DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE STUDY OF A LOW

COST EVAPORATOR

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
DISSERTATION

Submitted by:

Manu Bedi
Roll No. 15MCE8005

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA (CENTRAL UNIVERSITY)
NEW DELHI – 110025
(Session 2017-18)
 DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE STUDY OF A LOW
COST EVAPORATOR

A Dissertation Report

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement

for the award of Degree

of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

in

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Submitted by: Dissertation Guide:

Manu Bedi Prof: Sirajuddin Ahmed

Roll No. 15MCE8005

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA (CENTRAL UNIVERSITY)
NEW DELHI – 110025
 JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA CENTRAL
UNIVERSITY, NEW DELHI

CANDIDATE DECLARATION

This is certified that the dissertation titled “Design and performance study of a
low cost Evaporator” is an original work carried out by Mr. Manu Bedi under my
supervision. It is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
degree Masters of Technology (Environmental Science and Engineering) in the
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Jamia Millia
Islamia, New Delhi.

It is further certified that the work presented in this dissertation has not been submitted
elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma.

[Manu Bedi]

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the
best of my knowledge.

Date:

[Prof. Sirajuddin Ahmed]

Dissertation Guide

Page |2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I have a great pleasure in expressing my gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Sirajuddin

Ahmed, Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, for his
continuous encouragement, invaluable suggestions throughout my dissertation work.
He guided me at each stage of this work. Without his consistent and illuminating
instructions and guidance, this research could not reach its present form.

I am also thankful to Prof. Dr Gauhar Mehmood, Head of Department, Civil

Engineering, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, for providing me all the required
facilities. I am also thankful to all faculty members of the department. I extend my
sincere thanks to laboratory and office staff for their kind cooperation to accomplish
my dissertation successfully.

Last, but not the least, I would like to thank my family - my parents and siblings, my
Wife and my two children for their support throughout this project. They have
allowed to me to take out time of their lives in order to make this possible.

Name: MANU BEDI

Place: NEW DELHI

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

S.No. CONTENTS Page

No.
Candidate Declaration 2
Acknowledgement 3
Table 4
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
List of Graphs 9
Abstract 10
1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 11-16
1.1 General 11
1.2 Need for Study 14
1.3 Scope of Present Study 16
1.4 Objective of Present Study 16
1.5 Methodology 16

2 CHAPTER LITERATURE REVIEW 18-54

2.1 General 18
2.2 Guidelines for Industries 18
2.3 Evaporator Process 22
2.3.1 Elements for Evaporator 23
2.3.2 Liquid Properties 23
2.3.3 Heat Transfer 25
2.3.3.1 Modes of Heat Transfer 26
2.3.4 Physical Properties for Heat Transfer 28
2.4 Evaporator Types and their applications 31
2.4.1 Batch Pan Evaporator 32
2.4.2 Forced Circulation 33
2.4.3 Natural Circulation 33
2.4.4 Wiped Film 34
2.4.5 Rising Film Tubular 35
2.4.6 Plate Equivalent of Tubular Evaporator 36
2.4.7 Falling Film Evaporator 38
2.4.8 Rising/Falling Film Evaporator 39
2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 40
2.6 Different Patents for Evaporators 42
2.6.1 Patent by Norbert Rillieux 42
2.6.2 Patent by Kenji Takahashi et al 44
2.6.3 Patent by R.Germerdonk et al 45
2.6.4 Patent by DJ Holtslag 47
2.6.5 Patent by Kenneth J Yost 48

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 2.6.6 Patent by Thomas Jeffery Walter 50
2.6.7 Enhancing the efficiency of ZLD by R. Rajkumar et al 51
2.6.8 Solar and Wind aided cross flow Natural evaporation by Ligy 52
Philip et al

3 CHAPTER CURRENTLY USED EVAPORATOR FOR 55-69

ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT
3.1 Existing Technologies 55
3.2 Case Study – I 59
3.3 Case Study – II 64

4 CHAPTER DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE STUDY OF A LOW 70-90

COST EVAPORATOR
4.1 Need For The Low Cost Evaporator 70
4.2 Basic concept of Low Cost Evaporator 71
4.3 Layouts & Design Drawings for Low Cost Evaporators 72
4.4 Capital Cost for Low Cost Evaporator 75
4.5 Operating Cost for a Low Cost Evaporator 77
4.6 Capital and Operating Cost Comparison for Conventional and 86
Low Cost Evaporator
4.7 Photographs of Low Cost Evaporator during Fabrication 87

4.8 Limitation of Low Cost Evaporator 90

4.9 Application of Low Cost Evaporator 90
5 CHAPTER CONCLUSIONS 91-92

REFERENCES 93

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

NUMBER
1.1 Ion-deficiency 11
1.2 Per Capita Water Availability in India 14
2.1 Specific Heat for Common Materials 29
Advantages & Disadvantages for Various Type of
2.2 40
Evaporators
3.1 Operating Cost for Conventional Evaporators Case I 61
3.2 Operating Cost for Conventional Evaporators Case II 65
4.1 Capital Cost for 1500 Liters Per Day Evaporator 75
Experiments for Operating Cost on Various Type of
4.2 77
Effluent

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE

NO. NO.
2.1 Parts of Evaporator 23
2.2 Conduction 26
2.3 Density at different Temperatures 29
2.4 Latent Heat 30
2.5 Surface Tension 31
2.6 Batch Pan Evaporator 32
2.7 Forced Circulation 33
2.8 Natural Circulation 34
2.9 Wiped Film Evaporator 35
2.10 Rising Film Evaporator 36
2.11 Spiral Plate Evaporator 37
2.12 Gasketed Plate Evaporator 38
2.13 Falling Film Evaporator 39
2.14 Rising And Falling Film Evaporator 40
2.15 Patent By Nobert Rillieux 43
2.16 Patent By Kesji Takahasht et. Al 45
2.17 Patent By R. Germerdonk et. Al 46
2.18 Patent By DJ. Holtslag 48
2.19 Patent By Kenneth J. Yost For Low Cost Evaporator 49
2.20 Patent By Thomas Jeffery Walker 50
2.21 Low Cost Ambient Air Evaporation System by 52
R. Rajkumar et. Al
2.22 Ligy Natural Evaporator 53
(a), (b), (c)
3.1 Rising Film Evaporator 56
3.2 Falling Film Evaporator 56
3.3 Forced Recirculation Evaporator 57
3.4 Mechanical Vapor Recompression 58
3.5 Thermal Vapor Recompression 59
3.6 Location-Hindustan Coca-Cola Ltd., Vijayawada, A.P 60

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3.7 Flow Diagram for Hindustan Coca-Cola 61
3.8 Actual photograph for Multi Effect Evaporator 63
3.9 Actual photograph for Multi Effect Evaporator 63
3.10 Actual location Indo Count Ltd 64
3.11 Actual Flow Diagram for Indo Count 65
3.12 Actual Photograph for Evaporator 66
4.1 Overall layout for Low Cost Evaporator 72
4.2 General Arrangement for Heater Section 73
4.3 General Arrangement for Cylindria 74
4.4 Heating Chamber 87
4.5 Blower Front View 87
4.6 Blower Side View 88
4.7 Heaters 88
4.8 Top View of the Heating Chamber 89
4.9 Engineering Drawing for Low Cost Evaporator 89

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 LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH DESCRIPTION PAGE

NO. NO.
1 Parameter for feed of Multi Effect Evaporator 67
2 Capital Cost for Multi Effect Evaporator 68
3 Capital Cost per kL for Multi Effect Evaporator 68
4 Operating cost for Multi Effect Evaporator 69
5 Capital Cost for Low Cost Evaporator 76
6 Capital Cost per kL for Low Cost Evaporator 76
7 Operating cost for Low Cost Evaporation 84
8 Operating cost and Recovery for Low Cost Evaporator 85
9 Capital cost comparison for Conventional and Low Cost Evaporator 86
10 Operating cost per kl for conventional and Low Cost Evaporator 86

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 ABSTRACT

Ions are found in Effluent Treatment, Sewage Treatment and Sea Water .When these
ions exceed their permissible limit of the discharge to the Environment, they become
hazardous to the life forms be it humans or flora and fauna. Ions present in the Ground
or Surface water are removed for the Industry process and also for the Drinking and
Bathing purposes. There are various techniques to remove the ions like Coagulation,
Precipitation, Reverse Osmosis, Nano-Filtration, De-Mineralization, etc. All of the
mentioned techniques are excellent but leaves concentrated amount of Ions as the
rejects which cannot be discharged to the Environment. The major constituents
present as high concentration are Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, Bicarbonates,
Sulphates, Chloride, Silica, and Secondary constituents as Iron, Strontium,
Potassium, Carbonate, Nitrate, Fluoride and Boron (Hydrology Project, World Bank
& Government of Netherlands, September, 1999).

As we are noticing the ill effects of Ions present in the effluents, and sewage in large
quantities. Once these Ions are passed through the above mentioned technologies,
they generate a substantial concentration of ions in very limited quantity, which
needs to be disposed without harming the humans, flora, and fauna.

The study involves the preparation of a low cost evaporator using Electricity as the
mode to convert the liquids in the solid phase. The experiments were set with the
help of Textile Effluents and Salt solutions for finding the efficiency and workability
of the Low Cost Evaporator.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Water pollution is a threat and serious problem in India. 70% of Surface water and
growing percentage of groundwater are contaminated by inorganics, biological, and
toxics. This water is concluded to be not safe for human consumption and industrial
activities. The surface water is more susceptible for biological pollution as compared
to the ground water, however, the ground water is more polluted by the chemical
impurities. The most common dissolved minerals present in the ground water are
Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, potassium, chlorides, bicarbonates, and sulphates.
Ground water is the major source of irrigation accounting to 24.02 million hectares (4).
However, because of the mankind, the man-made products get into the groundwater
and cause it to become unsafe and unfit for human consumption. The main problem
encountered by groundwater is excess of fluorides, arsenic, iron, nitrates, and salinity.
The sewage pollution also contributes to 80% of water pollution (5,6,7). The recent
study brought the alarm for concentration in pesticides e.g. organo-chlorines and
organo-phosphates that were exceeding the WHO standards in all bottled
manufacturing companies (8). The untreated effluents from the industry pollute the
ground water or percolate and mixes with the ground water leading to many diseases.
Example of Bichhri which is situated 12 KM away from Udaipur, the ground water
spread over an area of 300 hectares, is starck red (9). The groundwater moves naturally
to other aquifers side which pollutes the other ground water. It is not possible to live
with polluted water.
Some of the fact related to water borne diseases are mentioned in the table below:

Table 1.1 Ion Deficiencies

Ions Levels in the Diseases Problems
Body
Calcium 8.5 to 10.3 Hypercalcemia Weakening of bones,
mg/Dl Brain and Heart
disorders, Kidney
Stone
Magnesium 1.5-2.5 mEq/L Hypomagnesemia Irregular Heartbeats,
Confusion, low blood

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 pressure, Slowed
breathing, coma, and
death
Sodium 135-145 mEq/L Hypernatremia High blood pressure,
Heart Diseases
Bicarbonates 22-28 mEq/L Acidosis Diarrhea, Kidney
Disease, and Liver
failure
Sulphates 0.25-0.4 mmol/L Stomach problems
like diarrhea, effects
on Kidney and eyes
Chlorides 96-106 mEq/L Hyperchloremia Prolonged vomiting,
diarrhea, sweating,
high fever, kidney
disorder
Silica 20-50 mg/day(1) Lung Cancer,
Increased
Tuberculosis, and
heart complications.
Iron 13.5-17.5 g/dL Hemochromatosis Arthritis, Cancer,
Liver Problem,
Diabetes, and Heart
Failure
Strontium Bone Growth in
Children,
Reproduction in
people (2)
Potassium 3.6-5.2 mmol/L Hyperkalemia Change in heart
rhythm, muscle
problems

Carbonate 23-29 mmol/L Kidney disease,

Diabetic
ketoacidosis
Nitrates < 2.5% Total “Blue Baby
Haemoglobin Syndrome” in infants,
(3) lack of energy,
dizziness, labored
breathing, pale
coloration to areas
around eyes, mouth,
lips, hands, and feet.
Fluoride 0.7 mg/l Dental Fluorosis,
Renal Damage,
Hyperkalemia,
Demineralization,
Stomach and
Duodenum

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 Boron 0-0.1 mg/L Menstruation, Skin
Inflammation and
peeling, irritability,
weakness, headaches,
vomiting.

