STRUCTURAL BONDING AND SEALING WITH REACTION

RESIN GROUTS
René P. Schmid
Rascor International Ltd - Systems Engineering for Waterproof Structures
Official Swiss Delegate to Working Group CEN TC 104 SC 8 TG4 Injection Technology
European Standards Committee Concrete Repairs

ABSTRACT: Times New Roman, 12 point font size, 150 words or less, summary / abstract of paper. This
document provides guidelines and instructions for the submission of full papers for the AITES-ITA
DOWNUNDER 2002, 28th ITA General Assembly and World Tunnel Congress. These instructions must be
strictly adhered to. If papers are received not in the format outlined, they may not be considered for inclusion
in the programme.

1 INTRODUCTION
The main function of remedial work injections is
normally to reinstate existing damaged structures for
operational use. A major consideration is the
minimum disruption to the use of the facility during
grouting operations. However the intelligent
combination of injectable channels and crack
inducers permits these techniques to be exploited to
the full for preventive measures as well.
Most products used today are freely available on the
market. Development is user-independent and their
application as wide, i.e. commercial, as possible.
Maximum potential applications promote sales and
economic success. Such products may well suffice
in simple situations but can hardly cater for highly
technical demanding ones. A closed circle of
product development and manufacture, consultancy
and application, i.e. a long-term association of all
those involved, creates broader and clearer
opportunities and clarifies the liability issue.
Products and plant can be tailored to suit local
conditions and particular requirements. This is a
prerequisite for optimum technical and economic
performance.
Few of these, however, can be properly implemented
in "building conditions". The product groups
commonly used for grouting today may, on the basis
of their market position, be reduced to the following:
- EPOXY RESINS (EP)
- POYURETHANES (PU/SPUR)
- ACRYLIC RESINS (AC/AMD)
Again here there are wide differences due to their
very specific application fields. These are the
generally acknowledged market shares:
- epoxy resins approx. 3 %
- polyurethane's and acrylic resins approx. 97 %
A further breakdown of the second group is more
problematic due to the absence of reliable statistics.
3 PRODUCT SELECTION ACCORDING TO
FUNCTION AND PROPERTIES

Crack injections are subject to a wide variety of

2 PRODUCT GROUPS requirements and this must be taken into account.
The following groups may be defined:
At least theoretically, there is a wide range of
product groups suitable for grouting, as the - structural bonding
following list shows: - stabilisation
- elastic sealing
- epoxy resins - corrosion protection
- polyurethane's
- polyesters Several requirements may sometimes be met using a
- methyl methacrylates single product but this may largely depend on
- acrylates conditions during work execution. The following
- urea formaldehyde table provides an overview of the applications of the
- silicic acids and silicic acid esters different product groups.
¡ = not suitable X = suitable under certain conditions XX = suitable
XXX = highly suitable
EP = Epoxy resin, PUR = Polyurethane, Polyester, MMA = Methyl
Metacrylate, AMD = Acrylic Resin
"Liquid" Components
Table 1 Comparison of area of application and - base material
product suitability - density (viscosity) of individual components
and mix
The experienced designer should have no problem in - pH value (individual components and mix)
selecting the appropriate product group for the - solvent content (for injection products no
application, since nowadays the requisite knowledge solvents)
is available. More difficult is the selection of a - mixing ratio (two-pack or multi-pack products)
particular product. Many good, even excellent - workable time (pot life, reaction time)
products are sold by people who themselves all too depending on mass, building fabric and air
often lack the expertise. This means that those temperature
responsible have to be able to form their own - working temperature (air and building fabric)
judgement and appropriate product data become - minimum reaction temperature
essential. Statements such as "structural bonding" or - change in volume during polymerisation
"for grouting against water ingress" are inadequate. - toxicity (safety regulations)
The impending European standards, which are - hazard class
currently being prepared by an international working - disposal
group, will clearly regulate approvals for products,
systems and contractors. "End" products
- compressive strength/elasticity in compression
The following checklist illustrates some of the most at different temperatures ( incl. below zero )
important data items for most products and - tensile bond strength
applications.The checklist has been conveniently - change in volume due to temperature (below
divided into two stages: i.e. the basic liquid zero!)
components prior to injection and the final - physical behaviour after hardening
polymerised end product. - disposal

The principle of the "right product in the right place"

is seldom as important as it is for grouting
applications. The wrong material or system can
prevent a second repair and may even mean the
demolition of the structure.

