444 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, VOL. IA-12, NO.
5, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1976
Application Guide for Shunt Capacitors on Industrial
Distribution Systems at Medium Voltage Levels
DONALD F. MILLER,
Abstract-Increased emphasis on energy conservation and reduction
of purchased electric power bills have resulted in an increased aware-
ness of the importance of capacitors on industrial systems. Larger banks
of capacitors are being considered for installation and many questions
relating to the application must be answered. Most of the commonly
encountered factors relating to equipment selection, location on the
system, protection, and switching criteria are reviewed. Motor ter-
minal capacitor applications are also discussed. Economic justification
for the purchase of the capacitors and harmonic resonance, as it relates
to capacitor selection and application, are not included.
I. INTRODUCTION
THIS APPLICATION guide is written primarily to aid indus-
trial power system engineers and application personnel in
answering questions which commonly arise in the application
of shunt capacitors to industrial power systems. It is primarily
concerned with the medium voltage levels from 2400 to
13 800 V. The same principles apply to the low voltage area,
but these low voltage applications raise fewer questions and do
not require as much engineering effort in order to be properly
placed on the system. It has been assumed that the economic
justification for the aedition of the capacitors has already been
established. Usually, the reduction in the utility power cost
and release of system capacity are the prime motivators, with
loss reduction and voltage level improvement being additional
benefits of lesser importance. With the trend toward higher
cost electric power bills and the increased cost of additional
system capacity, it is expected that there will be many more
opportunities for capacitor applications at the medium voltage
level. These additions to the industrial power distribution net-
work, like any significant addition or expansion, must be care-
fully considered so that they will be properly ordered and
installed for optimum benefit and successful operation.
The location of the capacitors on the system will not be
discussed in detail here. If there are no sources of harmonic
voltages or currents on the system, then locating the capacitors
close to the load will be the most effective deployment, con-
sidering improvement in power factor, voltage and loss reduc-
tion. Effective control of harmonic voltages and currents,
however, will be most easily accomplished if the capacitors are
placed in one location which will usually be the main plant
bus.
Paper IOD-75-44, approved by the Petroleum and Chemical Indus-
try Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society for presen-
tation at the 1975 Petroleum and Chemical Industry Technical Con-
ference, Milwaukee, WI, September 15-17. Manuscript released for
publication January 9, 1976.
The author is with the Industrial Power Systems Engineering Opera-
tion, General Electric Company, Schenectady, NY 12345.
MEMBER, IEEE
Industrial systems present many opportunities for the
application of low-voltage capacitor units and often they will
be the optimum choice from the system operation viewpoint.
However, if larger banks of capacitors are needed to make the
desired correction in power factor, then a comparison should
be made between the total costs of medium voltage and low
voltage installations. The cost per kvar of medium voltage
capacitors is significantly less than the low voltage type but
this advantage is offset in some instances by the cost of the
medium voltage switching device which is required for the
larger bank.
II. CAPACITOR UNIT AND BANK RATINGS
There is a wide range of capacitors to select from in spec-
ifying a new installation. Variations exist in available kvar
rating, voltage ratings, and in the availability of single phase
and three phase unit designs. The application will determine
the selection and the various significant considerations will
each be developed in this and following sections of the paper.
A.A vailable kvar and Voltage Ratings
In Table I kvar and voltage ratings are for single-phase units
which can be obtained either in single-bushing or two-bushing
configurations. The array of voltage ratings make it possible
to connect banks into configurations which will match almost
any common industrial voltage level up to 34.5 kV line-to-linle.
In Table II, the capacitors are three-phase units being
supplied with enclosed terminal equipment including fuses.
These units are often used for motor terminal applications.
The individual units can be combined into banks utilizing any
of the unit ratings in banks from 25 through 600 kvar in
approximately 25 kvar steps. They are in delta connected con-
figurations only. The two voltage levels are those which are
utilized in approximatley 90 percent of medium voltage motor
terminal capacitor applications.
Individual capacitor units will meet or exceed the criteria
described in ANSI C55.l for shunt power capacitors. The
following tolerances in ratings are among those which are
considered significant in capacitor applications.
1) Zero to +15-percent tolerance on rated reactive power
at rated voltage and frequency. In actual construction the
average capability above rating will be close to 4 percent. The
kvar will drop about 2 percent as the unit comes to operating
temperature.
2) Continuous operation at 135 percent of rated reactive
power including fundamental frequency and harmonic voltages.
3) Contiinuous operation at 110 percent of rated terminal
voltages, including harmonics but not transients.
MILLER: APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SHUNT CAPACITORS 445

TABLE I includes a series group of 2400-V units and a series group of

SINGLE-PHASE UNITS, SINGLE- OR TWO-BUSHING DESIGN 4800-V, the 4800-V group should consist of twice the kiovars
BIL of the 2400-V group.
kvar Voltages (kV)b In general, it is desirable to choose capacitor units with
2400 75
voltage ratings such that each series group contains a large
2700 75 number of units in parallel. With the array of standard voltage
4160 75 ratings available, many voltages and configurations can be
4800 75 made up of wye connected banks without series sections.
6640 95
50 7200 95 The exception is at the 34.5-kV level where special considera-
100 7620 95 tions dictate that a different approach be used to obtain the
150 7960 95 optimum selection of equipment for the application. This
200 9960 95
300 12470 95 circumstance usually occurs in conjunction with arc furnace
13280 95 applications.
13800 95
14400 95 C. Bank Construction and Location
19920a 125
There are three principal types of capacitor bank construc-
a 50 kvar unit not available at 19920 V. tions available in the medium voltage range. The selection will
b Basic insulation level.
depend on the location in the system where they are to be
connected and the kvar capacity of the bank.
TABLE II The type of bank most often applied is the outdoor rack
THREE-PHASE UNITS WITH TERMINAL BLOCK AND FUSES design. This approach is suitable for large, medium voltage
capacitor banks of any designated kvar rating and voltage.
BIL These designs are utilized by both industrial and utility users.
Voltages kvar Rating (kV)
The voltage range starts at 2400 V and goes up to as high as
50 75 the application requires. The kvar capacity starts at 1200 kvar
2400 100 75 and can be designed as large as required. These designs will
and 125 75
4160 150 75 include rack for mounting, individual fusing and group fusing,
200 75 if required. A stand and insulated support structure with
accessories such as switching devices, and controls can be fur-
nished when desired.
4) Continuous operation at 180 percent rated rms current The second type of equipment available is the enclosed or
including fundamental and harmonics. If capacitors are housed construction. In the medium voltage range there are
operating close to this limit the manufacturer should be con- two types of construction. One is the pad mounted design with
sulted regarding fuse selection. rating up to 1800 kvar at voltages from 2400 V to 34.5 kV.
5) Ambient temperature limits depend upon the mounting The housing is built to enclose the capacitors, switching device,
arrangements and hence the ventilation. The range of 24-hour and the automatic sensing and control equipment. These are
ambient temperatures is from 350C in enclosed equipment to used where a relatively small bank of capacitors is needed to
460C for isolated units in open mountings. The minimum improve the voltage profile on a distribution feeder.
ambient temperature is -400C. The second variety of housed equipment includes larger
Other ratings such as transient overcurrent and overvoltage rated banks, up to 6000 kvar. These large installations tend to
levels are also specified, but the above provide the basic pa- be more special in their design, meeting specific conditions
rameters for application. required by the customer. The capacitor units are often indi-
vidually fused. Vacuum switches or breakers as well as conven-
B. Selection of Capacitor Units for Large Bank Installations tional oil switches can be utilized and operated by automatic
Whenever possible, capacitor units of a standard voltage sensing and control. On occasion the housing may be equipped
rating should be used, since they are generally less expensive with forced-air cooling. This type of housed equipment has
than those with special voltage ratings. However, since kilovars been utilized by both industrial and utility customers.
delivered by a capacitor are proportional to the square of the Finally, there are the three-phase capacitor units, which are
applied voltage, there is a disproportionate reduction in the often used in motor applications. They can be obtained in
realizable kilovar capacity if the capacitors are not operated bank sizes from 25 kvar through 600 kvar in approximately
at their full voltage rating. Hence there may be cases where 25 kvar steps. These small bank arrangements utilize one, two,
units with a special voltage rating may be justified, where the or three three-phase delta connected units with a terminal
required circuit voltage cannot be approached closely enough enclosure, mounting frame, and current limiting fuses. This
with standard units. There may be cases, also, where it is. equipment does not require a great deal of space and can be
expedient to use capacitor units of two different voltage easily and quickly installed.
ratings in different series groups of the same phase. This is Since capacitors reduce kvar flow from the source on out to
acceptable so long as the proper ratio of kilovars in the series the capacitor location, the logical placement is as near the load
group is maintained. For example, if one phase of a bank as possible. This will have the greatest effect on power factor
446 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1976

improvement. In an industrial system it means motor terminal

installation as well as power utilization buses, either low
voltage or medium voltage. Concentrations of induction

