University of Washington

Origins and Development of the Shi’ite Islamic Shrine

A Study on the Grand Shrines of Iran and Iraq

Ali-Reza Goudarzi
ARCH 499 – Independent Study
Dr. Vikramāditya Prakāsh
Autumn 2017
 Goudarzi, Ali-Reza

Origins and the Development of the Shi’ite Islamic Shrine

Introduction

Hidden from most of mankind, a gilded dome blossoms from the hot desert sands of Najaf. It is
the Shrine of Ali, the first of the 12 holy Shi’ite Imams. To a Shi’ite, beneath this dome is the
center of the universe, where the body of Ali rests and the heart of every Shi’ite lives.
Throughout hundreds of years, millions upon millions of pilgrims have visited, coming from
every land, yet they all have one common feeling: “It is paradise on Earth!” Indeed this is the
point where the heavens touch the Earth.

My interest in the Shi’ite Shrines awakened in the summer of 2012, when I traveled to the sacred
shrine cities of Mashhad, Najaf, Karbala, Kazimiya, and Samarra, all located in Iraq and Iran.
My visit came from spiritual intentions, but the outcomes of this visit found their way into nearly
every dimension of my life.

One outcome of this visit was my fascination with the architecture and craft arts related to these
sacred monuments. Amidst a damaged Iraq plagued by four decades of war, the devotion of
people to these shrines and their love for those buried within, points to another dimension of the
Iraqi people not seen by the rest of the world. If the surrounding city was scarred by the wounds
of war, the shrine was another universe, tranquil in every way imaginable, from the most delicate
tilework to the chanting and tears of the faithful. These sacred shrines were flourishing, in fact
expanding at an unprecedented pace.

I vividly remember the first moment I stepped into the Shrine of Imam Hussain in Karbala. I had
noticed the Shrine’s iconic courtyard had been roofed with a vast spanning ceiling adorned with
impressive tilework and mirrorwork. This had hit me with surprise. Though at the time my eye
was not so aware of architecture, I felt disappointed that I couldn’t stare upon the gilded dome
whilst I entered through its main gate. I was told the roof had been constructed to accommodate
growing numbers of pilgrims. But at what cost? I understood not all construction occurring at

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these sacred shrines was beneficial, but I did not dwell on things further than this for quite
sometime.

A year later I found myself experiencing some health complications. My physical abilities were
limited and so I unenrolled from college and took time to recover. It was in this period that I
spent hours browsing through photos and made my own models of these shrines. Looking back,
they were very rudimentary, but in the process of doing so, my love for the shrines as a sacred
place for those saints buried within became intertwined with my love for their artistic grandeur.

While the purpose of this research is not to focus on this very spiritual and emotional dimension
of the shrines, I believe they are truly inseparable, as the architecture of the sacred would not
exist without the sacred. Therefore, I request the dear reader that regardless of his/ her personal
beliefs and preconceptions of Islam and its arts, to take a step back and see things from a
different perspective.

A Broad Outlook onto Shrines in Islam

The broader study of Islamic architecture has fixated upon some iconic mosques and tombs
scattered throughout the Islamic world. These structures have become tourist hotspots and
dominated the general field, such as the Haggia Sophia in Turkey, the Taj Mahal in India, and
the Great Mosque of Isfahan in Iran, to name a few. Little to no attention has been given to the
distinction between the classical Islamic mosques, tombs, and shrines. To make matters more
complicated, the study of Islamic arts and architecture has to this point been extremely biased
and failed to provide any serious studies in the Western world towards the more specific field of
Shi’ite Shrines and the arts associated with them. Within Iran and Iraq, there exist very few
studies on the shrines as monuments of specific architectural significance. There are however,
records from the historical accounts of travelers such Muhammad ibn Battuta (b.1304-d.1377)
and wealthy/ royal patrons who contributed to the shrines. Among Westerners, any attention
given to these shrines has usually been by archaeologists and orientalists as a side activity during
their expeditions in ancient cities during the 19th and early 20th century, for example, Alistair
Northedge’s expedition in Samarra in the 1910 season (Allen, 7). Even then, due to the highly
sacred nature of these shrines and their exclusivity to Muslims, it was difficult for any non-

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Muslim to enter, let alone study the precinct; however some drawings exist. A German orientalist
by the name Arnold Nöldeke (b.1875-d.1964) made several journeys to the shrine cities between
1900 and 1909 (Allen, 10). Curiously, Nöldeke was warranted the unique privilage of entering
and making plan drawings of all the grand shrines of Iraq. He published these drawings in a 1909
work titled Das Heiligtum al-Husains zu Kerbelâ (The Shrine of Hussain in Karbala). Hence the
study of Shi’ite Holy Shrines has long been neglected.

The Role of the Shrine in Relation to the Faith of a Believer

The construction of shrines has been a point of controversy between different sects since the
early years of Islam. In early Islam, according to orthodox schools, and even today as is still
believed by some strict traditionalists known as Salafists1, any form of monument of
remembrance over the grave of a deceased was condemned and considered a form of Shirk2
(Ibrahimi, 28). However, since the first couple centuries following the establishment of Islam,
various tombs were constructed, albeit often small and simple. Even then they underwent
controversy with the rise and fall of different rulers and ideologies. This resulted in a continual
pattern of tombs being erected and then demolished (Daneshvari, 3). With the passage of time,
tombs have become more accepted among orthodox Islamic schools and millions of Muslims
each year visit the tomb of the Prophet Muhammad in Medina. Though many modern day
traditionalists condemn visiting tombs, recently the grand mufti of Saudi Arabia Abdulaziz al
Sheikh called for the demolition of the Prophet’s tomb (The Destruction of the Holy Sites in
Mecca and Medina, 2016).

