B59 EH2

Mechanical Engineering Science 8

SA3.3

Contents:

1: General Information

2: Worksheet: Activity 1

3: Worksheet: Thick Cylinder

4: Effort Rating Sheet

Appendix: Activity 1 template

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 1: General information
The class has been divided into groups of 4-5 students to carry out this assignment. It Commented [RRL1]: Suggest that we leave out the number. I’m
likely to use much bigger groups with only about half of them doing
is entirely up to the group how you distribute the work between you but be aware that the lab.
you will be asked to rate each other in terms of the effort that you put in, and that Commented [RRL2]:
this rating will be used to condition your personal mark (For more details, refer to
section 4: Effort rating sheet)

Nominate a single contact person for your group. to be the team leader. This will be the Commented [RRL3]: Suggest that we omit this term. It’s a
group of equals, not a team with a leader.
person who submits the report on your behalf and who interacts with the laboratory
Assistant and the course lecturer. Decide amongst yourselves who will do what,
including writing up Activity 1, attending the laboratory sessions, analysing the data
and preparing the report.

Reporting
Each individual must return a project rating sheet and each group must submit a single
integrated report covering both the Activity 1 answers and the laboratory results and
analysis. The report must be submitted through Turnitin link by the group contact
person. You should name the file (Group No_Campus Location). For example, if
you are submitting the report on behalf of group 3 in Dubai, the file name should be
G3_DU.
Each individual should only submit a rating sheet once they have agreed to the report
being submitted on their behalf. Submit your rating sheet on Vision using the link
provided for each campus and note that you will not qualify for any marks if you do
not submit the rating sheet (more details are provided in section 4). The report will be
given a single mark, but your effort ratings will be used to condition that mark – if you
are judged to have made no effort by the rest of your group, you will not get any marks.

The submission date is Friday, 2627thh of April at 11:59 p.m. (UK Time). Late
submission will not be accepted.

A formal laboratory report is not required, so do not repeat material from the laboratory
sheet, although you may, of course, refer to it. The laboratory part of your report should
contain at least the following:

A brief summary of what you measured, tables of your raw data and an account
of the data handling and analysis
Plots of your measured stresses as a function of pressure and radial position
Comparison between the measured stresses and the calculated stresses using a
thick cylinder analysis and a thin cylinder approximation
An assessment of the accuracy of your strain gauge measurement
An estimate of the burst pressure of the cylinder

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Some general information on strain gauges
A strain gauge is essentially a long piece of rectangular section metal foil folded back
on itself and bonded to a plastic (usually polyimide) backing:

Photograph of actual strain gauge Diagrammatic representation showing

solder pads and sensitive direction

To install a gauge, the polyimide is glued to the surface of the object under test in its
unstressed state and wires are soldered onto the pads. The other ends of the wires are
attached to a Wheatstone bridge, which is an arrangement for measuring resistance.
When the test object experiences a strain in the direction to which it is sensitive (see
above), the total foil length in the sensitive direction, L, increases and its cross-sectional
area, A, reduces, both of which increases its resistance, R, because R   L A , where ρ
is the material resistivity. Note that a strain gauge cannot directly measure a shear strain.

If the directions of the principal strains are known on a given surface, strain gauges can
be aligned along these directions, such as is the case for uniaxial tension below:

y
 yy
εxx
x σxx
σxx
εyy

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 2: Activity 1

Section 3.9 of the notes for Topic 3 contains a summary of the key stages of the analysis
of a thick cylinder using the Lamé equations. In a number of places, you are asked to
“show that”, which means that some steps are missing from the analysis and you need
to fill them in. Finally, you are asked to make an estimate of the error associated with
the assumption of a thin cylinder for yield using both the Tresca and von Mises yield
criteria.

You are required to produce a coherent version of the notes with the questions answered
in context. An editable version of the notes is provided in the Appendix as a template,
which you should return with your additions in a different colour of type. Marks will
only be allocated to your additions, so be sure to differentiate them for from the
source text.

You have been provided with some slides on Vision to help with the analysis. You can
supplement these slides, and your notes, by referring to any undergraduate text on
mechanics of materials, although you may find it necessary to adapt the terminology to
fit that used in the template.

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 3: Laboratory Worksheet: Thick Cylinder

Test object
You will be measuring strains in a thick cylinder with closed ends made from
aluminium alloy. The material properties and the cylinder dimensions are shown in the
Tables (1-3) below. The cylinder has been specially adapted to obtain the radial
distributions of the circumferential and radial stresses. This has been achieved by
cutting it midway along the axis and milling a shallow, eccentric rectangular slot into
one of the walls as shown below, before reassembling the two halves. Strain gauges
have been mounted at various radial and circumferential positions in the groove
oriented so as to measure the circumferential strain, εθθ, and the radial strain, εrr. In
addition, a gauge is mounted on the outer surface to measure the axial strain, εzz,
although this will not be used. The gauge positions are labelled approximately in the
diagram below (solid, hatched and shaded fill for circumferential, radial and axial,
respectively). The exact radial positions of the gauges are shown in the tables below,
along with the associated channel numbers. Make sure to select the Table corresponding
to the apparatus used in your campus.