2'<
motors are often candidates for shunt capacitor applications, '2-
116
particularly if the motors are only partially loaded. Other
possibilities may be induction furnaces, thyristor type adjust-
able speed drive power supplies, and resistance welders, to
name a few.
There will be occasions where it will be more advantageous
to locate the kilovar supply at the main bus in the plant. Some
of the benefits of placing the capacitors right "at the load" (as
in the case of motor terminal applications) are relinquished in
favor of a larger bank placed such that the kilovars will be
"imore available" to the system as a whole. The need to coIn- 11 4 16 2 2 8 3
trol harmonic voltages and currents may dictate that a single 106 _-
capacitor location be established. Also, the economics of pur-
chasing, installing, protecting, and controlling a single large 104
bank can also tilt the decision toward a main bus location. The
combination of system needs, system configurations, opera-
tional requirements, cost of purchasing, and installing the
equipment will all influence the selection of the bank location.
100 I
102 }I
~
8
.....L.
12 16
_ _-
____
20 24 211 32
0 4
D. Capacitor Bank Connections CAPACITORS REMOVED FROM THE SAME SERIES GROUP
PERCENT OF TOTAL CAPACITORS IN SERIES GROUP
There are a number of ways in which a capacitor bank may Fig. 1. Ungrounded wye connected capacitor bank. Voltage on re-
be connected, with the choice being dependent on the voltage maining capacitors in a series group versus percentage of capacitors
level of the system, the kvar capacity of the bank. the system removed from that particular series group.
grounding, and the desired relay protection. For industrial
system voltages the banks can normally be made up of capac-
itor units rated at line-to-neutral voltage. Once the individual
capacitor units are selected to meet the voltage requirements
of the system, then the number of parallel units are selected to
meet the bank kvar requirements. Two criteria are applied to
determine the minimum allowable number of paralleled capac-
NO. OF SERIES GROUPS PER PHASE
itor units in each phase.
These two criteria are as follows.
1) The loss of one capacitor unit in a particular group or
phase should not produce a voltage across the remaining units
in that phase exceeding 110 percent of the rated voltage. c-1
;!5
2) In the event of a failure of a unit, sufficient fault current CD

should flow through the individual fuse ensure clearing

to in n
I.j

300 s or less. It should be pointed out that the 300-s time span 'r-.z
1-

is a maximum, and 30 s or less is a more desirable time span. C.

104 _ It//
- /
This will be discussed further under protection. ul

Figs. 1-3 show the percent overvoltage which will appear 'I L/- _
CL

100 ~ L
on the remaining units in one phase of a three-phase bank 1-I:c
.Lo

when a fuse operation removes some percentage of the kvar SCD

capacity. Use of these figures can determine the number of

units to be used in a bank to meet the 1 10 percent voltage
criteria. For example, irn Fig. 1 a 600-kvar bank (200 kvar per
phase) should be made up of 4 50-kvar units per phase. The
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 3 32
loss of 25 percent of the capacity will result in 9 percent over- 0
CAPAC ITORS REMOVED FROM THE SAME SERI ES GROUP
voltage and the loss of 50-percent capacity (2 50-kvar units PERCENT OT TOTAL CAPACITORS IN SERIES GROUP

per phase) would result in greater than 12 percent overvoltage, Fig. 2. Double wye connected capacitor bank. Neutrals ungrounded
which is not recommended but may be tolerable for brief but tied together. Voltage on remaining capcitors in a series versus
periods of time. percentage of capacitors removed from that particular series group.
MILLER: APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SHUNT CAPACITORS
_-
,\'
tJO. OF SERIES GROUPS PER PHASE
4a
___,/
I
1 16
I7 -, _-
11
106
104
10012
4 8 12 16 20 24
CAPACITORS REMOVED FROM THE SAME SERIES GROUP
PERCENT OF TOTAL CAPACITORS IN SERIES GROUP
Fig. 3. Grounded wye or delta connected capacitor bank. Voltage on
remaining capacitors in a series group versus percentage of capacitors
removed from that particular series group.
It should be noted that Fig. 2 assumes that both of the wye
connected banks are identical and the percentage loss refers to
one of the wyes.
The choice between delta and wye connections is generally
determined by which arrangement will permit the fuller
utilization of standard rated capacitor units, meaning opera-
tion at or very near to its design voltage. When a wye connec-
tion is selected, the question arises as to whether the neutral
should be grounded or ungrounded. The ungrounded neutral
arrangement is used on ungrounded systems. On grounded
systems either grounded or ungrounded wye arrangements
may be used.
In an industrial system the capacitors are not grounded for
a variety of reasons. Industrial systems are often resistance
grounded. A grounded wye connection on the capacitor bank
would provide a path for zero-sequence currents and the
possibility of false operation of ground fault relays. Also, the
protective relay scheme would be sensitive to system line-to-
ground voltage unbalance which could also result in false relay
tripping.
Zero-sequence currents flowing in this ground path can also
interfere with communications circuits.
Surge arresters are more likely to be damaged when con-
nected on a system with a grounded wye capacitor bank. The
discharge current from the capacitor bank through an arrester
which may have sparked over may be greater than the arrester
can conduct without damage.
447
The ungrounded wye arrangement has several other
advantages, listed here.
1) For banks installed on ungrounded systems, the rack on
2 which the capacitors are mounted may conveniently and eco-
nomically be insulated from ground. With such an arrangement
the terminal-to-case insulation provided in the individual units
need correspond only to the voltage across the unit rather than
the line-to-line voltage. This usually results in savings in the
across bank particularly if a circuit voltage is 12 kV or higher.
2) Fuses with lower interrupting capacity can be used.
3) The ungrounded double-wye arrangement is preferred in
large banks because it offers a better choice of protective
relaying schemes. The total bank kvar should be large enough
to permit splitting the bank into two equal rated wye
configurations.
4) In the higher rated banks, the loss of one fuse or even
one group fuse may leave enough units in service on that phase
so that the 110-percent voltage limit is not violated.
In the case of smaller bank rating such as 2000 kvar and
less, grounding the neutral of the capacitor bank has some ad-
vantage. In this case the units are usually group fused, which
_ means that several capacitor units are protected by one fuse.
28 32 The fuse rating is large with respect to the individual capacitor
unit, and if one capacitor fails there may not be enough current
available to blow the fuse unless the neutral of the bank is
grounded. There is a requirement that the fuse must clear in
300 s or less in the event of a failed capacitor unit. This is
easily met when the bank is connected grounded wye or delta.
In these two instances, a unit failure results in a line-to-neutral
or line-to-line fault, as the case may be. Also in a grounded
bank with one series section per phase when one fuse (indi-
vidual or group) blow, the voltage across the remaining units
stays the same. By contrast, in an ungrounded small bank the-
loss of one unit could be a relatively high percent of the
total phase capacity and the remaining units would be subject
to more than 100-percent voltage.
III. PROTECTION OF CAPACITORS
AND CAPACITOR BANKS
A. Introduction
Complete protection must be provided for a capacitor
installation. This will consist of protecting the individual units
as well as the bank. Both fuses and relays may be employed
depending upon the rating of the bank, its location in the
system and other factors. Fusing is the basic protection for the
capacitor units, both individually and in groups. Relays and
circuit breakers are applied for overall bank protection and for
switching. Normally the decisions about the unit and group
fusing will be made by factory engineering when the bank is
being designed, but a discussion is included here for a more
complete understanding of the protection problem.
The modern power capacitor unit is extremely reliable, the
failure rate being less than 0.1 percent per year. This figure
represents the overall average failure rate for all applications
448 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1976