The status of shrines and tombs is very different in Shi’ite and Sufi beliefs. Both groups see
building over graves not as a form of worship, but of devotion towards their saintly leaders and
teachers. The Kaaba is seen among all Muslims as sacred not because of its bricks and mortar,
but due to its connection to God and his Prophets (Schimmel, 151). Based on the Quran3 and
Islamic narrations4, the Kaaba and the mosque surrounding it (called Masjed al Haraam) are

1
Salafism is an ultra-conservative branch within Sunnism
2
Shirk is the sin of committing idolatry or polytheism
3
Refer to Holy Quran verse 2:144
4
Commentary of Misbah al Sharia (Lantern of the path)- pg. 473

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considered the house of God. Similarly, the shrine of a saint in Islam is not worshipped for the
physical structure, but venerated as a point of physical connection to the sacred, as it is believed
that even after death the soul maintains a connection with the physical body. Therefore, a
visitation to such a shrine is the physical point where the faithful can establish this connection to
saintly figures, and seek blessings and intercession from him or her in their own life and journey
towards God. As stated in the Quranic verse:

Oh believers, fear Allah! and seek the means to Him (Quran, 5:35)

According to Sufi commentators5, in this verse the word “means” refers to the Awliya Allah6.
The construction of shrines within Sufism and Shi’ism is seen as a sacred obligation to honor the
resting places of saintly figures and a show of devotion towards them and the faithful who visit
them. Hence the finest artistic crafts have been utilized to build elaborate and even glamorous
structures that both spiritually and physically embody a reflection from the heavens.

The Position of the Shrine in Shi’ism

This study focuses on the grand Shi’ite Shrines and so it is necessary to briefly discuss the status
of the shrine specifically among Shi’ite Muslims. The Shi’ite differ from the orthodox form of
Sunnism largely in their adoration of Prophet Muhammad’s family and descendants, called the
Ahlulbayt7. In the Shi’ite belief, the succession to the Prophet was appointed to Ali ibn Abi Talib
and then to the subsequent 12 Imams8 from the lineage of Ali and the Prophet’s daughter,
Fatimah Zahra, according to divine command. Whereas in Sunnism, the succession to the
Prophet goes from caliph to caliph in a dynastic chain, the first caliph of which was an elected
figure by the elders of the community (most Sunni schools only consider the first Rashidun
dynasty of Caliphs to be righteous). The history of the Shi’ite minority has been filled with blood
and persecution, and 11 of the 12 Shi’ite Imams were murdered by the ruling class among the
“orthodox” majority. The peak of this was the martyrdom of the third Shi’ite Imam, Imam

5
Refer to the commentary of verse 5:35 on pages 294-295 of Seyyed Hossein Nasr’s The Study Quran
6
Awliya Allah are the friends of God and spiritual teachers/ guides
7
Ahlulbayt literally means “People of the House” and refers to the descendants of Prophet Muhammad through the
lineage of his daughter Fatimah Zahra and his cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib
8
Imams are the revered leaders of the Shi’ite, they believe they are divinely appointed and considered infallibles

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Hussain along with a close band of family and companions in 680 AD after he refused to pledge
allegiance to the Umayyad Caliph Yazid ibn Muawiyeh. Imam Hussain and his small band of 72
were massacred in the deserts of Karbala. The martyrdom of Imam Hussain, his family, and
companions led the Shi’ite into a period of grief that continues to hold a special spot in the heart
of every Shi’ite. Within a year after Imam Hussain’s martyrdom, markers were being built upon
his grave. Many hadith9 attributed to Shi’ite Imams supported and encouraged their followers to
continue to make the pilgrimage to Imam Hussain’s grave as a way of keeping his message alive,
and in their eyes, ensure the survival of Islam. The following narration attributed to the eighth
Imam, Imam Reza signifies this:

“Whoever was to visit the grave of Imam Hussain by the Euphrates River is similar to the one
who has visited Allah Almighty above his throne”10

The visitation to the Shi’ite Shrines is also significant given that the Shi’ite believe the body of
the Imam to maintain a connection to the soul of the Imam. Therefore the faithful visit the shrine
to seek blessings from the Imam and gain his intercession in this world and the next. This belief
is illustrated in the following narration attributed to the fourth Shi’ite Imam, Imam Sadiq:

“His intercession will be accepted for seventy sinful people. And there is no desire that is asked
at the head of his grave, except that Allah fulfils it”11

Over time, as Imam Hussain’s successors were killed similarly, and their followers underwent
more and more persecution, the visitation to their graves became more central to Shi’ite identity.
Ruling caliphs feared this practice as a form of silent protest to their rule and outlawed those who
made such pilgrimages to these graves. Those who continued to make pilgrimages, often were
either killed or had their bodies mutilated. At minimum there was a constant struggle of
demolishing any marker, shelter, or structure that was built over the graves of the Imams.
Ultimately this harsh suppression only motivated Shi’ite devotees to follow in the footsteps of
their leaders and show their devotion despite the risks involved with making such pilgrimages. It
was this context that dominated the practice of Shi’ite pilgrimage for the first four centuries after
the establishment of Islam and until the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate in the 11th century.

9
Hadith in Shi’ism refers to narrations attributed to the Islamic Prophet Muhammad or Shi’ite
10
Al Tahthib Volume 6, Chapter 16, Page 45, Hadith 13
11
Taken from Nafasul Mahmum (Relating to the heart rending tragedy of Karbala) by Sheikh Abbas Qummi

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Shi’ite Shrine Architecture as its Own Typology

Due to the harsh political contexts that dominated the Shi’ite world in the early Islamic period,
pilgrimages to the Imam’s graves were seriously inhibited. The constant demolition and
reconstruction Shit’ite Shrines underwent, stunted their architectural and aesthetic development
in these early years. Very little is known about the early shrines other than they were typically
vernacular-inspired structures with a small qubba12 over the grave to shelter pilgrims while
performing their visitation. Only with the decline of the Abbasid dynasty and the gradual fall of
the caliphate in the 11th century were Shi’ites given some freedom to begin developing their arts.
It is for this reason that the focus of this study is on the development of the Shi’ite Shrine from
the 11th century onwards.

