Material-Related Aspects of Asphalt

Recycling—State-of-the-Art
Robert Karlsson1 and Ulf Isacsson2
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Abstract: Current knowledge on material-related aspects of asphalt recycling with focus on findings from fundamental studies is
summarized. By way of introduction, a general description of different types of asphalt recycling methods is given, after which a more
detailed compilation of material-related knowledge is presented. Special attention is given to the binder rejuvenation process at asphalt
recycling, that is the restoration of reclaimed binder properties. Studies concerning properties of recycled mixtures are also summarized.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0899-1561共2006兲18:1共81兲
CE Database subject headings: Recycling; Asphalts; Material properties; Temperature; Mixtures.

Introduction existing asphalt. Emphasis is put on general findings from more

Asphalt recycling has been an important option in road mainte-
nance and construction since the mid-1970s oil crisis, when con-
struction costs inflated, especially the price on bitumen. Initially,
recycled asphalt materials were primarily used on low-trafficked
roads. Over the years, considerable experience has been gained;
today recycling methods are also considered for heavy trafficked
roads, and the recycling ratio may be close to 100%. Reuse of
asphalt means that the complexity of the maintenance operation
increases, as the reclaimed material is more difficult to character-
ize compared to new material. During its service life, the old
binder has been aged and the aggregate degraded. Further, the
reclamation process may also contribute to the inhomogeneity of
the recycled pavement material. Finally, possible worker’s health
risks related to heating of asphalt or content of coal tar in re-
claimed asphalt should also be taken into account. Consequently,
asphalt recycling is a more demanding and qualified task, requir-
ing extra knowledge and experience, compared to producing
overlays of virgin asphalt.
During the years, a number of more general state-of-the-art
共practice兲 reports on asphalt recycling have been published
共ARRA 2001; Button et al. 1994; Epps 1990; Kandhal 1997;
Kandhal and Mallick 1997; Servas 1980兲. This paper is a review
of literature with focus on material properties and performance of
recycled asphalt in bitumen bound bases and wearing courses.
The main object of the paper is to compile material-related
knowledge on recycled asphalt contributing to optimum reuse of
1
Senior Research Engineer, Division of Highway Engineering, Royal
Institute of Technology, S-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden 共corresponding
author兲. E-mail robert.karlsson@byv.kth.se
2
Professor, Division of Highway Engineering, Royal Institute of
Technology, S-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden. E-mail ulf.isacsson@
byv.kth.se
Note. Associate Editor: Eyad Masad. Discussion open until July 1,
2006. Separate discussions must be submitted for individual papers. To
extend the closing date by one month, a written request must be filed with
the ASCE Managing Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted
for review and possible publication on February 25, 2003; approved on
April 27, 2005. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 18, No. 1, February 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 0899-
1561/2006/1-81–92/$25.00.
fundamental investigations. Besides the studies referred to in this
paper, a great number of publications have been found. However,
these publications generally describe practical observations but do
not present more fundamental aspects of asphalt recycling, and,
consequently, this type of paper is not included in this literature
review.
Methods and Strategies for Asphalt Recycling
Any road in need of reconstruction or new overlay is a candidate
for recycling. During the years, a number of different methods
have been developed for reclaiming asphalt, each one being spe-
cialized to handle given tasks. Different classifications of asphalt
recycling methods are found in the literature. One example of
such a classification is based on the location of the recycling
process 共in-place, in-plant兲. Another classification parameter used
for subdividing of asphalt recycling methods concerns the extent
to which the reclaimed material is heated. In this case, the meth-
ods may be 共arbitrarily兲 divided into cold 共e.g., below 70° C兲,
warm 共e.g., between 70 and 120° C兲, and hot 共e.g., above 120° C兲
recycling.
The rest of this section is a brief description of methods used
for asphalt recycling. The description serves as an introduction to
the review of recycled asphalt properties presented in coming
chapters. In addition to these methods, there are also methods that
utilize existing pavement by simply milling or heating the sur-
face, thereby minimizing the amount of new asphalt material.
Strictly speaking, these are not examples of asphalt recycling
methods, since no reclaimed asphalt material is used.
In-Plant Asphalt Recycling
During in-plant recycling of asphalt, the reclaimed asphalt is
mixed with new binder and/or new asphalt. In-plant recycling can
be divided into cold, warm, and hot recycling, depending on the
temperature required 共cf. previous discussion兲. Generally, an as-
phalt plant needs minor adjustments to handle recycled asphalt,
but there are also more sophisticated techniques described that
require larger investments 共Decker 1997兲.
The reclaimed asphalt is generated from milling, or ripping

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006.18:81-92.

 and crushing of asphalt pavements. Milling is often performed in
maintenance works to keep the pavement at a given level with
respect to curbs and structural clearances before placing a new
overlay. The milled material is ready to use, fairly clean, and
relatively uniform. Reclaimed asphalt that has been removed by
ripping, for example, in complete removal of a pavement, should
be kept clean from soil, etc.
The long-distance transport of material from the asphalt plant
and back may result in considerable costs and environmental ef-
fects, which may be objectionable from a life cycle assessment
共LCA兲 point of view. Hot in-plant recycling is more common in
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urban areas than in less populated areas for transport reasons as
well as benefits of larger quantities. The use of mobile asphalt
plants limits the need for long transports.
Unless used directly, the reclaimed material needs to be stored.
To keep the material uniform, different types of mixtures should
be kept segregated in different stockpiles. Another possible ap-
proach for achieving uniformity in reclaimed materials is to blend
reclaimed asphalt materials thoroughly, thereby obtaining more
consistent properties. During storage, the outer layer of the stock-
pile normally sticks together, whereas the rest of the material
remains intact. Measures to prevent exposure to direct sunlight
and dampness are desirable. Ripped and reagglomerated material
has to be crushed before use.
Leaching of potentially harmful substances from stockpiles
has been studied by Larsson et al. 共2000兲. Generally, from con-
ventional asphalt, no alarming levels of pollutants or toxic sub-
stances have been found. However, water leached from stockpiles
of tar-containing asphalt or oil gravel contained high levels of
polyaromatic hydrocarbons 共PAH兲 and showed toxic effects 共mea-
sured using the Microtox bacteria test兲.
In hot asphalt recycling, the reclaimed asphalt can be fed into
the asphalt plant either after the drum, in the middle of the drum
or in a parallel drum. Before mixing, the reclaimed asphalt may
be dried, thus avoiding problems when heating to elevated tem-
peratures. Asphalt plants equipped for recycling may also feature
other types of devices specially designed to minimize binder
aging and emissions of hydrocarbons and dust. Examples are the
counterflow drum mixer and microwave heaters. They allow up to
100% reclaimed asphalt to be recycled, given that the material is
of acceptable quality 共NAPA 1996兲. Microwaves are absorbed by
the aggregate to a greater extent than the binder, which minimizes
aging 共Terrel and Abdulaziz 1987兲. However, relatively much
electric energy is needed in this case for heating, which may limit
the environmental and economical benefits.
