***

Definition of Language:

The term language is derived from the Latin word language which means tongue. While the need to
express one’s desires, interests, feelings and emotions is inborn, the ability to communicate with others
through language is learned or acquired. Acquisition of language begins with the initial cries, grunts,
grons, and gasps of the neonate.

With growth of age babbling starts. All these are transformed in to the use of single words, two words
and then to three words sentences and finally into well formed sentences. Words are symbols of reality
and they are used to symbolize concepts and manipulate knowledge concerning reality.

A language ordinarily is an elaborate system of specialized verbal symbol generally accepted and used in
the transmission of meaning. The human child acquires a great amount of reception learning through
language itself.

Language also helps greatly in learning in the transmission of cultures traditions, love, sympathy
attitudes and aspirations of social beings. Mowrer (1954) emphasizing the importance of language has
thus remarked “Language makes it possible for its users to have various experience, to learn through and
from the learning of others and this I see is the essence of education.”

It is through language that cultures and traditions are passed on to the next generation, to the children
and to students. The never ending transmission of culture and heritage from generation to generation is
done basically through language and without language, the cultural stream cannot flow properly.

Bruner (1964) has referred to language as a Cultural technique upon which the phylogenetic and
Ontogentic development of human intelligence depends. Besides Communicating one’s own feeling and
experience with another person other aims of language are to learn to gain knowledge, to fulfill various
needs and above all to relationship with others.

Brownfled, McCarthy and Vincent holds that speech is a type of activity through which man builds his
world, becomes sociable and helps others. Language makes a man polished and by and large, language
helps in the healthy development of personality.

According to Encyclopedia America, Language is a faculty and ability possessed by normal human beings
and by other species of using a spoken and written references to represent mental phenomena or
events. According to Soffettic language refers to “The systematized set of vocal habits by means of which
the members of a human society interact in terms of their culture.”

Sapir (1921) is of view that “language is a purely human method of communication through a system of
voluntarily produced symbols” Ruddell (1974) defines language as a system represented by sound
symbols with conventional meanings hared by members of a linguistic group.” The importance of
language cannot be undermined in the society.

The acquisition of words is essential for abstraction, concept formation, all higher learning, cognitive
growth processes. In simple terms language may be said to be a means of communication through
conventional symbols.

Language has three major dimensions such as:

(1) Content, which refers to the meaning of any written or spoken language.

(2) Form, which is the particular symbol used to represent the Content, the sound the word and the
grammar.

(3) Use-which is referred to the social inter-change or exchange between two people.

Essay # Structure of Language:

The structure of language has three aspects:

(1) Phonemes

(2) Horphems

(3) Syntex.

1. Phonemes:

Phonemes refers to the basic source used in any language. The letters of the alphabets in English
language have 26 Corresponding basic sounds in speech i.e. one letter for each distinguishable speech
sound.

2. Morphems:

When Phonemes are combined into large units, they are called morphemes. Thus, Morphemes are
smallest meaningful spoken units. A morphem is a language unit that cannot be broken down further
without loosing or altering its meaning. A single morphem may consist of any syllable or several
syllables.

3. Syntex:

The rules for combining morpheme (words) into grammatically correct sentences are called syntex.
Syntex is based on linguistic analysis of sentence formation. The ultimate purpose of syntex is to
understand how the meaning of sentences is conveyed by the speaker to the listener.

Each language has its own rules governing the combination of phonemes, permitting some combinations
and prohibiting others. In order to understand any language one has to understand both meaning and
structure.

Essay # Characteristics of Language:

A language has the following characteristics:

1. Language is a human attribute.

2. It is partly acquired, but largely instinctive.

3. It is verbal, symbolic and primarily oral in nature.

4. Language is a systematic and patterned behaviour having definite structure and form. The speaker
cannot indiscriminately change the sequence of words.

5. Language has individual and social significance since it is a primary tool of communication.

6. Language is a system actualized as sounds or phonemes.

7. Language has melody, rhythm, pitch, stress and junctare.

8. The relationship between symbol and meaning is conventional arbitrary, learned and traditional.

9. Language is a open system allowing the speaker to say new utterances that may never have been said
before.

Some features of children’s experience are vital to the learning of the structure of language. These
features are initiation, comprehension and production. The relationship between these three processes
are of major importance than their individual contributions.

1. Initiation:

A child repeats utterances produced by his parents. He imitates the pronunciation of his parents or baby
seater or aaya and readily accepts the speech pattern and pronunciation made by persons in his
immediate environment. Electronic medias like Radio. Television etc. play important role here.

