-based pricing. Prices should Transportation in general, and driving in Many mobility management strategies
reflect costs as much as possible, particular, is significantly underpriced: most involve more efficient pricing. Some
unless a subsidy is specifically costs are either fixed or external. This results require subsidies, but these are often
justified. in economically excessive levels of driving less than current subsidies for driving, or
and automobile dependency justified on equity grounds
Economic neutrality. Public policies Tax policies, and many transportation Many mobility management strategies
(laws, taxes, subsidies, and investment planning and funding practices favour help correct existing biases in
policies) should apply equally to automobile traffic over demand management transportation planning and investment
comparable goods and users alternatives practices
Land Use. Land use policies should Zoning laws, development practices and Mobility management strategies
not favour automobile oriented utility pricing tend to encourage lower- help create more efficient land use
development density, automobile-dependent land use patterns and discourage car-dependent
patterns development
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Transport planners often focus on improving
car traffic flow and parking opportunities, and
sometimes they recommend major new transit
services such as subways and commuter rail
systems. However, they often overlook cost-ef-
fective opportunities to improve more basic
transportation options, such as non-motorised
travel conditions and bus services, even though
these represent a major portion of travel activity.
Conventional transport planning practices tend
to undervalue mobility management strategies
(see text box “Traffic, mobility and accessibility,
page 3). For example, conventional transport
planning considers highway widening beneficial,
because it increases motor vehicle traffic speeds
and volumes, but ignores the delays that this
may cause to non-motorised travel, and the ten- Fig. 25
dency to promote urban sprawl. Vehicle flow is Singapore has recently implemented a range of mobility management measures
relatively easy to measure and so tends to receive in the Chinatown area, including pedestrianised streets, evening road
the most attention, while non-motorised travel closures, widened and attrative newly-paved walkways, tree-planting for
and land use accessibility are more difficult to shade, more parking restrictions, transit improvements (including bus
measure, so they tend to be ignored. This skews and MRT expansion in the area), and an innovative ‘smart bike’ program
planning decisions toward capacity expansion providing free bicycle use.
Karl Fjellstrom, July 2002
and away from mobility management.
7
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Mobility management in Table 5 summarizes differences between con- costs, environmental impacts, impacts on
The Netherlands ventional and comprehensive transportation travel choice and strategic land use objectives.
In The Netherlands, many evaluation, showing various ways in which < Present results in units that are easy to
businesses participate conventional planning undervalues mobility understand and compare. For example,
in mobility management management solutions. present costs and benefits in annualised
programs. Experience has dollars per capita, per vehicle, per vehicle-km,
Different travel changes provide different types
shown that companies per passenger-km, or per additional trip.
can reduce car use by
of impacts. For example, a strategy that shifts
< Indicate any impacts that are not quantified
5–10% simply through basic travel from peak to off-peak periods has differ-
in the analysis because they are difficult
measures such as company ent benefits and costs than a strategy that shifts
to measure, and describe their impacts
bicycles and car-pooling. An travel modes or encourages more efficient land
qualitatively. For example, describe how each
average trip reduction of 15– use. Table 6 shows how well different travel
option impacts equity objectives, economic
20% is possible with stronger changes achieve various transport objectives.
measures and disincentives, development, and strategic land use goals.
such as parking restrictions. < Do not focus only on motor vehicle traffic
OECD 2001, Influencing Travel Demand, 3.2 BEST PRACTICES conditions as an indicator of transportation
Unpublished
Best practices for comprehensive transport system quality. Also consider factors such as
planning and evaluation include (Comprehensive transportation system diversity, affordability,
Transport Planning, VTPI, 2002): transit service quality, and the quality of
< Use accessibility-based planning, which walking and cycling conditions (Figure 3).
considers mobility as a means to an end, < Indicate the distribution of benefits and
rather than an end in itself. This allows costs, and evaluate impacts in terms of equity
consideration of the widest possible range objectives.
of solutions to transportation problems, < Use statistical techniques to incorporate
including mobility substitutes and land uncertainty and variability in economic analysis.
use management that reduces the need for < Describe how different perspectives and
benefits, including all road and parking a general audience and include all relevant
expenses, downstream congestion, impacts on technical information.
non-motorised transport, vehicle ownership
Fig. 34
Diversity, affordability,
and the quality of
walking and cycling
conditions are sometimes
neglected as indicators of
transport system quality.
Gerhard Metschies (Guangzhou); GTZ
Urban Transport Photo CD
8
Module 2b: Mobility Management
Table 6: Benefits of different travel impacts. √ indicates a beneficial impact. Blank means no
impact, or mixed positive and negative impacts.
Reduced Shift Trip Shorter Shift Reduced Reduced Veh.
Objectives
Traffic Speeds Time Trips Mode Veh. Trips Ownership
Congestion Reduction √ √ √ √ √
Road Savings √ √ √ √
Parking Savings √ √ √
Consumer Savings √ √ √
Transport Choice √ √ √
Road Safety √ √ √ √ √
Environment Protection √ √ √
Efficient Land Use √ √ √
Livability √ √ √
9
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
10
Module 2b: Mobility Management
cost effective and flexible, because strategies are < Educate decision-makers and staff about
only deployed if they are needed, and additional mobility management objectives, techniques
strategies can be ready for quick implementation and resources.
if unexpected changes create additional needs. < Transport decision-making should be based
This type of planning is ideal for medium and on least-cost planning principles, allowing
long-range transport and land use planning. management strategies equal consideration in
planning and funding as capacity expansion
“Transport planning goals and projects.
< Identify and correct policies and planning
objectives should emphasise
practices that tend to undervalue alternative
accessibility and mobility (moving modes or result in car-dependent transport
people and goods), not just the and land use patterns.
movement of vehicles” < Establish a "Fix-it-First" policy (see text box),
which means that roadway capacity expansion
projects are only implemented if operations
Best practices
and maintenance programs for existing
< Establish cooperation and common goals
facilities are adequately funded.
among all agencies involved in transport and < Develop an effective evaluation program that
land use decisions, including those involved tracks progress toward goals and objectives.
in funding, transport planning, land use, < Reward successful transportation programs.
public safety and law enforcement. They For example, higher levels of government
should be accountable for safety, security, can provide additional funding to local
environmental and basic mobility objectives. governments that are successful at achieving
< Transport planning goals and objectives
traffic management, road safety and emission
should emphasize accessibility and mobility reduction objectives.
(moving people and goods), rather than the
movement of vehicles.
< Planning should consider the transport-
ation needs of people who are physically,
economically and socially disadvantaged.
< One agency should coordinate transportation
management throughout an urban region.
< As much as possible, traffic management and
traffic law enforcement agencies should be
independent, to avoid political favouritism
and erratic policy changes when new mayors
or political parties take office. This provides
stability and helps agencies recruit and retain
professional staff.
< Traffic management agencies may have
independent revenue sources (parking fees,
traffic fines, congestion charges, a portion of
fuel taxes, etc.) to ensure long-range funding.
< Traffic police have a vital role to play in the
success of traffic management (Figure 4). Fig. 45
This may require special efforts to establish Traffic police have a vital role to play in implementing mobility
modern traffic enforcement techniques, management measures in developing cities. In many developing cities,
adequately train and pay officers to maintain including for example Bangkok, the police retain a ‘veto’ over many
a professional force, minimise corruption mobility management measures, and they therefore must be involved and
and favouritism, and maintain good consulted in policy development.
communications with the public. Hong Kong (unknown)
11
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
12
Module 2b: Mobility Management
older facilities and brownfields. Partly adapted from: Walter Hook & Lloyd Wright, Reducing Greenhouse Gas Some cities have created
Emissions by Shifting Passenger Trips to Less Polluting Modes, Nairobi, 2002.