Researchers revealed that, chemicals released into the Environment causes adverse
health effects that leads to diseases and on the other hand water pollution control leads
to disease control. Solid action are required to safely handle the toxic chemicals and
bring regulatory guidelines. The 3R (reduce, reuse, and recycle) principle to be adopted
for a safe environment. With severe pollution in the water bodies because of the man-
kind, the technologies have evolved from basic treatment to advance treatment. The last
process for current technology is Evaporation.

The basic concept of removal of solvents from a solution, slurry, or suspension of solids
in liquid is called Evaporation. The main objective to concentrate a non-volatile solute
from a solvent.

Removal of moisture from a substance in presence of hot air to carry away moisture
leaving solid residue as product is also called Evaporation.

Norbert Rillieux is famous for his invention of multiple effect pan evaporator for sugar
refining process in 1881(10). The evaporation often encroaches upon the operations
known as distillation, drying and crystallization. It is very energy intensive process. The
evaporation starts as a liquid and is converted to a concentrated product, leaving behind
the concentrated solids to be pumped into the next cycle.

The evaporation technology not only helps removing the solvents, but, is helpful in
removing the Total Dissolved Solids, Heavy Metals, etc from the effluent.

The evaporation technology is an immerging technology having their presence in India.

However, with growing demand for water because of urbanization and
industrialization, and depleting ground water quantity and quality, CPCB had directed
industries to use evaporators for recycling, reduce, and reuse (Guidelines on Techno-
Economic Feasibility of implementation of Zero Liquid Discharge for Water
Polluting Industries, CPCB, Dated: 19-01-2015).

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The studies had shown that there are no norms for Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD).
However, the guidelines that CPCB had issued should be followed in sincere manner.
(Standard for Discharge of Environmental Pollutants from various industries,
CPCB) (11). If the standards are not met, then the treatment philosophy needs to be
changed according to the norms.

1.2 Need for the Study

There is roughly 332.5 million cubic miles (1 Cubic mile = 4.168 X 109 cubic
metre) of water is available on Earth's surface. However, 96% water is a salt water and
out of the remaining 4%, 96% is locked in ice and glaciers, 30% is in the ground. Which
leaves us with about 300 cubic miles of fresh water (The USGS Water Science School,
2013).

India is a water stressed country, the water consumption during 2000 was 680 Billion
m3 which is likely to be increase to 830 billion m3 in 2025 and 899 billion m3 in 2050
(A Fresh Look by Upali A. Amarsinge, Peter G. McCornick, et. Al.). As the potential
for increasing the volume of utilization of water is hardly 5-10%, India is bound to face
severe scarcity of water in the near future (Water Scarcity and Security in India, Dr.
Narayan G. Hegde, BAIF at the Indian Science Congress 2012).

Table 1.2. Per capita water availability in India

Year Population (Million) Per capita water

availability (m3/year)
1951 361 5177
1955 395 4732
1991 846 2209
2001 1027 1820
2025 1394 1341
2050 1640 1140
Source: Government of India, 2009.

The demand for water usage is increasing because of the following reasons
(Amarasinghe, et al. 2007):

o The population which was 1.3 Billion in 2005 is expected to rise to 1.66 Billion
in 2050.

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o 28.2% population was living in urban area in 2007, which is expected to
increase to 55.2% by 2050

o Per capita income will increase from $ 468 in 2007 to $ 6735 by 2050

o Industrialization will demand more water as a contribution to GDP will increase

from 29.1% in 2000 to 40% by 2050. The demand for water will increase from
30 Billion m3 in 2000 to 161 Billion m3 by 2050

With growing demands, we need to follow few basic ways to conserve our precious
source, water. With number of solutions, we have categorized some important
solutions.

o Rain Water Harvesting: India is only using 35% of rainwater it receives.

However, 65% wasted water can be reused using rain water harvesting.

o Reduce Daily Water Use: With upcoming technologies such as Dual flush
toilets, waterless urinals, efficient shower systems in our houses, we can go a
long way in reducing water wasted in our household.

o Regulations of Industrial Discharge: Robust enviro-legal network to check

illegal dumping of effluents and monitoring of industries (Guideline for online
monitoring systems for effluent, 2014, CPCB).

o Recycling of wastewater: With new technologies in wastewater recycling, we

can reduce the amount of waste generated. Few technologies like Ultra
Filtration, Reverse Osmosis, Electro-Deionizers.

o Evaporators: With severe scarcity for water, there is a lot to be focused on the
evaporation technology. There are technologies which can generate potable
water through evaporation, however, the technology had some drawbacks in
terms of the operating and capital cost. Because of the same, the small scale
industries are not able to afford the system. Based on the same, we are designing
a low cost evaporator which will not be expensive but also cost efficient.

o Improve Sewage Network: With improved network, the water will be free from
diseases and the area will be clean.

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1.3 SCOPE OF PRESENT STUDY

The scope of study is to design an Evaporator which is cost effective, robust,

and free from the operations hassles.

To achieve the objective, we had fabricated the low cost evaporator and purchased
heater elements, air compressor from the local market. We assembled the evaporator
and did the practical.

For practical, we introduced Textile Effluent (Courtesy: Gupta Exim, Faridabad), also
we prepared a NaCl solution effluent for our studies.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT STUDY

Following objectives correspond to the present study as given below:

o Analysis/Review of Existing Evaporation systems, its mechanism, capital

investment and operating investment.

o Design and performance study of Low cost Evaporator and its fabrication.

o Performance evaluation of the proposed evaporator.

o Comparison of low cost evaporator capital cost viz-a’-viz existing

evaporation system

1.5 METHODOLOGY

The low cost evaporator uses the air as a medium to convert effluent to solids.
The process followed in the experiment is very simple and requires very little
understanding to operate. The evaporator has following components:

 Blower of 50 cum/hr @ 300 mmWC

 Heating Chamber comprising of 12 heaters of 1.5 kW each
 Calandria where the effluent enters the system
 Air compressor for 2 cum/hr @ 50 mmWC

The ambient air is pulled from the environment through the air blower and is passed
through the heating chamber. The heating comprises for 12 heaters each of 1.5 kW

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imparting heat to the pulled air. The heating chamber is closed looped to the calandria
and back to the blower. The air is heated till the temperature reaches 115-120°C. The
effluent is sprayed in the calandria with the help of the compressor to form the tiny
droplets of the effluent. The droplets once in touch with the heated air are evaporated,
leaving solids in the calandria and some of the solids in the pan for collection.

Once the entire effluent has been converted to the solids, The calandria is cleaned
with the of the chemicals to remove the stuck solids from the same.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE
REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL

The Market for Evaporator is growing at a moderate CAGR of 7% by 2020

(Global Industrial Evaporator Market 2016-2020 by Technavio, Jul 2017).

With the growing demand for industrial evaporators, the thrust should be more on a
robust and efficient system. The current evaporators being running successfully with
efficiencies of more that 90%, the capital investment and the operating cost defies the
purpose for a small and medium industries. The small and medium scale industry are
not equipped to install an evaporator which runs on the steam and requires huge amount
of energy. With CPCB, NGT are tightening the grip to curb pollution caused by high
COD, BOD, heavy metals, Total Dissolved Solids, etc, to the water bodies, it is very
difficult for small and medium industries to survive and the industrial associations are
running pillar to post for the solutions to sustain in the market. The closure notices were
summoned to 893 textile units in Sanganer because of failure to install a CETP followed
by Evaporator. The entire scheme will cost Rs. 110-120 crores, the industrial
association cannot bear the cost (12). The need for the hour is to provide a solution to
the industry where the workers should not be stressed for not fulfilling the needs of his
family.

2.2 GUIDELINES FOR INDUSTRIES

Industrial Sector had been advised by CPCB for concept of ZLD as follows:

1. Distillery:

The molasses based distillery are major polluting industries. The COD and BOD
ranges from 110,000 ppm and 55,000 ppm respectively. The concept of ZLD
is achievable if the industries follows the following options:

(i) Biomethanation followed by RO/MEE followed by incineration (slop

fired)

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 (ii) Biomethanation followed by RO/MEE followed by drying
(spray/rotary)

(iii) Concentration through MEE followed by co-processing in

cement/thermal power plant

(iv) Biomethanation and RO followed by bio-compositing

2. Tannery:

The tanneries in India are using chemicals consisting of heavy metal like
Cr3+, Cr6+, Ni, Co, etc. When this water percolates in the water body, it imbibes
poisonous effect in the aquifer. Based on the same, the industry can follow the
option:

(i) Primary Treatment + Secondary Treatment + pre-treatment for RO + RO

+ MEE
(recovery of permeate, crystallized salts, reuse of recovered
condensate).

3. Pulp & Paper:

The effluent from Pulp & Paper wastes characteristically contain very
high level of COD and colour; the presence of lignin in the waste, which
basically derived from raw cellulosic materials and is not easily biodegradable
in nature and makes the COD/BOD ratio of the waste very high. Because of
the above, the options laid for the industry is

(i) Primary Treatment + Degasification + RO 2-stages + NF and UF +

Evaporator, Concentrator/Crystallizer

4. Sugar:

The effluent contains high BOD due to presence of Sugar. Additionally

the waste originates due to leakages and spillage of juices, syrups, and molasses
in different parts of the factory. Based on the above, it creates rapid depletion
of oxygen in the water bodies and imparts offensive odour and color. Because

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 of the same, industry had been advised the following option to curb the
pollution.

(i) Restricting effluent generation to 100 litres/ton cane crushed. Water

consumption to be restricted to 100 litres/ton initially and further to 50
litres/ton cane crushed. Condensate polishing unit mandatory. Recycle
of excess condensate to process or ancillary units. Water
management/audits to reduce spray ponds/cooling tower blow down
and excess condensate. Irrigation protocol for disposal into land
application.

5. Pharmaceutical:

Pharmaceutical raw material comprise substrate or elements that are

used for manufacturing different types of drugs e.g. endocrine disorder drugs,
musculoskeletal system, anti-infective drugs viz. cephradine, cephalexin,
penicillin, ampicillin, etc. The waste generated using these type of raw material
contains traces of the chemicals, solvents which imparts high amount of COD.
For these type of industries, the following option was best suited
(i) Low TDS effluent treatment system: Primary Treatment + Secondary
Treatment + Tertiary Chemical Treatment to reduce TDS. RO System
(permeate is utilized as cooling tower makeup water) + MEE.

(ii) High TDS effluent treatment system: Primary Treatment + stripper to

remove VOC + 3 stage MEE (forced circulation) Agitated Thin Film
Dryer (ATFD) + (MEE Condensate is being taken along low TDS
effluent for further treatment) + MEE/Incineration.

6. Textile:

The textile industry consumes 14-18 litres of water for processing 1 kg

of raw material. The processes incorporates Mercerizing, Scouring, Bleaching,
PVA, Sizing, De-sizing, Dyeing. The water through this process contain heavy
amount of COD, BOD, NaCl, Na2SO4, and many heavy metals like Ni, Co if
the process involves print dyeing. Based on the same, there are guidelines for
this type of industry to follow.