In-Place Asphalt Recycling
In-place asphalt recycling, sometimes referred to as “in situ as-
phalt recycling,” can either be performed as remixing, repaving,
cold in-place asphalt recycling or full depth reclamation. Remix-
ing and repaving are sometimes referred to as “surface recycling.”
Remixing is a process in which the surface of the pavement is
milled or scarified, after which new material may be added to the
reclaimed material and mixed before laying and compacting the
recycled asphalt. In in-place recycling operations, the needs for
transportation and storage are minimized. Recycled pavements
are often sealed or overlaid with virgin asphalt. In the latter case,
the purpose of remixing may be to disrupt cracks prior to placing
an overlay with the aim of increasing the bearing capacity.
In 共hot兲 remixing, the pavement is normally heated to tempera-
tures well above 120° C. Heating the pavement to such high tem-
peratures requires special techniques to avoid excessive emissions
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006.18:81-92.
of hydrocarbons and aging of the binder. One way of minimizing
such problems is simply to heat and mill the surface by multiple
passes, thereby solving the problem of low thermal conduction,
which prevents heat energy to penetrate the pavement to the de-
sired total milling depth 共Carmichael et al. 1977兲. Gentle heating
also means reduced emissions and aging. The increase in stiffness
as a consequence of heating 共IR radiation兲 during remixing has
been observed to correspond to an increase in softening point
共Ring and Ball兲 of 3 – 5 ° C 共Isacsson et al. 1997兲. Direct gas flame
burners have been abandoned in favor of infrared or hot air heat-
ers for attaining higher temperatures. However, direct gas flame
burners are still used for drying and preheating the pavement
surface. Infrared heat is created by heating metal plates until they
reach sufficiently high temperatures. The heat from the metal
plates is then radiated down onto the surface of the pavement. To
further improve conditions for road workers, equipment has been
introduced that collects and incinerates emitted fumes. The use of
hot air in convective heating is a relatively new invention de-
scribed in greater detail by Terrel et al. 共1997兲. The idea is to use
a burner to heat air to about 600° C and then to blow the hot air
onto the pavement surface. By controlling the combustion, the
oxygen level can be kept low, thus creating a virtually inert gas
that can heat the pavement without causing excessive oxidation.
Another advantage is that the hot air can be recirculated, thereby
saving energy.
After heating and milling the pavement surface, generally
down to a depth of 30– 50 mm, new asphalt mix and/or new
binder is added to the reclaimed asphalt. The added material may
be either a conventional asphalt mix or a specially designed mix
to correct imperfections in the reclaimed asphalt. An advantage of
milling the pavement hot is the fact that the aggregate normally is
not crushed and necessary corrections can be based on the origi-
nal grading curve. Often, 15–25% fresh asphalt mix is added to
account for ruts, but additions in the range of 0–50% asphalt
material have been reported 共Potter and Mercer 1997; Button
et al. 1994兲. Finally, the recycled asphalt is laid using conven-
tional pavers and compacted.
The major difference between remixing and repaving is that no
fresh asphalt is added to the reclaimed asphalt in repaving. In-
stead, a separate layer of new asphalt is put on top of the old,
recycled asphalt. The repaving process may be characterized by
the following steps. The pavement is heated and milled using a
rotary mill or scarifying teeth. A rejuvenator may be added to the
reclaimed material, after which the recycled material is spread
and screeded. Finally, new asphalt is placed on top, and the two
layers are compacted using conventional rollers.
Typically, 20– 25 mm of the old pavement is milled. The ad-
vantage of repaving, compared to solely heating the pavement
surface, is that surface cracks can be interrupted and deeper sur-
face irregularities 共ruts, corrugations, etc.兲 restored 共Button et al.
1994兲. Comparing repaving and remixing, the advantage of re-
paving is lower cost and more effective treatment of friction prob-
lems, since 100% new asphalt is placed as a surface layer. No
example of cold or warm repaving has been found in the
literature.
In cold and warm in-place recycling 共cold and warm remix-
ing兲, the pavement is cold milled and mixed with bitumen emul-
sions, foamed bitumen, or soft bitumen. New aggregate can also
be added. The warm alternative uses hot steam to heat the re-
claimed material. This facilitates both laying and compaction. The
weather conditions for cold recycling are normally limited to
10° C and fairly dry weather 共Kearney 1997兲. The initial behavior
of pavements obtained using the warm technique is generally bet-
 ter than the behavior of pavements recycled cold; also, the opera-
tional season can be extended if recycled warm 共Jacobson 1996兲.
Full-depth reclamation may be an alternative if a roadbase
shows inadequate bearing capacity and strengthening is neces-
sary. Full-depth reclamation allows complete reconstruction using
all existing pavement materials. One method of reclamation is to
pulverize the existing surface and mix it with the aggregate base
and subgrade soil, if necessary. Stabilizing material, such as
granular materials, hydrated lime, fly ash, bitumen emulsions or
foamed bitumen, can be added and mixed to provide a new base
共Huffman 1997; Luiro 1996兲.
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Other Methods
A simple method of recycling asphalt 共asphalt granules兲 is to use
it on gravel roads or as base/subbase layers. This method of using
high quality materials is questionable from both environmental
and economic points of view. However, for special applications,
such as frost-sensitive gravel roads, the use of asphalt granules
may be motivated by its flexibility and healing capacity 共Jacobson
1996兲.
Method Selection and Strategies for Efficient
Recycling
In many publications, the importance of investigating causes of
distresses leading to the need for rehabilitation is emphasized. It
is clear that some distresses are likely to reoccur in recycled pave-
ments, if not considered in rehabilitation method selection and
design process. Generally, use of more new 共virgin兲 material fa-
cilitates in the adjustment of properties of the old 共reclaimed兲
asphalt, which in turn should result in improved pavement perfor-
mance. At the same time, the benefits of using old asphalt de-
crease, since the extra work involved in asphalt recycling has to
be compensated by savings in new material. From an environ-
mental point of view, recycling should not be performed at any
cost, because haulage and heating may show such negative envi-
ronmental effects, that they cannot be justified by savings in new
materials. Today, the use of life cycle approaches is becoming
more and more common for estimating environmental impacts.
The suitability of different recycling methods for rehabilitation
can be assessed based on whether recycling is performed in-plant
or in-place, as well as at what temperature and to which depth
recycling is performed. Availability of equipment and personnel,
etc., is of course another important issue in method selection.