< Reform tax and utility rates. Structure property competent professional
Transportation agencies in cities in various parts traffic management agencies
taxes, development fees and utility rates
of the world, including Santiago, Chile, have outside the city structure
to reflect the lower public service costs of
implemented a low-cost marketing technique to help isolate technical
clustered, infill development, and encourage
called “travel blending” that can result in functions from the political
businesses to locate in accessible locations.
significant mode shifts. It uses direct marketing cycle. Overall policies
< Concentrate activities. Encourage walking and
and personal contacts with residents to provide must still be approved by
transit by creating “nodes” of high-density, city political leaders, but if
them with better information about their travel
mixed development linked by convenient the professional agency is
transit service. Concentrate commercial options.
successful and respected the
activities in these areas. Retain strong The program involves contacting households likelihood of erratic change is
downtowns and central business districts. Use in a particular area (usually one well served by reduced. For example:
access management to discourage arterial strip transit) in order to identify people who are most <Several cities in Mexico
commercial development. receptive to changing their travel behaviour, and have created independent
supplying them with information such as public transport institutes. These
< Encourage transit-oriented development.
transit guides, cycling maps and information on have secure funding (e.g.,
Encourage dense development within walking
the institute in Ciudad
distance (0.4 to 0.8 km) of transit stops, and other mobility management services. Residents
Juarez receives 1.75% of
provide high quality pedestrian and cycling are even offered a household visit by a travel
city revenues), contract
facilities in those areas. planning expert. Feedback from these interviews terms for senior staff that
< Manage parking for efficiency. Encourage is used to identify ways to improve local do not coincide with the
shared parking, and other parking transportation services. political cycle, and do not
management strategies. Reserve the most Impressive results depend on the may to se-
convenient parking for rideshare vehicles. lect the institute’s president.
The results to date have been remarkable. In
<The Urban Planning
< Avoid overly-restrictive zoning. Reduce the first trial in Perth, approximately $61,500
Institute in Curitiba, Brazil
excessive and inflexible parking and road was expended in consulting costs to conduct
is independent of the city
capacity requirements. Limit undesirable the surveys and information provision activities. government.
impacts (noise, smells and traffic) rather Of the 380 households targeted, the program <The city of Sao Paulo, Brazil
than broad categories of activities. For produced a 6% decrease in auto use immediately has established a sepa-
example, allow shops and services to locate in and an additional 1% decrease after 12 months. rate traffic management
neighbourhoods provided they are sized and Public transport trips rose from 6% of all trips agency with clearly defined
managed to avoid annoying residents. to 7%, cycling trips doubled from 2% to 4%. responsibilities. Although
< Create a network of interconnected streets. Keep the president is politically
The results have held even two years after the
streets as narrow as possible, particularly in appointed, the professional-
assistance was delivered. The technique is now
residential areas and commercial centres. Use ism of the organization has
being applied throughout Australia and in some been respected, resulting in
traffic management and traffic calming to cities in Europe. Similarly impressive results are the first president maintain-
control traffic impacts rather than dead ends being achieved at extremely low costs. ing his post for eight years.
and cul de sacs.
The consulting firm Steer Davies Gleave
< Site design and building orientation. Encourage
implemented a Travel Blending program in
buildings to be oriented toward city streets,
Santiago, Chile. The Santiago results suggest
rather than set back behind large parking lots.
that Travel Blending could become part of an
Avoid large parking areas or other unattractive
effective, low-cost emission reduction package
land uses in commercial areas.
for certain developing-nation cities. Steer Davies
< Improve non-motorised travel conditions.
Gleave report an astonishing 17% reduction in
Encourage walking and cycling by improving
car driver trips (as a proportion of participating
walkways, street crossings, protection
and non-participating households combined),
from fast vehicular traffic, and providing
with a 23% reduction in car driver kilometres and
street amenities (trees, awnings, benches,
a 17% reduction in time spent traveling.
pedestrian-oriented lighting, etc.). Improve
13
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
14
Module 2b: Mobility Management
15
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Travel impacts
Kunming public transport priority
www.movingtheeconomy.ca/cs_kunming.html Non-motorised improvements can substitute di-
The Kunming Public Transport Masterplan was rectly for automobile trips. Walking and cycling
begun in 1993 by the city of Kunming, China and improvements also support transit and are criti-
its sister city, Zurich. Supported by the Swiss cal to reducing per-capita motor vehicle trips.
Agency for Development and Cooperation, the Nearly all trips involve non-motorised links,
project defined clear priorities for the use of city often on public rights-of-way, to access an
streets with the aim to transport people, not automobile or transit vehicle. Travel surveys and
cars, giving priority to public transport, bicycles traffic counts usually under-record non-motor-
and pedestrians. Affordability as well was an ised trips, because they ignore or undercount
important aim. Two principal components of the short trips, non-work travel, travel by children,
transportation policy were to run the existing recreational travel, and non-motorised links.
buses, and to re-introduce trams on reserved For example, trips that are classified as “car” or
lanes that were taken away from use by private "transit" trips are often actually “walk-car-walk”,
car. or “walk-bus-walk” trips, yet the walking com-
A first “Demonstration Bus Line”, running on ponent is not usually counted, even if it takes
reserved lanes began operation in April 1999. place on a roadway.
Following its success, a second line was built
(this one without support from Zurich), beginning In recent years several evaluation tools have been
operation in June 2002, with plans for two more developed to predict demand for non-motorised
lines. The bus lanes will be changed into Modern travel, evaluate walking and cycling conditions
Tram lanes once bus capacity is no longer and predict the effects of pedestrian and cycling
sufficient. improvements (see the “Evaluating Non-mo-
Other components of the project include: torised Transport” chapter of the Online TDM
< More than 20 newly designed intersections with
Encyclopedia).
separate lanes for left turning bicycles.
Non-motorised transport resources
< Safe pedestrian crossings at street level.
< ADONIS, Best Practice to Promote Cycling
< Pedestrian-only streets in shopping zones in the
and Walking and How to Substitute Short Car
city centre. Trips by Cycling and Walking, European Union
< Pedestrian islands in the middle of city streets to (www.cordis.lu/transport/src/adonisrep.htm), 1999.
improve safety of street crossing. < The Bicycle Information Centre
< Studies on minimizing urban sprawl by building (www.bicyclinginfo.org) provides information on
densely designed towns along existing railway non-motorised transport planning and programs.
lines. < Centre for Alternative and Sustainable Transport
(www.staffs.ac.uk/schools/sciences/geography/
No other city in China is following so
cast/casthome.html) performs research on non-
comprehensive an urban development and motorised, sustainable transport.
transportation policy. It was a courageous step by < Robert Cervero and Carolyn Radisch, Travel
the municipal government of the city of Kunming, Choices in Pedestrian Versus Automobile Oriented
to take away one lane from non public transport Neighbourhoods, UC Transportation Centre, UCTC
and dedicate it exclusively to buses. No other city 281 (www.uctc.net), 1995.
in China has a concept for developing the greater < DETR, Cycling Bibliography and Walking
city region like Kunming with densely built new Bibliography, Department of Environment,
Transport and Regions, (www.roads.detr.gov.uk/
towns along the railway, as a precondition for
roadnetwork/ditm/tal), 2000.
using public transport in a high degree.
< DRD, Collection of Cycle Concepts, Danish Road
Kunming planning officials are monitoring Directorate (www.vd.dk/wimpdoc.asp?page=docu
the public's response to these projects through ment&objno=17291), 2000.
public surveys. The first, in 1999, found the total < I-ce, The Significance of Non-Motorised Transport
satisfaction rate of citizens toward the project to for Developing Countries: Strategies for Policy
be 79% and by 2001 the total satisfaction was Development, World Bank, Urban Transport
Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/
over 96%.
transport/utsr.nsf), 2000.
16
Module 2b: Mobility Management
< International Bicycle Fund (www.ibike.org) provides save money by driving less. For example, if park-
information and resources to support cycling. ing facility costs are subsidised through taxes or
< Less Traffic (www.lesstraffic.com) provides rents, motorists who reduce parking demand
information on traffic reduction strategies.
by shifting to another mode do not receive any
< Todd Litman, et al., Pedestrian and Bicycle Planning;
savings. Charging motorists directly for parking
A Guide to Best Practices, VTPI (www.vtpi.org),
2000. Guide with extensive references.
lets motorists save when the parking costs they
< Local Government Commission (www.lgc.org)
impose are reduced.
has resources for neighbourhood planning and Many people assume that low transportation
pedestrian/bicycle improvements, including
prices help stimulate economic development,
"Designing Safe Streets and Neighbourhoods",
"The Economic Benefits of Walkable Communities" but they actually tend to have the opposite
and "Why People Don’t Walk and What City effect. Underpricing transportation through
Planners Can Do About It" fact sheets. low taxes and subsidies encourages inefficient
< Roger Mackett, How to Reduce the Number of transportation patterns, including use of fuel-
Short Trips by Car, European Transport Conference, inefficient vehicles and increased motor vehicle
University College London (www.ucl.ac.uk/
travel, which reduces overall economic produc-
transport-studies/shtrp.htm), 2000.
tivity and increases consumption of imported
< Oregon DOT Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning
(www.odot.state.or.us/techserv/bikewalk/
goods. Reforms that reflect basic market princi-
obpplan.htm) shows good non-motorised planning. ples such as marginal-cost pricing, cost recovery,
< Pedestrian Information Centre (www.walkinginfo. economic neutrality and improved consumer
org) is a planning information clearinghouse. options tend to increase overall productivity and
< John Pucher and Lewis Dijkstra, Making Walking economic development. Specific market reforms
and Cycling Safer: Lessons from Europe, are described following.
Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 3, Summer
2000, available at VTPI (www.vtpi.org). Vehicle tariffs and industrial development
< Push Play, Movement=Health - Guidelines for the
Promotion of Physical Activity, Hillary Commission Countries can establish import and industrial
and Push Play (www.pushplay.org.nz), 2001. policies to favour efficient travel modes. Non-
< VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport motorised vehicles and buses can have relatively
Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. low import tariffs and taxes, while private auto-
< Walking Steering Group, Developing a Walking mobiles and fuels can have relatively high tariffs
Strategy, UK Department of the Environment and taxes to discourage their purchase.
Transport and the Regions (www.local-
transport.detr.gov.uk/walk/walk.htm), 1996.
Commuter financial incentives
< WTPP, World Transport Policy and Practice
– Special Pedestrian Planning Issue, Volume 7, Commuter financial incentives include several
Number 4 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm), types of incentives that give employees financial
2001. Articles on ways to improve walkability. rewards for using alternative commute modes:
< Charles Zeeger, et al, Pedestrian Facilities < Parking cash out means that commuters who
User Guide: Providing Safety and Mobility,
are offered subsidised parking are also offered
(www.walkinginfo.org), Highway Safety Research
Centre, Federal Highway Administration, the cash equivalent if they use alternative modes.
Publication FHWA-RD-01-102, 2002. < Travel allowances are a payment to
employees instead of parking subsidies.
5.3 TRANSPORTATION MARKET AND Commuters can use this money to pay for
PRICING REFORMS parking or for another travel mode.
< Transit and rideshare benefits are free or
Motor vehicle travel tends to be underpriced: discounted transit fares provided to employees.
many of the costs of driving are indirect, borne < Reduced employee parking subsidies means
by society in general rather than individual that commuters who drive must pay some or
motorists. Many market reforms charge motor- all of their parking costs.
ists directly for the costs they impose. This gives < Company travel reimbursement policies
motorists an incentive to use vehicles more that reimburse bicycle or transit travel as well
efficiently, and provides a new opportunity to as automobile mileage for business trips.
17
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
The full costs of motor Road pricing Some developing country governments undertax
vehicle transportation or subsidise vehicle fuel as a way to minimise
Road pricing means that motorists pay directly
Motor vehicle transportation transportation costs, but this is poor public
for using a particular roadway or driving in a
involves a variety of costs, policy. It is unfair, because most of the benefits
particular area. It has two general objectives: rev-
many of which are indirect or accrue to wealthier consumers (because they
enue generation and congestion management.
external (Litman, 2002). drive more than average), and it encourages
<Vehicle ownership (pur- Congestion pricing (also called value pricing) inefficient transportation habits, including larger
chase, registration fees, refers to road pricing used as a demand man- vehicles and increased driving. Higher taxes on
insurance). agement strategy to reduce traffic congestion. fuel and lower taxes on goods such as basic food
<Vehicle operation (fuel,
Congestion pricing requires time-variable tolls, products and tools tend to provide greater over-
maintenance, repair, tolls).
with higher during peak periods and lower all equity and economic development benefits.
<Parking
or non-existent when roads are uncongested.
<Traffic congestion
<Traffic crashes
Time-variable tolls can be based on a fixed “Travel impacts are greatest
schedule daily and weekly schedule, or they can
<Roadway facilities (includ-
be dynamic, meaning that rates change depend-
if reforms are predictable and
ing the land devoted to
roads). ing on the level of congestion that exists at a gradual, and if they are supported
<Traffic services particular time. It can be implemented on exist- by other transport and land use
<Negative land use impacts ing roadways to avoid the need to add capacity. reforms that improve accessibility
(sprawl, damage to cul- Some highways have a combination of unpriced
tural and environmental lanes and value priced lanes, allowing motorists and transportation options”
resources, increased imper-
to choose between driving in congestion and
vious surface and resulting Neutral tax policies
paying a toll for an uncongested trip.
stormwater management
An efficient tax structure is economically
costs, more dispersed land Economists have long advocated road pricing as
use patterns and resulting
neutral. It would not favour automobile expen-
an efficient and equitable way to pay roadway
reductions in accessibility). ditures over other transport modes, transport
costs and encourage more efficient transporta-
<Negative social impacts over other consumer expenditures, or transport
tion. However, consumers tend to oppose any
(reduced opportunity for facilities over other investments. Some current
new fee, and motorists can be a strong political
non-drivers, reduce com- tax policies unintentionally favour car use.
munity cohesion)
lobby against road pricing, even in developing
<Barrier effect (reduced
countries where they represent a small portion Employee parking subsidies are often exempt
mobility and safety to pe- of citizens. Road pricing must therefore be from income taxes, and land devoted to parking
destrians and cyclists) presented as a package that provides a variety is often taxed at a lower rate than if the land
<Energy consumption exter- of benefits, and as a substitute for other equally was used for a building. This creates an incen-
nalities unattractive taxes or fees. tive for employers to provide free parking as an
<Air pollution employee benefit, but without parking cash out
<Noise
Road pricing should be implemented in con-
policies, employees using other modes receive no
<Water pollution junction with improved transportation options,
comparable benefit.
<Waste disposal (junk ve- so consumers have viable alternatives.
hicles, used tires, battery Improved transportation pricing methods
waste, etc.) Revenue-neutral tax shifts
Current transportation pricing methods have
Since governments must tax something to raise
several problems. Fuel taxes and vehicle regis-
revenue, many economists recommend shifting
tration fees do not accurately reflect many of
taxes from socially desirable activities to activi-
the costs imposed by a particular vehicle. Fuel
ties that impose external costs. For example,
tax revenue is likely to decline in the future as
revenue from increased road use charges and fuel
vehicles become more fuel efficient and shift to
taxes could be used to reduce employment and
alternative fuels.
general sales taxes, resulting in less vehicle travel
and more employment and business activity. Neutral planning and investment policies
This can provide multiple benefits, including
economic development, environmental protec- Some current planning and investment
tion, and more efficient transportation. practices favour car-oriented transportation
improvements over other modes, and favour
18
Module 2b: Mobility Management
19
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
20
Module 2b: Mobility Management
< Redefining Progress (www.rprogress.org) promotes CTR programs must be able to meet employees’
market reforms that incorporate environmental and diverse and changing needs. Many employees
social values into economic decisions.
can use transport alternatives part-time, if given
< T&E, Counting the Kilometres - And Paying for suitable support and incentives. For example,
Them; How to Introduce an EU Wide Kilometre
Charging System, European Federation for
many employees can car pool, telecommute
Transport and Environment (www.t-e.nu), 2000. or flextime two or three days a week. Some
< US EPA, Directory of Air Quality Economic employees may be able to bicycle commute part
Incentive Programs, (http://yosemite.epa.gov/aa/ of the year.
programs.nsf), 2001.
< William Vickrey, Principles of Efficient Congestion How it is implemented
Pricing, Columbia Univ., 1992, available at
www.vtpi.org/vickrey.htm.
To establish a commute trip reduction program,
< VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport
a business usually develops corporate goals and
Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. objectives, policies and procedures, and services
and benefits. Travel surveys help plan and evaluate
programs. CTR programs may be managed by
5.4 PUBLIC TRANSPORT
an in-house Employee Transport Coordinator, a
IMPROVEMENTS
specialised transport services company, or a local
Public transport in developing cities is the sub- transport management association.
ject of Modules 3a, 3b and 3c of this Sourcebook.