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 (i) Ozonation + bio-oxidation + sand filter + activated carbon + micro
filtration + reverse osmosis (3 stage) + MEE

(ii) Chemical precipitation + bio-oxidation + chemical precipitation + sand

filter + activated carbon + micro filtration + RO (3 stage) + MEE

(iii) Chemical precipitation + bio-oxidation + sand filtration + dual media

filtration + micron filtration + RO (3 stage) + MEE

7. Refinery:

The refinery process consist of Crackling, Physical Seperation,

Atmospheric Distillation, Vacuum distillation, absorption process, adsorption
process, solvent extraction, conversion process. The effluent generated from the
processes contain heavy metals like Ni, Cr, F, CN, Phenol which are very
harmful for the environment. Based on the same, the refineries had been advised
to follow the below mentioned route to curb the pollution

(i) API, primary treatment, secondary treatment, and tertiary treatment. The
tertiary treatment is mainly RO and permeate is utilized and rejects are
discharged into cooling tower

8. Fertilizer:

The fertilizer industry the water consumption per tonne of Urea varied
for 9.0 m3 to 40 m3. The effluent generated from a fertilizer plant consist of
high pH, high ammonia, high acidity or alkalinity, organic matter, high nitrogen,
potassium, etc. Because of the high amount of ions, it is advisable for the
fertilizer industry to follow the following step

(i) Chemical Treatment + Reverse Osmosis

CPCB, 2015: Guidelines on Techno-Economic Feasibility of implementation of

Zero Liquid Discharge for Water Polluting Industries

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2.3 EVAPORATOR PROCESS

Evaporation is removal of solvent as vapor from slurry or solution. The

objective of Evaporation process is to concentrate the solids present in the
solvent. Evaporation is sometimes called Distillation, drying, and crystallizing.
However, the process is entirely different from distillation or drying. In
evaporation, the component of vapors are not segregated as it is done in
Distillation. Also, the solvent is concentrated to form slurry and it has no process
of producing crystals.

Evaporator is designed on three principal elements:

(i) Heat Transfer

(ii) Vapor-Liquid Separation

(iii) Efficient utilization of energy.

The most cases for solvent is water, and the heat supplied is steam or air. For Evaporator
to be efficient, the equipment choice and usability must accomplish several aspects:

(i) Convey large amount of heat to the solution with minimized amount of metallic
surface area. This determines the size, type, and cost of an evaporator.

(ii) Attain the specified separation of liquid and vapor with the simplest devices.

(iii) Make efficient use of energy availability. Heat required to raise the temperature
of the solvent for it to boil and vaporize, the best way for this is to reuse the
vaporized solvents. Energy efficiency can be attained or increased by
exchanging heat between entering feed and leaving condensate.

(iv) Meet the conditions inflicted by the liquid being evaporated. The component
that must be considered include product quality, salting and scaling, corrosion,
foaming, holdup, and special material of construction.

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2.3.1 ELEMENTS FOR EVAPORATOR

(i) Calandrias or Heating Chamber: The equipment where the heat transfer
takes place.

(ii) Body: The vapor-liquid separators. Comprising of one heating element

and one flash chamber.

(iii) Effects: One or more bodies boiling at the same pressure.

The term Evaporator symbolize the entire system of effects, not necessarily one body
or one effect.

A Product
B Vapor
C Concentrate
D Heating System
E Condensate
1 Head
2 Calandria
3 Calandria, Lower Part
4 Mixing Channel
5 Vapor Separator

Fig 2.1: Parts of Evaporators Image Courtesy: GEA Process Engineering Inc., Columbia, MD

2.3.2 LIQUID PROPERTIES

Concentration: The feed to an evaporator do not possess any unusual problems.

However, as the feed get concentrated, the properties of the solution changes. The
viscosity and/or density increases leading to heat transfer performance. Constant
boiling of feed may cause crystallization which results in fouling of the heat transfer
surface.

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Temperature Sensitivity: Most chemicals have high temperature sensitivity, they
degrade when heated to average temperature for short period of time. It requires special
techniques for controlling the time/temperature.

Foaming: Foam often results from the presence of colloids, surface tension depressants,
or finely dissolved solids. These often concentrate at the liquid level and can sometimes
be removed by a surface blow down. Frequent causes of foaming are an air-leak below
the liquid level or the presence of dissolved gases in the liquid. When foam begins to
build in an evaporator, the foam layer can continue to grow until it fills the evaporator
and is carried out of the top. This can sometimes be stopped by momentarily
interrupting evaporation.

The designer should distinguish between liquid carryover resulting from entrainment
phenomena and that resulting from foam. Foam cannot be broken with conventional
entrainment separators unless the foam is highly unstable.

Scaling: The crystallization from a solution of dissolved substance onto the heat
transfer, sometimes called Scaling. Precipitation fouling may be defined as the
phenomenon of a solid layer deposition on the heated surface, primarily as a result of
the presence of dissolved inorganic salts in the flowing solution which exhibit super
saturation under the process condition. The term “scaling” is generally used to describe
a dense crystalline deposit, well bonded to the metal surface. It is often associated with
the crystallization of the salt of inverse solubility under heat transfer conditions.

Salting: Growth on evaporator surfaces of a material having solubility that increases

with the temperature.

Fouling: Fouling is a formation of unwanted solid deposits within the plant, and is the
major limiting factor in continuous operation of an Evaporator. It is extremely
undesirable for several reasons, the most important being the resistance to heat transfer
it produces, and the downtime required for cleaning.

Extra heat resistance is a concern in the processing plants as it acts as an insulator and
decreases the overall heat transfer coefficient. If the problem is looked at the design
stage, the heat transfer area can be increased. If the problem is encountered during

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processing, fouling can be countered by lowering the flow rate. It is more common to
increase the temperature difference between the product and the heating medium.

Fouling also increases that temperature difference required between product and the
heating medium. This raises energy cost in multi-effect evaporators, as the amount of
vapour recompression required increases.

Fouling also increases the length of cleaning cycle and the volume of chemicals needed
to ensure high-hygeine levels. Generally the amount of down time required to clean the
evaporator is two hours, but it can take as long as four hours (Woodshead, 1997)

Fouling leads to problems with product quality. Fouling resistance is zero at startup if
cleaning has been successful, and builds over time. This means that the process
variables will have to be changed to produce a constant product, and the control devices
may be placed under stress to achieve this. Foulant can break off and find its way into
the final product. This lead to non-specified product.

Corrosion: This can impact the selection of evaporator material of construction

indicate evaporators affording high rates of heat transfer. Corrosion and erosion are
more severe in evaporators as it has a high liquid and vapor velocities, the presence of
suspended solids, and concentration required.

2.3.3 HEAT TRANSFER

The temperature gradient, whenever exist within the system, or when two
different temperatures are brought in contact, the energy transfer. The process is called
heat transfer. The heat cannot be measured or observed directly, but the effect it
produces are manageable to observation and measurable.

The branch of science dealing with heat and other forms of energy is called
Thermodynamics. The principle are like law of nature, based on observations and been
generalized in laws which hold good. There are two laws of thermodynamics:

(i) First law states that the energy is neither created nor destroyed, it can
only change its form.

(ii) No process is possible whose sole result is net transfer of heat from a
region of lower temperature to region of higher temperature.

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All heat transfer process involves the transfer and conversion of energy. They should
obey the first and second law of thermodynamic. From Thermodynamic point of view,
the amount of heat transfer simply equals the difference between the energy change of
the system and work done. It is clearly that this type of neither the mechanism of heat
flow nor the time required to transfer the heat.

From engineering point of view, the determination of the rate of heat transfer at a
specified temperature is key issue. The size and cost for the heat transfer equipment not
only depends on amount of heat transferred, but also on the rate at which the heat is to
be transferred under given conditions.

2.3.3.1 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

(i) Conduction: Is an electronic/atomic mechanism of transferring energy from

one place to another in solids, and a molecular mechanism of heat transfer in liquid and
gases. We begin with an example of heat conduction through a window when the inside
room temperature is warm and outside is cold. Let us assume that we know the
temperature of the inside and outside surface of the window, and build a steady state
model of the heat flow by conduction through the window. A sketch is given in Fig.
2.2.

Fig. 2.2 Conduction. Image Source: Introduction to Heat Transfer by R.Shankar

Subramanian, Clarkson University

We assume that the temperature is uniform in the other two coordinate direction y and
z in the slab, varying only with distance x from the left boundary shown in the sketch.
The heat flow rate can vary with x, a possibility that is acknowledged the writing it as
Q(x).

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Our initial objective is to determine how Q(x) varies with x at the steady state.
Eventually, we expect to determine the temperature distribution in the slab and the heat
flow rate through it. We first consider two surfaces within the slab that are parallel to
the left and right side. These imaginary surface are located at some distance x from the
left wall, and slightly larger distance x+Δx as shown. At steady state, there can be no
accumulation of energy in the volume bounded by these two surfaces. If energy
accumulates in that volume, its temperature would change with time, and this would
lead to unsteady conditions, violating the assumption of steady state. Therefore, we
conclude that the rate of heat flow into the surface at x must exactly the same as the rate
of heat flow out of the surface at x+Δx.

(ii) Radiation: Heat Transfer is present, because all matter emits and absorbs
electromagnetic radiation of heat from one body to another not in contact but through
electromagnetic waves in the space, moreover, it can happen in the vacuum. The
electromagnetic radiation spectrum is huge, but heat transfer is mostly concerned with
a small part of it, called thermal radiation. The wavelength of the radiation is 0.1-100
µm, and includes the visible portion, in the range of 0.35-0.75 µm.
In solid, radiation that is emitted by a layer is re-absorbed within the next few atomic
layers. Thus, our main concern in describing radiation heat transfer between the objects
is to consider radiation emitted by a solid surface and radiation absorbed by that surface.
We define irradiation G as the radiant energy that is incident on a solid surface per unit
area per unit time. Thus, the unit of G in SI will be W/m2. Likewise, we define the
radiosity J of a surface as the radiant energy emitted by a surface per unit area per unit
time. The unit of J also is W/m2.

(iii) Convection: When an element of fluid moves from one place to another, it
brings its energy content with it, so that this is another mechanism for transferring
energy from one place to another. Convention can be forced, which means that we are
using some means to cause motion-this can be pressure difference in the conduit that is
generated by a pump or a storage tank at some elevation, or natural convection, which
refers to the flow that occurs naturally, without any intervention. Natural convection is
caused by the action of density gradient in fluids in conjunction with the gravitational
force. Typically, we see less dense fluid rise when it is located next to more dense fluid.
Density differences that lead to natural convention can arise from temperature

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variations in the fluid in a heat transfer context, or from composition variation, which
occur in the mass transfer equipment.

2.3.4 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES FOR HEAT TRANSFER

The following physical properties are required for heat transfer rates:

(i) Viscosity: Is fluid friction, like friction between moving solids, viscosity
transforms kinetic energy of motion in heat energy. Heat is energy of random motion
at molecular level. In liquids the viscosity is due to the cohesive forces between the
molecules whilst in gases the viscosity is due to collision between the molecules.

When a fluid flows past a stationary wall, the fluid right close to the wall do not move.
However, away from the wall the flow speed is not zero. So a velocity gradient exists.
This is due to adhesive, cohesive, and frictional forces. Magnitude of this gradient is
characteristic of the fluid. It is called coefficient of viscosity ɳ

(ii) Thermal Conductivity: Is the property of a materials ability to conduct the

heat. It appears primarily in Fourier’s law for heat conduction. Thermal conductivity is
measured in watts per kelvin-meter (WK-1.m-1, i.e. W/(K.m) or in IP units (Btu.hr-1.ft-
1
.F-1, i.e. Btu/(Hr.f.F). Multiplied by a temperature difference (in K) and area (m2), and
divided by a thickness (m), the thermal conductivity predicts the rate of energy loss.

(iii) Density: Density is defined as mass per unit of volume. The commonly used
formula to determine the density of an object is ρ=m/v, ρ (rho) represents density, m
represent mass, and v represent volume. The unit used to indicate density is (kg/m3) or
more commonly used (g/cm3).

Water never has an absolute density because its density varies with temperature. Water
has its maximum density of 1 g/cm3 at 4 degrees Celsius. When the temperature changes
from either greater or less than 4 degrees, the density will become less than 1 g/cm3
only when it is pure water.

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 Fig 2.3: Density at different temperatures Image Source: The Physics Factbook

(iv) Specific Heat: If we divide the heat capacity of an object by its mass, we obtain
a quantity known as the specific heat (sheat) of the object. The specific heat does not
depend on the size or shape of an object, but only on the material from which it is made.
Water has a large specific heat of 1 calorie per gram per degree Celsius or 4,186 joules
per kilogram degree Celsius.