for both industrial and utility applications. In particular loca- by a single fuse. Group fusing is considered as a special case of
tions involving frequent switching and/or harmonic duties the individual fusing and the same cr-iterion generally applies, such
capacitor may not enjoy such high reliability rates and the as the requirements for the fuse voltage rating anld interrupting
protection of the units becomes increasingly important. If a capacity. In the case of the 165 percent of rated currenit
failure occurs then proper protection will limit the extent of criterion, this Inow refers to the current of all of the grouped
the damage. Fuses are the most desirable and economical capacitor units protected by the one fuse.
method for protecting against possible consequences of failure. This practice will necessarily involve the use of fuses with
The major purposes of capacitor fusing are 1) to maintain ser- relatively high continuous current ratings which will allow
vice continuity, 2) to prevent damage to adjacent capacitors more energy to flow into a fault before interruption occurs
and equipment or injury to personnel, and 3) to provide visual than would be the case for one fuse on each capacitor unit. To
indication of a failed unit. minimize the possibility rupture of a unit, the group fuse
should have a characteristic which fails in zone 1 on the case
B. Fuse Protectiotn for Individual Capacitor Units rupture curve. Otherwise, the zone 2 might have been con-
The requirements for proper fuse selection are as follows. sidered satisfactory.
1) The rated voltage of the fuse should not be less than the
rated voltage of the capacitor with which it is used. Since D. Large Batnk Protectioni
capacitors are designed to operate continuously at 110 percent The fusing criterion given above will be applied to expul-
rated voltage, the fuse should also have a voltage rating which sion fuse protected banks until the short-circuit capability
has at least 110 percent of the capacitor unit rating. exceeds 6000 A for the 200 and 150 kvar units, 5000 A for
2) The maximum interrupting rating of the fuse should be the 100 kvar units, and 4000 A for the 25 and 50 kvar units.
greater than the available short circuit current which can flow As the number of parallel capacitor units increases for the
if a capacitor unit is shorted. This may require the application higher kVA rated banks, there will be an increase in the cur-
of current limiting fuses in place of expulsion fuses for large rent available from adjacent units in the event of failure of one
bank rating and for banks connected to buses with high short capacitor unit. Also large banks of capacitors, particularly in
circuit capacity. an industrial system, will often be associated with a main bus
3) The fuse should have a time-current clearing character- having short-circuit capacity well beyond the values given
istic that lies below the time-current case rupture probability above. In these cases the currenit-limiting fuses will be applied
characteristic of the capactior units to be applied. There are for individual unit or group protection. Once it is established
four zones on these characteristic curves which represent that the higher short-circuit capability of the current-limiting
varying degrees of risk of failure. Selection of the proper fuse fuse is needed, the remaining criterion of 165 percent normal
can be influenced by the degree of risk one is prepared to current, 300 s for three times normal current (if it applies),
accept. These curves will be discussed later in more detail. and coordination with the case rupture characteristic should
4) The selected fuse should have sufficient rating to carry at again be applied.
least 165 percent of rated capacitor current per NEMA Stan-
E. Time-Current Case Rupture Characteristics
dard CP-l-1968. This margin allows for temporary overvoltages,
harmonic currents, switching surges, and manufacturing toler- These characteristic curves have been referred to earlier as
ance in the capacitor itself. Also the fuse must clear the part of the capacitor unit protection discussion. As the name
minimum overcurrent resulting due to a failed unit within implies, these curves display graphically the relationship
300 s maximum and, as stated earlier. 30 s or less is desirable. between fault current and time for different case rupture
On grounded wye and delta connected banks, obtaining this modes. Fig. 4 illustrates a typical characteristic. For different
clearing time is not a problem. On ungrounded wye connected values of current and time, there are four zones identified.
banks, it is more difficult since a failed unit causes only about The probability of case rupture may be defined as the
three times normal current to flow through the fuse protecting probability of any opening of the case as a result of failure, from
the faulted phase. In some cases it becomes necessary to a mere cracked seam or bushing seal to a violent bursti ng of
reduce the rating of the fuse to minimum current of 150 per- the case. Within the safe zone, usually no greater damage than
cent of normal. This is permissible because ungrounded banks slight swelling of the case will occur. It is possible, however,
do not need allowance for zero-sequence. for a case rupture to occur as a result of very low short-circuit
5) The fuses must be capable of withstanding the energy currents flowing for extended periods of time. To avoid such
contributed to a unit by other capacitors in the same phase case ruptures, the fuse link should be coordinated so that it
group as the faulted unit. will clear the fault within 300 s. This is a significant considera-
tion, generally only for ungrounded wye connected banks for
C. Group Fusitng which fault current is limited to approximately three times
The practice of utilizing one fuse to protect more than one normal current.
capacitor unit is called group fusing. Small capacitor banks on The hazardous zone is unsafe for most applications because
distribution lines are often group fused where cutouts are used a failed unit will often rupture with sufficient violence to
for both protection and switching. On industrial systems with damage adjacent units. Besides signifying a 50 percent proba-
large banks, groups of two or more capacitors may be con- bility of a case rupture, the 50 percent curve also represents
nected parallel series/parallel
in or combinations and protected an approximate boundary below which violent case ruptures
MILLER: APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SHUNT CAPACITORS 449

PRI
UNGROUNDED >bPPTT. SSEC'S.
NEUTRAL

VOLTAGE
RELAY

Fig. 5. Unbalanced phase voltages.

delay operation until the fuse clears. Relays with an inverse

time-current characteristic are usually used and the settings
are selected to override these two conditions. However, the
relay may also have a very inverse or extremely inverse time
current characteristic if coordination with other system pro-
tective devices require it. Instantaneous overcurrent relays are
not often utilized since they are likely to trip unnecessarily
when the bank is energized.
Relaying for the detection of the loss of capacitor units and
guarding against excessive operating voltages should be used as
a protective measure supplement to the periodic visual inspec-
tion of individual unit fuses. This is because there will be a
MINIMUM CLEARING TIME(0.8 CY)FOR SAFE COORDI,ATION\
compromise between a relaying method of adequate sensitivity
which is also immune to undesirable operation due to har-
° COORD1IATION~~~~~~~~~~~D
~~JI;(HJ '2
m- tj° I.n °2 ,°, 8 g °g C
8~~~~~~~~~~\j
C
)I monics, system voltage unbalances, external fauls, and un-
AVAILABLE SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT IN AMPERES RMS o balance due to the varying capacitance of the individual
o Use asymmetrical rms values for time shorter than one cycle
capacitor units.
Fig. 4. Probability of case rupture curves for 25- or 50-kvar power Figs. 1-3 show the voltage on the remaining units when
capacitors due to internal arcing. some of the units in a parallel group are removed. Except for
very short periods of time, the voltage across capacitors should
are improbable. Therefore, zone 1, bounded by the 10- and not exceed 110 percent of rated voltage. On large banks, it is
50-percent curves, is suitable for locations where case opening recommended that some type of protection be provided which
or fluid leakage would present no hazard. Zone 2, bounded by will relay the bank off if the capacitors in a parallel group are
the 50- and 90-percent curves, is suitable for locations which subjected to overvoltage because of the loss of a portion of the
have been chosen after careful consideration to possible conse- units in the group. This would also protect the bank when an
quences associated with violent rupture of the case. The 90- entire parallel group was shorted by a foreign object.
percent probability curve for Fig. 4 is vertical at 400 A, There are several methods for protecting against overvoltage
signifying that the area beyond this maximum current is in on a parallel group. Figs. 5-8 show four relaying schemes
the hazardous zone. Tests have demonstrated that beyond this which might be used. Fig. 5 is an effective arrangement for an
value of current, expulsion fuse links will not satisfactorily ungrounded bank. The potential transformer (PT's) will detect
protect against violent ruptures. Above these fault current a change in voltage across the phase if one or more units are
levels, current limiting fuses should be applied to limit person- removed. The secondary windings of the PT's are connected
nel hazard and equipment damage. For the range of fault in broken delta and used in series with the coil of a voltage
current available to a failed capacitor unit, the total clearing sensitive relay.
time of any fuse should be coordinated with the case rupture Potential transformers have an advantage over capacitor
curves. potential devices in that they furnish a discharge path for the
capacitors, and will discharge the capacitors in a much shorter
F. Relaying Protection time than the discharge resistors built into the capacitors. Use
In addition to the individual capacitor unit protection of the potential transformers as a discharge path will be effec-
through the use of individual or group fusing, additional relay tive only if the transformers have the thermal capability to
protection for the whole bank is required. The two basic types pass the current associated with the stored energy in the bank.
of relay protection used with high-voltage capacitors are The kvar rating of the bank will determine the energy storage
1) overcurrent relaying for major equipment faults and capability and this should be matched against the energy
2) relaying to identify loss of units within a bank. absorption capability of a transformer applied as shown in
Overcurrent relaying is needed for the removal of the capac- Fig. 5.
itor bank in the event of a fault between the switching device and The internal resistors built into each individual capacitor
the bank itself. The relay should be chosen so that the highest unit will also discharge the bank but this requires about five
magnitude of inrush current associated with capacitor switch- minutes for high voltage units and one minute for low voltage
ing will not trip the circuit breaker immediately as the bank is units. For automatically controlled banks this may be too long
energized. Also if a capacitor unit fault occurs the relay should a time. If the bank is switched on while still charged from a
450 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS. SEPTENMBER/OCTOBER 1976