To this point the architectural history and qualities of the Shi’ite Shrine have received very little
attention in the overall studies of Islamic architecture, and any mention of them has failed to
categorize them as their own unique typology. Often, they are branched under the larger sub
category of Iranian-Islamic architecture or simply as part of the Islamic tombs category. Within
the Islamic world countless funerary monuments have been built. These monuments have been
built for very different purposes and by very different patrons, therefore I find it necessary to
categorize these based on their “spiritual” ranking.

The Islamic Tomb: Within the Islamic world the tomb generally refers to a more secular
purposed structure, such as the structure housing the grave of a king or royalty. They
have typically been built for the wealthy and noble. They are not venerated sites for
blessings and in modern times their primary visitors come for tourist purposes, such as
the Taj Mahal in Agra, or Soltaniyeh in Zanjan.

The Shrine: Structures of immense spiritual importance, housing the tomb of a Prophet,
beloved Imam (leader), their companions, or Sufi Saints. These are sites of blessings and
remain very alive and in active use today. They have been built and maintained out of

12
The meaning of Qubba can refer literally to a dome or any covering over the grave of the Imam.

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devotion and hence exhibit aesthetic qualities which make them unique from the general
category of tombs.

Though all shrines may exhibit similar spiritual qualities, they vary in their architectural
qualities. The Shi’ite Shrine is a category of its own and cannot be combined with the category
of Sufi Shrines, even those built within the same region. While Sufi Shrines have typically
retained a characteristic of exclusivity among their followers, such as in the context of Iran
where the followers called Dervishes13 were the main devotees (Schimmel, 127). Shi’ite Shrines
serve broader groups of worshippers- men, women, and children who often travel from very
distant lands of the Islamic world. The Shi’ite Shrine maintains a close relationship with Iranian
architecture given the frequent patronage from Iranian kings and nobility, as Iran has long been
the heart of the Shi’ite world (Allen, 21). Even prior to the formal conversion to Shi’ism as the
state religion of Iran at the beginning of the Safavid period, many kings and governors had
converted to Shi’ism on their own will since the 11th century. It must also be understood that the
Shi’ite Imams have a position of reverence even among the Orthodox Sunni schools as pious
descendants of the Prophet, therefore these shrines have received a more powerful patronage
than the very local Sufi Shrines in most cases, which has elaborated their adornment and
grandeur.

Given Shi’ite Shrines significance among a much larger number of adherents, their shrines
brought devotees from many lands to settle near the shrine and build cities to protect and ensure
the constant maintenance of these shrines (Panjwani, 37). This is especially the case among the
clergy who have in the past millennium built many Madresseh’s (Islamic Schools) around and
connected to these shrines. As a result, these cities have become centers of knowledge and
scholarship emanating from the shrine, the spiritual, economic, and political heart of the city.

Varying Degrees of Importance

Even among the more specific typology of the Shi’ite Shrines, there are shrines of vastly
different levels of significance, in both spiritual and architectural measures. It is important to

13
A Dervish is a member of a Sufi religious order who has taken vows of devotion to a master and promised to live
a life of piety and simplicity.

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understand that throughout Iran and Iraq alone, there are tens of thousands of Shi’ite Shrines.
Ranging from the grand shrines of the Imams that are visited by tens of millions of pilgrims each
year, to the smallest of shrines that sometimes just serve a small village population. These
smaller shrines are often built using vernacular techniques, but the influence of the grand shrines
is always present in unique ways, although on a smaller level of attention and detail.

I propose that these many Shi’ite Shrines that are found scattered throughout Iran, Iraq, Syria and
Lebanon be categorized into four main groups:

Degree 1 (Grand Shrines) – The most significant of shrines and those housing the tombs of the
beloved Shi’ite Imams. These shrines exhibit the most architectural significance and embody the
finest of craft arts, such as calligraphy, metalwork, woodwork, etc. This category consists of:

The Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, Iraq,

The Imam Hussain Shrine in Karbala, Iraq

The Shrine of Kazimiya in Baghdad, Iraq (housing the graves of two Imams; Imam
Kazem and Imam Jawad)

The Shrine of Imam Reza in Mashhad, Iran

The Shrine of Al Askari in Samarra, Iraq (also housing the graves of two Imams; Imam
Hadi and Imam Hassan Al Askari)

It is important to mention that in addition to these major shrines of the Imams, two additional
shrines must be considered in this category;

The Shrine of Al Abbas (also in Karbala, Iraq) and mirroring the Shrine of Imam Hussain
on the same city axis. Al Abbas was martyred along with Imam Hussain in the battle of
Karbala.

The Shrine of Fatimah Masoumeh in Qom, Iran, Significant for her role in Shi’ite
mysticism and her close relationship with her brother Imam Reza. The Shrine has an
important position as the Shrine of a female saint.

Collectively seven of the 12 Shi’ite Imams are buried among these grand shrines in Iran and Iraq,
while four of the Shi’ite Imams are buried in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Prior to the 1930’s, an

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Ottoman styled shrine existed over their graves, but it was demolished by the orders of the new
Saudi State. The twelfth of Shi’ite Imams is believed by the Shi’ite to be alive, and hence there is
no grave attributed to him.

Degree 2 Shrines (Intermediate Shrines) – There are many more shrines in this category than
in the first category. These shrines are smaller than the grand shrines and some have even been
largely reconstructed in the past decades. They utilize the same architectural characteristics but at
smaller and less detailed scales. These are typically the shrines of the Imams closest familial
relations who were known for their piety and devotion to the Imam of their time.