In-plant recycling shows the advantage that existing equip-
ment may be used after various degrees of modification. Further,
smaller quantities of reclaimed asphalt can be added continuously
to new asphalt with relatively good control of material properties,
thus producing overlays of high quality. The great advantage of
in-place recycling is obviously minimized haulage and need for
new materials, resulting in both economical and environmental
benefits. Another advantage of in-place recycling, compared to
conventional surfacing or heating, is that cracks can be inter-
rupted before a new overlay is placed. In full depth reclamation,
distresses originating from layers deeper down in the pavement
can be addressed. To increase bearing capacity, the lower layers
need to be stabilized or additional overlays be placed on top of
the old pavement. After full depth reclamation, additional over-
lays can be laid on a more stable and homogeneous foundation,
thereby, for example, avoiding reflective cracks to reappear. In
repaving, a new overlay is placed simultaneously with the re-
cycled layer, thus providing an opportunity to modify properties
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006.18:81-92.
of the road surface such as skid resistance. It is often claimed that
the relatively longer wheelbase of remixing and repaving units
lead to larger improvements to the longitudinal profile compared
to other rehabilitation alternatives 共Potter and Mercer 1997兲. An-
other advantage of remixing and repaving is that they mill the
existing pavement when heated, which means that the aggregate
is much less degraded by the milling process, compared to cold
milling.
In general, cold and warm recycling are performed on low or
medium trafficked roads. Cold recycling performed using bitu-
men emulsions may be prone to deform during the first weeks
after construction, since the water needs time to evaporate. In
cold recycling, heavy rains during construction may show very
negative consequences. Compared to cold recycling, warm recy-
cling is less affected by climate 共cool and damp conditions兲.
A general aspect of the use of reclaimed materials is to pre-
serve high quality materials in demanding functions. For ex-
ample, the use of good quality aggregate from high-trafficked
wearing courses should preferably not be used as an overlay on a
low volume gravel road.
A guide for selection of recycling method based on current
type of distress is given in Table 1.
Bitumen Rejuvenation
The constitution of a recycled binder depends on the composition
of the original binder, aging during service, the constitution of the
new binder added 共rejuvenator兲, and the final production includ-
ing mixing, laying, and compaction. The recycled binder needs to
maintain desired properties for another service period. This means
that a recycled binder usually has to be altered to perform satis-
factorily in the future by the addition of a properly selected reju-
venator. The purpose of this section is to summarize current
knowledge on bitumen rejuvenation. The chapter starts with a
brief description of binder aging, followed by a description of
rejuvenators. Then, a more detailed account of the rejuvenation
process is given. Finally, literature related to the constitution and
properties of rejuvenators is reviewed.
Bitumen Aging
Since the process of aging to a great extent influences the binder
properties in an asphalt layer, binder aging is a factor of great
importance in asphalt recycling. Comprehensive research has
been performed to investigate the process of aging and only a
brief description of the causes and consequences of binder aging
is given in this paper. The description provides a background for
the measures that can be taken to rejuvenate old binders. For
more details on binder aging, a number of publications can be
recommended 共Branthaver et al. 1993; Davison et al. 1994;
Johansson 1998; Petersen 1984, 2000兲.
Aging mainly leads to increased stiffness but also bring about
changes in physicochemical properties as ductility and adhesion.
Generally, aging influences binder performance and consequently
the asphalt mixture. The main mechanisms related to bitumen
aging are oxidation, evaporation, exudation, and physical
hardening.
Oxidation is an irreversible process mainly controlled by the
reactivity of the binder and the amount of oxygen available
through diffusion 共Tuffour and Ishai 1990兲. Oxidative reactions
are promoted at higher energies, i.e., by high temperatures and
exposure to light of high energy 共e.g., UV light兲, which enhances
 Table 1. Guide for Selection of Recycling Method 关after ARRA 共1992兲 Gooswilligen 1989兲. The sensitivity toward evaporation differs
and Kandhal 共1997兲兴 between binders and can be reduced by minimizing the amount of
Type of Hot Hot Cold Full the most volatile components.
pavement Cold in-plant in-place in-place depth Exudation results from loss of oily components, which exude
distress planing recycling recycling recycling reclamation from the bitumen into the aggregate. This type of aging is influ-
Surface defects
enced by the chemistry of the bitumen as well as the porosity of
the aggregate.
Raveling ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
Physical hardening can occur over a long period of time and is
Bleeding ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
believed to arise from molecular structuring. The degree of mo-
共Flushing兲
lecular structuring is influenced by temperature. The effect of
Low skid ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
resistance
physical hardening can be reversed by, for example, changing the
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temperature.
Deformation
Of special interest to asphalt recycling is the fact that the de-
Corrugations ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
gree of aging is strongly influenced by void content of the mixture
Rutting— ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
共Dickinson 1980; Kemp and Predoehl 1981; Kemp and Sherman
shallow
1984兲. Porous asphalt pavements have shown penetration at 25° C
Rutting— ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
as low as 5 dmm 共Ekblad and Isacsson 1995; van der Kooij and
deep
Verberg 1996兲. Stockpiling has also been reported to contribute to
Cracking/load associated
aging as the binder in this case is more exposed to air 共McMillan
Alligator ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
and Palsat 1985兲. The process of recycling will lead to further
Longitudinal ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ aging of the old binder, especially if recycled hot. A study of hot
wheel
in-place asphalt recycling projects revealed that the penetration at
path
25° C was reduced about 20% during the recycling process, if no
Pavement ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
new materials were added 共AGRA 1996兲. However, some mea-
edge
sures may be taken to reduce this negative influence, such as
Slippage ⫻ ⫻
gentle heating. For example, during in-plant mixing, the old as-
Cracking/nonload associated
phalt granules must not be exposed to the burner flame or super-
Block ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ heated new aggregate.
共shrinkage兲
Longitudinal ⫻ ⫻
joint Rejuvenators
Transversal ⫻ ⫻ ⫻
共thermal兲 During the years, a number of materials with the purpose of al-
Reflection ⫻a 共⫻兲 ⫻ ⫻ tering properties of old binders at asphalt recycling have been
Maintenance patching
proposed. This group of materials goes by different names as
reclaiming, recycling, modifying or softening agents 共additives兲,
Spray ⫻ ⫻
recycling modifiers, rejuvenators but also fluxing, extender or
Skin ⫻ ⫻
aromatic oils. In this paper, the term rejuvenator is used to de-
Pothole ⫻ ⫻
nominate all products used for rejuvenation of old binders.
Deep 共hot ⫻ ⫻ Besides bitumen, bitumen emulsions, cut backs, and foamed
mix兲
bitumen, a number of additives have been used as rejuvenators. In
Problem base/subgrade 共soft, wet兲 ⫻ a list compiled by Roberts et al. 共1996兲, a distinction is made
Ride quality/roughness between softening agents and rejuvenating agents, where soften-
General ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ ing agents plainly are aimed at lowering the viscosity of aged
uneveness bitumen, whereas rejuvenating agents also are added for the pur-
Depressions ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ pose of restoring physical and chemical properties of the old
共settlement兲 binder:
High ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ ⫻ 1. Softening agents
spots
• Asphalt flux oils 共generally blended with bitumen to re-
共heaving兲
a
duce the viscosity兲;
If milling is performed as part of the recycling process. • Lube stock 共a fraction of crude oil that has viscosity simi-
lar to lube oils兲;
• Lubricating or crankcase oil 共usually highly aliphatic兲;
not only the reaction rates but also the number of different reac- and
tions that can occur 共Tyrion 2000兲. As a consequence, differences • Slurry oil 共bottoms from the catalytic cracking process兲.
in activation energy levels for different reactions means that aging 2. Rejuvenating agents
mechanisms at service temperature 共long-term aging兲 and produc- • Lube extracts 共highly naphtenic or aromatic fractions re-
tion 共short-term aging兲 are expected to be different. Oxidation moved from lube stock by solvent extraction兲; and
changes the chemical composition of binders. A major outcome of • Extender oils 共aromatic oils from lube stock, mostly used
aging is the formation of polar functional groups, which increases for extending asphalt-rubber blends兲.
the viscosity by increasing the intermolecular interactions. It is not obvious that all these types of products are appropriate
Evaporation of volatile components of binders, especially with regard to performance and/or the environment.
from thin films, can result in substantial changes in binder prop- A rejuvenator should restore the reclaimed binder characteris-
erties, if the binders are exposed to high temperatures 共van tics to a consistency level appropriate for construction purposes

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006.18:81-92.