Table: 2.1 Specific Heat for Water

Material Specific Heat Specific Heat

(J/g°C) (cal/g°C)
Water (liquid, 15°C) 4.186 1.00
Water (ice, -5°C) 2.100 0.50
Water (steam, 110°C) 2.010 0.48

The heat required to change the temperature of an object can be expressed as

Change in thermal energy = Sheat X M X ΔT

Where,

Q = heat added or subtracted (calories or joules)

Sheat = specific heat (calories/gram °C or joules/gram °C)

M = Mass (grams)

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 ΔT = change in temperature = Tfinal – Tinitial (Celsius Degree)

(v) Latent Heat: The amount energy released or absorbed by any substance during
phase transition is called Latent Heat. If we add heat continuously, a change of phase
from solid to liquid to vapor occurs. These changes are called phase transition. The
latent heat absorbed during the liquid-vapor transition is called the latent heat of
vaporization. This energy overcomes the inter-molecular forces inside the liquid. Figure
shows this phenomenon, whereby temperature remains constant as the heat supplied at
the phase regions.

Fig 2.4: Latent Heat. Image Source: LUMS School of science and Engineering
(August 7, 2011)

The latent heat of vaporization can be mathematically expressed as

LV = ΔQ/m

Where; ΔQ is the heat supplied during the phase transition and m is the mass of the
liquid vaporized.

(vi) Surface Tension: Surface tension is a property that allows the surface of the
liquid to behave somewhat as a trampoline does.

The figure illustrates the molecular basis for surface tension by considering the
attractive forces that molecules in a liquid exert to one another. Part a shows a molecule
within the bulk liquid, so that it is surrounded on all sides by other molecule. The
surrounding molecules attract the central molecule equally in all directions, leading to

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a zero net force. In contrast, part b shows molecule in the surface. Since there are no
molecules of the liquid above the surface, this molecule experiences a net attractive
force pointing towards the liquid interior. This net attractive force causes the liquid
surface to contract towards the interior until repulsive collisional forces from the other
molecules halt the contraction at the point when the surface area is minimum. If the
liquid is not acted upon by external forces, a liquid sample forms a sphere, which has
the minimum surface area for a given volume. Nearly spherical drops of water are a
fimiliar sight, for example, when the external forces are negligible.

Fig. 2.5

(a) A molecule within the bulk liquid is surrounded on all sides by other molecules, which
attract it equally in all directions, leading to a zero net force.

(b) A molecule in the surface experiences a net attractive force pointing towards the liquid
interior, because there are no molecules of the liquid above the surface. Image Source: The
Physics Fact book.

2.4 EVAPORATOR TYPES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

The common types evaporators include:

o Batch pan o Plate equivalent of tubular

o Forced Circulation evaporators
o Natural Circulation o Falling film tubular
o Wiped Film o Rising/falling film tubular
o Rising Film tubular
2.4.1 BATCH PAN EVAPORATOR

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As the name suggests, evaporation happens in batches, it is more like a solar
evaporation and it is the oldest technology. It has some limited applications, such as the
concentration of jams and jellies where whole fruit is present and some pharmaceutical
processes.

In batch evaporators, the time requires is many hours. It is advisable to boil at low
temperature and high vacuum when heat sensitive or thermo degradable products are
used.

The evaporators are jacketed or having coils inside. Due to the vessel shape, the heat
transfer area are lesser resulting in lesser heat transfer coefficient. Heat transfer
coefficient can be increased agitation in the vessels. Large temperature difference
cannot be used as it can result in the fouling of the heat transfer areas.

Source: Energy Solution Centre Food Processing Technologies

Fig. 2.6: Batch Pan Evaporator

2.4.2 FORCED CIRCULATION

Forced circulation was introduced where the liquid is susceptible for scaling or
crystalizing. The liquid is forced through the heat exchanger, the boiling was prevented
within the unit by maintaining the hydrostatic head above the top plate. Once the liquid
enters the separator, since the pressure of the tube bundles is slightly less, the flash
occurs and liquid is formed as a vapor.

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Forced circulation systems are more expensive than natural evaporation system, and
hence it should be only used where ever necessary.

Source: Geling (Shanghai) Environmental Technology Co. Ltd.

Fig. 2.7: Forced Circulation.

2.4.3 NATURAL CIRCULATION

Natural Evaporation are used where the viscosity and hardening agents are high
and are affected by their own high temperature and longer residual times.

The phenomenon is very simple, the liquid once start boiling, the vapor and liquid
separates at the top of the heating tube. The evaporation rate depends on the temperature
difference between steam and solution. The figure 2.8 illustrate the functioning of
Natural Circulation.

2.4.4 WIPED FILM

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 Wiped film or Mechanically Agitated Thin Film dryer. The concentrate after
the main evaporation system falls in this evaporator. The evaporator consists of blades
fitted with motor, the concentrate having high solid concentration when fed into the
evaporator, the blades rotates and form a thin film of concentrate on the heating surface.
The heat transfer coefficient is lesser as the heating surface area is less. This type of an
evaporator does the evaporation in batches and is never continuous in its process. The
construction of the mechanical agitated thin film consist of one vessel only. The
evaporator is characterized by the viscosity of the liquid entering in the system. Fig. 2.9
illustrates the functioning of the wiped film evaporator.

Fig. 2.8: Natural Circulation Image Source: Ketav Evaporators Ltd, Gujrat

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 Image Source: NPTEL

Fig.2.9: Wiped Film Evaporator

2.4.5 RISING FILM TUBULAR

The rising film or climbing film evaporators are commercially a viable option.
The core principle behind the evaporator is the movement of vapors inside the tubes
which are jacketed by steam from outside. As the liquid rises, vapors generated are
more in turn forms a film of liquid which traverse upwards. This increases the heat
transfer coefficient and shorter product residence time. Because of the increase in heat
transfer coefficient, the heat surface area reduces, which reduces the capital cost for the
evaporator.

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 Image Source: University of Amsterdam

Fig. 2.10: Rising Film Evaporator

2.4.6 PLATE EQUIVALENT OF TUBULAR EVAPORATORS

Plate evaporators can be constructed using simple or corrugated plates. The

scales formed can be flaked easily giving more flexibility as compared to the tubular
designs. Plate evaporator uses flat surfaces where on one side the steam is jacketed and
on another side the liquor is fed. The scales formed on the liquor side can be easily
dissolved while in contact with the steam condensate.

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There are two designs available in plate evaporators:

1. Spiral-Plate Evaporators: Can be used instead of tubular evaporators as

centrifugal forces increases the heat transfer, shorter undisturbed flow lengths, easy
cleaning, fouling resistance, differential thermal expansion is accepted. This type of
evaporator is used to handle viscous or high solids fluids.

The plates are fabricated such that they are spaced apart and wound around an open,
split centre to form a pair of concentric spirals. Spiral assembly fitted with covers to
provide three configurations:

(i) Both fluids in spiral.

(ii) One fluid in spiral and the other one in axial flow across the spiral.

(iii) One fluid in spiral and other being in combination of spiral or axial flow.

Image Source: Research Gate

Fig.2.11: Spiral Plate Evaporator

2. Gasketed-Plate Evaporator: Is also called plate and frame evaporator because

the design is similar to plate and frame filter press. The plates are gasketed to form a
narrow passage in between the plates. Fluid enters in between the plate from the
adjacent layer of plate, either in series or parallel. Boiling occurs within the gasketed-

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plate evaporator with the mixture of liquid and vapor discharged into a cyclone or other
separator. The volume is small as compared to the large heat transfer area. This type of
evaporators are more suitable for heat sensitive material, viscous, and foaming material.

Image Source: NPTEL

Fig. 2.12: Gasketed Plate Evaporator

2.4.7 FALLING FILM EVAPORATOR

The falling film evaporator is long tube with the feed from the top. The
hydrostatic head is never a problem as the feed is from the top. The liquid forms a thin
film on the tubes of the evaporator, the steam is on the outer surface of the tube. The

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system is designed so as that the liquid evaporates not on the surface of the tube, but
because of the turbulence within the liquid film. With this kind of evaporation, the
chocking of tubes is reduced very much as the vapors do not allow the salts to
crystallize. The falling film evaporator has a drawback as the tubes need to be wet prior
to start of the process. For this, we install a recirculation pump so that at any given
point, the tubes do not run dry. The vapor and liquid are separated at the bottom or from
the top giving a counter current direction of the vapors.

Image Source: Kleiene kastjes voor aan de muur

Fig. 2.13 Falling Film Evaporator

2.4.8 RISING/FALLING FILM EVAPORATOR

As the name suggest, this type of an evaporator is a combination of rising and

falling film. When the ratio of evaporation to feed is high and liquid is viscous, we use
this combination. The feed is first fed to a rising film and once the liquid becomes

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viscous, we feed it in the falling film. Residence times are extremely low and heat
transfer rates are very high. This type of the system requires lesser head room.

Image Source: Mechgrid

Fig. 2.14: Rising and Falling Film Evaporator

2.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES (13)

The evaporators mentioned in the above topic have some advantages and
disadvantages. In this section, we are show casing the best suited evaporator based on
working, heat transfer efficiencies, operating cost, viscosity, etc.

TABLE 2.2

Type of Advantages Disadvantages

Evaporator
Batch Pan  
Pans can be constructed for small to Unless mechanically stirred, the
Evaporator large batch operation. natural circulation of the product
 Easy to operate, maintain and has results in poor heat transfer
simple construction. resulting in solids being deposited
 Low cost of installation and out of solution and possible
maintenance. decomposition of the product.
 Wide variety for material of  Limited heated surface and this
construction. proportionally increases the pan
 Can be manually stirred and size.
product removal is fast and easy.  Slow process of evaporation.
Forced  The feed viscosity handled are  The circulation pumps requires
Circulation more. more maintenance.
 High tube side velocities

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  Boiling can be increased or  High circulation velocity
decreased to achieve desired liquid- increases the risk of internal
vapor blends. corrosion.
 Higher heat transfer coefficients  Plugging problems in the tubes
 Not restricted by liquid-vapor ratio. because of salt built up.
 Most expensive to operator and
maintain.
Natural  The liquid entering in the  Corrosion is the biggest problem.
Circulation evaporator will boil in a separator,  Expensive to maintain.
not on the heating surface, which  High capital cost.
minimize the fouling
 Cleaning cycles are less
 Easy to clean and operate
 High heat transfer coefficients
 Easily adaptable for the product
desired.
Wiped  Good for extremely viscous and
or  High cost
Agitated heat sensitive material.  Heat transfer surface is very small
Film  With short contact time, high  Operating cost is high because of
Evaporator temperature driving force can be moving parts.
used effectively without product  Exhibits poor heat transfer on low
degradation. viscous solution.
 Continuous scrapping of tube
valves allows tube walls clean from
deposition of salts, and slurries.
Rising Film  As the feed enters the bottom, the  Heat transfer is difficult to
Tubular feed is evenly distributed on all forecast.
tubes.  Pressure drop are higher
 Large heat transfer surfaces  Performance is dependent to
 Requires lesser space temperature driving force.
 Heat transfer coefficients are high Heat transfer falls off at low
 Highly versatile for many temperatures.
industries
 Suited for foaming liquids as the
foam is broken due to liquid/vapor
striking the baffle.
Plate  Produces high heat transfer rates  Limited to high pressure, high
Evaporator than any evaporator. temperature, and truculent fluids.
 We can increase or decrease the  Used in small and low pressure
plates depending on the applications.
performance.
 Cleaning and maintenance is
minimized.
 Highest efficiency
Falling Film Large heat transfer surfaces  Heat transfer is difficult to
Evaporators Heat transfer coefficient works forecast.
satisfactorily at low temperature  Pressure drop are higher
driving force.

Page | 41
 
Concentration of heat-sensitive and Performance is dependent to
viscous material temperature driving force.
 Requires lesser space  Heat transfer falls off at low
 Heat transfer coefficients are high temperatures.
 Highly versatile for many Feed distribution is a problem
industries  Temperature driving force is not
 Suited for foaming liquids as the limited
foam is broken due to liquid/vapor  Broad range of application is not
striking the baffle. possible.
Rising/Falli As per the advantage of Rising and  As per the disadvantages of
ng Film falling film Rising and falling film.
Evaporator

Conclusion: The above mentioned evaporators do not work in isolation when it

comes to practical applications. The Batch pan and plate type evaporators are out
dated as the heat transfer is very low and are having limitation when working with
high pressure and temperature.