previous eniergizationi higher thani niormal transient currenIts

may be experienced. The tinme delays anid niormal operating
sequenices of any switchinig controls shlould be reviewed to
insure that the bank will have a sutffici iot time to dischar-oe to
a safe level before being reeniergized.
P.T. The schemes shown in Fig. 6(a) atid (b) are known as the
double-wye schemes and they have considerable merit. They
L VOLTAGE
offer protectioni similar to that of Fig. 5 and are less expensive
RELAY since they require only a single PT or current transformer
(CT). For smaller banks. it may be expensive to split the banks
into two wye groups, or it may be impossible to do so atid still
(a) keep the voltage on the remaining units below 110 percent of
rated in the event of the loss of an individual unit. On larger
banks it may be easier to conniect the bank into two xvye con-
figurations. In such case, the protection provided by the relays
C.'T. is equivalent and can be achieved at less cost, which will make
the double-wye protection scheme the most attractive. par-
CURREN'T
ticularly on industrial systems where there is no advanitage to
RELAY grounding the neutral connectioni of the banik.
When conditions are such that single-wye banks must be
(b) used, the scheme of Fig. 7(a) and (b) can be used for over-
Fig. 6. (a) Voltage imbalance between neutrals. (b) Current imbalance voltage protection. This provides a low cost protective arrange-
between neutrals. ment but it requires that the neutral point be grounded. As
noted earlier, the grounded arrangement is not often used by
industrials for several reasons, one of themn being possible
I interference with ground relayiing. Use of a third harmonic
filter would permit setting the relay at fairly low values of
pickup.
One additional relay arranigement is illustrated in Fig. 8.
P.T 3 VOLTAGE This is applicable to a Y-Y bank where the neutral of the bank
can be solidly grounded. This method is not sensitive to
residual currents resulting from harmonic voltages or zero
sequence currents as a result of system faults or load unbalance.
(a)
Table III summarizes the characteristics of the several relay
arrangements which have been discussed.
VOLTAGE No overvoltage protection scheme will provide positive pro-
RELAY tection against overvoltage in all cases. The basic theory of all
the schemes is the detection of current or voltage unlbalance.
There is some inherent unbalance in capacitor banks, and the
relaying must be set above the maximum inherent unbalance
RESISTOR
which can occur if false trip-outs are to be avoided. The
inherent unbalance is due mainly to harmionic cturrents and
(b) voltages, and varying capacitance of the capacitors. The toler-
Fig. 7. (a) Neutral voltage. (b) Neutral current. ance of a power capacitor is minus zero to plus 1-5 percent
with the average being about 4 percent. When individual units
are placed in racks and stacked for high voltage banks, the
capacitance of the racks in each plhase leg may vary. This
catuses normal condition unbalance and makes it more difficult
to detect small unbalance due to removal of faulted tun its in a
parallel group. If it is considered necessary to balance the
phases closely, it is possible by special arrangement at the
factory. The problem of phase unbalance tends to diminish as
the bank rating increases.
In cases where a large number of capacitor units, say
Fig. 8. Different neutral current. twenty or more, are used in a parallel group. it may not be
possible to detect the loss of onie uinit, since the relays cannlot
be set too sensitive because of natural utnbalances. This is nlot
too important. since the loss of one unit in suchl a large group
MILLER: APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SHUNT CAPACITORS 451

TABLE III
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING METHODS

Sensitive
to 3rd Sensitive Number Number
Sensitive Harmonic to of of
Type of to Voltages System Current Potential
Protective Switching and Voltage Transformers Transformers
Relaying Fig. Transients Currents Unbalanced Required Required
Unbalance phase 5 Yes No No - 3
voltage
Voltage unbalance 6(a) Yes No No - 1
between neutrals
Current unbalance 6(b) Yes No No 1
between neutrals
Neutral voltage 7(a) Yes Yes Yes - 1
Neutral current 7(b) Yes Yes Yes 1
Differential 8 Yes No No 2
neutral current

does not raise the voltage on the remaining units above the help protect the capacitors and other system components by
allowable 10 percent overvoltage. In most cases, the relaying shunting the surge current to ground. The capacitor bank will
can be set to operate before dangerous conditions exist, not discharge through the arrester, avoiding possible damage to
without serious danger of false operation. On large installa- the arrester as would be a possibility if the bank were grounded.
tions, it is good practice to use two relays. One will sound an
alarm when one or more units have failed but dangerous H. Grounding of Capacitor Cases
voltages are not yet present. The second relay will trip if allow- Single-phase capacitor units are built with either one or two
able overvoltage is exceeded. Such a procedure has the advan- bushings. In the former, one of the terminals is a stud elec-
tage of keeping the bank in service when possible while trically connected to the case. The case of the two-bushing
indicating that capacitors have failed yet still protect the unit may be grounded, provided it has sufficient terminal-to-
capacitors from serious overvoltage. case insulation.
G. Lightnizg Protection Single-bushing units have the case grounded when con-
nected to a circuit having one conductor grounded, such as a
In common with other apparatus connected to a power 3-phase 4-wire multigrounded neutral system. When the ter-
system, capacitors should be protected by surge arresters. Here minal common to the case cannot be connected to ground, the
the primary function is protection of the capacitor bank and capacitor case must be insulated from ground. Under this
not the system itself. The choice between surge arresters rated condition, the case and the rack will be at some potential
for grounded neutral service or ungrounded neutral service above ground and is a potential hazard. Therefore, the rack is
should be in accordance with established industry practices. mounted on a stand and is insulated from ground. Other safety
The rating of the surge arrester (line-to-ground) is determined precautions like fences or other suitable enclosures are usually
by the system grounding, and is not related to the grounding provided. When ground connections are used, they must be
or lack thereof, of the capacitors themselves. adequate to dissipate fault current with no hazardous rise of
Occasionally, the suggestion is made that surge arresters voltage.
are unnecessary for capacitor banks which are Y-connected Economics determine whether the cases should be insulated
with grounded neutral. It is true that capacitors so connected from ground or whether this insulation should be built into
do have some ability both to slope off the steep front of an the capacitor unit. When capacitor units are installed on
incoming wave and to reduce its crest value. However, this ungrounded systems of 12 kV and above, and on all systems
ability is limited by the size of the capacitor bank and the where units are connected in series, it is usually more econom-
amount of energy to be expected in a given surge or lightning ical to insulate the cases from ground. On lower voltage cir-
stroke is indeterminate. Hence granting that the grounded cuits, it is usually more economical to standardize on two
capacitor tends to help protect itself, this ordinarily should bushing units having the insulation built into the capacitor and
only be regarded as a fortuitous circumstance, and not as a they have a more universal application.
justification for omitting the surge arresters. Also, there are
generally switches or circuit breakers associated with the IV. CAPACITOR SWITCHING
capacitor installation which require surge arresters. Their need
for protection is greatest when in the open position, with the Although power circuit breakers are designed primarily to
capacitor bank deenergized. Hence the surge arresters should interrupt heavy inductive short-circuit currents there is not
be connected on the line side of any circuit-interrupting or necessarily a direct relationship between the ability of a circuit
isolating devices at the capacitor installation. breaker to interrupt short-circuit currents and its ability to
In the usual case for an industrial system with an un- switch capacitance currents. It is widely recognized that
grounded capacitor bank, properly applied surge arresters will high-frequency voltage and current oscillations may attend
452 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1976