There is a vast number of these shrines to list them all, but for future reference I will name a few:

Shah Abdol Azeem Shrine in South Tehran, Iran

Seyyed Mohammad Shrine in Balad, Iraq

Shah Cheragh in Shiraz, Iran

Syeda Zaynab in Damascus, Syria

Degree 3 Shrines – There are countless shrines of this type, from the family and companions of
the Prophet Muhammad and Imams, to local saints who have experienced visions or other
spiritual experiences. The style and grandeur of these shrines vary significantly from highly
ornate to very small scale and vernacular, nevertheless artistic and craft styles are derived from
the grand shrines. Due to the vast numbers of these shrines it is not possible to mention them all.

Degree 4 Shrines – I consider this a modern typology that is still in its infancy. These are
shrines of modern political and religious significance, such as the Shrine of Ayatollah Khomeini
in Tehran, Iran. Inspiration has been taken from traditional shrines, but the designs of these
shrines have not shied away from utilizing modern construction materials and methods (Rizvi,
210).

Architectural History of the Shrines

Little is known about the first shrines constructed over the graves of Shi’ite Imams, other than
dates of construction and demolition. It was only beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries that

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significant and meaningful records emerge that can tell us of the architectural characteristics of
the Shi’ite Shrines. As few comprehensive studies has been conducted on the architectural
origins of the shrines, this study will be derived on case studies of various grand shrines, their
architectural and artistic qualities and development over the past millennium.

The Shi’ite Shrines today are most famous for their defining grand golden domes and towering
cylindrical minarets. Typically square in plan with many halls, most shrines are surrounded by
expansive courtyards on all sides. Other iconic features of the Shrines are their grand entry iwan
portals, noble clocktowers, and particular to the shrines in Iraq, their grand tarimeh14 porticos.
On the interiors they are adorned with the finest mirrorwork and tilework, calligraphic bands
span dome drums and arches, relaying verses of Quran, Hadith, and poetry. The Shi’ite Shrines
did not start out with all these defining characteristics, but were added upon and improved by
subsequent patrons according to styles common of their time and dynasty. Therefore, the
development of the shrines was a very gradual process that was subjected to the architectural
developments of various time periods. These architectural aspects will be discussed in the
coming pages.

Saljuq Era

The Saljuqs (1037 – 1196 AD) were the first major dynasty to rule over parts of Iran after the fall
of the Abbasid Caliphate. It is from these years that the first architectural details of a grand
shrine are known, though very little of what was built during this era remains today. It is known
that the Saljuq King Malek Shah (who was a Sunni) constructed a domed shrine for the tomb of
Imam Ali in Najaf, Iraq in the year 1056 AD. The Shrine is said to have been larger in size than
the current one, and was adorned with many precious silks and lamps (Allen, 12). The structure
was surrounded by iwan arcades. It is recorded that this shrine went on fire in the mid 1540’s
which consumed the Shrine and nearby buildings.

The Imam Reza Shrine in Mashhad, Iran is the only shrine to retain surviving elements of Saljuq
architecture and craft work. The Shrine today is a massive complex of mosques and courtyards
that covers an area of about 6.5 million square feet (Haram: Social and Cultural, 47). Though this

14
Tarimeh – A Qajar era architectural innovation consisting of a roofed portico supported by a series of tall and
slender wooden columns

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massive complex was built over the course of twelve centuries and contains additions and
modifications from every period (Sa’adat,”The Holy Shrine of Imam Reza”, 22). The tomb
chamber over the grave is the heart of the Shrine and the oldest part of the Shrine, it is square in
plan and the existing walls were built during the Saljuq period, the walls are three meters in
thickness (Sa’adat, “The Holy Shrine of Imam Reza”, 22). It is known the foundations upon
which the dome’s bearing walls are built are even older, dating from the 9th century.

The tomb chamber was historically known for its very massive and thick bearing walls which
rendered it more spatially confined than other shrines. This is likely due to the era of its
construction and precautions in building structures at the time. Additionally, the original dome
supported by the bearing walls was demolished during the Timurid era and a new dome built. In
the 1970’s the bearing walls that support the dome were slimmed in order to increase space for
pilgrims around the tomb chamber.

Figure 1A: Shrine of Imam Reza in Plan- Mashhad, Iran Figure 1B: Zoomed plan of dome
chamber bearing walls

The Saljuq period was known for the unique Sanjuri tilework they produced, of which the Imam
Reza Shrine is the only shrine to feature this historic tilework. Sanjuri tiles with dated
inscriptions from 1133 AD to 1230 AD adorn the first meter and half of the walls surrounding
the burial chamber of Imam Reza. The beautiful colors of these tiles, their relief work, and their
geometrical and floral designs remain remarkably intact, and are a rare example of the work from
this period.

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Figure 2: Sanjuri tile work dating from 1113 – 1230 AD around the tomb chamber of Imam Reza

The tiles contain various prayers narrated by the Imams and poems. An ancient mihrab is also
located in the tomb chamber, it is adorned with polychrome kashi15 tiles and kufic script worked
in relief; it remains in remarkable condition (Sa’adat, “Plates”, 34). These are among the most
significant elements the Shrine of Imam Reza retains from the Saljuq era.

Illkhanid Era

From the Illkahnid era, few additions and modifications were made to the Shrine of Imam Reza.
During the reign of Oljeitu (Mohammad Khodabandeh) 1280-1326 a new dome was built over
the existing bearing walls of the tomb chamber (Sa’adat, “The Holy Shrine of Imam Reza”, 22).
Few details more than this are recorded. It is assumed that the dome may have been similar to the
dome Oljeitu had constructed over his greatest architectural master piece, the Soltanieyh in
Zanjan, Iran. Sultan Oljeitu had converted to Shi’ism and was therefore the first Shi’ite king to
patronize projects occurring at a shrine of an Imam. His masterpiece of architecture in Zanjan
was intended to be the shrine of several Shi’ite Imams after he relocated their remains, however
this dream never came true after he was informed by the Shi’ite Ulama16 of the time, that such an
action would be forbidden. The exhumation of graves is forbidden in Islam and to do this to the

15
Kashi is the term for the famous Iranian tilework known for its blue, white, green, and yellow colors and floral/
geometric designs
16
Ulama means “grand religious authorities” renowned for their knowledge in religious jurisprudence and
teachings.