Travel impacts
5.5 COMMUTE TRIP REDUCTION Most peak period travel in developing cities is
PROGRAMS for commuting. Though there is limited experi-
Commute trip reduction (CTR) (also called em- ence with CTR programs in developing cities,
ployee trip reduction) programs give commuters such programs may have positive impacts by
resources and incentives to reduce their automo- reducing peak period congestion in any city where
bile trips. CTR programs typically include some automobile commuting contributes significantly to
of the following strategies: urban traffic congestion and pollution problems.
< Commuter financial incentives (parking cash
Even in low-income cities there may be oppor-
out and transit allowances). tunities to avoid traffic problems by encouraging
< Rideshare matching.
employees who own an automobile to use alterna-
< Parking management and parking pricing.
tive commute options at least part-time.
< Alternative scheduling (flextime and CTR travel impacts can be measured in the fol-
compressed work weeks). lowing ways:
< Telework; substituting telecommunications < Mode split: The portion of trips currently
for physical travel. made by single occupant vehicle (SOV),
< TDM marketing and promotion. transit, ridesharing, cycling and walking.
< Guaranteed ride home. < Average vehicle occupancy (AVO): Number of
< Walking and cycling encouragement. people traveling in private vehicles divided
< Walking and cycling improvements. by the number of private vehicle trips. This
< Bicycle parking and changing facilities. excludes transit vehicle users and walkers.
< Worksite amenities to reduce the need to < Average vehicle ridership: All person trips
drive for errands. divided by the number of private vehicle trips.
< Company travel reimbursement policies This includes transit vehicle users and walkers.
that reimburse bicycle or transit mileage < Vehicle trips or peak period vehicle trips: The
for business trips when these modes are total number of private vehicles arriving at
comparable in speed to driving, rather than a worksite (often called “trip generation” by
only reimbursing automobile mileage. engineers).
< Company vehicles, to eliminate the need for
In developed countries, comprehensive CTR
employees to drive to work in order to have programs typically reduce peak-period automo-
their cars for business travel. bile trips by 10 – 30% at a worksite, and even
21
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
The majority of Tanzania's urban dwellers A British study of CTR programs found that:
face chronic mobility problems including: high These organisations managed to reduce the num-
proportions of family income needed for daily bers of cars arriving at their sites by more than 14
travel; long travel distances due to fast city per 100 staff – more than an 18% reduction in the
number of cars. Sixteen of the travel plans cut car
growth; a poor route infrastructure network,
use by more than 10%, five by more than a fifth
especially for walking and cycling; and a high
and two by more than 50%. (DTLR, 2002).
number of traffic accidents involving non-
motorised transport users. Table 9 shows the predicted trip reduction
These problems are even worse for school impacts of various strategies in a Sacramento
children, who are sometimes denied access on (USA) CTR program.
private buses. Female students are sometimes
forced to engage in relationships with male Best practices
drivers or conductors to facilitate easy entry in < Make CTR programs diverse and flexible
the private buses and many children suffer from to meet employees’ varying needs. Design
poor attendance and late arrival at school. The programs to support a variety of choices and
cost of transport also limits access to schools and incentives. The more incentives a program
disrupts education, especially of female pupils. includes, the more effective it is likely to be.
The Association for Advancing Low Cost < The most effective programs include both
Mobility (AALOCOM) was formed to address travel choice improvements (improved transit,
the mobility needs of Tanzania's urban dwellers, ridesharing, cycling, walking, telework) and
starting with school children. The Safe Routes incentives to reduce driving.
to School Demonstration Project is in the < Worksites that lack public transit can still
planning stages at the time of writing, but it is a have effective programs based on ridesharing
spectacular example of a community responding and cycling encouragement.
to a community problem in a manner that is < Executive commitment can affect program
22
Module 2b: Mobility Management
African context. The study tour covered key < CARAVAN, Commuter Programs at the
Worksite, Commuter Information Centre
transport topics such as developing effective
(www.commute.com/wrksite.htm), 1999.
public transportation systems, planning for
< Centre for Urban Transportation Research,
bicycle and pedestrian friendly communities, (www.cutr.eng.usf.edu) provides resources and
understanding transport economics and training for CTR program development.
externalities, and revitalising central business < The Commuter Challenge Program (www.Com
districts. IIEC-Africa co-hosted this tour with the muterChallenge.org) provides businesses with
Centre for Energy Conservation and Environmental expertise to reduce commute trips.
Technology in Delft. The study tour produced a < Commuter Choice Program
ten-point set of recommendations for sustainable (www.commuterchoice. com) provides information
on CTR programs.
transport activities in South Africa.
< AVR Employer Trip Reduction Software,
Clean commute information centre Centre for Urban Transportation Research,
In conjunction with a major travel demand (www.cutr.eng.usf.edu/tdm/download.htm), 1998.
management project in the Midrand area, IIEC Software that predicts the change in average
and its Clean Commute partners are developing a vehicle ridership resulting from CTR measures.
business plan for a Commuter Information Centre. < Dept. of Transportation, Lands and Regions,
The Centre will offer information on park-and-ride Making Travel Plans Work: Lessons From UK Case
Studies, (www.dtlr.gov.uk), 2002.
opportunities, existing public transport routes,
< FDOT, Commute Alternatives Systems Handbook,
schedules and fees, and in general promote public
Florida Department of Transportation (http://
transport and non-motorised transport options for plan2op.fhwa.dot.gov/pdfs/Pdf1/Comm_alt.pdf),
residents, workers, shoppers, business travellers manual on CTR program development.
and tourists. IIEC’s partner in this work is MidTran; < Go Green, Walk & Roll: A Guide to Active
the work is jointly funded by the CSIR and US EPA. Transport To, From, and At the Workplace,
23
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Canadian Council for Health and Active Living relatively high congestion, road wear, accident
at Work (www.goforgreen.ca/resources/ risk, air pollution and noise costs, so travel
Resource.html).
reductions (Figure 6) can provide significant
< SAVE, Toolbox for Mobility Management in
benefits in areas where they are concentrated.
Companies, European Commission (www.mob
ilitymanagement.be), 2001. Information to help
companies develop a mobility plan. Freight transport management resources
< US EPA, Commute Alternative Incentives, < Stefanie Boge, "The Well-Travelled Yogurt Pot:
Transport and Air Quality TCM Technical Lessons for New Freight Transport Policies and
Overviews, (www.epa.gov/ oms/transp/publicat/ Regional Production," World Transport Policy &
pub_tech.htm), 1998. Practice (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), Vol. 1, No. 1,
1995, pp. 7-11.
< VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport
Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. < J. Caceres and D. Richards, Greenhouse
Gas Reduction Opportunities for the Freight
< WSDOT, Employee Transportation Coordinator
Transportation Sector, David Suzuki Foundation
Handbook, Washington State CTR Program
(www.davidsuzuki.org), 2000.
(www.wsdot.wa.gov/partners/wsro/
resource.htm), 1999. < CST, "Freight Transport," Sustainable
Transportation Monitor, No. 4, Centre for
Sustainable Transportation (www.cstctd.org), 2001.
5.6 FREIGHT TRANSPORT < Holger Dalkmann, "Sustainable Mobility:
MANAGEMENT How to Move More Goods from Road To Rail
- A Comparison of Germany & Britain," World
Freight transport management includes various Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 6, No. 4,
strategies of increasing the efficiency of freight (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), 2000, pp. 31-36.
and commercial transport. Below are examples: < DETR, Sustainable Distribution: A Strategy,
< Encourage shippers to use modes with lower Department of the Environment, Transport and the
social costs. Regions (www.dtlr.gov.uk/itwp/susdist), 1999.
< Restricted delivery times in central business < Freight On Rail Website (www.freightonrail.org.uk)
promotes shifting freight transport from road to rail.
districts.
