Air Pollution in India: A Case of Increasing Environmental Insecurity

Author: Kapil Narula *

Date: 23 May 14

WHO Report on Ambient Air Pollution

According to the recently released World Health Organisation (WHO) report on ambient
(outdoor) air pollution which covers 1600 cities in 91 countries, Delhi is the most polluted city in
the world. The study was based on data1 collected from monitoring stations located in residential,
industrial and mixed zones in various urban cities of the world. The assessment was based on
annual mean2 concentrations of particulate matter3, PM 2.5 and PM 10 which were monitored from
2010 to 2013.

Table 1: Five most4 polluted cities in the world based on concentration of air pollutantsi

City PM 2.5 PM 10 5 Comments

(µg/m3) (µg/m3)
Delhi 153 (2010) 286 (2013) Measured at 6 monitoring stations for PM 2.5 and 5
stations for PM 10
Patna 149 (2011) 164 (2013) Measured at 1 monitoring stations for PM 2.5 and 2
stations for PM 10
Gwalior 144 (2012) 329 Measured at 2 monitoring stations
Raipur 134 (2012) 305 Measured at 2 monitoring stations
Karachi 117 (2010) 273 (2010) Data for two months quoted in an academic paper

1600 cities in the world were first sorted on concentration of PM 2.5 (as it is known to have
higher health impact) and then by PM 10 values. It is notable that Delhi thereby emerges as the
most polluted city in the world, followed by other cities in the Indian sub-continent (Top 5
shown in Table 1). Pathanamthitta6 with a concentration of 10 µg/m3 (PM2.5) and 23 µg/m3
(PM10) was the least polluted amongst the 124 Indian cities which were ranked.

1
Data provided by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), India
2
Annual mean concentrations are calculated based on daily measurements
3
Particulate Matter (PM) can be solid particles or liquid droplets that are most common air pollutants. Big particles
are between 2.5 and 10 micrometers in size and are called PM 10, while fine particles are smaller than 2.5
micrometers in size and are called PM 2.5
4
There may be cities which are more polluted but as these countries do not report their data, they are not included in
the list.
5
Although the concentration of PM 10 in Peshawar (540), Rawalpindi (448), Mazar-e-Sharif, Afghanistan (334),
Ahvaz, Iran (320), Hamad Town, Baharain (318) were higher, they were excluded from the list as the reported data
was only of two or lesser months and was not monitored consistently.
6
Pathanamthitta is a town and a municipality situated in the central Travancore region in the state of Kerala
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The report concluded that, about half of the urban population lives in cities that exceed by 2.5
times or more, the recommended levels of fine particulate matter set out by the WHO Air
Quality Guidelines and only around 12% of the total urban population lives in cities where the
air quality complies with such levels. Based on comparative assessment of 2011 and 2014
versions of the WHO database, it also concluded that air quality over the years is worsening,
globally. However, on a positive side, trends also revealed that air quality in certain cities
(mostly located in high-income countries), has improved.

Cause, Effect and Impact of Pollutants

PM10 are coarse particles such as smoke, dust, dirt, mold and pollen and are produced from
crushing and grinding rocks, soil and plantsii. On the other hand, PM2.5 particles are actually
toxic organic compounds and heavy metals which are produced from exhaust fumes from
vehicles, smelting of processing metals, emissions from factories, coal fired power plants and
burning of biomass. Hence the major source of these pollutants is transportation sector and
increased use of fossil based energy sources.

Delhi has the about 65 lakh vehicles7 (2012) on road which exceeds the combined number of
vehicles in metro cities of Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. The effect of poor public transport,
lack of transport infrastructure, poor traffic management, untamed motorization, urbanization
and unrestricted use of energy is evident in worsening the air quality in Indian cities.

The effect of these pollutants is long lasting and is spread over a large area8. Although both
particles can cause respiratory health problems, PM2.5, being smaller, travels deeper into the
lungs and they are carcinogenic. Therefore, PM2.5 can cause health problems such as coughing,
asthma, lung damage and premature death in individualsiii, 9.

This results in negative impacts on the society such as increased costs of healthcare, economic
loss due to absenteeism and reduced quality of life. Further, as poor people cannot afford the
high cost of health services, they are easy prey to diseases associated with deteriorating air
quality, which leads to further rise in social and economic inequality.

Should we be concerned?

Table 2, lists the guidelines for air quality as specified by World Health Organization (WHO)
and National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) by the Government of India10.