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remains of an Imam would have created much outrage among the Shi’ite. Hence the monument
exhibits the greatest architectural and craft skills of his era. The dome of Soltaniyeh is a double
shell dome with no drum and seems to have originally been adorned with simple blue faience
tiles. Therefore this suggests that he had constructed a dome of similar style over the existing
bearings walls of Imam Reza’s Shrine in Mashhad.

The other innovation the Ilkhanid era brought to the Shrine of Imam Reza was a small
rectangular mosque connected to the eastern wall of the tomb chamber of Imam Reza. The
mosque is named Masjed Bala Sar (literally “above the head mosque”) referring to its placement
on the side of the tomb chamber that corresponds to the head of Imam’s body. The mosque
extension is smaller in dimension than the tomb chamber itself and contains a vaulted muqarnas
ceiling. It would have originally likely been adorned with masonry ornamental work mixed with
blue tiles, today it is decorated by kashi tilework from the Safavid period (Haram: Social and
Cultural, 15).

Timurid Era

The many domes that adorn the Shrine of Imam Reza stand out as distinguishable from the
domes of the other major Shi’ite Shrines to even the untrained eye. This is most articulated in the
Shrine’s main golden dome that sits directly over the tomb chamber. The similarity all these
distinguishable domes have is in their visibly tall profiles and that they are all contributions of
Timurid era art and architecture. The Timurids ruled from the mid 1300’s up to the early 1500’s
and in this period the Islamic world experienced a renaissance in advancements in the fields of
art and architecture (O’Kane 4). The Imam Reza Shrine is rich in Timurid architecture given its
location in historic Khurasan, the heart of the Timurid dynasty. In addition, the sympathy of
several Timurid rulers towards the Shi’ites and their affection for the Imams (especially Empress
GowharShad, wife of Emperor Sharukh) led to significant contributions to the Imam Reza Shrine
in particular (O’Kane 105).

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It was in this period when the Shrine’s iconic golden dome was built as well as the historic
Madresseh Du Dar (located next to the Shrine) and Masjed GowharShad (a massive mosque built
as an act of devotion by Empress GowharShad). The Dome of Imam Reza is a magnificent
structure with an outer shell sitting on a very tall drum, symbolizing the structure’s position as
one to reach the heavens and to increase its monumentality from far distances. The inner shell
below the drum is a shallower dome and is simpler in form. This is done for the more perfected
spatial qualities of a simple shell, its aesthetic qualities, and for practical reasons such as
acoustical properties and structural benefits (O’Kane, 123).

Figure 3: Golden dome of Imam Reza - Timurid era 15th century

The dome was built in the mid 15th century. Structurally, the dome is made up of two
discontinuous shells, a shallower dome below the drum and a pointed dome above the drum
(Sa’adat, “The Shrine of Imam Reza”, 28). As is characteristic of Timurid domes, the dome has
almost no bulge and the maximum inner span is the diameter of the drum; this does not appear
though in modern photos due to slight modifications in recent gild work (Ashkan, 52). The dome
of Imam Reza is also the first time the ingenious Timurid structural system of “Khashkhashi”
stiffeners was used in a shrine’s dome, where a series of internal masonry ribs of various sizes
provide an extra element of structural stability between the dome’s two shells. This methodology
has provided these domes with significant lateral strength in the case of seismic events which is
very important given the greater Khurasan region’s position in a highly active seismic zone.
These domes have historically undergone many seismic events and have required little to no
repairs. It is important to note that the word “Khashkhashi” means “opium-like” in Persian likely

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due to the structural systems resemblance to the natural structure of an opium flower and
provides insight into an instance of biomimicry (Safiepour et al., 6).

Figure 4A: Khashkhashi stiffeners in axonometric Figure 4B: Structure of the Poppy flower

As was common during the Timurid period and all preceding eras, the main dome of Imam Reza
was covered in intricate blue faience kashi tilework with bands of calligraphy. It remained that
way until it was gilded in the 16th century. The Shrine also has several other significant domes
from the Timurid period, notably the great dome of Masjed GowharShad and the double domes
of Madresseh Du Dar. Both of these structures were added onto the Shrine in the early 15th
century, 1418 and 1439 respectively (O’Kane, 180). These structures were built as acts of
devotion by their founders, Empress GowharShad and Yusuf Khvaja, a prominent sheikh of the
time. The Empress built the mosque upon her conversion to Shi’ism in 1416 and the Sheikh built
the madresseh as a Quranic school in 1439 (Alizadeh et al., 147). GowharShad Mosque consists
of a central square courtyard with four iwans, with the grand iwan facing away from the Shrine
and another iwan connecting the mosque to the Shrine. After several armed conflicts during the
early 20th century, the dome suffered from severe structural damage and was demolished in the
1960’s. It was rebuilt with steel and concrete however it does not retain the original Timurid
proportions. Madresseh Du Dar is also situated around a central square courtyard with four main
iwans, though instead of one central large dome, there are two smaller domes on the southwest
and southeast corners. Yusuf Khvaja was eventually buried under the Southwest dome upon his
death. These two domes are in proportion nearly identical to the Shrine’s main dome though at a

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much smaller scale (O’Kane, 182). In fact, historically if one viewed the domes from the roofs of
the nearby bazaar, the domes appeared as if they were right next to and framing the Shrine’s
main golden dome. The construction of the mosque and the madrassah signify the importance of
the Shrine during the Timurid era and the rich patronage and architectural attention it received.

