LECTURE 3: SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY AND SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

3.1. SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

A triangle formed by the intersection of three arcs of great circles on the surface of the
celestial sphere is known as spherical triangle. The sum of the angles is not fixed, but will
always be greater than 180°. If any side of the triangle is exactly 90°, the triangle is
called quadrantal.

Properties of spherical triangle

1) Sides are segments of great circles.

2) Any angle or side is less than two right angles or
3) The sum of the three angles is between 180○ and 540○
4) Sum of any two sides is greater than the third
5) The sum of the sides cannot be greater than 360○
6) The smaller angle is opposite the smaller size and vice-versa.

3.2. ASTRONOMICAL TRIANGLE

The spherical triangle formed by arcs of observer's meridian, vertical circle as well as hour
circle through the same celestial body is known as an astronomical triangle. The vertices of
an astronomical triangle are Zenith point (Z), celestial pole (P) and the celestial body (S) and
thus termed as ZPS triangle. In each astronomical triangle, there are six important elements.
Three of them are the three sides and other three are the three angles of the triangle. It is
important to know these elements as some of these will be required to be observed in the field
and others are to be computed to find the position / direction of celestial body.

a) Polar distance (PS): The angular distance from the celestial pole (P) to the celestial
body (S) along the hour circle is known as polar distance. It is also known as co-
declination and is designated by (90°- δ), where δ is the declination of the celestial
body, S.
b) Zenith distance (ZS): The angular distance from observer's zenith (Z) to the celestial
body (S) along the vertical circle is known as zenith distance. It is also known as co-
altitude and is designated by (90°- h), where h is the altitude of the celestial body, S.
 c) Co-latitude, ZP : The angular distance from observer's zenith (Z) to the celestial pole
(P) along the observer's meridian is known as co-latitude and is given by (90°- ϕ),
where ϕ is the latitude of the observer.
d) Angle Z: The angle at the zenith (Z or A) is measured from the observer's meridian to
the vertical circle passing through the celestial body in a plane parallel to the
observer's horizon. It is nothing but the azimuth of the celestial body. It is measured
clockwise from the observer's meridian and its value ranges from zero to 360°.
e) Angle P: The angle at the pole (P) is measured from the observer's meridian to the
hour circle passing through the celestial body in a plane parallel to the equatorial
plane. It is nothing but (360°– H, hour angle of the celestial body). Hour angle is
measured clockwise from the upper branch of the observer's meridian.
f) Angle S: angle at a celestial body between the hour circle and the vertical circle
passing through the celestial body. It is known as the parallactic angle.

If any three of the six elements are known, the remaining three can be computed from
formulae of spherical trigonometry.

3.3. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY RELATIONSHIPS

For the solution of a spherical triangle, four elements, out of the total of six, must be linked in
one of the spherical trigonometry relationships. These four elements may be made up of the
following sets:-
CASE I (a) Three sides and one angle
(b) Three angles and one side.
CASE 2 Two angles and two sides with
 (a) Four cyclically consecutive elements
(b) Two angular elements lying opposite two side elements.

The figure below shows a spherical triangle ZSP. In all there are six quantities in a spherical
triangle, namely, three angles Z, S and P and three sides’ z, s and p.

If any three quantities are known, the remaining three can be computed from different
formulae of the spherical trigonometry given below:

1. Sine formula

----------------------------------------------Eqn. 1
2. Cosine formula
(i) cos z = cos s cos p + sin s sin p cos Z -----------------------Eqn. 2
or

--------------- Eqn. 2a
(ii) cos Z = sin S sin P - cos S cos P ----------------------------Eqn. 3
3. Half the angles formula
(i)

---------------------------------- Eqn. 4
(ii)

------------------------------------Eqn. 5
(iii)

------------------------------Eqn. 6
Where

4. Half the sides Formula

(i)

------------------------------------- Eqn. 7
(ii )

------------------------------Eqn. 8
(iii )

------------------------------- Eqn. 9
where

5. Tangent of angles formulae (Napier’s Analogies for angles)

(i)

------------------------------- Eqn.10a
(ii)

--------------------------------- Eqn.10b

6. Tangent of sides formula

(i)

-------------------------------------Eqn.11a
(ii)

--------------------------------------- Eqn.11b

Example 1: Alderney, in the Channel Islands, has longitude 2°W, latitude 50°N.
Winnipeg, in Canada, has longitude 97°W, latitude 50°N.
How far apart are they, in nautical miles, along a great circle arc?

Using the cosine rule:

cos AW = cos WP cos AP + sin WP sin AP cos P
= cos240° + sin240° cos 95°
= 0.5508
So AW = 56.58°
= 3395 nautical miles
(This is 7% shorter than the route along a parallel of latitude).

If you set off from Alderney on a great-circle route to

Winnipeg,
in what direction (towards what azimuth) would you head?

Using the sine rule:

sin A / sin WP = sin P / sin WA
so sin x = sin 40° sin 95° / sin 56.58° = 0.77
so x = 50.1° or 129.9°.
Common sense says 50.1° (or check using cosine rule to get PW).

Azimuth is measured clockwise from north,

so azimuth is 360° - 50.1° = 309.9°

Example 2: From St. Andrews, at 6 pm on 1998 February 2nd, the Moon appeared at altitude
+39°, azimuth 196°, while Saturn is at altitude +34°, azimuth 210°.
How far apart did the two objects appear?

The difference in azimuth is 14°.

Using the cosine rule:
cos MS = cos MZ cos ZS + sin MZ sin ZS cos Z = 0.98
so MS = 12.3°

Which was further east?

The Moon is further east, and higher up, than Saturn.