7
On an average over 1,000 vehicles are added to the city roads everyday.
8
PM10 particles are heavier and they stay in the air for minutes or hours and can travel from a hundred yards to 30
miles. PM2.5 particles which are smaller and lighter, can stay in the air for days or weeks and can travel many
hundreds of miles.
9
Air pollution lead to seven million deaths globally in 2012.
10
Notified by CPCB under the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) on 18 Nov 2009 10
2
 Table 2: Air quality guidelines based on concentration of air pollutants

Pollutants PM2.5 (µg/m3 ) PM10 (µg/m3 )

24 Hour 11 Annual 12 24 Hour Annual
WHOiv 25 10 50 20
guidelines
NAAQS 60 40 100 60
Delhi - 153 - 286

Table 2 reveals that even though India has adopted standards which are much lower as compared
to the WHO guidelines, the annual mean values of specified air pollutants in Delhi far exceeds
the permissible limits set by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB, India) itself. This is
primarily because although a national authority sets the standards, state level authorities who are
responsible for its implementation, are unable to effectively enforce the regulations. This is a
major cause of concern for citizens, civil society, policy makers and energy and environment
planners.

As clean air is a public good (non-excludable13 and non-rivalrous14), it is subject to

overexploitation, leading to large negative externalities. Further, once degraded, the costs of
providing clean air (and water) increase significantly and consume larger financial resources.
Increased levels of air pollutants despite presence of existing standards, clearly convey that we
are unable to enforce regulations due to poor governance and lack of implementation
mechanisms. This may also send a wrong signals that we prioritize economic development over
environmental and societal development. But it is a clear indicator that we are unable to address
environmental challenges and are therefore ill prepared to deal with environmental externalities.

Air Quality and its Link with Environmental Security

Environmental security can be defined as the “relative public safety from environmental dangers
caused by natural or human processes due to ignorance, accident, mismanagement or design
and originating within or across national borders.”v

Environmental security is now emerging as an integral component of national security. Hence

reckless exploitation of our natural resources, food and water scarcity, climate change,
degradation of local and global ecosystems and increase in air and water pollution comprise

11
24 hourly or 08 hourly or 01 hourly monitored values as applicable
12
Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year, taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform
intervals.
13
An individual cannot be prevented from consuming the good
14
Several individuals can consume the same good without diminishing its value
3
threats to environmental security and are therefore potential causes of internal and external
conflict which imperil human securityvi.

Environmental threats impede economic development and increase inequality. However,

policymakers often overlook the extent to which environmental stresses can undermine social
and political stability. This can increase the risk of political strife and violent conflict especially
in unstable regions of the developing world.vii It is therefore, important, that pragmatic growth
strategies should be adopted which should lead to sustainable development and balanced growth.

Possible Solutions

The first and foremost step is the collection, monitoring and reporting of authentic data and the
Government of India should be commended for having invested in the capacity to regularly
monitor and report the local air quality measurements. By this action they have already
demonstrated a commitment to take corrective action for addressing air quality issues. But much
more needs to be done. So, what are the other options for the policy makers in government? A
few of these are to increase public transport infrastructure, to encourage use of clean and
efficient transport such as CNG and electric vehicles, effective traffic management, to encourage
non-motorised transportation like cycles, taxation on high end diesel driven luxury cars,
improved fuel quality, better urban planning, efficient and cleaner engine technology and
policies to discourage private vehicles. All this can only be enforced by strict regulation, sound
management and effective implementation of policies.

Conclusion

Sustainable use of natural resources and protection of environment are vital to human and
environmental security. Poor air quality in Indian cities, which is one of the worst in the world,
points to imbalanced growth and leads us to the question of ‘Development at what cost?’
Increasing environmental insecurity in India also conveys a sense of helplessness and
unpreparedness to meet the future threats to national security which may be caused by
environmental disasters. Strengthening our environmental security is therefore is now a
necessity, which must gain adequate attention.

*********************************************

(*The author is a Research Fellow at the National Maritime Foundation, New Delhi. The views
expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the Indian
Navy or National Maritime Foundation. He can be reached at kapilnarula@yahoo.com)

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End Notes

i
World Health Organisation. “Ambient Air Pollution database-2014”. Accessed on May 8, 2014.
ii
World Health Organisation. “FAQ - Ambient (outdoor) Air Pollution Database, Update 2014”. Accessed on May
8, 2014.
iii
Pima County-Department of Environmental Quality. “What is Particulate Matter” Available at
http://www.airinfonow.org/html/ed_particulate.html. Accessed on May 8, 2014.
iv
World Health Organisation. Available at http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/. Accessed on May
9, 2014.
v
The Millennium Project, Global Futures Studies and Research. “Environmental Security Study- Section 2 -
Definitions of Environmental Security”. Available at http://www.millennium-project.org/millennium/es-2def.html.
Accessed on May 9, 2014.
vi
International Institute for Sustainable Development, “Environment and Human Security”. Available at
http://www.iisd.org/ecp/es/. Accessed on May 8, 2014.
vii
Foundation for Environmental Security and Sustainability. “ The Challenge of Environmental Security”. Available at
http://www.fess-global.org/. Accessed on May 9, 2014.