Safavid / Ottoman Era

To this point the great Shi’ite Shrines in Iraq have not been mentioned. With the establishment of
the Safavid Dynasty in Iran in the mid 16th century, Shi’ite Islam was declared as the official
state religion. The entire dynamics of shrine construction changed and it at once became the
priority of every ruler to leave his mark of devotion on these sacred sites. The shrines of Iraq are
all the outcomes of this renaissance. The most important of these shrines are the Shrine of Imam
Ali in Najaf, the Shrine of Hussain and the Shrine Al Abbas in Karbala, the Shrine of Kazimiya
in Baghdad, and the Shrine of Al Askari in Samarra.

Characteristic of the Iraqi grand shrines are their square and rectangular plans where a central
tomb chamber is surrounded by prayer halls. The tomb chambers built in this period are vaster in
size than the tomb chambers found in earlier shrines (Allen, 19). The exteriors were decorated
with the most intricate of Iranian kashi tilework, which reached a new level of sophistication
during this period. Not only were they decorated with geometric patterns, but also floral designs,
scenic depictions, and even paintings of human-like angels.

Figure 5: Examples of Safavid tilework throughout the Imam Reza Shrines main courtyard

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Surrounding the shrines main structure are vast courtyards that are open and connected on all
four sides of the main shrines building. This characteristic is unique and not found in almost any
shrines in Iran. Bordering the courtyards, single or two-story walls made of many smaller and
larger pointed arches which house the shrines various practical needs, such as student
dormitories, storage, classrooms, additional prayer spaces, and housing for the caretakers. The
structure also serves as a wall to the exterior to separate the sacred atmosphere of the shrine from
the materialistic realm beyond, and to also frame entry points where pilgrims enter and exit the
sacred precinct. Historically these walls have also protected the sanctity of the shrines during
period of unrest and violence. This is unlike the typical shrines and mosques built in Iran which
up to this point had a central courtyard surrounded by the important buildings. In this case the
sacred shrine is in the center and surrounded by courtyards. However there are two cases which
slightly differ from this: the Shrines of Imam Ali in Najaf and of Kazimiya in Baghdad. Both
have a mosque added on to the back of the shrine and are surrounded by the courtyard on only
three of the four sides. Both extension mosques were built after the construction of the main
shrine (Issam). In both of these Shrines there is a fascinating realization: the core of the shrine is
the grave of the blessed personality and every architectural element is built perfectly to encircle
this main point just like the Kaaba in relation to its surrounding mosques. It comes as no surprise
that historically pilgrims would circumambulate the grave of the Imams buried within (Issam).

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Figure 6: Shrine of Al Abbas - Karbala 17th century, drawing by

Nöldeke, 1908

The domes found at the major shrines in Iraq (all from the Safavid period) are more bulbous in
shape than the domes found in Iranian shrines. They are double shelled domes with a drum
punctured by windows, usually in the numbers of 12 or 14 (being numbers of mystical
significance in Shi’ism). Streams of light penetrate through the windows and reflect on intricate
mirrorwork that adorns the interior of the shrines. The domes of these shrines are very handsome
in their external and internal shell proportions and in the height of their drum. The internal shell
is usually a simple hemispherical shape that sits on the drum, the external shell is a “teardrop”
shape. The Safavid proportions emphasize a sharper point of convergence at the dome’s apex;
this is an evolved parallel to the mystical journey of ascension. The dome rises out of the
massive bearing walls (signifying the corporeal realm) to the squinches and zone of transition
(representing reflection below the supernatural archetypes) onto the circular drum (the throne
and pedestal) and finally the external and internal shells, converging to a single sharp point
accentuated by a narrow pole crowning the dome (the point which all realms reach, symbolizing
the One God). This is the architectural representation of the divine journey of ascension, which
the buried Imam has achieved and his visitors invited towards.

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Though the Safavids were already famous for their tiled domes, the increased veneration for the
grand Shi’ite Shrines called for an increased distinction from the Safavid’s previous mosques.
This required a new level of artistic achievement involving the finest craftsmanship and rich
patronage. This resulted in the first ever gilding of the domes of the great Shi’ite Shrines using
gold plates. Gold had previously never been used at such a scale on architectural monuments of
the Islamic world. The first instance in which a shrine dome was gilded was the dome of Imam
Reza, when in the year 1525 Shah Tahmasp I ordered the dome’s original tilework to be
removed and replaced with gold tiles. This process took many years, as it was the first time gold
was used in such a way (Sa’adat, 28). Shortly after this though, the gold tiles and other treasures
from the Shrine were looted when Uzbeks attacked the city. In 1607 Shah Abbas Safavid ordered
the dome and minarets to be re-gilded with new gold plates, these gold plates survive to this day
and the date and signatures of the many artisans and calligraphers who made them can be read on
a plaque on the dome’s drum. The domes of the grand Shi’ite Shrines of Iraq would only be
gilded after the Safavid period.

Construction of the Shi’ite Shrines in Iraq during the Safavid period incorporated elements of
local styles, this is very much seen in the these shrines minarets. While they were built under the
orders of Iranians, the grand shrines of Iraq’s minarets are unlike any minarets found in Iran.
These minarets are characterized by their tall cylindrical shafts (which typically don’t taper) and
have a minaret deck slightly cantilevering out with muqarnas below. Above the deck another
narrower and shorter shaft rises and is crowned by a small pointed “garlic” dome, named so due
to its shape.