Random data for various product groups collated

from a number of test series clearly show significant
differences not only between individual product
groups but also within groups, i.e. from product to
product. The following table intends to illustrate this
without intending to be comprehensive.

EP = Epoxy Resin AMD = Acrylic Resin

PU = Polyurethane

Table 2 Product Properties of Various Resin

Formulations

4 THE THREE PRODUCT GROUPS IN DETAIL

A general principle for injections in cracks and

porous building fabric, regardless of product group,
is that low viscosity solvent-free resins should be
used. Medium or even highly viscous resins are at
most the exception, for special applications.

4.1 Epoxy resins (EP)


Effective use of epoxy resins is restricted to
structural bonding injections. For optimum force
transmission the base (sides of crack) should be
clean and dry. Dirt and moisture considerably reduce
tensile bond strengths. One-pack system plant is
generally used, i.e. resin and hardener are
thoroughly mixed prior to introduction into the
grouting plant. This prevents batching errors with
the generally small grout quantities, under high
pressures and with long grouting times.
4.2 Polyurethanes (PU/SPUR)
Polyurethane resins have long been state-of-the-art
products - so one might think. This is however only
true in cases where it is a matter of "cementing" the
past. Unlike other systems, PU-resins are
manufactured and sold on the market for particular
applications. This assists the "normal user" and cuts
down on errors but at the same time narrows down
opportunities. A basic distinction to be drawn is
whether operations are carried out under water
pressure - or - on a dry base since two completely
different procedures are necessary.
When working under water pressure it is common to
pre-grout with a "one-pack resin" that reacts quickly
with water, i.e. modified isocyanates are premixed
with a catalyst. This produces a compound which
remains workable for a long time and only reacts in
the presence of water (or humidity). The intense
reaction induced by water produces carbon dioxide
(CO2) and thus a variably strong foaming effect.
The quick reaction makes such systems suitable for
holding back water. The fine pore structure tends to
lose volume (lost gas) with time and at high
pressures there is the risk of cell walls caving in.
This is not then a permanent solution.
As a result, secondary grouting operation need to be
carried out using slow reacting two-pack resins
which themselves cannot be used under water
pressure. The one-pack preseal allows the second
injection to react unhindered, producing a
permanently waterproof mass. Of course the two-
pack injection can be used alone as a preventive
measure with dry or only slightly damp cracks.
These two-pack polyurethane's usually consist of
polyol and isocyanates. Foaming is minimal and a
closed-cell structure of individual bubbles is formed.
The relatively high elasticity allows their use in
cracks with limited movement. Here the crack width
is very important, i.e. the wider the crack the larger
the expandibility. With cracks below 0.5 mm one
can hardly speak of expandibility.
Latest developments with two-pack systems used
directly under water pressure are promising due to
their high viscosity, however, they are unsuitable for
crack grouting. They are used in tunnel and gallery
construction where large fissures and crevices can be
successfully grouted. The reaction speed is similar to
that of one-pack polyurethane but independent of
water. In this case water merely induces a foaming
effect that varies with the amount of water acting on
the liquid grout. Further developments are being
followed with interest.
4.3 Acrylic resin systems (AC/AMD)
Low viscosity two-pack acrylic resins are injected
directly into the heart of the damaged area, i.e. into
the load-bearing fabric, from where they spread out
through the finest pores and hairline cracks into the
whole fabric and polymerise, producing an elastic
neutral end product. This allows a full seal with
minimum material and short working times. The
packers may be removed for reuse already minutes
after injection.
All products are based on an aqueous two-pack
system of modified acrylic resins with a viscosity
and surface tension adapted to water (with the
exception of formulations for expansion joints).
Depending on the condition of the building fabric,
the causes of existing damage and the required
solutions, different base compositions or variable
formulations have been implemented to achieve the
required performance. The special characteristics of
the material often bring solutions to seemingly
insuperable problems. For example grouting against
direct water counter-pressure (flowing water) is
possible. The grouting pressure need only be greater
than that of the ingressing water. The residual water
in the grouting zone is integrated into the
polymerisation process. Two-stage grouting as with
polyurethane is not necessary.
The elastic end product, resulting from
polymerisation under appropriate pressure, grips the
fabric by virtue of its pre-tension to produce a
perfect seal. This means that actual bonding with the
fabric is unnecessary as long as there is no
expansion of the joint or crack width greater than
15%. This explains why cracks, joints and porous