< Use of small and medium size vehicles with
< Hagler Bailly, Potential for Fuel Taxes to Reduce
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transport,
modern emission controls in the central city Transportation Table of the Canadian National
areas. Climate Change Process (www.tc.gc.ca/
< Improve scheduling and routing to reduce Envaffairs/subgroups1/fuel_tax/study1/final_
freight vehicle mileage and increase load Report/Final_Report.htm), 1999.
factors (e.g., avoiding empty backhauls), < Institute of Logistics and Transport
through increased computerisation and (www.iolt.org.uk) is a professional organisation.
coordination among distributors. < Per Kågeson and Jos Dings, Electronic
< Organise delivery systems so fewer vehicle
Kilometre Charging for Heavy Goods Vehicles in
Europe, European Federation for Transport and
trips are needed to distribute goods (e.g., Environment (www.t-e.nu), 1999.
using common carriers that consolidate loads, < Todd Litman, Transportation Cost and Benefit
rather than company fleets). Analysis: Techniques, Estimates and Implications,
< Use smaller vehicles and human powered VTPI, (www.vtpi.org/tca), 2002.
transport for local distribution. < Logistics World (www.logisticsworld.com) is an
< Implement fleet management programs that Internet directory of logistics resources.
reduce vehicle mileage, use optimal sized < A.C. McKinnon, J. Campbell and D. Leuchars,
vehicles for each trip, and ensure that fleet Benchmarking Vehicle Utilisation: Measurement
of Key Performance Indicators, Energy Efficiency
vehicles are properly maintained.
Best Practice Programme, Department of
< Change delivery times to reduce congestion.
the Environment, Transport and the Regions
< Improve vehicle operator training to (www.roads.detr.gov.uk), 1999.
encourage more efficient driving. < A.C. McKinnon, A Logistical Perspective on
Heavy trucks represent a major share of total the Fuel Efficiency of Road Freight Transport,
International Energy Agency (www.iea.org),
traffic on some highways, particularly around
February 1999.
major ports, rail terminals and industrial areas.
Because of their size, freight trucks impose
24
Module 2b: Mobility Management
numerous municipalities from India and Nepal, and < Andreas Pastowski, Decoupling Economic Develop-
ment and Freight for Reducing its Negative Impacts,
is exploring opportunities for private processing of
Wuppertal Institute (www.wupperinst.org) 1997.
compost.
25
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
< T&E, Towards More Sustainable Freight < Taxi service improvements
Transport, European Federation for Transport and < Cycling and walking improvements
Environment (www.t-e.nu), 2000.
< Bicycle parking
< Francis M. Vanek, "Sustainably Distributed? An
< Parking management and parking pricing
Environmental Critique of the UK’s Sustainable
< Traffic calming
Distribution Policy," World Transport Policy and
Practice, Vol.6 No.2 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), < Car-free planning and vehicle restrictions
2001, pp. 5-12. < Marketing to encourage visitors to arrive
< VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport without a car.
Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. < Commute trip reduction programs for staff.
< The Wuppertal Institute (www.wupperinst.org): < Freight management to minimise truck traffic
research on strategies to increase freight efficiency and restrict freight movements to particular
and reduce environmental and social impacts.
parts of the day
< Equipment rentals (bikes, scooters, etc.).
“More effective transport
Resort areas tend to have heavy traffic at particu-
management is urgently needed lar seasons and times of the week. Visitors have
in these cities in order to retain particular mobility needs (e.g., travel between
attractiveness to tourists” transport terminals, accommodations, restau-
rants and shops, tourists attractions, etc.) and
baggage requirements (skis, surf boards, gifts
5.7 TOURIST TRANSPORT to carry home). Many resort visitors will use
MANAGEMENT alternative modes if provided with convenient,
enjoyable and affordable alternatives.
Many developing cities rely heavily on tour-
ism-related revenues, but are suffering from Tourist transport management programs can
rapidly worsening traffic conditions which make involve developing car-free travel options and
these places less desirable to tourists. Such cities packages. This requires coordination to insure
– where it is often impossible for tourists even that visitors’ mobility needs are served, and
to safely cross a road – include for example that travel options are well publicised. When
Denpasar, Kuta, Legian, Sanur and Yogyakarta planning a trip, potential visitors must be able
in Indonesia, and Chiang Mai and Bangkok in to find out that they can arrive at their accom-
Thailand. More effective transport management modations, travel to attractions, and carry any
is urgently needed in these cities in order to baggage they need, reliably and in comfort
retain attractiveness to tourists. without a car.
Tourist transport management improves trans- Some sites restrict automobile use in certain ar-
port options for recreational travel and reduces eas or at certain times, and provide visitor access
motor vehicle traffic in resort and historic areas. by shuttle services, bicycle rentals and pedestrian
Tourist travel has predictable patterns and needs, facility improvements.
and occurs in unique environments sensitive
to degradation by motor vehicle traffic. Tourist How it is implemented
transport management can preserve the environ- Tourist transportation management programs
mental amenities that attract visitors to an area, are usually implemented by regional planning
whether it is an historic city centre or a pristine agencies, a parks agency, a mobility management
natural environment. program, tourist promotion agencies, tourist-
Tourist transport management programs can related businesses (such as a large hotel), or by
include a variety of specific strategies to improve organisers of a special event (such as a major
transport options, integrate alternative transport festival). These programs are often initiated to
into tourist activities, provide disincentives to deal with specific traffic congestion and parking
driving, and promote alternative modes. These problems, but may expand over time to become
can include: more comprehensive. Visitor organisations or
< Shuttle services
26
Module 2b: Mobility Management
private companies may organise and publicise important in developing cities where space for
car-free tour options and packages. parking is limited, and without careful manage-
ment vehicles tend to take over all available
Travel Impacts public space, including areas intended for pedes-
Travel impacts depend on the nature of the trians, markets, parks and green space.
strategies that are implemented, the types of
Parking management strategies
trips, location, and demographics of visitors.
Large travel impacts are possible. Some resorts Parking plan
and destination parks have virtually eliminated Establish a municipal parking plan that identi-
private vehicle traffic. fies where parking facilities will be provided,
how it will be managed and regulated, how
Best practices public-owned parking facilities will be priced,
Tourist mobility management planning should: and how parking regulations will be enforced.
< Make it affordable, convenient and enjoyable Perform parking supply and utilization surveys
to visit a resort community without using a to identify and address problems.
private motor vehicle. Limit parking supply
< Coordinate stakeholders (tourist agencies,
transportation providers, hotels, resorts) to Cites should minimise the amount of public
provide and promote car-free travel packages. space devoted to car parking. For example, avoid
< Provide detailed information on the travel
converting public squares, streets, sidewalks
choices that are available and how to use them. and unused public land into car parking areas.
< Take into account visitors’ transport
Instead, create municipal and private off-street
needs and preferences, including baggage paid parking. On-street parking should only
requirements and the need to accommodate be provided where roads have sufficient space,
changing schedules. it should not block traffic lanes, it should not
< Provide benefits to visitors who arrive without
displace sidewalks, and it should be regulated
a car, such as priority access for buses. and priced to give priority to higher-value users
(described below).
Tourist transport management resources
Prioritise use
< Rosaleen Duffy, A Trip Too Far: Ecotourism,
Politics And Exploitation, Earthscan Publication The most convenient parking spaces should
(www.earthscan.co.uk), 2002. generally be managed to favour priority uses, by
< The Green Tourism Association (www.deto regulating the type of users (e.g., loading, deliv-
urpublications.com/cgi-bin/linker.cgi?http: eries, visitors), regulating time limits (5-minute
//www.greentourism.on.ca) is a nonprofit loading zones, 30-minutes adjacent to shop
organisation promoting responsible tourism.
entrances, one or two hour limits for on-street
< Martin Lanzendorf, "Social Change & Leisure
parking in commercial areas), or pricing (higher
Mobility, World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 6,
No. 3, (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), 2000, pp. 21-25. prices and shorter payment periods at the most
< Todd Litman, First Resort; Resort Community Tran- convenient spaces).
sportation Management, VTPI (www.vtpi.org), 1999. Priority, short-term parkers can be favoured with
< MOST, "Mobility Management for Temporary parking methods that include small increments
Sites," MOST News, No. 1 (http://mo.st), No. 2000.