2. Comprehension:

This includes the correct association of meaning with word by symbols, the selection of the correct
meaning suggested by the context, the organisation and retention of meanings, the ability to reason
smaller idea segment and the ability to group the meaning of a larger unitary idea.

3. Production:

It refers to utterances which are of initiation, which are grammatical and internally principled and which
bear some relation to nonlinguistic features of the environment so that they are comprehensible to a
listener. Initiation is found to be easier then comprehension which is again easier than production.

The former two are necessary conditions of the later. While initiation involves a perceptual motor skill
only and hence easiest, comprehension and production both require awareness of meaning. Further
production demands utterances while comprehension simply requires pointing.

***

Characteristics and Features of Language

Language is, today, an inseparable part of human society. Human civilization has been possible only
through language. It is through language only that humanity has come out of the stone age and has
developed science, art and technology in a big way. Language is a means of communication, it is
arbitrary, it is a system of systems. We know that Speech is primary while writing is secondary.
Language is human so it differs from animal communication in several ways. Language can have scores
of characteristics but the following are the most important ones: language is arbitrary, productive,
creative, systematic, vocalic, social, non-instinctive and conventional. These characteristics of language
set human language apart from animal communication. Some of these features may be part of animal
communication; yet they do not form part of it in total.

Language is Arbitrary: Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no inherent relation between the
words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by them. There is no reason why a female
adult human being be called a woman in English, aurat in Urdu, Zen in Persian and Femine in French. The
choice of a word selected to mean a particular thing or idea is purely arbitrary but once a word is
selected for a particular referent, it comes to stay as such. It may be noted that had language not been
arbitrary, there would have been only one language in the world.

Language is Social: Language is a set of conventional communicative signals used by humans for
communication in a community. Language in this sense is a possession of a social group, comprising an
indispensable set of rules which permits its members to relate to each other, to interact with each other,
to co-operate with each other; it is a social institution. Language exists in society; it is a means of
nourishing and developing culture and establishing human relations.

Language is Symbolic: Language consists of various sound symbols and their graphological counterparts
that are employed to denote some objects, occurrences or meaning. These symbols are arbitrarily
chosen and conventionally accepted and employed. Words in a language are not mere signs or figures,
but symbols of meaning. The intelligibility of a language depends on a correct interpretation of these
symbols.

Language is Systematic: Although language is symbolic, yet its symbols are arranged in a particular
system. All languages have their system of arrangements. Every language is a system of systems. All
languages have phonological and grammatical systems, and within a system there are several sub-
systems. For example, within the grammatical system we have morphological and syntactic systems, and
within these two sub-systems we have systems such as those of plural, of mood, of aspect, of tense, etc.

Language is Vocal: Language is primarily made up of vocal sounds only produced by a physiological
articulatory mechanism in the human body. In the beginning, it appeared as vocal sounds only. Writing
came much later, as an intelligent attempt to represent vocal sounds. Writing is only the graphic
representation of the sounds of the language. So the linguists say that speech is primary.

Language is Non-instinctive, Conventional: No language was created in a day out of a mutually agreed
upon formula by a group of humans. Language is the outcome of evolution and convention. Each
generation transmits this convention on to the next. Like all human institutions languages also change
and die, grow and expand. Every language then is a convention in a community. It is non-instinctive
because it is acquired by human beings. No body gets a language in heritage; he acquires it because he
an innate ability.

Language is Productive and Creative: Language has creativity and productivity. The structural elements of
human language can be combined to produce new utterances, which neither the speaker nor his hearers
may ever have made or heard before any, listener, yet which both sides understand without difficulty.
Language changes according to the needs of society.

Finally, language has other characteristics such as Duality referring to the two systems of sound and
meaning, Displacement which means the ability to talk across time and space, Humanness which means
that animals cannot acquire it, Universality which refers to the equilibrium across humanity on linguistic
grounds, Competence and Performance which means that language is innate and produced is society
and furthermore, language is culturally transmitted. It is learnt by an individual from his elders, and is
transmitted from one generation to another. Thus using J. Firth’s term, language is a ‘polysystametic’. It
is also open to be studied from multifaceted angles.

***

3. The properties of language

The physical aspects of human teeth, larynx and so on are not shared by other creatures and may explain
why only the human creature has the capacity for speech. However we did not suggest that the human
was the only creature which was capable of communicating. All creatures are capable of communicating
with other members of their species, nevertheless there are some properties of language that are only
present in humans.