fabric require no cleaning prior to grouting, i.e. a
perfect seal is possible even on oily, calcined or
dusty contact surfaces.
The end product is chemically neutral, totally
insoluble and resists rotting and decomposition. Use
in potable water containers is unproblematic. The
properties and elasticity of the polymer remain
unchanged within the temperature range -25 to +90
C, and there is no significant change in volume
within this range, i.e. no hydraulic pressure through
frost action.
Striking differences compared to other product
groups include:
- mixing ratio A:B = 1:1 (weight or volume)
- aqueous solution with surface tension adapted to
water (self-mixing effect)
Slow shrinkage during long dry periods, a
characteristic often negatively associated with
acrylic resins, is only true for standard trade
products. For the systems described here, this has
not been an issue for years. The properties of the
products can be precisely tailored to particular
applications, thus offering substantial advantages
e.g. polyurethane. Table 9 in the appendix presents
two different acrylate formulations and their
behaviour under varying relative humidities (no
water!) relative to a starting volume of 100 %.
Acrylate I is a product generally used in damp or
wet areas whilst showing good resilience when
drying out. Acrylate III is a formulation for
generally dry applications and can even be used
around heating plant.
5. PRINCIPLE OF CRACK INJECTIONS
5.1. Preparation
Grout can be injected in one direction from the face
of the structure using adhesive nipples; alternatively
it can be injected in two directions from the middle
of the crack through an access drill hole made along
side the crack using incorporated packers.
A third method involving direct drilling of the crack
is no longer used since grouting with incorporated
packers is often impossible if the crack is not at right
angles to the surface. In practice, adhesive nipples
are generally used only in connection with structural
bonding injections, whereas the drilling methods
may be implemented with almost any system.
For drilling injection holes in general building
construction, bridge and other engineering works,
standard electro-pneumatic drills, which can be
fitted with drill rods of up to 180 cm in length and
12 to approx. 34 mm in diameter, have proved to be
the best option. This rules out damage to the steel
reinforcement in the fabric whilst ensuring optimum
performance with accurate drillings. In tunnel,
gallery and power station construction, for dams etc.
drills on hydraulically or pneumatically driven slides
are used.
One feature shared by practically all systems is the
coating over of the cracks to avoid unnecessary
material loss which allow pressure or vacuum build-
up within the crack. Rapid-hardening cement
mortars, two-pack reactive resins or reactive resin
mortars and pastes are used. Cracks are rarely closed
with mastic compounds due to their low pressure
resistance. Special systems provide thermal shock
treatment for the discharged resin - without
detriment to the building fabric - thus considerably
reducing preparation times.
5.2. Injection methods
Each of the following methods can claim to be the
right one - but not in all situations. Selection is based
on particular requirement profiles described in more
detail in Section 3. Generally, the border line
between high and low pressure injections is not
clearly defined in terms of bar. Definitions are an
individual matter. From the point of view of both
employer and contractor, however, the preferred
equipment should allow controlled continuous
setting between the lowest pressures (less than 1 bar)
and high pressures up to 300 bar. This is the only
means, under variable conditions, of avoiding
interruptions that might compromise success. Extra
high-pressure injections between 300 and 1000 bar
are only used in special cases.
5.2.1 Low-pressure injection equipment
Low-pressure injection equipment is usually cheap
and simple i.e. equipment for less demanding work,
operating at low pressures and thus requiring more
time. Pressure chambers, gear, diaphragm and screw
pumps are used, mainly in combination with one-
pack systems, and requiring long pot lives for
reactive resins. On average pressure ranges lie
between 0 and 10 bar with some as high as 30 bar.
This should be regarded as ancillary plant for non-
professionals for use on minor works. Significant
losses due to remaining grout that cannot be used
constitute a major drawback. This is also true for
work interruptions.
5.2.2 High-pressure injection
High-pressure injection equipment is usually based
on piston pumps with a wide variety of drive
systems. From the point of view of user-friendliness
- and this is also an advantage for the employer -
hydraulically and particularly pneumatically driven
systems with a pressure transformer are preferable,
since they can be controlled, i.e. switched on and
off, directly via the conveyed material without
ancillary installations. At the same time they allow
continuous pressure to be maintained on a grouting
zone with continued automatic feeding, which with
purely mechanical machines is only possible by
jerking on and off with a pressure wave switch -
often undesirable. Pressure and quantity control with
the latter is also inadequate or very complicated.
Pressure relief valves for the conveyed material are