The combination of evaporator technologies are highly versatile as the viscosity,

characteristics for the effluent changes with every pass through the evaporators.
The effluent becomes more viscous and difficult to evaporate at the last stage of
the calandria. We require agitated film evaporator having short contact time, high
temperature driving force, and continuous scrapping of the tubes for deposition
so that the evaporator reaches the desired solid concentration of 95-96%.

2.6 DIFFERENT PATENTS FOR EVAPORATORS

2.6.1 Patent by Mr. Norbert Rillieux. Patent Number US3237, Improvement in

Sugar Works

The invention for an Evaporator came for his work in Improving the Sugar technology.
The invention brings about the four major changes in the sugar processing:

(i) Connecting the steam engine to the evaporating pans in such a manner that the
flow of the steam shall be operated by valve such as to reach the pan at the desired
temperature.
(ii) Combination of vacuum pan in which the syrup is to be evaporated. It generates
the vapors from the saccharine juices to supply the vacuum pan the required quantity
of steam under pressure and temperature sufficiently high to boil the juices.

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(iii) The method of regulating the concentration of sirups with the help of differential
thermometer, which indicates the concentration of the sirup without affecting the
change in the pressure under which the sirup is evaporated.
(iv) The improvement the kind of evaporator called “Champenoise column” and
consist of an outer envelope to this column.

Fig 2.15: Patent by Nobert Rillieux for Vacuum Pan

Nomenclature Description Nomenclature Description

L Air Pump g Condenser
F Pipe with Float D Steam Pipe
Valve
E Connection Pipe K Tank for Juices
I Valve A Evaporator
B Connected Pipe
2.6.2 Patent by Mr. Kenji Takahashi, Takuji Torii, Takao Senshu, Tetsuji
Yamashitra, Shizuo Zushi. Patent Number US 4918944A, Original Assignee:
Hitachi Ltd

The invention is to arrange to cause the liquid film to flow downward to thereby effect
heat exchange using evaporation. In evaporating compartment, a gas-liquid separator is

Page | 43
disposed to communicate with a compressor which constitute a part of a refrigeration
cycle.

It is simple in structure and yet is capable of enhancing the efficiency of a refrigeration

cycle. The liquid film flow of a liquid refrigerant being formed over the outside surfaces
of the heat exchanger tubes to effect heat exchange between the liquid refrigerant and
the flowing in the heat exchanger tubes. The improvement is characterized by the gas-
liquid separating means which is arranged in the space of the evaporating compartment
so as to communicate with a compressor which constitutes a part of a refrigeration
cycle.

Falling film evaporator in which heat exchanger tubes are provided in a shell to form
an evaporating compartment utilizing a falling film, the liquid-film flow of a liquid
refrigerant being formed over the outside surfaces of the heat exchanger tubes to effect
heat exchange between the liquid refrigerant and the fluid flowing in the heat exchanger
tubes. The improvement is characterized by a pipeline, through which the refrigerant in
the evaporating compartment is supplied to a compressor which constitutes a part of a
refrigeration cycle, being arranged in the evaporating compartment, the pipeline having
a lubricating-oil supplying portion through which the lubricating oil in the evaporating
compartment is supplied to the pipeline.

The heat exchanging tubes are so fitted that the liquid flows from the top and is collected
from the bottom of the vessel. The heat exchange happens in the middle of the
evaporator and the vapors are collected in the vapor-liquid compartment which is in
exterior of the evaporating column.

Page | 44
 Fig 2.16: Patent by Kenji Takahashi et al for Falling Film Evaporator

Nomenclature Description Nomenclature Description

1 Shell 2 Inlet
4 Heat Exchanger 5 Liquid
6 Cooling Water 7 Concentrate
Inlet
8 Discharge Tube 8a Refrigerant Gas
Discharge Port
11 Compressor 14 Fluid
Compartment
15 Distributing 21 Partition Board
Board
31 Evaporating 32 Vapor Vent
Compartment Tube
37 Restriction 38 Lubricating Oil
Suction Tube

2.6.3 Patent filed by R. Germerdonk et. Al. Patent No. US 3366157, Vertical
Rotatory Wiped Film Evaporator

The invention relates to use viscous mixtures, suspensions, or emulsion. The falling
film or the thin film evaporators have limitation for evaporating the liquid with higher

Page | 45
viscosity and low flowing properties. This gave rise to the invention for Vertical
Rotatory Wiped Film Evaporator.

In the figure below, the evaporator comprises of cylindrical, vertical tube comprising
of cooled shafts which rotates. The helically twisted scrappers are attached to the cooled
shafts. The distance between the scrappers and the inner tube is 0.1 to 5 mm. The liquid
flows in the tube with the help of twisted scrappers attached to the cooled shaft. This
forms the liquid into thin film. The heated vapors coming from the vaporizer flows
upwards between the shaft and the tube in countercurrent to the liquid. By the help of
the shape for the scrapper, it is possible to get greater exchange rates for a poorly
flowing mixtures. Since the exchange of heat and material required for evaporation to
take place at the layer or film separating the medium and of the liquid is the same as in
the conventional evaporators.

Fig 2.17: Patent by R.Germerdonk et al Vertical Rotatory Wiped Film Evaporator

Nomenclature Description
1 Apparatus
2a & 2b Non-Cooled Shafts
3a & 3b Supports
4a & 4b Helically Twisted Scraper
5b Radial Blade

Page | 46
2.6.4 Patent filed by D.J. Holtslag Patent No. US 3175962, Falling Film
Evaporator

The study involves the improvement in the heat exchange. The figure shows an
evaporator including an upper chamber in which the tubes are present, each tube having
a weir construction for passing of the liquid into each tube. With liquid passing through
from the each tube, the portion of liquid is evaporated forming vapor passing through
the same direction as the liquid. As the more liquid is evaporated, more and more vapors
are generated, the vapor velocity increases so that the liquid which was flowing in
substantially laminar, because of the frictional drag of the flowing vapors causes
turbulence in the adjacent liquid films. As the velocity increases, the turbulence
increases more deeply into the liquid films till a laminar sublayer having constant flow
may exist having thickness of one-thousand of an inch. The vapors discharge through
the evaporator are collected from the bottom and are condensed to form high
concentration liquid. If so desired, the condensate liquid can be recirculated back to the
evaporator, forming high velocity of the vapor passing through the each tube assuring
high heat transfer coefficient along the length of the tube.

It is found that the turbulent nature of the liquid do not resist any heat transfer. This is
because the turbulent nature of the liquid is because of the erratic movement of eddies.
Because of the same, the heat transfer occurs freely across the film of turbulence. The
portion of film near to the tube walls resist turbulence forming a sublayer in streamline
flow and the heat transfer is through conduction. Heat transfer through conduction incur
thermal resistance. By controlling the degree of turbulence so that the laminar flow is
maintained, the thermal resistance decreases and heat transfer across the entire film is
high. As the turbulence may not be present at the upper portion of the tubes,
recirculation of the vapor is done to ensure turbulence occurs in the liquid adjacent to
the top of the tubes.

The main objective of the invention was to provide a highly improved evaporation
system utilizing turbulent film of the liquid.

Another objective was to provide evaporating surface with high heat transfer coefficient
which is experiences uniformly.

Page | 47
 Fig 2.18: Patent by D.J. Holtslag for Falling Film Evaporator

Nomenclature Description Nomenclature Description

2 Shell 4 Tubes
8 Upper Barrier 9 Lower Barrier
5 Jacket 6 Nozzle
7 Conduit 16 Conduit
17 Valve 18 Supply Conduit
18 Supply Conduit 13 Upper Chamber
12 End Barrier 20 Weir
15 Sump 14 End Member
32 Conduit 33 Pump
30 Conduit 31 Valve
23 Conduit 24 Conduit
35 Condensing Unit 25 Conduit
26 Valve 27 Compression
29 Conduit

2.6.5 Sewage Treatment System Including Effluent Evaporator, Inventor:

Kenneth J. Yost filed the patent on 26th March, 1973 with publication number as
345113 in United States along with No. 261/119R for United Kingdom.

The invention is directed to an improved system for evaporating the effluent

discharge from the Sewage treatment tank. The effluent from an aerobic sewage
treatment plant is directed into one end of the elongated conduit adapted to be buried in
the ground with the tank. The conduit has a length of many hundred feet and is

Page | 48
preferably wrapped in the form of substantially horizontal spiral coil. The opposite end
of the conduit is vented to the atmosphere, and a flow of air is directed from a supply
pump through the conduit over the surface of the effluent to effect the evaporation of
the effluent into the air stream and discharge of the vapor with the air into the
atmosphere. The moisture from the air is removed within the pressure-condensing
container. The conduit is of plastic material. The inventor claims of evaporating 90%
of the total volume of effluent discharge.

Fig 2.19: Patent by Kenneth J. Yost for Sewage Treatment System Including Effluent
Evaporator

Nomenclature Description Nomenclature Description

10 Digester Tank 12 Cover
14 Sewage Supply 16 Low Pressure Air Line
Line
20 Pump 22 U-shaped pipeline
24 Inspection Vessel 26 Removable Cover
28 Line for Air 35 Effluent Evaporation
Exhaust Chamber
40 Long Conduit 45 Horizontal Spring Coil
48 Sand Bed Filter 49 Inlet End Portion
51 Pipe 52 Inner discharge End
68 Riser Portion 69 Vent Opening
66 Wick Pad 55 Cylindrical Concrete
Riser
56 Head Portion 58 Vent Opening
62 Air Supply Line 64 Cylindrical Concrete
Vessel
72 Air Line 75 Manifold
76 Air Supply 78 Y-shaped fitting

Page | 49
2.6.6 Method and Evaporator System for Treating Wastewater Effluent,
Inventor: Thomas Jeffery Walker filed the patent on 11/01/2001 with Publication
No.: US 2002/0088703 A1.

The invention is directed towards the treatment of wastewater brines to remove salts
prior to discharge. The method includes evaporating the water component of the
pretreatment effluent into the air. The system can be used to treat the processing water
so that when the water is discharged from the facility it is free from heavy metals and
other contaminants. The evaporator is high temperature, flash type system, wherein a
salt solution is circulated, under pressure, from the flash tank. As the brine circulates
through the heat exchangers, its temperature rises between 220°F to 230°F (104°C to
110°C). The heated brine enters the flash tank via fog nozzle, which induces a pressure
drop. Because of the pressure drop, the liquid is converted to vapor and is evaporated.
The steam is vented from the flash mixer to the demister assembly. After the steam is
passed through the demister, it is introduced into the air stream for atmospheric venting
or secondary condensing to recover water for reuse.

Fig 2.20: Patent by Thomas Jeffery Walker for Method & Evaporator System for
Treating Wastewater Effluent

Page | 50
 Nomenclature Description Nomenclature Description
4 Water Valve for 8 Waste water
Heat Exchanger
10 Evaporation Tank 14 Shell & Tube
Heat Exchanger
12 Circulation Pump 16 Flash Apparatus
18 Dimister 22 Ineffluent Pump
24 Valve 25 Process
Wastewater
Holding Tank
26 Flash Pump 30 Main Outlet
Valve
32 Motorized 20 Defoamer Pump
Modulating Steam
Valve
38 Plate Type Filter 40 Effluent Tank
Press
47 Effluent Return 41 Filter Inlet Valve
Pump
43 Filter Blow Down 44 Filter Pump
Control Valve
48 Air Valve 42 Valve
34 Steam Impact 50 Effluent Return
Valve
52 Process Holding 54 Demister Wash
Tank Valve Solenoid Valve
56 Wash Nozzle 58 Dimister Packing
Assembly
60 Tubes

2.6.7 Study on Enhancing the Efficiency of ZLD plant for Tannery Effluent By
Implementing Low Cost Ambient Air Evaporation System (R. Rajkumar et al.
2018)

The evaporation is primarily based on ambient temperature and humidity. The moist air
leaves from the top of the chamber after demister made of polypropylene baffles, traps
the salts carried by the air and only the moist air is sent outside the tower. The
concentrated effluent falls at the bottom and is recirculated until it reached the desirable
concentration. The temperature inside the chamber becomes less than the ambient
temperature because of the evaporation. The slightly higher temperature of the ambient
air aids evaporation. The cycle is repeated until the salt concentration reached 100,000
mg/l. Then the effluent is drawn from the bottom of the tank and sent to solar tunnel
drier.