,iOURCEL_PImI mX' 14 T CH ment of 250 000 kVA at the capacitor location. Solvinlg, we
l T r d~~~TIC find
(13.8)22
XL - 2 0.76 Q
Fig. 9. Circuit diagram representing a capacitor being energized
through an inductance.
and
capacitor switching which, if uncontrolled, may result in
damage to apparatus or system outages. The following para- (13.8)2
Xc 3 5.4 Q.
graphs outline the most common conditions encountered in 5.4
switching and provide information on available switching
devices. From (1),
A. Inrush Currents when Energizing Capacitors 7980 F 35.4
Since an uncharged capacitor offers practically zero
impedance to the flow of current the exact instant voltage is
~max =35.4 -0.76
I=
0.7±
i~~0.76]
applied, it is possible for large high-frequency transient cur- -1800 A.
rents to flow during the energizing period. It is well to have an
understanding of the relative magnitudes of these currents. For The symmetrical short circuit current is
a single bank, the inrush current is always less than the short
circuit value at the bank location. For parallel banks, the 250 000
inrush current is always much greater than for a single bank. S X/X 13.8
The acutal magnitude of the inrush current depends upon cir-
cuit and capacitor characteristics and may exceed the short- = 10450 rmsA.
circuit value at the bank location.
1) Single Bank. The energizing of a single capacitor bank Thus the momentary rating of a switching device for control
may be represented by the circuit diagram of Fig. 9. of a single bank should be based on short-circuit current rather
The maximum rms value of inrush current for the single than on the maximum inrush current to the bank.
bank may be calculated using the following formula: 2) Parallel Baniks (Multistep Banks): When one or more
steps in a capacitor bank are already energized, the maximum
I = El-n peak current that flows into the next capacitor group to be
imax C -XL
v [ X energized is determined predominately by the momentary dis-
rms
charge from those units already in service. Since the impedance
where between the charged and uncharged group is very small, high-
peak inrush currents can be expected. The maximum inrush to
El-n rms line-to-neutral voltage; any switch occurs when all other switches have been closed
Xc capacitor reactance in ohms of one phase to neu- previously, so that is the case which will be analyzed.
tral of the capacitor bank; The energizing of the last step in a three-step capacitor
XL inductive reactance in ohms per phase of the source. bank may be represented by the circuit diagram of Fig. 10.
The above formula applies to delta-connected capacitor banks If no charge is on the step being energized, the maximum peak
if XC is determined as the reactance of the equivalent line-to- inrush current may be determined approximately by the
neutral capacitor kvar. The line-to-neutral reactance of any following formula:
three-phase capacitor bank, whether it by wye- or delta-con-
nected, can be calculated by Im ax =z/El-n1 (2)
L
peakr
X = (kV,-,)2
30 Mvar where
where kV,-, = line-to-line kilovolts. E1 n rms line-to-netural voltage;
In the derivation of formula (1), the effect of resistance C equivalent capacitance of circuit in ,uF for ex-
in the circuit was neglected, thus giving a simple and conserva- ample, in Fig. 1 0. C = [(C1 + C2)(C3)/('Cl +
tive expression. It was also assumed that there was no residual C2 + C3)];
charge on the capacitors. Inspection of the formula indicates L inductance in ,iH between the energized steps and
that the peak inrush current to a single capacitor bank is the step being switched on for example,in Fig. 10,
always less than the short-circuit current at that point. L = (L1 X L2 )/(Ll + L2) + L3.
For example, assume a 5400-kvar capacitor bank to be
located on a 13.8-kV system which has a short-circuit require- The frequency of the inrush current may be calculated by the
MILLER: APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SHUNT CAPACITORS
SOURCE SWITCH
EL1 L2 c section) the inrush current may be twice that given by the
Fig. 10. Circuit diagram representing the energizing of the third step
of a multistep capacitor bank.
formula:
106 106
f= Hz, f =.
2rrV7iXC 2-r-/iL-
where L and C are in the same units as specified above.
The values of L1, L2, and L3 of Fig. 10 are difficult to
determine accurately. A good rule of thumb is to neglect the
inductance of the capacitor leads and the bus structure and to
use 0.5 ,uH/ft as the inductance of the open conductor runs,
including the length through the circuit breakers. This will give
a value of inductance which is low, thus giving a current that is
high and on the conservative side. If more exact calculations
are required, the values of internal bank inductance may be
obtained from the manufacturers.
To illustrate the use of the above formulas, assume a typical
installation on a 13.8-kV system which has a short circuit
requirement of 250 000 kVA. Assume that two 5400-kvar
banks are already energized, and the third is to be energized.
What is the magnitude and frequency of the inrush current?
Assume that the distance from the terminals of each capacitor
bank through its circuit breaker to a common point on the bus
is 20 feet. Using 0.5 pH/ft of conductor run, each of the
inductances L1, L2, and L3 would be 10 pH. C1, C2, and C3
are each equal to 75 ,uF. From (2),
Imax = /13 800
(131 oo\/V 15
p eak
= 20 600 A.
The frequency of the inrush current would be
106
f=
2-o/(50)(15)
= 5820 Hz.
Because of the interrupting requirement for this particular
application, a 250 000 kVA breaker would be chosen which
has a short circuit interrupting capacity of 19 500 A and a
momentary current rating of 37 000 total rms A. Thus the
short-circuit current would dictate the momentary rating of
the breaker for controlling the third step of the capacitor
bank. There may be unusual cases, however, where the reverse
is true and the formula provides a quick and convenient means
of arriving at the momentary requirement of the breaker.
It is emphasized again that the formula for inrush current
applies only when energizing uncharged capacitors. If the
453
capacitors are fully charged, as in the case where a bank is
being deenergized, and a restrike occurs in the switch (see later
formula.
In any case, the calculated inrush current, although of a
high natural frequency, should not exceed the published
60-Hz momentary current rating of the switching device
unless specifically noted otherwise. Although there may be
little correlation between the effects of high-frequency cur-
rents and 60-Hz currents, the fact remains that the 60-Hz
rating is the only one recognized in the industry standards for
circuit breaker performance. The user, therefore, has the
alternatives of a) possibly utilizing a larger breaker than would
otherwise be necessary, b) inserting additional reactance to
limit the inrush current, or c) taking a risk on the basis that
breaker performance at the high natural frequency may be
acceptable even though the current magnitudes may exceed
normal 60-Hz momentary rating.
Since there is the possibility of doubling the inrush currents
upon energizing a charged capacitor bank, it is best to leave
the bank deenergized for a period of time long enough to
permit discharge to a low voltage before reenergizing. The
internal discharge resistor will reduce the potential to 50 V in
5 minutes. This is not an excessive delay under most condi-
tions and it will avoid the high inrush currents which otherwise
may be experienced.
If there are transformers connected in parallel with the
capacitor bank on a deenergized circuit they will provide a path
for a more rapid discharge of the bank. The residual voltage
caused by the trapped charged is dc and the capacitors will
discharge quite rapidly through the connected transformers,
generally within one cycle. Even with high-speed reclosing (in
the order of 20 cycles), the capacitors will be completely
discharged before the circuit is closed in again. The precaution
is that the transformer or transformers which serve as the dis-
charge path must have the ability to dissipate the stored
energy in the form of heat without distress.
B. Transient Voltages A ttending the Switching of Capacitors
It can be shown that the maximum voltage across a capac-
itor being energized does not exceed twice the steady-state
voltage, assuming the capacitor switch closes cleanly, i.e., no
prestrike, contact bounce, etc. The statement holds true for
either single or parallel banks.
When a capacitor is deenergized, assuming no restriking in
the switch, the maximum voltage across the capacitor is equal
to the crest source voltage. This statement holds true for either
the single or parallel banks. Although a voltage in excess of
two times rated might be tolerated, it is highly desirable to
limit the voltage to two times line-to-neutral for normal
switching conditions.
1) Voltage Across Switch Contacts with No Restriking:
When leading kVA (capacitive current) is interrupted, certain
phenomena result. For example, a grounded neutral capacitor
bank connected to a grounded system through a circuit
breaker as illustrated in Fig. I1.
The initial voltage across the breaker following the interrup-
tion of the capacitive current is practically zero, since the
454
- EM
M
MG iNG CC TACT
E .INSULAT RECC,,EPY-0+
-4 |I L
_ ERE-' SKR TIME
us
a I x
Fig. 11. Diagram of voltage across breaker contacts when interrupting
capacitor current without restriking.
capacitor maintains the same crest voltage that existed on the
bus side of the breaker at and immediately following current
zero. This permits any circuit breaker to interrupt quite easily
at the first current zero. However, a half cycle later, the source
voltage has changed from plus to minus while the capacitor
voltage has remained at a plus value nearly equal to crest
source voltage. Thus approximately double voltage is im-
pressed on the open breaker. If the insulation recovery of the
breaker has been sufficient so that restriking does not occur,
then the circuit can be considered cleared.
2) Voltage Across Switch Contacts with Restriking. Assume
that the breaker in the above case did not gain sufficient
insulation during the one-half cycle interval following the cur-
rent interruption so that a restrike occurred when the source
voltage was maximum in the negative direction as shown in
Fig. 12. The associated current reverses the potential on the
capacitor. The frequency of this current is determined by the
capacitance and inductance of the circuit and in the majority
of the cases will be between 600 and 6000 Hz. This oscilla-
tory current would pass through many current zeros if it were
not that the breaker usually interrupts this current at any early
current zero.
The high-frequency voltage associated with the high-
frequency current has the same frequency as the current but
bears a phase relation to the current of 90 degrees. Thus, if
the high-frequency current is interrupted at first current zero,
the high-frequency voltage, which is at a maximum, is trapped
on the capacitor. This voltage may be as high as three times
normal crest depending upon the instant at which restrike
occurs.
A half-cycle following the first restrike, the voltage across
the open breaker is four times normal crest. Should a second
restrike occur at this point, the voltage on the capacitor may
be. theoretically, as high as five times normal crest. However,
extensive field tests have seldom discovered overvoltages due
to restriking that exceed three times normal value, thus
indicating that cumulative build-up due to restriking is rarely
encountered in practice.
It is apparent that if the restriking is not limited, the
voltage stresses may cause failure of the capacitors and
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1976
+EM ec
D
""\VOLTAGE TPAPIED
-3EM
ON CAPtCITAN,%v-
LEADING KVA-RESTRIKE
Fig. 12. Diagram of restrike in a breaker when interrupting capacitive
current.
other pieces of apparatus such as lightning arresters and
transfonners.
This discussion of transient voltages includes only the single
banks of capacitors. If a capacitor bank is switched in parallel
with a bank of equal or greater kvar, the transient voltages at
the capacitor location will be substantially lower than those
that may be experienced in the switching of a single bank.
3) Summary of Capacitor Switching Criteria: The previous
discussion on capacitor switching problems points out the
need for care in selection of the switching device. A more
complete listing of the requirements are listed below, starting
with some of the more familiar application considerations.
a) Voltage rating: The voltage rating of theswitching
device must be equal to or greater than maximum operating
voltage of the circuit to which the equipment is to be con-
nected. Both the 60-Hz high-potential test and impulse voltage
test levels of the switch should be consistent with those of
other apparatus in the same voltage class.
b) Conitinuous currenit ratinig: The continuous current
rating of the switching device should be at least 135 percent of
rated capacitor bank current in accordance with Section 4.12
of NEMA Standards CAI -1973 for shunt capacitors. Capacitor
bank currents may exceed rated or nameplate values because
of the plus manufacturing tolerance on the capacity of indi-
vidual units and because of the possibility of overvoltage and
harmonic current flow. The 35-percent margin takes into
account these conditions.
c) Interruptinig ratinig: If the switching device is used as
a means of short-circuit protection in addition to its duty as a
capacitor switch, it must have an interrupting rating adequate
to handle short circuits occurring on the capacitor side of the
switch.
If the switching device has no short-circuit interrupting
rating, protection against short circuits in the capacitor banks
MILLER: APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SHUNT CAPACITORS 455