only acceptable with single-pack system equipment.
High-pressure injection equipment is normally used
in combination with two-pack or multi-pack systems
using displacement or double acting pistons. The
upper pressure limit should not lie below 250 bar
and should allow controlled continuous setting
between zero bar and maximum pressure. This is the
only guarantee of fully adjusting the grout to local
conditions.
This category also includes lever type hand guns,
similar to grease guns, which can be used as single-
pack system equipment for minor or incidental
works. Pressure is regulated by "feeling" which is
not unproblematic with inexperienced operatives
since these machines generate considerable
pressures.
5.2.3 Extra high-pressure injection equipment
Extra high-pressure injection equipment is used very
rarely, and only for special applications where such
pressures (up to 1000 bar) are needed for grouting
very small quantities. Single-pack system equipment
is generally used here: without expensive and
sensitive equipment, precise batching and mixing of
the components cannot be guaranteed.
5.2.4 Vacuum injection equipment
Vacuum injection equipment is practically never
found on building sites, even though it has been
implemented with some success. The main reason is
probably the considerable effort and difficulty
involved in creating a vacuum in a structure under
site conditions. At the same time there is no
guarantee of better crack penetration.
5.2.5 Vacuum-pressure injection equipment
Vacuum-pressure injection equipment basically
suffers from the same drawbacks as vacuum
injection equipment but does achieve very good
results. The process involves initial working with a
vacuum, followed by an immediate (i.e. without the
entry of air) switch to pressure. It may be used for
structural bonding injections, where requirements
justify the cost.
6 CRACK APPRAISAL
Cracks are a natural feature of concrete construction
and not all cracks should be regarded as failures.
The first priority then is to establish the cause and
possible effects on functionality and life span of the
structure. To consider particular repairs at this stage
is the layman's prerogative. Yet the specialist also
cannot afford simply to ignore cracks.
6.1 Determination of actual state and cause
Crack patterns provide clues to the tensions and
movement in a structure and are thus of help in
identifying causes. The following crack types may
be distinguished:
- single cracks, parallel cracks, inter-linked cracks
- widely and closely spaced cracks, long and short
cracks
- cracks in surfaces, in surface sections, in bay
centres, at ends, edges and corners, internal
cracks
- surface cracks, deep, continuous
- uniform, tapering or overlapping cracks
An appraisal of cracks is a prerequisite for
successful repair. Establishing causes and working
out the implications is a process that should not be
taken for granted. Is it not important to know
whether subsoil or structural factors, faulty
workmanship or mix designs are the cause, whether
further movement is to be expected at a later date
and, if so, in what magnitude? It may be that the
causes must be dealt with before starting repairs,
since there is little point in producing structural
bonds if there are basic structural defects. New
cracks would be the result.
6.2 The definition of the required state
The definition of the required state, as a basis for
judging what is feasible, is extremely important.
Only after examining cause, actual and required
states can potential products and the necessary
working methods be identified. The basic criteria,
i.e. structural bond, seal, stabilisation and corrosion
protection etc., as dealt with in 2.2, may be applied
here. It is often found that what is feasible is also
influenced by other factors.
6.3 External influences
External influences during operations and the local
conditions under which they are carried out, e.g.
temperature, dry or wet building fabric, accessibility,
may impose severe restrictions on decision-making.
6.4 The economic viability
The economic viability of the remaining potential
systems is generally the final deciding factor.
Anyone who has had to make such decisions knows
that the desired options often have to yield to those
that are both feasible and economically viable. It Grouting work is not an alternative employment to
should however be mentioned that cheap hourly reduce over-capacities that exist elsewhere.
rates and low material prices often result in severe
disappointment. The effective price is much rather
dictated by the correct material and workmanship, Table 3 Properties of 9 different Epoxy Resin
and thus the correct equipment and installation, than Formulations
by low prices that are usually a sign of inexperience.
Table 4 Bonding and Tearing Strength relative to
6.5 The use of crack inducers Degree of Hardening of Various Epoxy Products +
8°C and + 23°C
The use of crack inducers and channels such as
1)
RASCOtec enables the engineer to form controlled Cohesion Rupture
2)
cracking and optimise the crack development. These Tested after 3 days
3)
can then be injected successfully with the x Average Value, s Standard deviation
appropriate resin to provide long term watertight
strucutures. Table 5 Shear Strength
1)
7 RISKS AND FINAL THOUGHTS x Average Value, s Standard deviation

