DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

1. What Is Overlap-save Method?

Ans: In this method the data sequence is divided into N point sections xi(n).Each section
contains the last M-1 data points of the previous section followed by L new data points
to form a data sequence of length N=L+M-1.In circular convolution of xi(n) with h(n) the
first M-1 points will not agree with the linear convolution of xi(n) and h(n) because of
aliasing, the remaining points will agree with linear convolution. Hence we discard the
first (M-1) points of filtered section xi(n) N h(n). This process is repeated for all sections
and the filtered sections are abutted together.

2. Why Fft Is Needed?

Ans: The direct evaluation DFT requires N2 complex multiplications and N2 –N complex
additions. Thus for large values of N direct evaluation of the DFT is difficult. By using FFT
algorithm the number of complex computations can be reduced. So we use FFT.

3. What Is Fft?

Ans: The Fast Fourier Transform is an algorithm used to compute the DFT. It makes use of
the symmetry and periodicity properties of twiddle factor to effectively reduce the DFT
computation time.It is based on the fundamental principle of decomposing the
computation of DFT of a sequence of length N into successively smaller DFTs.

4. How Many Multiplications And Additions Are Required To Compute N Point Dft Using
Radix-2 Fft?

Ans: The number of multiplications and additions required to compute N point DFT using
radix-2 FFT are N log2 N and N/2 log2 N respectively,.

5. What Is Meant By Radix-2 Fft?

Ans: The FFT algorithm is most efficient in calculating N point DFT. If the number of
output points N can be expressed as a power of 2 that is N=2M, where M is an integer,
then this algorithm is known as radix-2 algorithm.

6. What Is Dit Algorithm?

Ans: Decimation-In-Time algorithm is used to calculate the DFT of a N point sequence.
The idea is to break the N point sequence into two sequences, the DFTs of which can be
combined to give the DFt of the

original N point sequence.This algorithm is called DIT because the sequence x(n) is often
splitted into smaller sub- sequences.

7. What Dif Algorithm?

Ans: It is a popular form of the FFT algorithm. In this the output sequence X(k) is divided
into smaller and smaller sub-sequences , that is why the name Decimation In Frequency.

8. What Are The Applications Of Fft Algorithm?

Ans:

The applications of FFT algorithm inclludes:

Linear filtering

Correlation

Spectrum analysis

9. Why The Computations In Fft Algorithm Is Said To Be In Place?

Ans: Once the butterfly operation is performed on a pair of complex numbers (a,b) to
produce (A,B), there is no need to save the input pair. We can store the result (A,B) in
the same locations as (a,b). Since the same storage locations are used troughout the
computation we say that the computations are done in place.

10. Distinguish Between Linear Convolution And Circular Convolution Of Two

Sequences?

Ans:

Linear convolution:

If x(n) is a sequence of L number of samples and h(n) with M number of samples, after
convolution y(n) will have N=L+M-1 samples.

It can be used to find the response of a linear filter.

Zero padding is not necessary to find the response of a linear filter.

Circular convolution:

If x(n) is a sequence of L number of samples and h(n) with M samples, after convolution
y(n) will have N=max(L,M) samples.

It cannot be used to find the response of a filter.

11.Zero padding is necessary to find the response of a filter.. What Are Differences
Between Overlap-save And Overlap-add Methods?

Ans: Overlap-save method:

In this method the size of the input data block is N=L+M-1. Each data block consists of
the last M-1 data points of the previous data block followed by L new data points In each
output block M-1 points are corrupted due to aliasing as circular convolution is
employed To form the output sequence the firstM-1 data points are discarded in each
output block and the remaining data are fitted together

Overlap-add method:

In this method the size of the input data block is L. Each data block is L points and we
append M-1 zeros to compute N point DFT.In this no corruption due to aliasing as linear
convolution is performed using circular convolution.

12.What Are The Differences And Similarities Between Dif And Dit Algorithms? To form
the output sequence the last M-1 points from each output block is added to the first M-
1 points of the succeeding block

Ans: Differences:

The input is bit reversed while the output is in natural order for DIT, whereas for DIF the
output 31is bit reversed while the input is in natural order.

The DIF butterfly is slightly different from the DIT butterfly, the difference being that the
complex multiplication takes place after the add-subtract operation in DIF.

Similarities:

Both algorithms require same number of operations to compute the DFT.Both

algorithms can be done in place and both need to perform bit reversal at some place
during the computation.

13. What Are The Different Types Of Filters Based On Impulse Response?
Ans: Based on impulse response the filters are of two types:

IIR filter

FIR filter

The IIR filters are of recursive type, whereby the present output sample depends on the
present input, past input samples and output samples.

The FIR filters are of non recursive type, whereby the present output sample depends on
the present input sample and previous input samples.

14. What Are The Different Types Of Filters Based On Frequency Response?

Ans: Based on frequency response the filters can be classified as:

Lowpass filter

Highpass filter

Bandpass filter

Bandreject filter

15. Distinguish Between Fir Filters And Iir Filters?

Ans: FIR filter:

IR filter

These filters can be easily designed to have perfectly linear phase.