TABLE IV

RATED
RATED CAPACITOR ASYN,*
NO. OF VOLTAGE CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT
MFGR. TYPE PHASES (BIL) (AMPERES) (AMPERES) (AMPERES)
G. E. (OIL) FKC (1$) 14.4 (95) 200 150 9000
McGraw- (OIL) VR (3$) 14.4 (95) 400 300 20000
Edison Co. (OIL) VCR* (36) 14.4 (95) 400 300 20000.
*(INCLUDES DAMIPING RESISTORS FOR PARALLEL BANK SW4ITCHING)
Joslyn (VAC) VBM 3 15 (110) 400 300 20000
600 444 20000
Allis-Chalmers (VAC) VSC 3,$ 15 (110) 400 300 20000
G.E. (OIL) FKC 16 24.9 (125) 200 150 9000
GRD. WYE
McGraw-Edison (OIL) NRV 1$ 34.5 (125) 60 45 9000
GRD. WYE
McGraw-Edison (OIL) TSC 3$ 34.5 (125 300 222 12000
Joslyn (VAC) VBM 36 34.5 (125) 400 300 20000
600 444 20000
Allis-ChIalmers (VA(C) VSC 36 34.5 (125) 400 300 20000
G.E. (AIR) Magne- 36 AWM-4.1G-250(6n)1200 890 58000
Blast 2000 1480 58000
NM-13.8-500(95)1200 890 37000
2000 1480 37000
G.E. (VAC) Vacuum 36 VT JB-13.8-500(95)1200 600 37000
Bkr. 2000 600 37 000
G.E. (AIR) Breakmaster 3$ SE -100 4.8kV(60) 600 10 40000
Switch SE~-100 4.8kV(60)1200 10 60000
SEE-100 13.8 (95) 600 10 40000
SE~-100 13.8 (95)1200 10 60000

*RMS Asymmetrical Ampere Rating

must be provided by other means, such as fuse cutouts or
other devices having adequate interrupting rating.
d) Momentary current rating: The switching device must
have sufficient momentary current rating to adequately with-
stand both system short-circuit currents for faults at its ter-
minals and inrush currents associated with energizing. This
consideration must be met even though the device is not used
as a means of short-circuit protection.
e) Frequency of operation: The mechanical and elec-
trical design should be such that the switch will withstand
repetitive switching operation.
f) It will be noted in Table IV which follows that, for
most of the devices, the capacitor ampere value which limits
the bank size that can be served by the device is less than the
thermal or continuous current rating. The differences are
related to the 135 percent criterion discussed earlier and to
the limits imposed by transient voltages and restrikes which
are generated during capacitance switching. These limits are
established in part by testing and experience with the number
of restrikes for a larger number of operations being a deter-
mining factor. This is most noticeable in the case of the
vacuum breaker where the capacitor current is one half of the
continuous current rating. The much reduced capacitor cur-
rent switching rating insures a very low probability that
multiple restrikes will occur in the vacuum breaker.
g) Table IV is a partial list of switches which are avail-
able and are commonly employed in capacitor switching
applications.
V. MOTOR TERMINAL APPLICATION OF CAPACITORS
Power factor improvement of induction motor loads by
means of shunt capacitors at the motor terminals is well
known. It permits switching the capacitors and the motors as
a unit so that the capacitors are on the system only when
required. The kvar requirements in an induction motor are
fairly steady across the range of load (see Fig. 13). Therefore,
power factor correction matched to the motor results in a
higher power factor at all values of motor loading.
Many manufacturers make available tables of standard
motor designs with suggested values of capacitor kvars to
associate with a wide range of motor hp and speeds at both
low and medium voltage levels. It will be noted that there is
a great difference in the capacitor kvar rating to use for a given
hp rating, depending primarily on the motor speed. The slower
the speed, the larger the capacitor values which can be used.
There will also be a large difference in the recommended
capacitor ratings of different design vintages such as
pre-U Frame, generally before 1955;
U-Frame, 1955 to 1964;
T-Frame, 1964 and later.
In the event that manufacturers' recommendations for
capacitors are not readily available, the correct capacitor rating
can be determined by obtaining from the manufacturer or
measuring the motor no-load current. The equivalent kvar at
the system voltage will improve the motor circuit power factor
456 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1976

100 POWER SOURCE

PO0WE R FACTOR l
KW
KVAR
KVA
f rF
WIT H CAPACITORS
! _1 LINE
SW ITCH !
FUSE
8O 16
MOTOR POWER
FACTOR WITHOUT
CAPACITORS i_ _ / CONTACTOR
I (
70 14
OVERLOAD (TC
RELAY
Ct:
0 60 12 t / KWVAR
t
4
U.
CAPACITOR
50 10 MOTOR
w
0
tL (A) (a) (C}
40 8
z Fig. 14. Electrical location of capacitors when used and with
induction motors for power-factor improvement.
,50 6

20 4

10 2

0 0 4
3
0 4 4
4 2
MOTOR LOAD .