Page | 51
 Fig 2.21- Schematic representation of Ambient Air Evaporation System

2.6.8 Solar and Wind aided Cross Flow Natural Evaporation for RO Reject
Management by Ligy Philip, K.S. Reddy, Bhuvanesh Kumar, S. Murty
Bhallamudi, A. Kannan (Elsevier 15 May 2013)

The attempt to evaluate the Natural evaporator as compared to the conventional

evaporator for concentrating reverse osmosis rejects. The performance of the
evaporator is evaluated on the following operating conditions:

(i) Wind Velocity

(ii) Relative Humidity in the ambient air
(iii) Temperature of the inlet water.
(iv) Trickling rate
(v) Different packing geometries

It consist of wooden structure with thick layer of brushwood (normally Babuul Tree).
The mineral water, rich in sodium chloride, is pumped from the top and gradually drip
through the brushwood. Natural wind blowing across results in an evaporation of the
water dripping through porous medium. The water reaching the bottom of the structure

Page | 52
will have higher salt concentration. This type of structure can be used to concentrate
the RO rejects.

Advantages:

(i) Saves fuel

(ii) Carbon Emission free
(iii) Environment friendly
(iv) Operation friendly
(v) Affordable
(vi) Quick in Installation & Commissioning.

The figure below shows the construction of the Natural Evaporator. Design of a solar
heat exchanger for preheating the RO Reject to increase the effectiveness of natural
evaporator is also an option for good evaporation rate.

Fig 2.22 (a): Source: Ligy-Natural Evaporator

The natural evaporator has the following components:

1. Structure made of steel pipes to hold the packaging material.

2. The water distribution pipes with evenly distributed 24 holes of 3 mm
3. Collection tank at the bottom.

Page | 53
4. Recirculation tank for recirculating water back to the evaporator.
5. Solar system to heat the water.
6. 2 HP water pump and auxiliaries.

Fig. 2.22 (b) Ligy Natural Evaporator

Fig. 2.22 (c) Ligy Natural Evaporator

Page | 54
CHAPTER 3 CURRENTLY USED
EVAPORATORS FOR
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

3.1 Existing Technologies

Evaporator have come a long way from 1843 to present and there are many changes in
the evaporation technologies. The evaporator currently employed by the industries are
having higher efficiencies, better evaporation rates, lower steam consumption. The time
when evaportors were invented, the steam consumption were very high (Improvement
in Sugar Works, Publication Number: US 3237A, Dated: 26/08/1843, Inventor:
Norbert Rillieux). However, with the invention of Thermal Vapour Recompression
Technology (Thermal Cycle for the compression of a fluid by expansion of Another
Fluid, Publication Number: US 4022030, Dated: 10/05/1977, Inventor: Jean Renaud
Brugerolle) and Mechanical Vapour Recompression Technology (Mechanical Vapor
Recompression Seperation Technology, Publication Number: US09462821, Dated:
13/01/1999, Inventor: Minoo Razzaghi et. al) the steam consumption as well as
efficiencies for evaporators have increased.

The thermal or mechanical vapour recompression technology comes with falling film
evaporator, forced circulation, agitated thin film, rising film.

Rising Film Evaporators:

The rising film evaporator came to operation in early 1900’s. The rising film principle
came with the commercial application using vertical tubes with steam condensing from
outside. Liquid being on the inside is brought to boil and the vapors generated forms a
core in the centre of tube. As the liquid rises, more vapors are evolved resulting in
higher core velocity that forces the remaining to tube walls. High velocity results in
thinner and rapidly moving liquid. The results are higher Heat Transfer Coefficients,
reduced heat transfer area, and shorter residence time.

Page | 55
 Image Source: Praj Industries

Fig 3.1 Rising Film Evaporator

Falling Film Evaporator

The falling film evaporators started after the rising film with little arrangement at the
top for the evaporator. The distribution plate at the top ensures the liquid is distributed
evenly for the tubes. With liquid flowing through the gravity, the need for external
pump in reduced, in turn, saving on the operating cost. Because of the liquid flowing
through the gravity, the film formed is thinner and had further improvement in Heat
Transfer Coefficient.

VAPORS
Steam

Condensate

FEED

Image Source: Praj Industries Ltd

Fig. 3.2 Falling Film Evaporator

Page | 56
Forced Recirculation Evaporator

Force being used to push the effluent inside the tubes producing high tube velocity.
High efficient pump for huge volume and head is used. Genuine design results in
controlled temperature rise, controlled temperature difference and tube velocity which
gives better heat transfer. This type of evaporators are used for viscous, salting, and
scaling liquids. The liquid is heated in the steamchest and the flashing inside separator,
resulting in boils not in the tube, so the fouling is reduced in the tube walls. As a result,
the operating cost for these types of evaporator reduces.

STEAM VAPORS
FEED

CONDENSATE

CONC.
PRODUCT

Image Source: Praj Industries Ltd

Fig 3.3 Forced Recirculation Evaporator

Mechanical Vapor Recirculation

Thermodynamically, efficient way to evaporate the effluents. The vapor after the
evaporation of the effluent is compressed mechanically and is used at the higher vapor
pressure in the steam chest. The vapors are compressed by the radial fan with
compression ratio of 1:30 resulting in high heat transfer surface area. We can use a
centrifugal compressor, however, we use fan because of high reliability, low
maintenance cost, and generally low RPM.

The MVR are equivalent to 100 effect evaporator, however, due to inefficiency in the
compression ratios, the equivalent effects are in the range of 30 to 35.

The operating cost are extremely good as the vapors are being reused again. It reduces
the steam consumption drastically, however, because of the radial fan or the

Page | 57
compressors, the capital cost is high. The payback for this evaporator ranges from
approximately 3-4 years.

Image Source: Product Finishing Online

Fig. 3.4: Mechanical Vapor Recompression

Thermal Vapor Recompression

Thermal vapor recompression works well when the steam pressure exceeds 3 bars and
is lower than 7 bar. In this technology the vapor after processing the effluents is being
recompressed by a venturi and is send back to the steam jet for further processing. This
type of system has higher efficiency because of the steam utilization. The efficiency
depends on the pressure at which the steam is available and number of effects. Thermal
vapor recompression can be used with multi-effect evaporator providing larger
economy.

Thermal vapor recompression is highly dependent on design consideration. It do not

operate well outside the design consideration. If the conditions are not favorable, the
product can be severely fouled resulting in lower heat transfer coefficient.

The product is having less operating cost but very high capital cost. The overall payback
for this evaporator is approximately 2 years, if the product is designed for proper design
consideration.

Page | 58
 Image Source: GIG Karasek, Germany

Fig. 3.5: Thermal Vapor Recompression

3.2 Case Study - I

Based on the following assumptions:

1. The customer has a waste steam at 3.5 kg/cm2 pressure

2. The overall system efficiency depends on the saturated & unsaturated steam
quantity.
3. The condensate will be in the form of a slurry and it form the slurry in solid
form requires additional equipment.

Case Study I (14)

Hindusthan Coca Cola Beverages India Ltd., Sector- 55, Gurgaon.

Site: Vijaywada, AP

Location: Coordinates: 16.414899, 80.594488

Page | 59
Address: Village Atmakuru, Mangalgiri Mandal, District Guntur, Vijayawada, 522503,
Andhra Pradesh

Fig. 3.6: Hindustan Coca-Cola, Vijaywada Plant

Need for the Evaporator:

The hardness and bicarbonates being more, the existing plastic evaporator (Aarvind
Excel formerly know Satyam Evaporators) were not giving the desired concentration.
The requirement for the concentration from Evaporator was 45%, however, the plastic
evaporator was giving <20% concentration. The main reasons for the lower
concentration were:

(i) Hardness in the effluent was in the range of 4500 ppm

(ii) Total Alkalinity of 800 ppm
(iii) Silica Level of 100 ppm
(iv) Sodium level of 2000 ppm

Based on the same, more concentration of Na2CO3 was there. Since Sodium Carbonate
is soluble in water, there was no salt formation at the crystallizer. Secondly, the
hardness was causing chocking inside the calandria because of Calcium Ions. Thirdly,
silica present in the effluent was high, because of the same, whenever, the effluent is

Page | 60
passed through the evaporator, scaling tendency increases, resulting in heavy choking
after the operation for 2-3 Hours.

Hindustan Coca-Cola then decided to scrap the existing evaporator and then go for RO
recycling and MEE.

The requirement for 400 cum/day RO Reject Recycling and 80 KLD Multi Effect
Evaporator consisting of one falling film and two forced circulation cylindrias. The feed
conditions for RO Reject handling were:

Fig. 3.7: Flow Diagram for Hindustan Coca-cola

Sr. No. Parameters Value

1 pH 6.5-7.0
2 TDS 11000-14000 ppm
3 Total Hardness (as CaCO3) 4000-4500 ppm
4 Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 3300-3700 ppm
5 Magnesium as CaCO3 800 ppm
6 Total Alkalinity as CaCO3 500-800 ppm
7 Chlorides as Cl 4000-4500 ppm
8 Sulphates as SO4 1550-2000 ppm
9 Flouride as F 5.0-7.0 ppm
10 Silica as SiO2 80-100 ppm
11 Sodium as Na 2000 ppm

Page | 61
Product Water Quality

1 Flow Rate (20 Hr. Operation) 16 cum/hr

2 Permeate TDS < 250 ppm
3 pH 10-10.5

Feed to MEE

Sr. No. Parameters Value

1 pH 11.0-11.3
2 TDS 60191 ppm
3 Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 < 35 ppm
4 Magnesium as CaCO3 < 50 ppm
5 Sodium as CaCO3 22280 ppm
6 Chlorides as Cl 28786 ppm
7 Sulphates as SO4 8995 ppm
8 Silica as SiO2 < 45 ppm
9 Flow 3.2 cum/hr
Capital Cost for 80 KLD Evaporator : Rs. 2,60,00,000/- (Rupees
Two crore Sixty Lakhs Only)

TABLE 3.1: Steam & Electricity Consumption:

Utility Base Rate Unit Overall Cost

Consumption Cost Cost

(Rs/Day) (Rs/cum)

Steam 1200 Rs/MT 23040 kg/day 27648 345.6

Power 10 Rs/Kwh 1800 18000 225.0
kWh/day

Manpower Cost

Manpower No. of Cost/Month Cost/Day Cost/cum

Manpower
Engineers 4 160,000 5333 66.66
Labor 4 72,000 2400 30.00
Overall Cost (Rs./Day) 96.66

Major Maintenance of the Evaporator: Include Pump Seals, and Distributors

Duration Cost of Spares Cost/Month Cost/Day Cost/cum

3 Months 150,000 50,000 1666.66 20.833

Page | 62
CIP for the Evaporator

Duration Cost per CIP Cost/month Cost/Day Cost/cum

15 Days 6,000 12,000 400 5

OVERALL COST FOR RUNNING THE EVAPORATOR

Overall Cost (Rs/Day) 55447.66

Cost (Rs/m3) 693.09

Image Source: Hindustan Coca-Cola, Vijaywada, A.P

Fig. 3.8: Actual photograph of Multi Effect Evaporator

Image Source: Hindustan Coca-Cola, Vijayawada, AP

Fig 3.9: Actual photograph of Multi Effect Evaporator

Case Study II (15)

Page | 63
Location:

Address: Indo-Count Industries Limited,D-1, Gokul Shirgaon MIDC Industrial Area,

Kohlapur

Coordinates: 16°42’N 74°16’E

Fig. 3.10: Actual location for Indo-Count Industries Ltd.