1. Displacement

It allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the inmediate
environment. Animal communication is generally considered to lack this property.

2. Arbitrariness

It is generallly the case that there is no natural connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.
For instance, the sound combination nada carries the meaning of “nothing” in the Spanish language and
also the meaning “thread” in the Hindi language. There is nothing about the word nada itself that forces
Hindi speakers to convey the idea of “thread”, or the idea of “nothing” for Spanish speakers. Recognizing
this general fact about language leads us to conclude that a property of linguistic signs is their arbitrary
relationship with the objects they are used to indicate.

3. Productivity

Also called “creativity or open-endedness” It is an aspect of language which is linked to the fact that the
potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite.

4. Cultural Transmission

Language is not something a person can inherit from his/her parents, you acquire a language in a
culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. A baby born in Japan to Japanese parents
which is adopted and brought up from birth by english speakers in the United States will inevitably speak
english.

5. Discreteness

The sounds used in language are meaninfully distinct. The fact that the pronunciation of the forms back
and back leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the “p” and “b”
sounds in english. Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.

6. Duality

Language is organized at two level or layers simultaneously. In terms of speech production, we have the
physical level of which we can produce individual sounds like “n”, “b” and “i”.
It is obvious that, although may be able to produce woof, it does not seem to be a feature of the canine
repertoire that the “w”, “oo” and “f” elements can be separated out as a distinct level of production. If
your dog could operate with the double level “i.e duality”, then you might expect to hear oowf and even
foow, each with different meanings.

***

What are the properties of language?

In form and function, language varies widely across space and throughout time. That being said, six key
properties of language have been described by linguists. These six features are arbitrariness, cultural
transmission, discreteness, displacement, duality, and productivity.

Arbitrariness of language is the fact that the symbols we use to communicate meaning to not have any
natural form or meaning in and of themselves. For example, all of the words you are reading right now
do not have a natural essence to them, but we have assigned these words to their particular meanings.
The word table is not a table itself; rather, it is a word we have agreed means or signals for the idea of a
table. Onomatopoeia differ somewhat in their arbitrariness, because these are words which replicate the
sounds they describe. The word "plop" is intended to replicate the sound plop.

Language is both acquired by and continues the process of cultural transmission. Humans are not born
with an innate understanding of communication in the way that birds or lions are. We must learn, along
with other elements of culture, how to communicate with others using language.

Discreteness in language describes the fact that human language is composed of sets of distinct sounds.
One sound on its own may convey one meaning, multiple sounds combined in a particular order convey
a different meaning. Even repeated sounds have a particular meaning!

Displacement of language refers to the ability of human language to communicate throughout time and
across space. In animals, language is primarily an exchange between stimulus and response — the
meaning conveyed by animal language only works in context. When a dog barks, it is in response to
whatever prompted the barking, and that bark can't really be used to express its meaning before or after
the event. In human language, however, we are able to talk about things that happened a long time ago
or have not yet happened. We might even read books produced hundreds of years ago and be able to
make sense of them.

Duality describes the human ability to produce language in multiple forms. We can both write the word
table and say it out loud, with both evoking the same idea of a table.

Productivity is a feature of human language which enables us to combine symbols (words, sounds,
phrases) in new ways to express particular ideas. In my studies of the evolution of language, I heard an
example that I think really expresses the nature of productivity. The form of language for our closest
evolutionary cousin, the chimpanzee, is very fixed. Only one meaning can be conveyed at a time and it is
in response to stimuli. If a chimpanzee were to come across a very tasty-looking bunch of bananas that
were unfortunately on fire, instinct would determine how the chimp would call to its troop. The
chimpanzee would either have to produce the call which implies food is available for eating, or the call to
warn others of danger. The chimp might be able to create the "food" call immediately before or after the
"danger" call, but they cannot combine them to express the idea that food is on fire. If we, as humans,
came across the same flaming bunch of bananas, we would be using productive language in telling our
friends that there are some flaming but otherwise tasty-looking bananas nearby.
***

10 Misconceptions About Language Learning

What’s holding you back from learning a language? If it’s any one of these 10 misconceptions about
language learning, you might want to reconsider.

Many people want to learn a new language but think that they will never be able to due to these 10
pervasive, but not completely accurate beliefs. Let’s dive in and take a look at how with time, effort, and
the right resources — anyone can learn a language!