(a few minutes) and allow users to pay for just
< VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport
the amount of time they are parked. Longer
Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002.
minimum time periods (such as parking tickets
that are only sold in units of two hours or more)
5.8 PARKING MANAGEMENT tend to overcharge short-term users.
Parking management includes various strate- Regulate parking facilities for efficiency
gies that result in more efficient use of parking
resources. Parking management can help address Parking can be regulated to encourage efficient
a wide range of transportation problems, and is use of existing capacity and achieve other objec-
tives (Figure 8):
27
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Fig. 84
Expanded walkways,
bicycle parking, and less
space for car parking
(often accompanied by
concrete bollards, or, in
this case a raised curb to
prevent infringements)
were all features of
a successful parking
management policy
recently implemented
in Bogotá, Colombia.
Parking restrictions were
imposed to encourage use
of alternative transport
modes and make the city
more ‘democratic’ by
improving the quality
of public space. Other
mobility management
measures included
Car Free Day events,
Ciclovia on Sundays,
a surcharge on fuel, an < Limit on-street parking duration (maximum which is more suitable for long-term use by
odd-even scheme, and amount of time that a vehicle can be left commuters and residents.
bicycle facilities. in one space), to discourage commuters
Karl Fjellstrom, Feb. 2002 For example, a strategy used successfully in
from bringing cars to workplaces in the city
Bogotá, Columbia as part of the city’s program
centre, and discourage owners from using on-
to reduce private car use was to increase public
street parking for long-term vehicle storage.
parking fees and to remove limits on the fees
Alternatively, as in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, for
that private parking companies could charge.
example, apply a scale of parking charges so
The additional revenue from the higher municipal
that the hourly rate becomes progressively
parking fees is dedicated to road maintenance
more expensive for each additional hour.
and public transit service improvements.
< Limit use of on-street parking to area residents.
< Limit on-street parking of large vehicles. Parking pricing typically reduces parking
< Prohibit on-street parking on certain routes demand 10 – 30% compared with unpriced
at certain times (such as arterials during rush parking. Pricing of commuter parking, and
hour), to increase the number of traffic lanes. time-variable rates (higher rates during peak
periods) is particularly effective at reducing peak
Impose parking prices
use. Charging motorists directly for the parking
As much as possible, motorists should pay di- is more economically efficient and fair (horizon-
rectly for using parking spaces, with prices set to tal equity) than unpriced parking that results in
make the most convenient parking spaces avail- cross-subsidies from consumers who drive less to
able for short-term uses and to provide revenues those who drive more than average.
for transportation programs. For example,
on-street parking spaces, which tend to be the When parking is priced, it is often leased by the
most convenient and so is most suitable for month, with significant discounts compared
short-term uses such as deliveries and shopping, with short-term pricing. This encourages mo-
should have higher prices than off-street parking, torists who pay the fee to drive in order to get
their money’s worth. It is more efficient to rent
28
Module 2b: Mobility Management
parking in smaller time blocks (hourly or daily Allow reduced parking requirements in
rates), or to prorate monthly leases by days not exchange for mobility management programs
driven. For example, if full-time parking costs Parking requirements can be reduced at sites
$50 per month, commuters who only drive 3 that implement mobility management pro-
days a week should only pay $30. This gives grams. For example, parking requirements can
motorists more choices and a financial incentive usually be reduced at sites with commute trip
to use alternative modes when possible. reduction programs or accessible locations with-
out problem.
Tax parking facilities or their use
Some communities impose special taxes on Control use of complimentary parking passes
parking. For example, the city of San Francisco In some cities, public officials provide compli-
charges a 25% tax on commercial parking mentary parking passes giving motorists free use
transactions. This can be an effective source of of public parking facilities. Although such passes
revenue, and a mobility management strategy are justified for use by public service vehicles,
provided that the tax is passed on to users rather such as police and engineering officials engaged
than being absorbed by businesses. in official business, such passes are sometimes
abused, and used for personal trips. Use of pub-
Require vehicle owners to have off-street parking
lic parking passes should be carefully controlled,
Some cities with limited parking supply require with regular audits.
residents to show that they have an off-street
parking space before they are allowed to register Transportation Management Associations
an automobile. Transportation Management Associations
(TMAs) are private, non-profit, member-con-
Shared parking
trolled organizations that provide transportation
Sharing parking spaces typically allows 20 – 40% services in a particular area, such as a commer-
more users than if each motorist is assigned a cial district, mall, medical centre or industrial
space. For example, 100 employees can usually park. TMAs coordinate mobility management
share 60 – 80 parking spaces. Even greater re- activities such as rideshare matching and transit
ductions are possible with mixed land uses, since promotion, and provide brokerages services to
different activities have different peak demand help individual businesses share and trade use
times. For example, a restaurant can share parking of parking facilities. TMAs allow small employ-
with an office complex, since restaurant parking ers to provide commute trip reduction services
demand peaks in the evening while office park- comparable to those offered by large companies.
ing demand peaks during the middle of the day. They are usually more cost effective than
More accurate parking requirements programs managed by individual businesses.
Though currently common only in North
Current parking standards published by inter-
America, TMAs may provide a useful model for
national organizations such as the Institute of
developing countries.
Transportation Engineers and other planning or-
ganizations reflect parking demand in developed Cash out free parking
countries where automobile ownership rates are Cashing out parking means that commuters
high. Such standards tend to be excessive in de- who are offered subsidised parking are also of-
veloping countries with lower vehicle ownership fered the cash equivalent if they use alternative
rates, in urban areas with more diverse trans- travel modes as described earlier in the section
portation systems, where parking is priced, and on commute trip reduction programs. his can
at sites with mobility management programs. reduce automobile commuting by 15 – 25%,
Parking requirements can typically be reduced and is fairer since it gives non-drivers benefits
10 – 30% at appropriate sites if standards more comparable to those offered motorists.
accurately reflect parking demand. Dense devel-
oping cities should consider setting maximum Unbundle parking
rather than minimum parking standards in city Unpriced parking is often "bundled" with build-
centres (see text box). ing costs, which means that a certain number of
29
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
spaces are automatically included with building Allow "in lieu" fees as an alternative to on-site
Integrated transport
purchases or leases. It is more efficient and fair parking
management in Bremen,
Germany to sell or rent parking separately, so building In lieu fees means that developers are allowed to
The city of Bremen has had occupants pay for just the number of spaces that pay into a fund for off-site municipal parking
great success in reducing they require, and can adjust their parking supply facilities instead of providing their own on-site
car-based traffic in its historic as their needs change. parking. For example, rather than building 20
centre. Half of all trips into the parking spaces at their site, a developer may
city centre are now made by Location efficient development
contribute toward the construction of a 50-space
public transport and a further Location efficient development means develop- parking facility that is shared among several
22% are made by bicycle. ment that is designed and managed to take sites. This results in more efficient shared park-
Public transport is used by advantage of more accessible, multi-modal
58% of the shoppers in the
ing facilities, and allows parking facilities to be
locations (good walking, cycling and transit). located where they most optimal for the sake of
central district.
Parking requirements can be reduced in such urban design.
An integrated strategy of
raising public awareness,
areas due to reduced car ownership and use. This
encourages infill, multi-modal development. Bicycle parking
providing better public trans-
port and bicycling facilities, Provide bicycle parking. Allow bicycle parking
Address spillover problems
and implementing parking to substitute for minimum automobile parking
management has led to these Generous and free parking is often justified in zoning codes.
impressive results. Key pric- in order to avoid “spillover” parking problems
ing elements in the parking in nearby areas. Spillover problems can be ad- Parking facility design
strategy include: dressed directly with management, pricing and Improved parking facility design can increase
<No free or unregulated enforcement strategies. On-street parking can be safety, improve aesthetics, and reduce stormwater
parking in urban centres limited to residents. Residential neighbourhoods management costs.
<Parking pricing reflects de-
can be designated "Parking Benefit Districts,"
mand, with higher prices at Table 10 summarises these parking management
where on-street parking is priced, with revenues
attractive locations strategies, and indicates the potential reduc-
used for neighbourhood enhancement or to
<Car use plus parking charges tion in parking supply that they can typically
should not cost less than
reduce property taxes. Residents’ vehicles can be
provide.
using public transport in the exempted from these charges.
city. How it is implemented
Adapted from OECD 2001, Influencing
Develop overflow parking plans
Travel Demand, unpublished
Excessive parking is sometimes provided to Parking management is usually implemented by
meet infrequent peak demand during special local governments or individual businesses in re-
events. Parking requirements can be reduced sponse to specific parking and traffic problems.
by developing an overflow parking plan, and Transportation engineers and planners, either
other special event transportation management. within public agencies or hired as consultants,
For example, this could include use of remote are usually responsible for performing parking
parking facilities with shuttle bus service, and studies, evaluating parking solutions and devel-
promotion of alternative transportation to the oping parking management plans.
event, such as public transit and ridesharing.