 and pavement performance, and, at the same time, optimize the
chemical characteristics with regard to durability. A rejuvenator
should also provide sufficient additional binder to coat any new
aggregate that is added to the reclaimed mixture and satisfy mix-
ture design requirements. Further, rejuvenators should be easy to
disperse in the old binder, be uniform from batch to batch, and
practical to use, for example, by preventing flashing, smoking,
and health risks 共Epps et al. 1980兲.
Specifications applied to rejuvenators vary and a compilation
of current practice is not justified by the purpose of this paper.
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Conceptualization of the Rejuvenation Process
In hot in-plant or in-place asphalt recycling operations, fresh
binder and aggregate are mixed with reclaimed asphalt. The fresh
binder should be a rejuvenator or soft bitumen in order to achieve
a final mix of fresh and old binder showing acceptable consis-
tency. Mixing of binders is influenced by mechanical mixing as
well as diffusion, and requires compatibility between the binders
共Karlsson 2000兲. Incomplete mixing during hot recycling has
been indicated in field by comparably low compaction tempera-
ture 共Taverner et al. 1990兲 or propensity to deform easier 共Potter
and Mercer 1997; Oliver 2001兲, but is likely more pronounced in
cold recycling 共Ulmgren 1982兲, where mixing is limited by the
existence of asphalt granules of aggregate glued together.
The efficiency of binder mixing at asphalt recycling was
investigated by Lee et al. 共1983兲 using dyes to determine the
effectiveness in spreading of rejuvenator throughout the recycled
mixture. The dye, ␤-naphtenol, was mixed with the rejuvenator
and then visually detected in the recycled asphalt concrete. It was
concluded that mixing of binders on a macroscale was mainly
accomplished by mechanical mixing.
To the writers’ knowledge, the first laboratory investigations of
diffusion of a rejuvenator into an old binder were performed by
Zearley 共1979兲 and by Carpenter and Wolosick 共1980兲. They used
a stage extraction method 共cf. the following discussion兲 to deter-
mine the rate at which a rejuvenator in an asphalt mixture mi-
grated into the old binder. Carpenter and Wolosick 共1980兲 also
compared these experiments with measurements of mechanical
properties after storage for certain periods of time. They hypoth-
esized that the diffusion of rejuvenators into aged bitumen at as-
phalt recycling could be described in steps as follows. First, the
rejuvenator forms a very low-viscosity layer that surrounds the
aggregate, which is coated with very high-viscosity aged asphalt
cement. Then, the rejuvenator begins to penetrate the aged asphalt
cement layer, thereby decreasing the amount of new rejuvenator
covering the bitumen-coated aggregate particles and softening the
old bitumen. After a given time period, no raw rejuvenator re-
mains, and the diffusion of rejuvenator continues. Simultaneously,
the viscosity of the inner layer 共closest to the aggregate兲 is low-
ered, and the viscosity of the outer layer is increased. As time
goes on, equilibrium is approached over the majority of the shell
of bitumen.
Carpenter and Wolosick 共1980兲 also called attention to the fact
that the rate of diffusion of different components in the rejuvena-
tor might be different. Further, they stated that incomplete mixing
of old and added binder causes problems in predicting of perfor-
mance, and, if incomplete mixing of old and new binder occurs,
the long-term field pavement performance will be affected.
The concept of the diffusion process described above was ex-
perimentally verified by Carpenter and Wolosick 共1980兲 using a
stage extraction method, in which the inner and outer layers of the
recycled binder film was extracted separately. The samples were
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006 / 85
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006.18:81-92.
Fig. 1. Penetration values of the inner and outer binder layer versus
time during diffusion 关after Carpenter and Wolosick 共1980兲兴.
prepared by heating the reclaimed asphalt to 116° C and mixed
with rejuvenator 共20% of total binder content兲. The samples were
allowed to cure in an uncompacted state for a specified time. At
predetermined time intervals, an incremental extraction process
was initiated. The recycled mix was immersed in trichloroethyl-
ene and left for 3 min before the solution was decanted. The
remaining mix was treated with solvent to remove all the remain-
ing binder. The two binder solutions obtained were recovered,
providing two samples representing the outer and inner layer of
the recycled binder film.
The consistency of each layer should vary with time, if the
diffusion process is working as hypothesized. Fig. 1 shows that
the outer and inner layers finally approaches the same consis-
tency, close to that of a mixture of rejuvenator and old binder of
corresponding content. Fig. 1 also shows the variation in binder
stiffness of reclaimed material 共the outer layer stiffer than the
inner layer兲.
Similar investigations have also been performed by Noureldin
and Wood 共1987兲, who stored samples of uncompacted asphalt
mixtures for 15 h at 78° C, after which the binder films were
extracted in four stages. The samples were soaked for 5 min in
trichloroethylene in increments of 200, 200, 300, and 700 mL to
get the extracted bitumen in four fractions. The results obtained
by Noureldin and Wood 共1987兲 confirmed the findings of Carpen-
ter and Wolosick 共1980兲, that is the binder layer close to the
aggregate remained stiffer than the outer layers during the diffu-
sion process studied.
Rejuvenator Diffusion
Knowledge regarding diffusion of bituminous binders into each
other is of fundamental interest in asphalt recycling. Oliver
共1975兲 studied diffusion of dodecylbenzene and two oil fractions
into three different bitumens, using a method of tritium labeling.
The study was undertaken to investigate the possibility of replac-
ing weathered binder at the pavement surface with an oversprayed
oil formulation, thereby extending the life of the surfacing. To
determine the diffusion coefficient, a thin layer 共⬍1 ␮m兲 of dif-
fusant was applied to the top of a bitumen cylinder, 1.25 cm in
diameter and 0.5 cm high. The tritium labeled diffusant was then
allowed to penetrate the bitumen for some time after which the
bitumen was sliced using a microtome. The radioactivity
was measured at different depths and the diffusion coefficient
calculated.