Need for the Evaporator:

Maharashtra is a dry belt and with lots of scarcity of water, the industries were dying
because of non-availability of the water. Also, there are regulations from the CPCB for
zero liquid discharge. Since textile industry uses heavy amount of water during the
process which in turn becomes very tedious for the employees to handle the effluent.
Based on the same, Indo Count decided to install an Evaporator.

With 250 KLD 4-Stages Forced Circulation Evaporator. The feed to the evaporator
is Reverse Osmosis Reject of the Textile Effluent with feed concentration as:

Page | 64
 Fig. 3.11: Actual flow diagram for Indo Count

Sr. No. Parameters Value

1 pH 7.5
2 TDS 30000 ppm
3 Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 < 500 ppm
4 Magnesium as CaCO3 < 200 ppm
5 COD 2100 ppm
6 BOD 700 ppm
7 Sodium as Na 100 ppm
8 Silica as SiO2 80 ppm
9 Flow 12.5 cum/hr

(15) The Capital Cost for 250 KLD is Rs. 5,00,00,000/- (Rupees Five Crores Only)

The Area requirement: 15 meters X 20 meters

TABLE: 3.2

Steam & Electricity

Utility Base Rate Unit Overall Cost

Consumption Cost Cost

(Rs/Day) (Rs/Cum)
Steam 1200 Rs/MT 62500 kg/day 75000 300

Power 10 Rs/Kwh 3000 kWh/day 30000 120

Page | 65
Manpower Cost

Manpower No. of Cost/Month Cost/Day Cost/cum

Manpower
Engineers 4 160,000 5333 21.33
Labor 4 72,000 2400 9.6
Overall Cost (Rs./Day) 30.93

Major Maintenance of the Evaporator: Include Pump Seals, and Distributors

Duration Cost of Spares Cost/Month Cost/Day Cost/cum

3 Months 150,000 50,000 1666.66 20.833

CIP for the Evaporator

Duration Cost per CIP Cost/month Cost/Day Cost/cum

15 Days 9,000 18,000 600 36

OVERALL COST FOR RUNNING THE EVAPORATOR

Overall Cost (Rs/Day) 114,999.66

Cost (Rs/m3) 459.99

Image Source: Indo-Count Industry

Fig. 3.12 Actual photograph for Evaporator

The operating cost are derived based on the following assumptions:

Page | 66
 The Electrical Energy is fed from the Local Grid
 The steam is generated from the coal only.
 The cost for manpower can vary depending on the number of people to be
employed.
 The cost for Caustic Soda, Sulphamic Acid, EDTA remains standard. Any
escalation for the same will lead to changes in the operating cost.

There are operational problems of chocking, foaming, frequent cleaning for these
evaporators. The design for this type of an evaporator is difficult and need to be vigilant
while choosing the Material of Construction. In case I, as the Sodium and chlorides
were very high, we have chosen the MOC as SS 316 Ti for Tubes and Cylindria, and
SS 304 for Shell, wherein for case II, the Silica levels are very high, so we chose SS
316 Ti for Tubes, SS 316 for Cylindria and SS 304 for Shell. The selection of material
is prime importance. Based on the same, the capital cost is high.

With these case studies, we can justify that the cost (capital & operating) are very high
and for this reasons, the medium & small scale industries cannot bear the cost for an
evaporator.

The Graphs 1 below suggest the common parameter which were depicted in the feed of
the Multi-effect evaporator.

Graph 1: Parameter for feed of Multi Effect Evaporator

Page | 67
Graph 2 depicts the capital cost of Rs. 2,60,00,000/- and Rs. 5,00,00,000/- for 80
KLD and 250 KLD respectively.

Graph 2: Capital Cost for Multi Effect Evaporator

Graph 3 depicts the capital cost of Rs. 3.25 Lacs per KLD for a 80 KLD evaporator
and Rs. 2 Lacs per KLD for 250 KLD evaporator.

Graph 3: Capital cost per kL for Multi-Effect Evaporator

Page | 68
Graph 4 depicts the operating cost for steam consumption, electricity consumption, man power requirement, major maintenance, cleaning-in-
process. The overall cost for the multi-effect evaporator are Rs. 1,66,34,100/- and Rs. 3,44,99,890/- for 80 KLD and 250 KLD respectively. The
cost considered is for the running of 30 days. The operational cost per KL will be Rs. 693.09 and Rs. 460 for 80 KLD and 250 KLD respectively.

Graph 4: Operating Cost for Multi Effect Evaporator

Page | 69
CHAPTER 4 DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE
STUDY OF A LOW COST
EVAPORATOR

4.1 Need for the Low Cost Evaporator

With high capital cost, high steam utilization, and electricity bills for operating a
conventional evaporators, it is difficult for the micro-size industry to install and operate
the conventional evaporator. The need for a low cost evaporator is indeed a viable
solution for the micro-size industries.

The conventional evaporator requires boiler or the waste steam at the minimum
pressure of 2 kg/cm2. Also, with so many electrical equipment which consumes high
electricity and the operating cost runs in millions of Rupees, it was highly motivational
for us to design the low cost evaporators.

The low cost evaporator utilizes ambient air is converted to heated air for effluent to be
evaporated. The evaporator is so designed that it do not require any technical know-
how. The evaporator can be operated by a layman. The evaporator is designed with one
calandria where the effluent is sprayed and the heated air get in the contact with the
effluent to dry up. There are no tubes involved, as in like the conventional evaporators.
The chocking, scaling are not present. The effluent which dries up are in the solid form.
As compared to conventional evaporator, the conversion of liquid to solid is high. The
conventional evaporator converts effluent to slurry of 45-50%, however, the solid
conversion percentage of low cost evaporator is 90-95%. In the conventional
evaporators, for converting 45-50% slurry to dry solid form, we need to add other
equipment like ATFD or Centrifuge which do not only utilizes high operating cost, but
their efficiencies are also very less.

Based on the same, the low cost evaporator not only evaporates the effluents
completely, but at the same time saves lot of money for the micro-sized industry.

The low cost evaporator not only have little capital cost, but lower operating and
maintenance cost.

Page | 70
4.2 Basic Concept of Low Cost Evaporators

The evaporator shown in the figures contains a vessel which is attached to the heating
chamber and in turn the heating chamber is attached to an air blower.

The heating chamber consists of the heaters which heat the ambient air to 120°C for the
evaporator to be in the operation. Once the ambient air reaches the desired temperature,
the compressor is started which will convert liquid into very small particle size, which
enters inside the vessel. Because of the heated air in the circulation, the tiny droplets
are evaporated inside the vessel.

The evaporated effluent will only consists of the Solid Particle stuck over in the vessel
and some of those will be collected in the small container.

The air control is through the valve, we require fresh air to be recirculated so that the
temperature can be controlled to 120°C at any point of time. If the temperature goes
beyond 120°C, then there can be the chances for the air blower failure because of the
heat.

There are 12 heaters in total where we have kept 4 numbers of heaters in each set. Each
set is manually controlled for the cut-off and On. If the temperature inside the
evaporator goes beyond 120°C, then we can cut-off one set of heater to maintain the
temperature.

The entire process for evaporation is manual, however, during the commercial
installation, the evaporator can be converted into an automatic mode.

Page | 71
4.3 Layouts and Design Drawings for the Low Cost Evaporator

OVERALL EVAPORATOR LAYOUT

Fig 4.1: Overall layout for Low Cost Evaporator

Page | 72
HEATER SECTION

Fig 4.2: GA for Heater Section

Page | 73
CYLINDRIA

Fig 4.3: GA for Cylindria

Page | 74
4.4 Capital Cost for Low Cost Evaporator:

TABLE 4.1

CAPITAL COST FOR 1500 LPD EVAPORATOR

Sr.
No. Equipment Rating Quantity Cost Amount
50 cum/hr @ 300
1 Air Blower mmWC 1 25000 25000
2 Heaters 1.5 kW 12 2900 34800
2 cum/hr @ 50
3 Air Compressor mmWC 1 35000 35000
Dia 300 mm X HOS
4 Effluent Receiver 1000 mm 1 38472 38472
1220 X 525 X 200
5 Heater Box mm 1 25000 25000
5 Piping 50 NB MS 1 15000 15000
6 Valves 50 NB MS 1 1500 1500
7 Heat Wool 2 3000 6000
8 Electrical Equipment 1 10000 10000
9 Electrician 1 3000 3000
TOTAL 193772

Page | 75
Graph 5 depicts the capital cost for Low Cost Evaporator. The cost derived is given
above. However, since the working was for 4 hours for an experiment where the
effluent evaporated is 1500 litres. In a shift, 8 hours are utilized, so that is the reason
why we had kept in 3 KLD.

Graph 5: Capital Cost for Low Cost Evaporator

Graph 6 depicts capital cost per KL for a low cost evaporator.

0.700 0.643
0.600

0.500

0.400

0.300

0.200

0.100

0.000
Capital Cost KL (lacs INR)

Value (in Lacs Rs.)

Graph 6: Capital cost per kl for Low Cost Evaporator

Page | 76
4.5 Operating Cost of Low Cost Evaporator

Table 4.2

EXPERIMENT NO. 1
Textile Effluent RO
Rejects TDS 15000 MG/L
No. of Heaters 3 SETS
Heaters in Set 4
Kw Rating For Each
Heater 1.5 KWH
Total Kw Rating 18 KWH
Kw Rating For The
Blower 2 KWH
Time to Reach 110°c 1:18:22
Time to Reach 115°c 1:21:32
Effluent Poured 1:22:00

Heaters Position
HEATE HEATE
Heater 1 off 117°C 1:23:15 R 1 OFF R 2 OFF
Heater 1 on 115°C 1:39:45 0:16:30 0:06:35
Heater 1 off 118°C 1:59:15 0:25:21
Heater 1 on 115°C 2:24:36 0:34:00
Heater 1 off 118°C 2:46:15
Heater 2 off 119°C 2:53:05
Heater 2 on 115°C 2:59:40
Heater 1 on 112°C 3:20:15
Heater 1 off 115°C 3:46:44
TIME
OFF 1:15:51 0:06:35
Experiment concluded 4:23:50
Total service time 4:23:50
Total wattage 87.8 KWH

Page | 77
 Wattage saved by
heater 1 off 7.551 KWH
Wattage saved by
heater 2 off 0.63 KWH
Total wattage used in
the experiment 79.619
Price for kwh 10 RUPEES
Total cost 796.19 RUPEES
Effluent evaporated 1500 LITRES
Cost per litre of
effluent evaporated 0.53 RUPEES
Salt generated
Weight of empty jar 44.54 GRAMS
Weight of jar with
solids 931.54 GRAMS
Weight of solids 887 GRAMS
Equivalent to mg 887000 MG

Salt Concentration at
the feed 15000 mg/l
Sample 1500 Litres
Salt Concentration 22500000 Mg
Salt at the Outlet 887000 Mg
Salt deposit in the drum 21613000 Mg

Cleaning of the Drum:

Name of the Rate Concentration Quantity Amount

Chemical (Rs./Kg) (%) Used (In Kgs) (In Rs.)

Nitric Acid 20 70 15 300

Amino 37 50 10 370
Sulphonic
Acid
TOTAL 670
Cost Per Litres of Effluent Evaporated 0.44

Page | 78
 Manpower Cost

No. of Salary per No. of Shift Cost/liter

Manpower month
1-Labour 18000* 1 0.4

 * The manpower will be required only for 4:23:50 Hours for evaporating 1500
liters of effluent. The overall cost will come down as the effluent quantity
increases.

EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Nacl Effluent TDS 10000 MG/L
No. of Heaters 3 SETS
Heaters in set 4
kW rating for each heater 1.5 KWH
Total kW Rating 18 KWH
kW Rating for the Blower 2 KWH
Time to Reach 110°c 0:47:49
Time to Reach 115°c 1:03:00
Effluent Poured 1:03:05
Heaters Position
HEAT HEAT
ER 1 ER 2
Heater 1 off 115°C 1:03:45 OFF OFF
Heater 1 on 106°C 1:56:00 0:52:15 0:15:15
Heater 1 off 115°C 2:25:00 0:27:00
Heater 1 on 115°C 2:52:00
Heater 2 off 118°C 1:13:45
Heater 2 on 114°C 1:29:00 0:15:15
Heater 1 off 115°C 3:16:16 0:35:34
Heater 1 on 107°C 3:51:50
Heater 2 off 118°C 3:28:00
Heater 2 on 115°C 3:37:00 0:09:00
TIME
OFF 1:54:49 0:39:30
TOTAL 2:34:19
Experiment concluded 3:58:00
Total service time 3:58:00
Total time heater set 1 off 1:54:49
Wattage saved in heater 1 11.4 KW
Total time heater set 2 off 0:39:30
Wattage saved in heater 2 3.93 KW
Wattage requirement for
experiment 79.32 KWH

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 Total wattage consumed in
the experiment 63.99
Price for kwh 10 Rupees
Total cost 639.9 Rupees
Effluent evaporated 1500 Litres
Cost per litre of effluent
evaporated 0.4266 Rupees
Salt generated
Weight of empty jar 44.54 Grams
Weight of jar with solids 218.868 Grams
Weight of solids 174.328 Grams
Equivalent to mg 174328 Mg

Salt Concentration at the

feed 10000 mg/l
Sample 1500 litres
Salt Concentration 15000000 Mg
Salt at the Outlet 174328 Mg
Salt deposit in the drum 14825672 Mg

Cleaning of the Drum

Name of the Rate Concentration Quantity Used (In Amount

Chemical (Rs./Kg) (%) Kgs) (In Rs.)
Nitric Acid 20 70 10 200
Amino 37 50 10 370
Sulphonic Acid
Total 570
Cost Per Litres of Effluent Evaporated 0.38

Manpower Cost
No. of Salary per No. of Shift Cost/liter
Manpower month
1-Labour 18000* 1 0.4
 * The manpower will be required only for 3:58:00 Hours for evaporating 1500
liters of effluent. The overall cost will come down as the effluent quantity
increases.

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Nacl effluent TDS 10000 MG/L
No. of heaters 3 SETS
Heaters in set 4
kW rating for each heater 1.5 KWH
Total kW rating 18 KWH
kW rating for the blower 2 KWH

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 Time to reach 110°c 1:17:00
Time to reach 115°c 2:03:00
Effluent poured 2:03:30
Heaters position
HEATER
Heater 1 off 115°C 2:03:00 1 OFF
Heater 1 on 106°C 2:38:00 0:35:00
Heater 1 off 115°C 3:16:30 0:24:30
Heater 1 on 106°C 3:41:00
TIME OFF 0:59:30
TOTAL 0:59:30
Experiment concluded 4:15:30
Total service time 4:15:30
Total time heater set 1 off 0:59:30
Wattage saved in heater 1 5.9496 KW
Wattage requirement for
experiment 85 KWH
Total wattage consumed in
the experiment 79.0504
Price for kwh 10 RUPEES
Total cost 790.504 RUPEES
Effluent evaporated 1500 LITRES
Cost per litre of effluent
evaporated 0.527003 RUPEES
Salt generated
Weight of empty jar 44.54 GRAMS
Weight of jar with solids 333.975 GRAMS
Weight of solids 289.435 GRAMS
Equivalent to mg 289435 MG
Salt Concentration at the
feed 10000 mg/l
Sample 1500 litres
Salt Concentration 15000000 Mg
Salt at the Outlet 289435 Mg
Salt deposit in the drum 14710565 Mg

Cleaning of the Drum

Name of the Rate Concentration Quantity Used Amount

Chemical (Rs./Kg) (%) (In Kgs) (In Rs.)
Nitric Acid 20 70 10 200
Amino 37 50 10 370
Sulphonic Acid
Total 570
Cost Per Litres of Effluent Evaporated 0.38

Page | 81
 Manpower Cost

No. of Salary per No. of Shift Cost/liter

Manpower month
1-Labour 18000* 1 0.4

 * The manpower will be required only for 4:15:30 Hours for evaporating 1500
liters of effluent. The overall cost will come down as the effluent quantity
increases.

EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Nacl effluent TDS 10000 MG/L

No. of heaters 3 SETS
Heaters in set 4
kW rating for each heater 1.5 KWH
Total kW rating 18 KWH
kW rating for the blower 2 KWH
Time to reach 110°c 1:59:30
Time to reach 115°c 2:10:00
Effluent poured 2:11:00

Heaters position
HEATER
Heater 1 off 115°C 2:10:30 1 OFF
Heater 1 on 106°C 2:31:45 0:21:15
Heater 1 off 115°C 3:13:40 0:32:10
Heater 1 on 106°C 3:45:50
TIME
OFF 0:53:25
TOTAL 0:53:25
Experiment concluded 4:06:20
Total service time 4:06:20
Total time heater set 1 off 0:53:25
Wattage saved in heater 1 5.325 KW
Wattage requirement for
experiment 82 KWH
Total wattage consumed in the
experiment 76.675
Price for kwh 10 RUPEES
Total cost 766.75 RUPEES
Effluent evaporated 1500 LITRES
Cost per litre of effluent
evaporated 0.511167 RUPEES
Salt generated

Page | 82
 Weight of empty jar 44.54 GRAMS
Weight of jar with solids 343.189 GRAMS
Weight of solids 298.649 GRAMS
Equivalent to mg 298649 MG
Salt Concentration at the feed 10000 mg/l
Sample 1500 litres
Salt Concentration 15000000 Mg
Salt at the Outlet 298649 Mg
Salt deposit in the drum 14701351 Mg

Cleaning of the Drum

Name of the Rate Concentration Quantity Used Amount

Chemical (Rs./Kg) (%) (In Kgs) (In Rs.)
Nitric Acid 20 70 10 200
Amino 37 50 10 370
Sulphonic Acid
Total 570
Cost Per Litres of Effluent Evaporated 0.38

Manpower Cost

No. of Salary per No. of Shift Cost/liter

Manpower month
1-Labour 18000* 1 0.4

 * The manpower will be required only for 4:06:20 Hours for evaporating 1500
liters of effluent. The overall cost will come down as the effluent quantity
increases.

Page | 83
Graph 7 depicts the running cost for Low cost evaporator which includes Electricity
consumption, man power, and cleaning in process chemical. The overall is then
divided by 1.5 to provide the operating cost in KL.

Graph 7: Operating Cost for Low Cost Evaporation

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Graph 8 depicts the operating cost for a 1500 liters effluent evaporation, also, salt generated, recovery of salts.

Graph 8: Operating Cost and Recovery for Low Cost Evaporator

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4.6 Capital and Operating Cost Comparison for Conventional and
Low Cost Evaporator

Capital Cost comparison for Conventional Evaporator and Low Cost Evaporator
per KL

Graph 9: Capital cost comparison for Conventional and Low Cost Evaporator

Operating Cost comparison for Conventional Evaporator and Low Cost Evaporator

Graph 10: Operating cost per kl for Conventional and Low Cost Evaporator

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4.7 Photographs of the Low Cost Evaporator during fabrication

Fig 4.4: Heating Chamber for the Evaporator

Fig 4.5: Blower Front View

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Fig 4.6: Blower Side View

Fig 4.7: Heaters

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 Fig 4.8: Top View for Heating Chamber

Fig 4.9: Engineering Drawing for Low Cost Evaporator

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4.8 Limitation of Low Cost Evaporator

1. Low cost evaporator has the limitation for the flow rates. It can only cater to
the flow rates of less than 10 KLD

2. The cleaning time for the calandria is approximately 3-4 hrs every day as it
needs to be disassembled and then cleaned.

3. The air compressor should be maintained for more than 2 kg/cm 2 pressure for
spraying the effluent. If the pressure drops then the back pressure from the
ambient air stops the evaporation rate.

4.9 Application of Low Cost Evaporator

1. All the small electro-plating, tanning industries having the discharge of 30

KLD. This effluent will be treated through the Physio-chemical, Tertiary
treatment, RO with recoveries of 70%. The RO rejects with flow rate of 9
KLD can be fed to the local evaporator for treatment.

2. Micro Scale dyeing units which have the daily discharge of 100 KLD
maximum, the effluent after passing through the physio-chemical, biological
and tertiary treatment, will be good for the treatment through Reverse
Osmosis. The recovery for the RO system can be as high as 90%. Remaining
10% of the reject can be fed to a low cost evaporator which will evaporate
the effluents and we are left with the salt concentration.

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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION:

The proto type evaporator (Low cost evaporator) conclusions are as stated under:

 The capital cost of a low cost evaporator (proto type) is Rs. 193,772/-
compared to the conventional evaporators which runs in millions of Rupees.
 There are no moving parts in the low cost evaporator resulting in less
breakdown.
 The low cost evaporator requires 2:10 Hours for the Start depending on the
ambient air. If the weather is sunny and hot, the start up time is 1:03:05 Hours
and if the weather is cool and cloudy, it takes 2:10 Hours.
 The low cost evaporator requires the ambient air as compared to the steam in
the conventional evaporator systems.
 With minimized automation in the low cost evaporators, the capital cost is
Rs. 193,772/-.
 The low cost evaporator do not require an engineer to operate the plant. The
plant can be operated by a non-technical person.
 The low cost evaporator do not require any pressure of the air induced in the
calandria.
 The concentrate is converted directly to the solids as instead we require an
ATFD or Centrifuge in the conventional evaporator.
 The overall performance for the low cost evaporator is good and can be used
in the small scale industries for meeting the ZLD norms.
 The capital cost comparison for conventional evaporator viz-a-viz low cost
evaporator shown in the chapter 4 suggest that the capital cost for low cost
evaporator is Rs. 0.63 lacs per KL /- as compared to Rs. 3.25 Lacs/ and Rs. 2
Lacs per KL- for a conventional evaporator. The savings of 68 to 80%.
 The operating cost comparison for a conventional evaporator viz-a-viz low
cost evaporator shown in the chapter 4 suggest that for low cost evaporator,
the cost is Rs. 830/- per KL as compared to Rs. 693 and Rs. 460/- per KL for

Page | 91
conventional evaporator. The operating cost is slightly higher as compared to
conventional evaporators. But, the savings in capital cost is enormous.

Page | 92
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(1) R. JugadaohSingh, “SILICON AND BONE HEALTH” J.Nutr Health Aging.
2007 Mar-Apr; 11(2):99-110
(2) ATSDR, “Public Health Statement Strontium CAS#: 7440-24-6” April 2004
(3) Delaware Health and Social Services, Division of Public Health, Frequently
Asked Question.
(4) Shah T. “Innovations in Groundwater Management: Examples from India”.
International Water Management Institute (2011).
(5) www.indiawaterportal.org/articles/colourful-fabric-lead-murky-waters
(6) United Nations. “Success Stories from India: Minimizing Waste by DESIRE.
Report for the special session of the General Assembly, Earth Summit+5, New
York, June (2007): 23-27.
(7) Li Y., et al. “Burden of disease attributed to anthropogenic air pollution in the
United Arab Emirates: Estimates based on observed air quality data”. Science of
the Total Environment 408.23 (2010): 5784-5793.
(8) Midhun M., et al. “Individual Tree Detection from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
(UAV) Derived Canopy Height Model in an Open Canopy Mixed Conifer
Forest”. Forests 8.9 (2017): 340
(9) Kumar R., et al. “Water resources in India”. Current Science 89 (2005): 794-811.
(10) Introduction and Evaporation Classification By Chemical Engineering NPTEL.
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103027/11
(11) www.cpcb.nic.in/effluent-emission/
(12) Rohitashw Kumar and Harender Raj. “Threat and Mitigation of Ground Water
Contamination in India". Acta Scientific Nutritional Health 2.8 (2018): 29-31
(13) Advantages and Disadvantages of Evaporators by A.Kasem
(14) Order bagged by Praj Industries Ltd. Delhi Region in 2012
(15) The actual studies done by M/S EEcon Engineers, Mr. Umakant Maharana. The
plant was set up by the concerned person
(16) Handbook of Evaporation Technology by Paul E. Minton

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