Below is the typical process for developing a
Parking maximums parking management plan:
Some urban areas limit the maximum amount 1. Define general problems to be addressed
of parking capacity allowed for various types of (parking congestion, traffic congestion,
buildings or within a particular area as part of excessive parking facility costs, poor
their mobility management programs. For ex- pedestrian environments, etc.) and the
ample, the City of Seattle allows a maximum of geographic areas to be considered.
one parking space per 1,000 sq. ft. of downtown 2. Perform parking study that includes:
< A parking supply inventory (how many spaces
office space, and the City of San Francisco limits
parking to 7% of a downtown building’s floor area. exist of each type of parking: public and
private, on- and off-street, short- and long-term,
free and paid, etc.) for each geographic area.
30
Module 2b: Mobility Management
31
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Mobility management in
< A parking utilisation study (what portion of
each type of parking is used at various time, Parking (mis)management in
Aalborg, Denmark
The city of Aalborg has particularly peak-periods) for each geographic Bangkok, Thailand
implemented a project aimed area. In terms of road network density Bangkok is about
at reducing traffic to the city < Projections of how parking supply and average for an Asian city, but this relatively low
centre. This involves traffic demand are likely to change in the future, road provision only partly explains the congested
calming and road closures taking into account expected changes in land traffic. Bangkok with 338 parking spaces per
allowing only public transport use, population, commercial activity, travel 1,000 Central Business District (CBD) jobs far
and bicycle access to the
patterns, etc. exceeds the average Australian city and is only
city centre, a citywide bicycle
< Use this information to identify when and a little less than the average US city with 380.
path system, an electronic
parking information system
where parking supply is or will be inadequate By contrast, Singapore, Tokyo and Hong Kong
(below), and the use of
or excessive. average a mere 67 spaces per 1,000 CBD jobs
energy- and environmentally 3. Identify potential solutions. (Kenworthy, 1995). The result is an inner city
friendly buses and city cars. 4. Work with all related stakeholders to Bangkok streetscape dominated by cars; either
Real time parking prioritise options. parked, moving, or stationary in congestion.
information 5. Develop an integrated parking plan that
The Aalborg project incl- identifies changes in policies and practices,
uded a parking guidance tasks, responsibilities, budgets, schedules, etc.
system providing real-time
information on available Travel impacts
parking spaces in city centre
Automobile travel tends to be relatively sensitive
parking facilities. Parking
availability is displayed on
to parking supply and price. Abundant, free
variable message signs parking encourages driving and helps create
posted along main roads dispersed, automobile-dependent land use
leading into the city centre, patterns. Parking management can help shift
similar to the system used automobile travel to alternative modes, and
in Sapporo, Japan (below). improves access by creating more clustered,
Following introduction of the multi-modal land use patterns. As the number Bangkok also applies a policy stipulating
scheme, 930 km per day have of parking spaces per employee in a commercial
been saved due to drivers not
minimum parking facilities in new buildings.
centre declines, use of alternative modes tends This results in up to 10 or more floors of many
having to circle for parking lots.
Adapted from OECD 2001
to increase. Charging employees directly for buildings devoted to parking (picture below).
parking often reduces automobile commuting by Predictable congestion results, for example,
10 – 30% compared with employees who receive when 200 residents of a medium apartment block
unpriced parking, particularly if implemented – all provided with parking spaces – try to drive
with improved travel choices and other mobility to work in the morning via the narrow access
management strategies. roads. Despite the excessive devotion of space to
parking, however, parking is often lacking where
Best practices it would be most useful: close to outer stations of
Parking management best practices include: the Bangkok Skytrain MRT line.
< Establish parking policies that encourage
more efficient use of parking facilities
whenever possible, in order to reduce the
need to increase parking supply.
< The most convenient parking spaces should
be managed and priced to favour priority
users, such as people with disabilities,
rideshare vehicles, delivery vehicles, business
customers and clients.
32
Module 2b: Mobility Management
< Parking prices should be higher during peak- < NEMO Project (www.canr.uconn.edu/ces/nemo)
addresses impervious surface impacts.
periods. There should be little or no discounts
for long-term leases. < Ryan Russo, Planning for Residential Parking: A
Guide For Housing Developers and Planners, Non-
< Parking should be considered a high-quality
Profit Housing Association of Northern California
service. Signs, maps and brochures should be (www.nonprofithousing.org) and the Berkeley
used to provide information to users. Facilities Program on Housing and Urban Policy (http://urba
should be attractive and safe. User needs and npolicy.berkeley.edu), 2001.
potential problems should be anticipated. < Seattle, Parking: Your Guide to
< Parking services should not be one-size-fits- Parking Management, City of Seattle
(www.cityofseattle.net/planning/transportation/
all. A parking facility may provide a variety of pdf/Parkingguide.pdf), 2001.
services tailored to different users, including
< Donald Shoup, "The Trouble With Minimum Parking
valet services for premium users, convenient Requirements," Transportation Research A, Vol.
short-term parking for shoppers and delivery 33, No. 7/8, Sept./Nov. 1999b, pp. 549-574, also
vehicles, longer-term parking for commuters available at VTPI (www.vtpi.org).
and residents, and special arrangements when < US EPA, Parking Alternatives: Making Way
appropriate for commercial users. for Urban Infill and Brownfield Development,
< Parking facilities should be integrated with
Urban and Economic Development Division, US
Environmental Protection Agency, EPA 231-K-99-
overall facility and district design and style. 001 (www.smartgrowth.org/pdf/PRKGDE04.pdf),
< Parking management policies and programs Dec. 1999.
should be coordinated through a district or < US EPA, Parking management, Transportation
region, so prices and management practices and Air Quality TCM Technical Overviews, US
are consistent in comparable areas. Environmental Protection Agency (www.epa.gov/
< Stakeholders should be involved in planning oms/transp/publicat/pub_tech.htm), 1998.
parking policies and programs. < "Parking Solutions," VTPI, Online TDM
Encyclopedia, (www.vtpi.org), 2002.
< New technologies should be used to improve
user service and revenue control.
5.9 VEHICLE FEES, RESTRICTIONS AND
Information resources for parking CAR-FREE PLANNING
management
< Dan Burden, Street Design Guidelines for Healthy
Mobility management measures can include
Neighborhoods, Center for Livable Communities restrictions on vehicle traffic, in congested areas
(Sacramento; www.lgc.org/clc), 1998. and at peak times. Such schemes include car-free
< CORDIS, Parking Policy Measures and the Effects streets, cordon controls on entering a particular
on Mobility and the Economy, Cost-Transport, area (e.g. Singapore’s Area Licensing Scheme and
CORDIS (www.cordis.lu), 1999-2002. Electronic Road Pricing; Trondheim’s toll ring;
< CTR, Local Government Parking Policy and and proposals for central London), and odd/
Commute Trip Reduction; 1999 Review,
even schemes and variations based on number
Commute Trip Reduction Office, WSDOT
(www.wsdot.wa.gov/pubtran/ctr), 1999. plates.
< International Parking Institute (www.parking.org)
provides resources for parking professionals.
Cordon / area pricing
< Kyle Maetani et al., Using Demand-Based Parking Singapore’s Area Licensing Scheme and
Strategies to Meet Community Goals; Local Electronic Road Pricing
Government Parking Management Handbook,
Mobile Source Air Pollution Reduction Committee
Singapore introduced the Area License Scheme
(MSRC), (www.aqmd.gov), 1996. (ALS) in 1975, with the goal of reducing traf-
< Todd Litman, Pavement Busters Guide, Victoria fic during peak periods in the central business
Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 1998. district. The system was based on vignettes
< Oregon Downtown Development Association, and proved highly successful. In 1998 the ALS
Parking Management Made Easy: A Guide was ‘upgraded’ into an Electronic Road Pricing
to Taming the Downtown Parking Beast, (ERP) system introduced to cover the CBD and
Transportation and Growth Management Program,
several large nearby expressways.