One of the conclusions drawn from Oliver’s study 共1975兲 was
that the diffusion rate could be increased by adding diluent oil
fractions or by raising the temperature. The diffusion rate was
 unaffected by a skin on top of the bitumen cylinder caused by
photooxidation. It was also stated that for the oils constituted of
molecules of different size and configuration, only an average
diffusion coefficient could be determined. Oliver 共1975兲 also con-
cluded that the diffusion coefficient depends on the temperature in
an Arrhenius-type relationship.
Oliver 共1975兲 also performed experiments on diffusion of oil
fractions obtained by size exclusion chromatography 共SEC兲 and
liquid chromatography 共LC兲. It was found that higher molecular
weight fractions diffused more rapidly than the lower molecular
weight oil fractions, which was unexpected. Oliver 共1975兲 also
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found that the more aliphatic fractions obtained from LC diffused
more rapidly than naphthenic and condensed aromatic fractions,
and concluded that molecular shape was more important than
molecular weight, i.e. thin aliphatic compounds diffuse more rap-
idly than bulky condensed compounds.
Rejuvenator diffusion has also been studied using Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy using attenuated total reflectance
共FTIR-ATR兲 by Karlsson 共2000兲. Using FTIR-ATR, diffusion of
three rejuvenators and several chemical compounds, referred to as
markers, were monitored when diffusing through a number of
binders. The results were verified by a limited number of rheo-
logical diffusion measurements 共Karlsson and Isacsson 2003兲.
The magnitude of the diffusion rates determined by Oliver 共1975兲
and by Karlsson 共2000兲 and Karlsson and Isacsson 共2002兲 was
found to be of the same order. Fick’s law was also found valid to
model diffusion and the use of an Arrhenius relationship was
confirmed appropriate to model the influence of temperature.
Classical diffusion models, such as Stoke–Einstein equation,
claiming proportionality between rate of diffusion and viscosity
of the diffusion medium, was used to investigate possible influ-
ences of bitumen aging on rejuvenator diffusion. The rate of re-
juvenator diffusion above 50° C was found to be fairly indepen-
dent of degree of aging 共Karlsson and Isacsson 2002兲, which was
explained by the ability of a relatively unaffected, soft maltene
phase to provide the medium for diffusion. Hence, rejuvenator
diffusion takes place at a considerably faster rate than expected
from the classical models of diffusion. Diffusion rates determined
using markers of different size and polarity demonstrated large
influence of polarity and indicated inverse proportionality be-
tween diffusion rate and the square of the molecular weight of the
markers.
Properties of Recycled Binders
The constitution of bitumen is responsible for its road perfor-
mance. In order to work well, properties influencing rheology,
cohesion, adhesion, and durability must be optimized. In asphalt
recycling, the same applies to the recycled binder, i.e., the mix-
ture of rejuvenator and aged bitumen. It may seem relatively easy
to soften an aged bituminous binder by addition of low-viscosity
rejuvenators. However, maintaining stability 共a bitumen showing
good stability is a homogeneous system where the asphaltenes are
well peptized/dissolved and prevented from precipitation or floc-
culation兲 and durability of the recycled binder is also necessary.
These two requirements may counteract each other, as the com-
ponents that enhance stability and durability may not be very
effective at reducing viscosity 共Newcomb et al. 1984; Peterson
et al. 1994兲. The rest of this chapter is a review of literature
related to rejuvenation of reclaimed binders by addition of reju-
venators in order to achieve desired consistency and chemical
constitution of recycled binders.
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Consistency
In order to meet specified target viscosities for recycled binders,
mixing rules have been applied to determine the amount of reju-
venator required, given the viscosities of the old binder and the
rejuvenator. Arrhenius 共1887兲 was first to establish a relationship
describing viscosity of mixes of two liquids 关Eq. 共1a兲兴. All mixing
rules use some kind of logarithmic relationship between amount
of each binder and the resulting viscosity. The following are ex-
amples of such mixing rules:
ln共␩mix兲 = x ln共␩1兲 + 共1 − x兲ln共␩2兲 共1a兲
ln共␩mix兲 = x ln共␩1兲 + 共1 − x兲ln共␩2兲 + x共1 − x兲G12 共1b兲
ln共ln共␩mix兲兲 = x ln共ln共␩1兲兲 + 共1 − x兲ln共ln共␩2兲兲 共1c兲
where ␩mix = viscosity of the mixture; ␩1 and ␩2 = viscosity of
Binders 1 and 2, respectively; x = volume percentage of Binder 1;
and G12 = interaction factor between Binders 1 and 2.
Eq. 共1b兲 was presented by Grunberg and Nissan 共1949兲 and
applied by Davison et al. 共1994兲 to mixtures of several bitumi-
nous binders. It was concluded that G12 varies for different sets of
binders. For mixtures of bitumens, G12 was close to zero, whereas
mixtures of bitumen and highly aromatic rejuvenators rendered
G12 values as low as −10. This was explained by the ability of
these rejuvenators to disperse the asphaltenes in bitumen. Clearly,
by use of Eqs. 共1a兲 and 共1c兲, differences in interactions between
binders cannot be taken into account. However, the results pre-
sented by Davison et al. 共1994兲 indicate that Eq. 共1a兲 a might be
better for mixtures of bitumens and Eq. 共1c兲 better for mixtures of
bitumens and rejuvenators.
Mixing rules have also been developed for critical tempera-
tures in Superpave mix design. Critical temperatures at low, in-
termediate, and high temperatures can be calculated for mixtures
of old and new binders by assuming a linear relationship between
the amount of each binder and the critical temperature of the
mixture 共McDaniel and Anderson 2001兲. Soleymani et al. 共1999兲
have studied relationships between proportions of soft binder/
rejuvenator and stiff bitumen and performance grade and master
curve parameters and found linear relationship between the pro-
portion of rejuvenator and the following performance related
parameters:
• log G*, where G* = complex shear modulus;
• ␦, where ␦ = phase angle;
• log S, where S = stiffness;
• m, where m = creep rate;
• R, where R = rheological index 共“sufficiently accurate” rela-
tionship兲; and
• ␻c, where ␻c = crossover frequency 共sufficiently accurate
relationship兲.
Chemical Constitution
Research aiming at relating chemical constitution to binder per-
formance has been going on for many decades with varying suc-
cess. Of particular interest is prediction of durability, which is
difficult to determine by short-term laboratory tests. Most of the
findings presented in this section focus on the fractional compo-
sition of recycled binders and the constitution of rejuvenators
suitable to restore the composition of reclaimed binders. Finally,
health related aspects of rejuvenators are shortly commented.
According to Heithaus 共1962兲, binder stability is achieved by
high solvency or peptizing power of the maltene phase and high
peptizability of the asphaltene phase. A rejuvenator should be
composed in such a way that it increases the peptizing power of
 the maltene phase 共Venable et al. 1983兲. Heithaus showed that
oxidative aging normally decreases the peptizing power of the
n-pentane maltene phase. However, results presented by Karlsson
and Isacsson 共2003兲 indicate that aging rather leads to increasing
polar interactions than to decreasing stability. Consequently, re-
search presented hitherto does not indicate that influence of aging
is a critical issue.