Fig. 13. Motor characteristics for a typical medium-sized and speed

induction motor.
z

to a high value for wide range of loading. Preferred connec- Li

tions for the terminal capacitors are illustrated schematically

in Fig. 14 with A being considered the ideal connection and B
the second choice.
In selecting a motor for a terminal capacitor application,
the following points should be considered.
1) Select motors that have long hours of use so that each
capacitor has a high duty factor and is likely to be on the line
PER CENT CURRENT
at time of peak load.
2) Choose large motors first. Fig. 15. Typical characteristic data showing how motor voltage due
3) Limit capacitor kvar to the recommended code/motor to self-excitation is influenced by capacitor rating.
manufacturer's values.
nishes the motor magnetizing current and the motor will
4) Motors should not be subject to reversing, jogging, inch-
self-excite; that is, act as a voltage generator. The magnitude of
ing, or plugging duty nor be restarted while still generating
near-normal voltage. Capacitors should be connected on the the generated voltage will depend upon the value of the capac-
itor current and the motor speed.
linzeside of contactors involved in any open-circuit transition
for voltage change or speed change. Fig. 15 shows a typical motor excitation curve and, the
Capacitors have been applied to induction motors and magnitude of voltage due to self-excitation for various
capacitor readings. Point A indicates the percent magnetizing
switched with the motor as a unit with good results except in a
few cases. Experience has shown that when difficulties are current at no-load and normal voltage. Curves C 1, C2, C3, and
C4 show the volt-ampere characteristics of capacitors having
encountered it is because too large a capacitor bank is used.
The two factors which limit the value of capacitors to be various ratings. Capacitor curves falling to the right of the
motor characteristic curve indicate that the capacitor kvar is
switched with the motor are 1) overvoltage due to self-excita-
tion and 2) inrush currents due to out of phase reclosing. larger than the motor magnetizing kvar and the motor will
self-excite. The final voltage of self excitation, assuming that
These limitations apply when the capacitor is connected to the
the speed remains constant, occurs when the capacitor curve
load side of the motor starter, as shown in Fig. 14(a) and (b)
and the motor and capacitor are switched as a unit. intersects the motor characteristic curve, points A, B, and C.
The capacitor curves to the left of the motor curve such as
A. Overvoltage due to Self-Excitationz Curve C4 indicate that the motor kvar is less than the motor
A capacitor can supply part or all of motor magnetizing magnetizing requirements and hence the motor will not self-
requirements. Thus when the motor line switch is opened and excite. Curve C2 applies where the capacitor kvar is sufficient
the motor disconnected from its source, the capacitor fur- to improve this specific motor full-load power factor to
MILLER: APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SHUNT CAPACITORS

100 percent. It should be observed that the voltage of self-

excitation in this case is 143 percent. This percentage will vary
considerably depending upon the speed and the type motor
and its saturation curve.
In the usual motor application, the motor slows down
Xs = Xs
xsI te r - ( ~ ~Em)
RE C LOSE D
BREAKER
xs2

X52- TOTAL SYSTEM REACTANCE

BETWEEN EQUIVALENT SUPPLY VOLTAGE Es
x'
457

rapidly after the switch is opened, so the voltage rapidly 8 TERMINALS OF MACHINE WITH REACTANCE
decreases. However, the rate of slowdown is dependent on the OF X" & EQUIVALENT DRIVING VOLTAGE, Em.
inertia of the motor and load combined and on the amount of Fig. 16. Equivalent circuit of simple system showing system quantities
load torque applied at the motor shaft. In the case of a high that control transient currents upon circuit-breaker reclosure.
inertia drive, speed may continue close to rated for several
seconds. If more capacitor kvar are applied to the motor than
is required to meet the magnetizing requirements, then the 2.0 Em= MACHINE
DRIVING
EQUIVALENT
VOLTAGE
windings of the motor will be subjected to overvoltages until 1.8 Es =SYSTEM EQUIVALENT
the speed declines and the energy in the load capacitor circuit DRIVING VOLTAGE
1.6
is dissipated. Essentially what is happening is that the addition aE NET DRIVING VOLTAGE
_ 1.4 I.E. VECTOR DIFFER-
of capacitors on the motor terminals is lengthening the time E AE ENCE VOLTAGE (tEEm)
constant of the motor. These longer time constants mean that L
1.2
/ A/Em \ WHERE,
/
= ELECTRICAL ANGLE
the motor insulation will be subjected to high levels of voltage cn
w 1.0 Es BETWEEN Es SEm
for longer times. /\8, IS S AT INSTANT
W 0.8
AhE
VE \2 2-2E
VEs2+EmS-2EsEm C058 \
OF RECLOSING.1
B. Inrush Current due to Out-of-Phase Reclosing 0.6
WHEN Es - Em - E,
It has been recognized that reclosing on a circuit can pro- 0.4
duce transient currents and voltages. As discussed in the AE = 2E SIN (8/2)
0.2
previous paragraphs, application of motor terminal capacitors
extends the time that a substantial voltage exists in the motor 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
after a switch opening. This increases the opportunity for a ANGLE (8) IN DEGREES
reclosure with high inrush currents. Fig. 17. Effect of phase angle between components of net driving
The maximum symmetrical rms current for which rotating voltage at the instant of circuit-breaker reclosure.
machine windings are normally braced is