In Iraq minarets of this style existed centuries before the Safavid empire, two of the great
examples of this typology are the Ghazal Suk Minaret in Baghdad and the Minarat al-Abd (of the
Imam Hussain Shrine in Karbala) both constructed in the 13th century. When the Safavids
constructed shrines in Iraq they built upon this existing minaret style. Instead of using masonry
as ornamentation, they clad them with their signature kashi tilework. In all the Iraqi shrines, the
minarets are located on the sides of the dome towards the shrine’s main entry iwan and façade.
The positioning of these handsome minarets frames the view of the dome as pilgrims approach
the shrine, this has become an iconic sight that worshippers treasure. At the Shrine of Kazimiya
four towering minarets stand on the four corners of the Shrine, framing its double domes from all

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entry approaches. In most of the shrines the minarets seem to rise from the roof, but in the
Shrines of Imam Ali in Najaf, and Al Abbas in Karbala, they are part of the entry façade and rise
from the ground in a tapering fashion. This is no coincidence as it appears the Shrine of Al
Abbas was greatly influenced by the Shrine of Imam Ali in Najaf (built in 1630 by Shah Abbas
and designed by the great architect Sheikh Bahai). These two Shrines are unique in the
monumentality of the bearing walls supporting their domes, suggesting the outer walls were
designed not to handle any of the domes thrust forces (Allen, 19).

Figure 7A: Ghazal Suk minaret - Baghdad 13th Figure 7B: Minaret of Kazimiya Shrine -
century Baghdad 16th century

Afsharid/ Qajar Era

By the fall of the Safavid dynasty in the early 18th century, all the great Shi’ite Shrines had been
built to some degree. In the periods of the Afsharid and Qajar dynasty many of the artistic crafts
evolved and new interventions were introduced. The most significant of these innovations is
without doubt mirrorwork, which has become a craft almost exclusive to Shi’ite Shrines and
Qajar palaces. Gradually Qajar kings commissioned for the removal of kashi tilework from the
interiors of the great shrines and their replacement with finely cut tiny mirrors assembled in
awestriking arrangements. Mirrorwork was used to adorn all the interior walls, arches, vaults,
and most notably the internal domes of the grand shrines. An exception to this is the interior

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dome of the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, which Qajar kings were so enamored by, that they left it
with its original tilework (Allen, 27). Throughout the day light reflects on the hundreds of
thousands of mirrors in the most glamorous of ways- it is truly a sight to behold.

Figure 8: Mirrorwork adorning the internal dome of the Imam Reza Shrine

It was only with the reign of Nadir Shah of the Afsharid dynasty (r.1736-1747), that the great
shrines of Iraq began to undergo gilding projects. In the year 1743 Nadir Shah travelled to Iraq
and made a pilgrimage to the Shrine of Imam Ali in Najaf, upon his visit he ordered that the
grand iwan and dome of the Shrine to be stripped of its original kashi tilework and adorned with
the finest of gold plates. These plates remain today and have given the Shrine its reputation as
the most magnificent of all shrines. This is only suitable for the Shrine of Ali, the most beloved
of the Shi’ite Imams. Subsequent Qajar rulers turn by turn contributed to the gilding of all the
grand Shi’ite Shrines in Iraq. Naser Din Shah Qajar commissioned the gilding of the dome of the
Al Askari Shrine in 1869 with 72,000 golden coated bronze plates (Panjwani, 71). The only
exception to this is the dome of the Shrine of Al Abbas, which was only gilded in the mid 20th

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century. The gilding of parts of the shrines has been a constant process over the past 300 years
(Allen, 30).

Figure 9: The iconic golden dome, minarets, and iwan of the Shrine of Imam Ali –
Najaf, Iraq

Of the Qajar contributions, the addition of tarimeh porticos over the main entries to the shrines in
Iraq has become, along with the gilded domes, the most striking of elements that defines the
Shi’ite Shrines. The tarimeh portico is a wooden covering that extends from the shrines main
entry façade, it has a raised part at the center where the main iwan is located and is supported by
a series of usually 10 to 20 slender and closely spaced wooden columns. The addition of tarimeh
porticos has significantly increased the shrines monumental appearance, it is worthy of
mentioning that these porticoes are usually only found in the Shi’ite Shrines of Iraq. The addition
of these signature elements was gradual, and the first instance a tarimeh portico was added to a
shrine was to the Kazimiya Shrine in Baghdad in 1848 (Issam). This was followed by the Shrines
of Imam Hussain and Al Abbas in Karbala in the later 19th century, and finally the Shrine of Al
Askari in the 1940’s, by this time concrete had been introduced and was being used instead of
wood to construct tarimeh porticoes. A tarimeh was never built for the Shrine of Imam Ali due to
the already grand presence of the iwan and its magnificent height.

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Figure 10A: Tarimeh portico of Kazimiya Shrine- Baghdad, Iraq Figure 10B: Detail Tarimeh column capital at
Kazimiya Shrine

The last of unique Qajar additions is the construction of clock towers over the entry gates of the
shrines outer walls. It is known that the later Qajar kings (notably Nasir Din Shah r.1848-1896)
made trips to Europe and were enamored by their experiences there. This trend manifested at the
Shi’ite Shrines as well, with the introduction of clock towers beginning in the late half of the 19th
century (Panjwani, 60). The clock towers of shrines were constructed of masonry and wood over
the main axis gate(s). In the case of the Al Abbas Shrine in Karbala, during the year 1894 over
the main Qibla gate. By far, most of the shrines original historic clocktowers have been replaced
by modern and lighter towers built from steel, only the Shrine of Imam Ali in Najaf retains its
original clock tower.

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Figure 11: 19th century clock tower over the South

entry portal of Kazimiya Shrine – Baghdad, Iraq

Shrines in the Modern Era

The existence of the grand Shi’ite Shrines in the modern era is a topic requiring of its own
research, their evolving political role, enduring war and conflict, drastic increases in pilgrims,
expanding the shrines and how to maintain their historic characteristics, are all issues they face
today. Given this, these issues will only be briefly discussed.