Extensively low stability may be manifested in low ductility as
well as a sharply increased shear viscosity at diminishing shear
rate 共Peterson et al. 1994兲, which exceptionally may lead to phase
separation. Binder stability is a consequence of mutual solubility
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of all components constituting a binder. The stability depends on
the distribution of solubility parameters and molecular size. A
high content of polar and aromatics 共determined by ASTM 2007兲
are believed to enhance dispersion of asphaltenes 共Dunning and
Mendenhall 1977; Newcomb et al. 1984兲. However, the observa-
tions made by Verhaeghe and Van Assen 共1992兲 and Gannon et al.
共1980兲 indicate that the fractional composition 共determined by
ASTM D2007兲 of the recycled binder is additive, i.e., the frac-
tional composition is proportional to the amount of each binder
and their fractional composition.
If the rejuvenator is manufactured from the same crude as the
old binder subject to rejuvenation, the stability of the recycled
binder is likely optimized, since the chemistry of the two binders
is similar and therefore probably highly compatible. As aging
leads to an irreversible increase in content of viscosity building
components, rejuvenators should preferably show as low content
of asphaltenes as possible. Research carried out in Texas suggests
the method of supercritical fractionation of residues from crude
oil distillation to be used in manufacturing of rejuvenators of
desired chemical constitution 关Chaffin et al. 共1997兲兴. Supercritical
fractionation of residues means that the residue is dissolved in a
“bad” solvent by aid of high pressure 共and high temperature兲. By
reducing pressure 共and temperature兲 in steps, a number of differ-
ent fractions are obtained.
The amount of saturates 共determined by ASTM D2007兲 in re-
juvenators was proposed by Kari et al. 共1980兲 to be limited to
30% of the rejuvenator. The limit obtained was based on blends of
a number of rejuvenators and one aged California Coastal bitu-
men. The blends with rejuvenators containing more than 30%
saturates failed to meet the bitumen specifications used then.
Saturates 共paraffins兲 determined by Corbett fractionation 共ASTM
D4124兲 were found to show detrimental effects on hardening sus-
ceptibility 共according to PAV aging兲 and ductility, if the content of
saturates determined in this way was higher than 15% of the
recycled binder 共Peterson et al. 1994兲. This finding was supported
by Newcomb et al. 共1984兲 reporting that blends of bitumen with
rejuvenators of high content of saturates 共according to ASTM
D2007兲 showed higher aging index 共viscosity at 140° F after/
before RTFO aging兲, while high content of aromatics and polars
contributed to improved ductility.
McMillan and Palsat 共1985兲 also tested viscosity of recycled
binders after TFOT. It was suggested that maximum amount of
distillate should be no more than 1% 共by volume, determined by
ASTM D402兲 to ensure that only distilled binders were used and
not cut back bitumens. Noureldin and Wood 共1990兲 observed sub-
stantial differences between TFO-aged blends of one old binder
and three different rejuvenators. All blends were designed to cor-
respond to a virgin binder AC-20 of penetration 65 dmm at 25° C.
Interestingly, the blend with a commercial rejuvenator, rich in
aromatics, showed the lowest hardening susceptibility 共even
lower than the virgin AC-20兲.
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006.18:81-92.
Rejuvenators containing waxes should be avoided, since
waxes may affect the low temperature properties of the final blend
共Peterson et al. 1994兲. Waxes strongly associate at lower tempera-
tures, and are, in general, defined as a fraction of saturates that
crystallizes upon cooling. Other suggested negative effects of
waxes are poor adhesion to some aggregates and a tendency to
cause increase in permanent deformations of asphalt mixtures.
However, recent research on waxes gives a more complex picture
of the composition of waxes, and waxes obtained from different
bitumens may show different constitutions 共Redelius and Isacsson
2002兲.
The health aspects associated with emissions from rejuvena-
tors also require consideration. From a technical point of view,
highly aromatic oils are the choice of preference 共Peterson et al.
1994兲, but such oils are also a source of emissions of PAH, which
include a number of substances, proven to be carcinogenic. Fur-
ther, regarding health aspects, the content of volatile compounds
should be kept at a level as low as possible.
Laboratory Studies of Recycled Asphalt Concrete
Recycling is a more demanding task than conventional paving
regarding method selection, mix design and, to some extent, also
the paving procedure. The variation in material properties is gen-
erally larger in reclaimed asphalt compared to fresh material, a
problem being difficult to account for as it originates from varia-
tions in the old pavement. In spite of this fact, the initial perfor-
mance of a recycled pavement is today normally considered as
good as that of a newly constructed one of the same type 共Epps
1990; Button et al. 1995; Kandhal et al. 1995; Potter and Mercer
1997兲, provided that the reclaimed asphalt does not show irreme-
diable shortcomings. Many types of distresses related to poor ma-
terials may reoccur, if not properly considered. Generally, most
types of negative observations of recycled asphalt performance
have been attributed to parameters of great importance in method
selection 共bearing capacity兲 and mix design 共inadequate binder
content, binder stiffness, and/or aggregate gradation兲. However,
studying material properties of reclaimed asphalt is difficult due
to its complex constitution and unknown history. Furthermore,
during the recycling process, curing needs to be taken into ac-
count 共rejuvenation, breaking of emulsions, etc.兲.
Low variability of reclaimed asphalt is essential to achieve
desired properties of recycled asphalt. Variability in stockpiled
materials should be kept low by separating different materials
with regard to type of asphalt, amount of deleterious material, etc.
共McDaniel and Anderson 2001兲. One way to improve homogene-
ity is to remove unwanted features of the old road 共e.g., road
markings兲, crack seals and other sources of inhomogenities prior
to the reclamation process. Thorough mixing of the stockpiled
materials improves homogeneity. Regarding variability, degrada-
tion of aggregate during service, fines from deleterious materials,
cold milling and crushing of ripped asphalt concrete, which all are
influencing the aggregate gradation, should also be taken into
account. At stockpile sampling, it is essential that samples taken
as far as possible reflect the whole stockpile.
Cold recycled asphalt is more difficult to screed and compact
due to lower workability, which may lead to higher air void con-
tent and greater risk for unevenness and rutting compared to hot
recycled asphalt 共Jacobson 1995兲. However, low air void content
is frequently reported in connection with recycled objects. The
reason is often too much binder added for the purpose of soften-
ing the reclaimed asphalt concrete and making it workable
 共Rogge et al. 1994兲. Determination of the amount of rejuvenator
needed, especially at cold recycling, appears to be an act of bal-
ance between, on the one hand, workability and raveling, and on
the other hand, avoiding problems like bleeding and insufficient
stability.