Strain
Gauges
Joint

Axial view Section at joint

Cylinder experimental arrangement

Cylinder made of Aluminium (E = 73GPa and ν = 0.33) of outer

diameter 150 mm and inner diameter 37mm.
Channel Strain direction Radial position
number (mm)
1 Hoop 28
2 Radial 28
3 Hoop 36
4 Radial 36
5 Hoop 45
6 Radial 45
7 Hoop 56
8 Radial 56
9 Hoop 63
10 Radial 63
11 Hoop 18.5
12 Longitudinal 75
13 Hoop 75

Table 1.Strain gauge channels and positions (Dubai experimental setup)

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 Cylinder made of Aluminium (E = 72GPa and ν = 0.33) of outer
diameter 140 mm and inner diameter 40 mm.
Channel Strain direction Radial position
number (mm)
1 circumferential 20
2 circumferential 30
3 circumferential 40
4 circumferential 50
5 circumferential 60
6 circumferential 70
7 radial 30
8 radial 40
9 radial 50
10 radial 60
11 axial 70

Table 2.Strain gauge channels and positions-(channel 11 will not be used)

(Edinburgh experimental setup)

Cylinder made of Aluminium (E = 70GPa and ν = 0.33) of outer

diameter 150 mm and inner diameter 40mm.
Channel Strain direction Radial position
number (mm)
0 radial 30
1 circumferential 30
2 radial 40
3 circumferential 40
4 radial 60
5 circumferential 60
6 longitudinal 75
7 circumferential 75
Table 3.Strain gauge channels and positions (Malaysia experimental setup)

Experimental procedure

Before going into the lab, equip yourself to take readings and ensure that you have
completed the risk assessment form. If you do not produce a signed version of the risk
assessment form and/or you are not appropriately dressed, you will not be permitted
to carry out the lab. Use the table on the previous page, and add columns for the
relevant strains at your chosen pressure increments.

6
After reading the instructions for the equipment, ensure that the internal pressure in the
cylinder is 0 barg, and take zero readings on all channels. Decide on some pressure
increments (up to a maximum of 70 barg) and take readings on all channels at each
increment. Do not exceed the pressure of 70 barg, as this will cause the pressure relief
valve to lift with consequent loss of hydraulic fluid, for which the technicians will not
thank you.

You are advised to repeat the pressure increments at least once (usually once on the
way up and once on the way down) and take zero readings again at the end of your test.
The accuracy of strain gauges is limited and you will want to assess this as part of your
analysis. You may make a reading of 639µε, which has an apparent precision of 1µε
but this does not mean that your strain gauge is accurate to 1µε (it isn’t).

Data treatment and analysis

The software will provide you directly with values of strain, so you do not need to
calibrate the gauges (normally done by applying a known stress to a well characterised
material).

Strain gauges are normally used to measure stresses (because there is no direct way to
measure a stress), so the strains need to be converted to stresses using a constitutive
relationship. In the case of a linear elastic material where the gauges are oriented along
the principal directions, this is particularly easy to do using:
E E
1   1   2   3   1
1  1  2  1  

E E
2   1   2   3   2
1  1  2  1  

E E
3   1   2   3   3
1  1  2  1  

It should be noted that the groove introduces a stress concentration which affects only
the radial stress. This means that the measured radial stress needs to be corrected by a
factor using:  rr ,true  0.67   rr ,measured . You will need to calculate the axial strain from:
𝜎𝑧𝑧 𝜈
𝜀𝑧𝑧 = − (𝜎𝜃𝜃 + 𝜎𝑟𝑟 )
𝐸 𝐸
using the equations in your notes for the three principal stresses.

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 B59EH – MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE 8
4: SA3.3 Effort Rating Sheet
Compulsory to be submitted by each individual in the group
To qualify for laboratory marks, this form must be pasted into a separate document,
completed and submitted via Turnitin (Use the link that matches your campus)

Please use this form to rate yourself and the remaining members of your group for effort in the
laboratories. Confine yourself to rating effort and initiative - do not try to make judgements on
quality of work. The rating will be used to apportion the group mark to each of the members,
so use the following scale:

0 = Minimal effort or absent

.
.
5 = About the same amount of effort as other members of the group
.
.