FIR filters can be realized recursively and non-recursively.

Greater flexibility to control the shape of their magnitude response.

Errors due to round off noise are less severe in FIR filters, mainly because feedback is not
used.

IIR filter:

These filters do not have linear phase.

IIR filters are easily realized recursively.

Less flexibility, usually limited to specific kind of filters.

The round off noise in IIR filters is more.

16. What Are The Design Techniques Of Designing Fir Filters?

Ans: There are three well known methods for designing FIR filters with linear phase
.They are (1.)Window method (2.)Frequency sampling method (3.)Optimal or minimax
design.

17. What Is Gibb’s Phenomenon?

Ans: One possible way of finding an FIR filter that approximates H(ejw) would be to
truncate the infinite Fourier series at n=±(N-1/2).Direct truncation of the series will lead
to fixed percentage overshoots and undershoots before and after an approximated
discontinuity in the frequency response.

18. What Are The Desirable Characteristics Of The Window Function?

Ans: The desirable characteristics of the window are:

The central lobe of the frequency response of the window should contain most of the
energy and should be narrow.

The highest side lobe level of the frequency response should be small.

The side lobes of the frequency response should decrease in energy rapidly as ω tends
to п.

19. How many types of windows?

Ans: Rectangular window

Hamming window

Hanning window

Bartlett window

Kaiser window

20. What Is The Necessary And Sufficient Condition For Linear Phase Characteristic In Fir
Filter?

Ans: The necessary and sufficient condition for linear phase characteristic in FIR filter is,
the impulse response h(n) of the system should have the symmetry property i.e.,
H(n) = h(N-1-n)

where N is the duration of the sequence.

21. What Are The Advantages Of Kaiser Window?

Ans: It provides flexibility for the designer to select the side lobe level and N

It has the attractive property that the side lobe level can be varied continuously from the
low value in the Blackman window to the high value in the rectangular window

22. What Is The Principle Of Designing Fir Filter Using Frequency Sampling Method?

Ans: In frequency sampling method the desired magnitude response is sampled and a
linear phase response is specified .The samples of desired frequency response are
identified as DFT coefficients. The filter coefficients are then determined as the IDFT of
this set of samples.

23. For What Type Of Filters Frequency Sampling Method Is Suitable?

Ans: Frequency sampling method is attractive for narrow band frequency selective filters
where only a few of the samples of the frequency response are non zero.

24. When Cascade Form Realization Is Preferred In Fir Filters?

Ans: The cascade form realization is preferred when complex zeros with absolute
magnitude is less than one.

25. State The Structure Of IIR Filter?

Ans: IIR filters are of recursive type whereby the present o/p sample depends on present
i/p, past i/p samples and o/p samples. The design of IIR filter is realizable and stable.

The impulse response h(n) for a realizable filter is

h(n)=0 for n≤0

26. State The Advantage Of Direct Form ΙΙ Structure Over Direct Form Ι Structure.?

Ans:In direct form ΙΙ structure, the number of memory locations required is less than
that of direct form Ι structure.

27. How One Can Design Digital Filters From Analog Filters?

Ans:Map the desired digital filter specifications into those for an equivalent analog filter.
Derive the analog transfer function for the analog prototype.

Transform the transfer function of the analog prototype into an equivalent digital filter
transfer function.

28. Mention The Procedures For Digitizing The Transfer Function Of An Analog Filter.?

Ans:

The two important procedures for digitizing the transfer function of an analog filter are:

Impulse invariance method.

Bilinear transformation method.

29. What Do You Understand By Backward Difference?

Ans: One of the simplest method for converting an analog filter into a digital filter is to
approximate the differential equation by an equivalent difference equation.

d/dt y(t)=y(nT)-y(nT-T)/T

The above equation is called backward difference equation.

30. What Is Meant By Impulse Invariant Method Of Designing Iir Filter?

Ans: In this method of digitizing an analog filter, the impulse response of resulting digital
filter is a sampled version of the impulse response of the analog filter.The transfer
function of analog filter in partial fraction form.

31. What Are The Properties Of Bilinear Transformation?

Ans :The mapping for the bilinear transformation is a one-to-one mapping that is for
every point Z, there is exactly one corresponding point S, and vice-versa.

The j Ω-axis maps on to the unit circle |z|=1,the left half of the s-plane maps to the
interior of the unit circle |z|=1 and the half of the s-plane maps on to the exterior of the
unit circle |z|=1.

is .unlikelyOverflow

32. Define Discrete Time Signal?

Ans: A discrete time signal x (n) is a function of an independent variable that is an

integer. a discrete time signal is not defined at instant between two successive samples.
33. Define Discrete Time System?

Ans: A discrete or an algorithm that performs some prescribed operation on a discrete

time signal is called discrete time system.