Laboratory investigations on recycled asphalt mixtures can
mainly be divided into two categories: evaluations on perfor-
mance of recycled asphalt and studies on the degree of mixing
between reclaimed binder and rejuvenator. Within the former cat-
egory, most of the studies reported were found to be of applied
character and limited extent. These “technical” reports were not
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taken into account in this paper, the purpose of which is to sum-
marize more fundamental knowledge regarding material-related
aspects on asphalt recycling. Below is a description of studies on
mixing of reclaimed binders and rejuvenators, followed by short
reviews on performance-related properties of recycled asphalt.
Mixing-Related Studies on Mixtures
The investigation performed by Carpenter and Wolosick 共1980兲,
previously mentioned, was supplemented with mechanical tests,
showing the change in recycled asphalt properties over time as a
consequence of binder diffusion. They measured resilient modu-
lus, creep compliance, permanent deformation properties and
Marshall stability and reported, among other things, that “the re-
silient modulus values for the recycled samples showed a rather
dramatic variation with time.” van der Kooij and Verburg 共1996兲
performed experiments using reclaimed porous asphalt containing
a severely aged binder with a penetration at 25° C as low as about
5 dmm. van der Kooij and Verburg performed wheel track, Mar-
shall stability, Cantabro, and indirect tensile tests. They argued
that, despite the severely aged reclaimed asphalt, the response to
these tests could not originate from separate fresh and old binders,
but from a mix of both. They drew the conclusion that fresh
binder mixes with old binder, despite severe aging, but no evi-
dence was found for complete mixing. Unfortunately, the condi-
tions differ too much between the two investigations presented in
this paragraph to allow any detailed comparison.
In the work to incorporate reclaimed asphalt in the Superpave
system, a study was conducted using the Superpave Shear Tester
to investigate whether reclaimed asphalt granules act as “black
rocks,” i.e., if the old binder coating the reclaimed asphalt inter-
acts with the new binder. In this study, reclaimed asphalt was
added to new asphalt in ratios of 10 and 40%. The mixing process
was performed to simulate three cases where 共1兲 no mixing oc-
curs 共black rocks兲; 共2兲 real performance is reflected; and 共3兲 old
and new binder are mixed. In the first case, the old binder was
removed from the reclaimed asphalt prior to mixing and in the
last case, the old binder was recovered and mixed with the new
binder prior to mixing with the aggregate. Case 2 was aimed at
simulating the recycling process performed during in-plant as-
phalt recycling. The shear tests used were repeated shear at con-
stant height, simple shear, and frequency sweep tests. For all three
shear tests used, at 40% addition of reclaimed asphalt, there were
distinct differences between Case 1 on one hand and Cases 2 and
3 on the other. No significant difference was observed at 10%
addition. Similar to the results presented above by Carpenter and
Wolosick 共1980兲 and van der Kooij and Verburg 共1996兲, this re-
sult also implies that the old binder in reclaimed asphalt interacts
with the new binder.
Oliver 共2001兲 has also addressed the issue of binder mixing
using a mechanical testing approach. Two asphalt mixtures were
manufactured, below called recycled and fresh, respectively. The
88 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006.18:81-92.
first one was obtained using a given binder and aggregate of given
particle size distribution. The mixture was aged to a given degree,
compacted and broken up manually, after which it was blended
with a new mixture and finally compacted again. The binder of
this mixture was recovered and the viscosity determined. The
second mixture containing the same aggregate 共type and grada-
tion兲 was manufactured using another binder. After compaction,
the binder was recovered and its viscosity measured. The viscos-
ity determined in this case was close to the viscosity of the binder
in the first mixture. Further, the nominal binder and void content
of two mixtures were the same. The recycled mixture showed
comparably lower resilient modulus, higher wheel tracking rate
and longer fatigue life 共controlled strain兲, which are signs of a
softer binder. Oliver 共1975兲 concluded that the reclaimed and
fresh binders were not fully mixed, since the reclaimed asphalt
may form agglomerates of aggregate and filler, hard for the fresh
binder to penetrate. Incomplete mixing would create areas with a
softer binder, which could not be counterbalanced by the areas
containing harder binder. It should be noted that the reclaimed
and fresh asphalt was mixed for three minutes, compacted and
then cured for 1 h, all at a temperature of 150° C.
Performance-Related Studies
Resilient and Permanent Deformations
Both resilient and permanent deformations of asphalt concrete are
of great interest in pavement engineering. The resilient response
is related to bearing capacity and cracking and the permanent
response to development of ruts. Typical observations described
below are related to unexpectedly high resilient deformations or
initially high rate of permanent deformation. Except for the initial
behavior of cold recycled asphalt, a general picture cannot be
observed. In cold recycled pavements, using bitumen emulsions
as rejuvenator, there is normally a longer period of lower strength
before the final level is reached 共Kazmierowski et al. 1992兲. Re-
garding cold recycling, the strength is mainly influenced by mois-
ture content 共Castedo 1987; Bardesi Orue-Echevarría et al.,
1996兲. Consequently, high air void content facilitates in drying
共curing兲 process 共Kazmierowski et al. 1992; Jacobson 1995兲.
Estakhri 共1994兲 evaluated 20 objects where reclaimed asphalt
was blended with bitumen emulsions and conventional mixtures.
Recycled mixtures that had Hveem stabilities greater than 24
were found to perform successfully, whereas mixtures having sta-
bilities lower than 12 failed due to permanent deformations.
Stiffness modulus and creep tests reported 共Carpenter and
Wolosick 1980; Kari et al. 1980; Kadar 1996兲 indicate that the
rejuvenation process may not always be complete after the recy-
cling operation. In the field, initially higher permanent deforma-
tion rates have been observed on hot remixed roads as well as on
hot remixed test sections subjected to accelerated pavement test-
ing 共Potter and Mercer 1997兲. According to Tia et al. 共1983兲,
instability may also occur, if the difference in viscosity between
the old binder and the rejuvenator is too large. However, Edwards
and Mayhew 共1989兲 did not observe any significant difference in
wheel track rate between cores taken from conventional 共40 mm兲,
remixed and repaved overlays.
Epps et al. 共1980兲 observed differences in Marshall stability
and resilient modulus between laboratory-compacted samples and
hot mix recycled cores taken from the field. These differences
were attributed to differences in compaction characteristics,
which meant that air void content of the field compacted cores
were much higher compared to the laboratory compacted
 samples. Verhaeghe and Van Assen 共1992兲 studied properties of
hot in-place recycled asphalt. They found that laboratory condi-
tioning of recycled samples led to significantly increased stiffness
and an even more pronounced decrease in Poisson’s ratio. Ver-
haeghe and Van Assen 共1992兲 also stretched the importance of
applying the rejuvenator evenly throughout the recycled mixture,
as inhomogeneities in the recycled asphalt were identified and
believed to affect deformation behavior.
Fatigue
It is known that stiffness is an important factor in asphalt fatigue.
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In controlled stress fatigue testing, a stiffer binder is expected to
lead to longer fatigue life, whereas the opposite applies to con-
trolled strain testing, assuming that test-related parameters are the
same 共Judycki 1991兲. Fatigue life of laboratory manufactured
samples of recycled asphalt has been studied by, among others,
Kennedy and Perez 共1978兲, Servas et al. 共1984兲, and Oliver
共2001兲. In fact, the fatigue test observations described showed
fatigue behavior as expected from stiffness values determined.