10 = Had an effect equivalent to about two people, in initiative and/or

effort and/or other service (such as preparing material for presentation)

You have a total of 5N marks to distribute amongst yourself and your colleagues
on the labs, where N is the number of members of the group.
Allocate a rating to all of the members of the group, including yourself

Group Number:
Name Rating

Total allocation for your group (must not exceed 5N, e.g.
25, if there are 5 students in the group)

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 Appendix: Editable extract from notes

3.9: Activity 1, Thick cylinders: A long, hollow cylinder is subjected to an internal

pressure, pi, and an external pressure, po. Consider a section away from the ends and
write the equations of equilibrium for the element in the plane shown below, given that
the circumferential stress, σθθ is constant around the circumference at a given value of
r.

po ri
pi

ro

Thus, show that:

 rr  rr    Field Code Changed
 0
r r

and, since the axial stress is constant:

 zz
0
z

Use the small-displacement equations to show that:

u u w Field Code Changed
 rr  ;    and  zz 
r r z Formatted: Highlight
Field Code Changed
Use the above, along with the strain-stress equations with x = r, y = θ and z = z to show Formatted: Highlight
that: Field Code Changed
u  rr 
 rr        zz  ……………(1) Formatted: Highlight
r E E Field Code Changed

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 u    Formatted: Highlight
   rr   zz  ……………(2)
r E E Field Code Changed

w  zz  Field Code Changed

 zz     rr     ……………(3)
z E E

u u Formatted: Highlight
Differentiate equation (2) with respect to r and substitute for and from (1) and
r r Formatted: Highlight
(2) to show that: Field Code Changed
Formatted: Highlight
1    
 rr        zz  rr ……………(4) Field Code Changed
r r r r Field Code Changed

Noting that εzz is constant, differentiate (3) with respect to r to show that:

 zz     Field Code Changed

   rr    ……………(5)
r  r r 

Substitute this into (4), and use the equation of equilibrium above to show that:

1    r  rr  Field Code Changed

2 
 0 ……………(6)
r 
 zz Formatted: Highlight
which, along with (5) shows that  0 , i.e. that the axial stress is constant through
r Field Code Changed
the wall thickness. Formatted: Highlight

Integrating (6):
    rr  const.  2 A ……………(7)

 rr  rr   
and using   0 to eliminate   gives:
r r
 rr 2 rr  2 A
 0
r r

Multiplying by r2:
 rr
2 Ar  2r rr  r 2 0
r

Recognising the last two terms as a differential:


2 Ar   r 2 rr   0
r
which is easily integrated to give:
Ar 2  r 2 rr  B , i.e.

B B
 rr  A  and, using (7),    A  2
r2 r

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Now, apply the boundary conditions that the radial stress is equal to the internal
pressure at the inner radius, and that it is negative (compressive). Similarly, the radial
stress at the outer surface is equal to the external pressure, again negative. Show that:
p r2  p r2  p  p  r 2r 2
B  i 2 o 2i o
A  i i 2 2o o and
ro  ri ro  ri

and therefore that:

1   ro2  2 ri 2  
 rr   pi 1  2   po k 1  2   and
k 1   r 
2
 r 
1   ro2   ri 2  
    p  1    po 1  2  
k
k 2 1   r 2 
i
 r 

ro
where k 
ri

Also show that, when the external pressure is negligible, these equations reduce to:

pi  ro2  pi  ro2 
 rr  1   and    1  
k 2 1  r 2  k 2 1  r 2 

There are three possible cases of axial stress:

1. The ends are free to move as in a hydraulic cylinder: Here  zz  0 , i.e. we have plane
2 pi Formatted: Highlight
stress. Use Equation (3) to show that the axial strain:  zz  
E k 2 1   Field Code Changed

2. The ends are capped, but the cylinder is free to change in length, as in a portable
cylinder: Here, if the external pressure is negligible, the force exerted by the pressure
on the end cover must equal the force due to the axial stress integrated across the
(annular) wall of the vessel:
 zz  ro2   ri 2   pi ri 2

Using this, and Equation (3), show that the axial stress and the axial strain are given by:
p
 zz 
1  2  pi Formatted: Highlight
 zz  2 i and
k 1 E  k 2  1 Field Code Changed
Field Code Changed

3. The ends are capped and are restrained from movement by rigid end supports, as in
some designs of fixed cylinder: Here  zz  0 , i.e. we have plane strain. Again using
Equation (3) and the expressions for  rr and   above, show that:

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 2 pi Field Code Changed
 zz 
k 2 1

The three stresses above are, in fact, the principal stresses in the cylinder. Show that the
internal pressure to cause yielding (if the external pressure is negligible) is given by:

pi ,Y 
 k 2  1
Y
2k 2

for all three end conditions using the Tresca Criterion.

Also show that, using the von Mises Criterion, the pressure to cause yielding is:

pi ,Y 
k 2
 1
 Y , for condition 1.
Field Code Changed
Formatted: Highlight
3k 2

pi ,Y 
 k  1
2

 Y , for condition 2, and

Field Code Changed
Formatted: Highlight
3k 4  1

pi ,Y 
 k 2  1  Y , for condition 3.
Field Code Changed
Formatted: Highlight
3k 4  4  4 2  1

Given that the thick cylinder is more accurate than the thin cylinder approximation,
calculate the error that a designer would incur in applying the Tresca Criterion as a
function of ro/ri. Express the error in terms of the pressure to cause yielding thus:

pthick
y  pthin
y

pthick
y

Estimate the error between the Tresca and von Mises criteria for each of the thick and
thin cylinders, assuming the Tresca Criterion to be the “correct” one.

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