The modern era in the context of the Shi’ite Shrines is difficult to assign a strict date to, but it
began with a changing political situation in the Middle East, the early 20th century in broader
terms. A time of economic, military, and cultural strain caused by the collapse of traditional
kingdoms, societies, and increased conflict with the Western world. Secularization imposed by
governments as that of Reza Pahlavi in Iran resulted in a loss of patronage to the Shi’ite Shrines,
along with a struggling Sunni monarchy in Iraq ruling over a Shi’ite majority country.
Governmental forces in Iraq and Iran engaged in destructive activities towards the shrines and

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the strucutures around them, clearing the historic communities and religious institutions around
the shrines. In some cases this even involved demolishing parts of the shrine. An example of this
is the demolition of the 700 year old Minaret al Abd of the Imam Hussain Shrine in Karbala, so
that the Iraqi government could seize endowments under the title of the minaret (Issam).

The later half of the 20th century, coinciding with the more moderate reign of Mohammad Reza
Pahlavi in Iran and the establishment of Ba’athist Iraq did briefly improve the situation. The
shrines began to be considered sites of historical value, this was especially the case in Iran where
the Shah ordered architectural surveys to be carried out at the shrines and the maintenance of the
shrines artistic heritage. These polices were strained in both countries due to the strong presence
of grand religious personalities and institutions around the shrines and governmental resentment
towards them and their often revolutionary activities. In the mid 1970’s the Shah began a
massive urban project to remove all bazaars and neighborhoods (almost all of which were
historic) connected to the Imam Reza Shrine in Mashhad. The plan disconnected the Shrine from
everyday city life and allowed the government to control its points of entry and exit in the case of
political upheaval (Haram: Social and Cultural, 18). Despite this, the Shah was overthrown in
1979 with the events of the Iranian revolution.

In Iraq the situation was similar and peaked in 1991 when popular uprisings occurred in the cities
of Najaf and Karbala (the locations of the Imam Ali Shrine and Imam Hussain and Al Abbas
Shrines respectively) in which Saddam violently suppressed the rebellions, violating the sanctity
of the shrines and inflicting heavy damage on their historic structures. The American invasion of
Iraq in 2003 further disturbed the shrines as the country entered an unprecedented state of
violence and instability.

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Figure 12: Damages inflicted onto the Shrine of Al

Abbas after the 1991 Karbala uprising

In this actively changing political scape of the Middle East, the situation of the Shi’ite Shrines
has once again changed. The establishment of an “Islamic Republic” in Iran has lead to a
resurgence of patronage towards the shrines. In Iraq, the American invasion caused the fall of
Saddam and has changed the entire dynamics of the ways the shrines are administered, now by
the clergy, and opened doors for Iran to conduct expansion and reconstruction projects at all
shrines. This has come with a new attitude where the shrines are seen almost solely for their
religious significance, and less for their artistic and architectural value. New massive expansions
have occurred in all the holy shrines in recent years, similar in external appearance to old parts of
the shrines but using new and incompatible materials and methods. Many projects aimed at
accommodating increasing numbers of pilgrims have negatively affected the shrines historical
beauty. My own interest in the Shi’ite Shrines began from this point, and I believe that both these
goals of serving devotees and maintaining the shrines historic heritage and beauty are compatible
and will be achieved in the future.

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Figure Citations

1A: Sa'adat, Bijan. Plate 1: Plan Drawing of Imam Reza Shrine. Print. The Asia Institute, 1976. Print.

1B: Goudarzi, Ali-Reza. Dome Bearing Walls of the Imam Reza Shrine in Plan. Digital Image. 2017.

2: Goudarzi, Ali-Reza. Sanjuri Tiles Around the Tomb Chamber of Imam Reza. Photograph. 2017

3: Goudarzi, Ali-Reza. Gilded Dome of Imam Reza. Photograph. 2017

4A: Goudarzi, Ali-Reza. Khashkhashi Stiffeners in Axonometric View. Digital Image. 2017

4B: Crawl, Barge. Opium Bloom. Digital image. Wild Flowers. N.p., 24 June 2006. Web.
<http://wildflowerfinder.org.uk/Flowers/P/Poppy(Opium)/Poppy(Opium).htm>.

5: Goudarzi, Ali-Reza. Kashi Tiles at the Imam Reza Shrine. Photograph. 2017

6: Noldeke, Arnold. Plan- Shrine of Al Abbas in Kerbala. Print. 1908

7A: Creswell, K.A.C. Minaret in Suq Al-Ghazi, Baghdad, Iraq. Digital image. Ashmolean Museum of Art
and Archaeology. The Creswell Photographic Archive, n.d. Web.
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7B: Meyer, Karls. Al-Kadhimiya Mosque, Baghdad, Iraq circa 1952. Digital image. Flickr. N.p., 2012.
Web. <https://www.flickr.com/photos/perkinsarchive/8075257354>.

8: Goudarzi, Ali-Reza. Mirror Adorned Interior Dome of the Imam Reza Shrine. Photograph. 2017

9: Al Husayni, Ahmed. The Holy Shrine of Imam Ali. Digital image. Al Kafeel: Administration of the Al
Abbas Shrine, 2012. Web. <https://alkafeel.net/photos/index.php?v=photo&id=NDk5&lang=en>.

10A: Old Tarimeh of Al Kazimiya Shrine. Digital image. Al Jawadain. N.p., 2014. Web.
<http://www.aljawadain.iq/EN/gallery_single.php?sub_id=8&id=73>.

10B: Detail of External Tarimeh Capital - 1982. Digital image. Mashhad Al-Kazimiyya. ArchNet, n.d.
Web. <https://archnet.org/sites/3848/media_contents/5328>.

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11: Meyer, Karl. View looking up at the facade of the Al-Kadhimiya Mosque with a large arched
entryway filled with people. Digital image. Flickr. N.p., 1952. Web.
<https://www.flickr.com/photos/perkinsarchive/8075257354>.

12: Iraqi Chieftain in Karbala putting down a Shi'ite rebellion, Karbala, April 1991. Digital image.Flickr.
N.p., 2015. Web.

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