Low Temperature Properties
As a result of insufficient rejuvenation 共high stiffness兲, recycled
asphalt may show higher susceptibility to low temperature crack-
ing compared to newly constructed pavements 共Taverner et al.
1990; Tam et al. 1992兲. Tam et al. 共1990兲 called attention to the
need for using soft binders and/or limitations on the recycling
ratios allowed, in order to improve low temperature performance
of recycled asphalt.
Studies by Terrel and Fritchen 共1977兲 indicated that hot re-
cycled mixtures were comparable to conventional mixtures when
studying effects of freeze–thaw cycling. Cold recycled asphalt is
more sensitive toward freeze–thaw action, but 1–2% bitumen
emulsion was found sufficient to bring sensitivity down to accept-
able levels 共Jacobson 1995兲.
Water Susceptibility
Generally, pavements exhibiting stripping should in principle not
be recycled, since the problem is likely to re-occur 共Rogge et al.
1994; Scott 1992; Terrel et al. 1997兲. However, if stripping sus-
ceptible mixtures are recycled, anti-stripping additives should be
used 共DeKold and Amirkhanian 1992兲.
Mixtures containing 15–20% reclaimed asphalt do not exhibit
higher moisture susceptibility than corresponding mixtures con-
taining 100% virgin asphalt 共DeKold and Amirkhanian 1992兲. As
a matter of fact, there are indications that addition of old asphalt
leads to lower water susceptibility 共Jacobson 1999兲. One possible
explanation is that old asphalt granules are already covered with
binder, which enhances resistance to stripping. Further, recycled
asphalt concrete sometimes contains more binder compared to
virgin asphalt concrete 共in order to soften the old asphalt con-
crete兲, which also may increase the resistance to stripping.
According to Epps et al. 共1980兲, type of rejuvenator used
shows little influence on water susceptibility, provided that the
materials are properly mixed and the desired viscosity is obtained.
Discussion
Generally, field trials are necessary for final performance assess-
ment of new types of materials and/or methods. However, road
trials show the disadvantage of being site dependent and conse-
quently definite conclusions are difficult to draw based on a lim-
ited number of field observations. Regular parameter studies are
JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006 / 89
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006.18:81-92.
very expensive to perform in the field, and performance studies
require a long period of time before final conclusions can be
drawn. Consequently, extensive field studies are comparably
scarce, and therefore most results referred to in this review have
been obtained from laboratory tests. On the other hand, laboratory
tests will always leave questions about how well reality is re-
flected. A major concern in this study has been to assess the
reliability by which reported behavior of recycled asphalt is re-
flecting real pavement performance or being a consequence of
sample preparation or testing procedure used.
Among many areas of importance in asphalt recycling, the
following topics were considered of special interest:
• Variability of reclaimed asphalt;
• Rejuvenation of old binders and constitution of rejuvenators;
and
• Mixing of materials and curing processes.
Variability is to a great extent a question of careful handling of
materials. One way to limit the variability of reclaimed material is
to consider unwanted impurities of the old road 共e.g., road mark-
ings, coal tar and soil兲 and sources of inhomogeneities such as
crack seals and patches. Another way of reducing variability is to
thoroughly mix the reclaimed materials. If the variability is suf-
ficiently low, it should be possible to more accurately modify
deficiencies in, for example, aggregate gradation, binder content
and stiffness, provided that the proportion of virgin material
added is high enough.
Regarding rejuvenation of old binders, it can be concluded that
recent research 共applicable to both cold and hot recycling兲 shows
the importance of carefully considering the choice of rejuvenator
in order to optimise chemical composition of the recycled binder,
thereby, for example, improving aging resistance and reducing
binder stiffness. Developments in bituminous binder manufactur-
ing, for example by supercritical fractionation, may lead to more
effective rejuvenators. In cold recycling, rejuvenators like bitu-
men emulsions and foamed bitumen, are currently subject to re-
search and development, which hopefully will improve future
performance of cold recycled pavements.
The studies reviewed in this paper indicate that mixing be-
tween old and new binders occurs to a large extent, but maybe not
completely. Incomplete mixing during hot recycling is indicated
by comparably low compaction temperature 共Taverner et al.
1990兲 or propensity to initial rutting 共Oliver 2001兲 but is likely
more pronounced in cold recycling 共Ulmgren 1982兲, where mix-
ing is limited by the existence of asphalt granules glued together
by an aged binder. In other words, the recycled asphalt may be-
have as if the binder is softer compared to the fully mixed recov-
ered binder. The studies on binder diffusion presented do not
show that diffusion restrain from the creation of homogeneous
recycled binder films, even though diffusion may be time con-
suming at low temperature, but is not effective across large
granules.
Generally, recycled asphalt does not seem to behave much
differently compared to conventional asphalt of the same type, if,
in principle, material components and composition as well as pro-
duction method are the same.
In practice however, reclaimed asphalt often shows some dif-
ferences compared to new asphalt, which need to be taken into
account. For example, at cold recycling excess of rejuvenator is
often added to facilitate the processing of the reclaimed mixture.
The obvious reason is that reclaimed asphalt has a history during
which its properties have changed. Typically, the reclaimed binder
is aged, the fine material content is increased, and materials of
different origin are mixed. The success of asphalt recycling de-
 pends on proper assessment of pavement objects or reclaimed
asphalt prior to recycling, which in turn is essential in method
selection and mix design. However, asphalt recycling is in general
performed under a tight budget with limited resources to spend on
production control and additives, which means that the perfor-
mance of recycled asphalt is, after all, a result of compromises
between economical, practical and technical demands.
This study has mainly been focused on fundamental aspects of
asphalt recycling, and especially two topics, where increased
knowledge was considered important, were recognized:
• The binder mixing process characterized using mixtures; and
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• The quality of recycled binders.
Regarding mixing of old binder and rejuvenator, a major ques-
tion still to be answered concerns the degree of mixing obtained
when placing the recycled mixture on the road. The degree of
mixing should be influenced by, among other things, mixing tem-
perature, properties of reclaimed material and production method.
The quality of a recycled binder includes different aspects as
consistency, aging properties and structural stability, which all are
related to the chemical constitution of the old binder and the
rejuvenator. Concerning asphalt recycling, bitumen structural sta-
bility may be of special interest as two binders are mixed, which
in turn could influence the interaction between the chemical com-
pounds and thereby the stability of the recycled binder. During the
last few years, increased interest in bitumen structural stability
has been demonstrated 共Redelius 2000; Karlsson and Isacsson
2003兲. Results presented by Karlsson and Isacsson 共2003兲 indi-
cate that bitumen structural stability should not be a major prob-
lem in connection to asphalt recycling.
Acknowledgment
The financial support provided by the Swedish National Road
Administration through the Centre for Research and Education in
Maintenance and Operations in Traffic Channels is gratefully
acknowledged.
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