1. Only children can become fully bilingual

While there is indeed a clear advantage to starting earlier, adult language learners can become native-
like speakers of their target language too. Recent research indicates that many learners who started after
the age of 20 performed just as well as those who began their learning as children. So, it’s never too late!

2. The younger the child, the more skilled they will be in acquiring a new language

Research has found that older children are better language learners in a school setting, but younger
children may have an advantage in learning correct pronunciation. In fact, MIT scientists found that the
language-learning advantage extends all the way up to age 18, which is later in life than previously
thought.

3. We all learn a new language in the same way

Different learning preferences and cultural communication methods have an impact on language
learning, just as they do on other types of learning. What’s important is that you find out what works for
you.

4. English speakers don’t need to learn a language, because English is the lingua franca

The idea that English is the language of business and international communications is common,
especially among English-speaking countries. While English is certainly spoken as a second (or third, or
fourth) language by many people, the idea that everyone speaks English is false, and could give countries
like the United States a social and economic disadvantage in our increasingly globalized, competitive
economy. Learning another language will give you a unique set of skills that will not only boost your job
opportunities, but change your life in other areas as well.

5. If you took a language in high school, you’re all set

According to a recent survey, the typical American language-learning experience in middle school or high
school classrooms does not produce multilingual students. So, depending on where you are from (the
European education system produces a much higher percentage of multilinguals), continuing your world
language education after graduation is a must in order to reap the benefits of multilingualism.

6. Language learning is too difficult

While language learning certainly takes time and effort, it’s also true that some languages are easier to
learn than others! It all depends on two conditions: your native language and your level of commitment.
Linguists believe that finding a language as close to your native tongue as possible can make language
learning easier. In addition to this, setting clear goals, consistent practice, and staying motivated are all
things that can propel you forward towards language-learning success.

7. You have to have a gift for learning languages in order to succeed

While we all have different talents, the great thing about language learning is that anyone who wants to
learn, can learn. Just take Luxembourg for example. Over 50 percent of the adult population reported
that they can speak three or more languages — they can’t just all be gifted at languages, right? When it
comes to learning, it’s about attitude over aptitude, and of course, perseverance.

8. You have to live where the language is spoken

Thanks to the internet, language content is available to anyone with a computer, tablet, or phone. Where
you live is not an obstacle — you simply have to find the right resources.

9. To learn a language, you need formal classroom instruction

Theoretical grammatical explanations can be difficult to understand, even harder to remember, and
challenging to put into use, but learning at your own pace (with a resource made by native speakers and
language instructors that provides both grammar and cultural explanations) can help guide you toward a
better understanding of new concepts and cultures.

10. You don’t have the time to learn a language

With Bluetooth capabilities, downloadable lessons, and hands-free learning options, you can adapt your
study time to your own personal schedule using Mango's mobile app. Start off with just a few minutes a
day, and before you know it, you’ll have hours of study time under your belt. If you believe you will
achieve significant results, and if you enjoy doing it, you will find the time!

**

What Are the Different Functions of Language

When we speak of language functions, we're referring to the purpose of the speaker or sender who is
using the language. The objectives and purposes of the person who is speaking will determine the
dominant function. There are six existing ones and, depending on the function, a particular type of
specific language will be used. Therefore, at OneHowTo we'll explain in detail what the different
functions of language are.

Referential function

One of the main functions of language is informative, which in turn is also known as explanatory,
representative or referential . This type of language is used to convey information in an objective way. It
is one of the most obvious language functions in the majority of texts.

For example: Unemployment levels are down 5% this month.

What Are the Different Functions of Language - Referential function

Expressive function
In those cases where we use language to express feelings, emotions, moods, desires, etc. the function
we encounter is expressive or emotive. This is directly linked to the subjectivity of the speaker or sender.

For example: Today I feel better than ever.

What Are the Different Functions of Language - Expressive function

Directive function

If the sender wishes to draw the attention of the recipient and/or provoke a reaction from them, they
will use the directive or appellate language function. The function is often a command or question so
generally imperatives and interrogative modes are used.

For example: Take this book to Mary and tell her thank you.

What Are the Different Functions of Language - Directive function

Phatic function

Known as phatic or contact this function is used to start, stop or end a conversation, as well as to check
for contact between sender and receiver. Good examples are the formulas used to greet or say goodbye.

For example: Hello, can you hear me okay?