Rated Voltage then

where all values are expressed in per unit on the rated machine
base. For squirrel cage induction motors, the reactance X" is
defined as that associated with locked rotor, and for syn-
chronous machines it is the direct axis subtransient reactance
XLd.
A readily applicable means of checking maximum current
magnitudes that may result from out-of-phase reclosing is
illustrated in a simple general equivalent circuit of Fig. 16.
The Es or industrial system side is assumed to maintain its
voltage while the motor voltage Em will decay at some rate
depending upon factors such as machine time constants and
load inertia.
If the recloser-controlled circuit breaker is closed without
regard for phase relationship of the two driving voltages, it is
possible for the voltages Es and Em to be 180 degrees out of
phase producing a net single driving voltage equal to the
arithmetical sum of their magnitudes. The maximum transfer
symmetrical current between the systems would then be
EEs m (4)
IVs + Kmm
or assuming the voltage magnitudes have the following relation,
E, = Em = E (5)
2E
I=
(6)
Xs + Xm
If some estimate of the rate of decline of machine voltage and
reclosure time of the switching device is known the expression
can be modified to consider the vector difference between the
two voltages at the time of reclosure.
In such cases
ZE
I=
Xi + Xs
where E is defined in Fig. 17.
To obtain asymmetrical current, a suitable dc offset factor
must be applied. The application of this technique is much like
that of determination of short-circuit currents, except the net
driving voltage may be higher.
When the value of current IM representing motor withstand
capability is less than "II" representing the inrush current then
the motor is in danger of being damaged. When the application
of motor terminal capacitors significantly lengthen the time
that voltage is maintained after a switch opening and maintains
that voltage closer to rated conditions, the opportunity for
severe circuit currents are greatly increased. Experience has
indicated that motor voltage up to 25 percent is normally
sufficiently low to avoid excessive currents in the windings.
458 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY
VI. CONTROLS FOR SWITCHED CAPACITORS
Though industrials are less likely to employ switched
capacitor banks than utilities, increasing emphasis on maiin-
taining a high plant power factor to achieve minimum pur-
chased power cost may lead to increased application of switch-
ing controls.
There are a variety of ways by which circuit conditions can
be sensed and switching actions initiated. Time, voltage,
current, kilovars, and some combinations of two inputs can be
utilized in order to add or remove capacitors from the system
to meet varying conditions. To utilize the capacitors most
effectively and to select the most suitable control will require
that the daily and weekly variations in circuit conditions be
known. This includes the time of day when change can be
expected and the magntiude of change in terms of current,
voltage, and/or kilovars. Some of the most commonly en-
countered controls and some of the factors in their selection
and application are discussed in the following paragraph.
A. General
Switched capacitors are not used for fine voltage control.
For best economy, the voltage change should be as large as
system conditions allow. Only two or four switching opera-
tions should occur per day in most applicatipns. A time delay
is always used to prevent unnecessary switching due to
momentary disturbances. With some types of voltage regu-
lating relays, a separate time delay relay is used. If an induc-
tion disk type voltage regulating relay is used, the inverse-time
characteristic of the relay will usually provide sufficient time
delay. Where separate timers are used, a common delay setting
is one minute.
Coordination with other voltage regulating equipment is
required when using voltage control for switching capacitors,
so that operation of one device (switched capacitor or regu-
lator) will not cause an operation of another device, resulting
in excessive operations and possibly pumping.
B. Time-Switch Control
Time-switch or time-clock control is one of the most
common types of control used with switched capacitor banks.
The control simply switches the capacitor bank on at a certain
time of the day and takes it off at a later time. Its greatest
application is with small single-step banks where the daily load
cycle is known and consistent.
A carry-over device is required for each time-clock to keep
the clock running during temporary power outages. Most
carry-over devices are of the mechanical spring type and can
keep the clock running for up to 36 hours. The spring is con-
tinually kept in a wound position by the small electric motor
which runs the clock. During a power outage, the spring begins
to unwind. If power is restored before the carry-over period
has passed, the motor restores the spring to its wound posi-
tion. If a carry-over device is not used, it will be necessary for
each capacitor location that is affected to be manually reset
after a power outage.
An omitting device is also required for each time-clock to
omit switching the capacitors on or off on days where the
APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1976
known load cycle will change, such as Sundays and holidays.
On some feeders there may be a definite reduction in feeder
loading on these days, and if the capacitors were switched on,
overvoltage could result.
One of the greatest advantages of time-switch control is
its low cost.
A disadvantage of time-switch control is that the sequence
of operation is the same throughout any unusual load condi-
tions. The switching cycle is fixed and it receives no intelli-
gence which would enable it to respond to any unusual loading
conditions which might prevail.
C. Voltage Conitrol
Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence only
when the switched capacitors are applied at a point where the
circuit voltage decreases as circuit load increases. Generally
where they are applied, the voltage should decrease four to
five volts (120 V base) with increasing load.
Voltage is the most common type of intelligence used in
substation applications. It has the advantage of initiating a
switching operation only when the circuit voltage conditions
request an operation, and it is independent of the load cycle.
The bandwidth setting of the voltage regulating relay is
wider than that used with step or induction regulators and
normally ranges from about four to ten volts. The bandwidth
setting will depend upon the rating of the capacitor bank, the
number of steps, and whether other voltage regulating equip-
ment is also applied on the same circuit. The setting must be
larger than the voltage change due to the switching operation
of one step. Since the voltage change due to one step will
depend upon the system characteristics toward the source, it
is also necessary to check the voltage change for possible
abnormal conditions.
D. Current Control
Current control alone is used only where voltage is not a
satisfactory signal. Such applications would be at locations
where the voltage reduction as load increases is not enough
for effective relaying. For effective current control, there must
be a load change such that the ratio of maximum demand to
minimum demand is three or more.
The greatest applications of current control are with single-
step capacitor banks applied on feeders or in substations where
large intermittent loads are either on or off. The loads can be
fluctuating loads if the capacitor "off" control setting is below
the maximum dip.
Current control relays are similar to voltage control relays
and can be either of the solenoid type or of the induction-disk
type. The solenoid type are most often used with large sub-
station capacitor banks, while the induction-disk type are used
with smaller single-step capacitor banks. The current trans-
former should always be connected on the load side of the
capacitor bank in order to measure load current, and not load
current plus capacitor current.
When using current control, no recognition is given to the
voltage conditions of the circuit. Therefore, circuit voltage
conditions throughout the load cycle must be known in order
to determine when the capacitors should be switched on and
MILLER: APPLICATION GUIDE FOR SHUNT CAPACITORS
off. Abnormal circuit conditions which affect the circuit load-
ing and the voltage rise should be checked to be sure the
capacitors will not switch on if overvoltage conditions occur.
E. Voltage Sensitive with Time Bias
This control scheme is available for use where the voltage
profile at the bank location remains relatively flat over 24-
hour periods thus preventing proper switching by voltage-only
controls. One type of timing device is a photo-timer and com-
pensation is in the form of a step bias. This step biasing by
time permits a day-night operating shift which generally
removes the capacitors at night and applies them during the
day on the basis of a relatively narrow on-off band.
The photo-timer combines a photoelectric control with a
synchronous motor and cams. The photo sensitive unit starts
the unit at sunrise and cam adjustment is used to obtain
switching at the proper time. The primary advantage of this
control is that it will resynchronize itself after a power outage
of any duration.
FL Kilovar Controls
Kilovar sensitive controls are utilized at locations where the
voltage level is closely regulated and not available as a control
variable. This can occur on an industrial bus which is served by
an LTC equipped transformer or a generator system with
automatic voltage regulators. In these cases, the capacitors can
be switched to respond to decreasing power factor as a result
of change in system loading. This type of control can also be
used to avoid a utility power factor penalty clause by adding
capacitor as the system power factor begins to lag.
Since the kilovar control requires two inputs, both current
and voltage, it will have a higher cost than a single-input con-
trol. Thus, if a single step of switching is all that is required,
the needs may be met satisfactorily by a current sensitive
control. If power factor needs to be more accurately con-
trolled, particularly if several steps are involved, then the
kilovar control will be used.
REFERENC ES
[1] Application Guide for Capacitance Current Switching for AC
Hich Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Basis,
ANSI Standard C37.0731-1973.
459
[2] Shunt Power Capacitors, ANSI Standard C55.1-1968 (IEEE
Standard 18).
[3] 1. B. Johnson, A. J. Schultz, N. R. Schultz, and R. B. Shores,
"Some fundamentals of capacitance switching," AIEE Paper
55-224, Jan. 1955.
[4] N. R. Schultz and N. R. Sheppard, "Some considerations in the
protection of high voltage capacitor banks," AIEE Paper 56-
193, Jan. 1956.
[5] F. P. DeMello and G. W. Walsh, "Reclosing transients in induc-
tion motors with terminal capacitors," AIEE Transaction Paper,
Oct. 1960.
[6] "Report on the Operation and Maintenance of Shunt Capaci-
tors," IEEE Committee Rep., Paper 49-552, Oct. 1949.
[7] N. R. Clark and S. B. Farham, "Connection arrangement and
protective practice for shunt capacitors," AIEE Paper 49-254,
Oct. 1949.
[8] J. A. Sainz, "Switched capacitor control," Transmission and
Distribution Magazine, July 1958.
[9] J. A. Sainz, "Shunt capacitor bank connections," Distribution
Magazine, Jan. 1968.
[10] Electric Utility Engineering Reference Book, vol. 3, Westing-
house Electric Corporation.
[11] W. C. Bloomquist, Capacitors for Industry. New York: Wiley.
[12] N. E. Dillow, 1. B. Johnson, N. R. Schultz, and A. E. Were,
"Switching capacitive kilovolt amperes with power circuit
breakers," AIEE Paper 52-39, Jan. 1952.
Donald F. Miller (M'60) received the B.S. de-
gree in electrical engineering from the Univer-
sity of Idaho, Moscow.
He joined General Electric in 1952, prior to
entering the Air Force for two years. On re-
turning to General Electric, he rejoined the
company's Test Program and completed pro-
duct assignments on dc variable speed drives
and medium-voltage switchgear equipment. In
1959 he transferred to Schenectady as an Ap-
plication Engineer in Planning and Power Use,
specializing in motor drives, transient performance analysis of drives,
and short circuit test facilities design. Next, he accepted a position as
Control Application Engineer in the Specialty Fluidics Operation con-
centrating on the identification and development of industrial appli-
cations for fluidic equipment. This led to a patent on a process moni-
toring sensor for synthetic fiber industry. His present position is with
the Industrial Power Systems Engineering Operation as an Application
Engineer, specializing in industrial power system studies.
Mr. Miller is a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of New
York.