Oregon DOT and Dept. of Environmental Quality
(www.lcd.state.or.us/tgm/publications.htm), 2001.
33
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
ERP is simply an electronic system of road pric- shifts to avoid intolerable congestion in
ing. It is designed to automate the road pricing coming years.
system – no more paper coupons or enforce- < Recent technological improvements in the
ment officers at the gantries, as used to be the area of electronic road pricing, smart cards
case with the ALS. The main difference is the and intelligent transport systems (ITS)
pay-when-you-use principle. This is a fair system may help application in developing cities.
as the motorist is charged only if they pass the The Philippines, for example, has recently
ERP gantry. implemented a ‘smart card’ driver’s license
scheme. The license includes the driver’s
With ERP, motorists are more aware of the true
name and address, as well as digital copies
cost of driving.
< Charges are levied on a per-pass basis and
of a fingerprint, photo image, previous
driving offenses, and total points on their
vary according to time and congestion levels.
< With this system of charging, a motorist will
record. Chinese cities have similarly showed
strong interest in ITS applications and this
be encouraged to choose whether to drive,
technology could be applied to road pricing.
when to drive and where to drive.
< They may choose a different route, mode, Trondheim’s toll ring
destination, time of travel, or not to travel. Although cordon pricing schemes have been
< They may decide to car-pool or use public proposed in detailed studies in many large cit-
transport. ies, including developing cities such as Jakarta,
< Those who choose to pay and stay on the Surabaya, Bangkok and Manila, there remain
road enjoy a smoother ride. very few examples of successful applications.
The advantages of ERP as a form of mobility One such example is that of Trondheim,
management are that it is: Norway, which implemented a toll ring sur-
< Fair: Charges are based on usage so those who rounding the city. Elements of the strategy include:
contribute more to congestion pay more, and < 17 electronic toll stations:
those who use the roads less frequently or < register traffic on access roads
who travel during non-ERP hours pay less or < electronic payment lanes to avoid queues
< Convenient: No need to buy daily/monthly < cars equipped with electronic tag
< Reliable: Does not need human enforcement, < contracting-out of toll stations
thereby removing the potential for human < revenues earmarked for transport investment
error (adapted from www.lta.gov.sg, 2002). < additional funding for road building, public
Such applications are feasible for developing cit- transport, safety and environmental projects.
ies. Indeed, the Singapore system remains one of Features of the rate structure include:
the few examples worldwide of a policy instru- < pay only once per hour on entry
ment which has achieved massive and sustained < basic toll level 1.5
modal shifts in favour of public transport. The < heavy vehicles (> 3.5 t) pay double
potential relevance of such road pricing instru- < maximum fee per month: 60 payments
ments as a way of influencing travel demand in < free entry after 6 pm on workdays
< Developing cities often have a low road Results from Trondheim include:
network density and relatively few roads < Greater road use efficiency: Changes in
into the city, which means that relatively few transport mode (from car to bicycle and
barriers or gantries would be required. In walking), traffic reduction during tolled
Surabaya, Indonesia for example, a World period, traffic increase on evenings and
Bank-funded study (Dorsch Consult, 1998) weekends.
recommended an Area Licensing Scheme as < Less pollution.
the only way of achieving the required modal
34
Module 2b: Mobility Management
< Rise in “living conditions”: Fewer waiting 6. Manila uses a scheme which prohibits certain Mixed results from
hours for public transport or in congestion, vehicles, again identified by number plates, license plate restrictions
fewer delays in transport of goods. from operating on the main traffic arteries in Athens
< Revenue creation. during peak periods. Instead of pricing signals,
Lessons learned from Trondheim, which are Disadvantages of odd/even schemes some cities have tried to
equally applicable to developing cities consider- use outright traffic bans
An odd/even system may: to manage travel demand.
ing area restriction schemes, include: < Encourage an increase in the number of Bans in the form of license
< Importance of public support for success of
vehicles owned, as a means for households to number restrictions were tried
measure. In Trondheim this was achieved avoid restrictions. This may not be a problem in Athens, Greece; Bogotá,
through public awareness campaigns. Social if such vehicle restrictions are implemented Colombia; and Mexico City.
and business concerns were stressed (traffic just one or two days a year. Although these bans have
reduction for "environmentalists", transport < Are vulnerable to fraudulent practices such as been somewhat effective,
capacity improved for "motorists"). fake number plates. many households bought
< Acceptance increased as residents gained a second car or switched
< Generate increased taxi trips if taxis are
experience with the system and saw its benefits. license plates to meet their
excluded from the scheme. Taxi oversupply is mobility needs. In Athens, the
< Contracting out/privatisation is helpful.
a problem in Mexico City and Bogotá. number of households with
< Only a policy mix will be successful, in
< Does not provide a long term solution as two cars increased, and mo-
this case a toll combined with improved it will be undermined by growth in vehicle torists who were not allowed
public transit service and non-motorised ownership over time; and to enter the city centre drove
transportation facilities. < May be undermined by concessions and around the city to get to their
exemptions for special vehicles. destination, thereby increasing
Odd / even schemes and their variations
the length of their trips while
Advantages of odd/even schemes
Another strategy is to use licence numbers to also increasing emissions.
control vehicle use at certain times and loca- On the postive side, odd/even schemes: Cars bought for off-days are
tions. Cracknell (2000) surveys experience: < Are often accepted by the public as they often second-hand, which
show a commitment by government to act to tend to be more polluting.
1. Lagos, in the past, used the odd-even number
Adapted from World Resources Institute,
plate applied to the centre of the city but the reduce congestion and related air pollution. World Resources 1996-97, www.wri.org
35
Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
< Are less difficult to enforce than anticipated. Mobility management resources
< Can provide temporary relief in order to
develop something better, such as public < Access; the Sustainable Transport Forum
(www.ecoplan.org/com_index.htm) is an
transport priority measures. information network exploring and promoting
< Assist road based public transport, at least
sustainable transport.
in the short term, as average travel speeds < Rahman Paul Barter and Tamim Raad, Taking
increase (Bogotá reported a 20% increase Steps: A Community Action Guide to People-
in travel speeds after the odd/even scheme Centred, Equitable and Sustainable Urban
inception). Transport, (www.geocities.com/sustrannet) 2000
[see Sustrannet below]
< Can help generate public awareness in
< Centre For Science And Environment (CSE)
support of a motor vehicle ‘restraint climate’.
(www.cseindia.org) is a network of professionals
interested in environmental and sustainable
development issues, located in New Delhi, India.
< Center for Urban Transportation Research, USF
(Tampa; http://cutr.eng.usf.edu) provides mobility
management materials and classes and the TMA
Clearinghouse Quarterly.
< Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia)
(www.worldbank.org/wbi/cleanair/caiasia)
promotes ways to improve air quality of Asian cities.
< Commuter Choice Program (www.epa.gov/oms/
traq) provides resources for developing employee
commute trip reduction programs.
< John Cracknell, Experience in Urban Traffic
Management and Demand Management in
Developing Countries, World Bank, Urban Transport
Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/
transport/utsr.nsf), 2000.
< Equity Watch (www.cseindia.org/html/cmp/
climate/ew) is a climate change newsletter from
the Southern perspective.
< European Program for Mobility Management
(www.epommweb.org) provides resources for
mobility management planning and programs.
< Institute for Transportation and Development Policy
(www.itdp.org) promotes equitable and sustainable
transport policies and projects worldwide.
< The International Forum for Rural Transport and
Development (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd) is a
network to improve rural accessibility and mobility.
< The International Institute for Energy Conservation
(www.iiec.org) has useful documents on transport
issues in Asia, Latin America, and Europe.
< The International Network for Urban Development
(www.inta-aivn.org) encourages exchange
of information on best practices of urban
development and renewal.
< J.H. Koster and M. de Langen (eds), Low-Cost
Mobility In African Cities; Report on the Expert
Group Meeting on Low-Cost Mobility in African
Cities, International Institute for Infrastructure,
Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering
(www.ihe.nl), 2001.
< Todd Litman, Guide to Calculating TDM Benefits,
Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2001
36
Module 2b: Mobility Management
37
Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH
Dag-Hammarskjold-Weg 1-5
Postfach 51 80
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Telefon (0 61 96) 79-1357
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