What Are the Different Functions of Language - Phatic function

Poetic function

Another function of language is poetic or aesthetic, used to focus on the message itself, embellishing it
with rhetorical features or figures of speech to highlight its beauty. We mainly find them in literary texts
but they may also be in more everyday texts, such as in the case of sayings and quotes.

For example: It is better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.

Metalinguistic function

The last function of language is: metalinguistic. This is used to talk about language itself. Definitions of
words or clarifications regarding language are an example.

For example: Language: the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of
the use of words in a structured and conventional way.

***

Roman Jakobson defined six functions of language (or communication functions), according to which an
effective act of verbal communication can be described.[2] Each of the functions has an associated
factor. For this work, Jakobson was influenced by Karl Bühler's organon model, to which he added the
poetic, phatic and metalingual functions.

The six functions of language Edit

The referential function: corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or mental
state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and
deictic words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen now." Similarly, the referential function is
associated with an element whose true value is under questioning especially when the truth value is
identical in both the real and assumptive universe.[3]

The poetic function: focuses on "the message for its own sake"[4] (the code itself, and how it is used)
and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.

The emotive[5] function: relates to the Addresser (sender) and is best exemplified by interjections and
other sound changes that do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information
about the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e.g. "Wow, what a view!"

The conative function: engages the Addressee (receiver) directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and
imperatives, e.g. "Tom! Come inside and eat!"

The phatic function: is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the
Contact/Channel factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the
weather, particularly with strangers. It also provides the keys to open, maintain, verify or close the
communication channel: "Hello?", "Ok?", "Hummm", "Bye"...

The metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive") function: is the use of language
(what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe itself.

***

Components of Communication

We know that communication is a process of transmitting and receiving messages (verbal and non-
verbal). Communication is a dialogue not a monologue. So, a communication is said to be effective only if
it brings the desired response from the receiver.

Communication consists of six components or elements.

Components of Communication

Context

Sender/Encoder

Message

Medium

Receiver/Decoder

Feedback

Context
Every message (Oral or written), begins with context. Context is a very broad field that consists different
aspects. One aspect is country, culture and organization. Every organization, culture and country
communicate information in their own way.

Another aspect of context is external stimulus. The sources of external stimulus includes; meeting, letter,
memo, telephone call, fax, note, email and even a casual conversation. This external stimuli motivates
you to respond and this response may be oral or written.

Internal stimuli is another aspect of communication. Internal Stimuli includes; You opinion, attitude,
likes, dis-likes, emotions, experience, education and confidence. These all have multifaceted influence on
the way you communicate you ideas.

A sender can communicate his ideas effectively by considering all aspects of context mentioned above.

Sender/Encoder

Encoder is the person who sends message. In oral communication the encoder is speaker, and in written
communication writer is the encoder. An encoder uses combination of symbols, words, graphs and
pictures understandable by the receiver, to best convey his message in order to achieve his desired
response.

Message

Message is the information that is exchanged between sender and receiver. The first task is to decide
what you want to communicate and what would be the content of your message; what are the main
points of your message and what other information to include. The central idea of the message must be
clear. While writing the message, encoder should keep in mind all aspects of context and the receiver
(How he will interpret the message).

Messages can be intentional and unintentional.

Medium

Medium is the channel through which encoder will communicate his message. How the message gets
there. Your medium to send a message, may be print, electronic, or sound. Medium may be a person as
postman. The choice of medium totally depends on the nature of you message and contextual factors
discussed above. Choice of medium is also influence by the relationship between the sender and
receiver.

The oral medium, to convey your message, is effective when your message is urgent, personal or when
immediate feedback is desired. While, when your message is ling, technical and needs to be
documented, then written medium should be preferred that is formal in nature. These guidelines may
change while communicating internationally where complex situations are dealt orally and
communicated in writing later on.

Receiver/Decoder

The person to whom the message is being sent is called ‘receiver’/’decoder’. Receiver may be a listener
or a reader depending on the choice of medium by sender to transmit the message. Receiver is also
influenced by the context, internal and external stimuli.
Receiver is the person who interprets the message, so higher the chances are of mis-communication
because of receivers perception, opinion, attitude and personality. There will be minor deviation in
transmitting the exact idea only if your receiver is educated and have communication skills.

Feedback

Response or reaction of the receiver, to a message, is called ‘feedback’. Feedback may be written or oral
message, an action or simply, silence may also be a feedback to a message.

Feedback is the most important component of communication in business. Communication is said to be

effective only when it receives some feedback. Feedback, actually, completes the loop of
communication.