The above presentation has outlined areas of great Table 6 Plasticity Temperatures from Temperature
potential. What has been said is more or less Deformation Curves
applicable to all types of structure. It should,
1)
however, be clearly stated that such results can only Individual Values x1, x2, x3, Average Value x
be produced where a prior in-depth failure analysis
is undertaken, where the appropriate formulations Table 7 Properties of Polyurethane Resins
and equipment are used and where the operative is
well trained and has the necessary experience. If Table 8 Comparison of Properties of 3 Acrylate
carefully planned and executed by established and Formulations Prior to & After Polymerisation
experienced contractors, the good grouting
technology available today bears no exceptional Table 9 Shrinkage and Expansion Characteristics
risks. It must be emphasised however that, especially of 2 different Acrylate Formulations
for structural bonding applications, the selection of
the wrong material or faulty execution can rule out
the possibility of further repairs, which might mean
the end of the structure. Volume Shrinkage & Expansion of Acrylates I and
III vs Time in Days
Grouting work is not an alternative employment to
reduce over-capacities that exist elsewhere
9 REFERENCES
8 APPENDICES
1. Cementbulletin 4/82 (Schweiz. Zementverein)
Table:
2. Verpressharz-Versuchsreihe des jbac – Institut
1. Comparison of Area of Application and Product für Bauforschung der Techn. Hochschule,
Suitablity (above) Aachen
2. Product Properties of Various Resin
Formulations (above) 3 René P. Schmid. Elastische
3. Properties of 9 different Epoxy Resin Kunstharzinjektionen als Präventiv-oder
Formulations Sanierungsmassnahme B+B 2/84)
4. Bonding and Tearing Strength relative to Degree
of Hardening of Various Epoxy Products 4 Cornely, 1988 a
5. Shear Strength
6. Plasticity Temperatures from Temperature 5 Martin Smith. Waterproofing Structures:
Deformation Curves Lessons from the Past, Systems for the Future.
7. Properties of Polyurethane Resins
8. Comparison of Properties of 3 Acrylate
Formulations Prior to & After Polymerisation
9. Shrinkage and Expansion Characteristics of 2
different Acrylate Formulations