34. What Are The Elementary Discrete Time Signals?

Ans:Unit sample sequence (unit impulse)

δ (n)= {1 n=0

0 Otherwise

Unit step signal

U (n) ={ 1 n>=0

0 Otherwise

Unit ramp signal

Ur(n)={n for n>=0

0 Otherwise

Exponential signal

x (n)=an where a is real

x(n)-Real signal

35. State The Classification Of Discrete Time Signals?

Ans: The types of discrete time signals are:

Energy and power signals

Periodic and Aperiodic signals

Symmetric(even) and Antisymmetric (odd) signals

36. Define Periodic And Aperiodic Signal?

Ans: A signal x (n) is periodic in period N, if x (n+N) =x (n) for all n. If a signal does not
satisfy this equation, the signal is called aperiodic signal.

37. Define Symmetric And Antisymmetric Signal?

Ans: A real value signal x (n) is called symmetric (even) if x (-n) =x (n). On the other
hand the signal is called antisymmetric (odd) if x (-n) =x (n).

38. State The Classification Of Systems?

Ans:

Static and dynamic system.

Time invariant and time variant system.

Causal and anticausal system.

Linear and Non-linear system.

Stable and Unstable system.

39. Define Dynamic And Static System?

Ans: A discrete time system is called static or memory less if its output at any instant n
depends almost on the input sample at the same time but not on past and future
samples of the input.

e.g. y(n) =a x (n)

In anyother case the system is said to be dynamic and to have memory.

e.g. (n) =x (n)+3 x(n-1)

40. Define Time Variant And Time Invariant System?

Ans: A system is called time invariant if its output , input characteristics dos not change
with time.

e.g.y(n)=x(n)+x(n-1)

A system is called time variant if its input, output characteristics changes with time.

E.g.y(n)=x(-n).

41. Define Stable And Unable System?

Ans: A system is said to be stable if we get bounded output for bounded input.

42. Define Region Of Convergence?

Ans: The region of convergence (ROC) of X(Z) the set of all values of Z for which X(Z)
attain final value.

43. State Properties Of Roc.?

Ans:The ROC does not contain any poles.

When x(n) is of finite duration then ROC is entire Z-plane except Z=0 or Z=∞.

If X(Z) is causal,then ROC includes Z=∞.

If X(Z) is anticasual,then ROC includes Z=0.

44. State The Methods For Evaluating Inverse Z-transform.?

Ans:Direct valuation by contour integration.

Expansion into series of terms in the variable Z and Z-1.

Partial fraction expansion and look up table.

45. State The Properties Of Dft?

Ans:

Periodicity

Linearity and symmetry

Multiplication of two DFTs

Circular convolution

Time reversal

Circular time shift and frequency shift

Complex conjugate

Circular correlation

46. How To Obtain The Output Sequence Of Linear Convolution Through Circular
Convolution?

Ans: Consider two finite duration sequences x(n) and h(n) of duration L samples and M
samples. The linear convolution of these two sequences produces an output sequence of
duration L+M-1 samples, whereas , the circular convolution of x(n) and h(n) give N
samples where N=max(L,M).In order to obtain the number of samples in circular
convolution equal to L+M-1, both x(n) and h(n) must be appended with appropriate
number of zero valued samples. In other words by increasing the length of the
sequences x(n) and h(n) to L+M-1 points and then circularly convolving the resulting
sequences we obtain the same result as that of linear convolution.

47. What Is Zero Padding?what Are Its Uses?

Ans: Let the sequence x(n) has a length L. If we want to find the N-point DFT(N>L) of
the sequence x(n), we have to add (N-L) zeros to the sequence x(n). This is known as
zero padding.

The uses of zero padding are:

We can get better display of the frequency spectrum.

With zero padding the DFT can be used in linear filtering.

48. Define Sectional Convolution?

Ans: If the data sequence x(n) is of long duration it is very difficult to obtain the output
sequence y(n) due to limited memory of a digital computer. Therefore, the data
sequence is divided up into smaller sections. These sections are processed separately
one at a time and controlled later to get the output.

49. What Are The Two Methods Used For The Sectional Convolution?

Ans:The two methods used for the sectional convolution are:

The overlap-add method and

Overlap-save method.

50. What Is Overlap-add Method?

Ans : In this method the size of the input data block xi(n) is L. To each data block we
append M-1 zeros and perform N point circular convolution of xi(n) and h(n). Since each
data block is terminated with M-1 zeros the last M-1 points from each output block must
be overlapped and added to first M-1 points of the succeeding blocks.This method is
called overlap-add method.
 MICROPROCESSORS AND MICROCONTROLLERS

1.Explain ADD Instruction.

Ans. ADD Instruction is used to add an immediate data or contents of a source to the
contents

of destination.

2.Define peripheral.
Ans. A device, which is used to place the information into or get the information out of

computer is referred as peripheral.

3.what are interrupts?

Ans: hardware interrupts

Software interrupts

4.what are the different logical instructions of 8086 microprocessor.

Ans: Logical instructions of 8086: the logical instructions of 8086 include AND, OR, XOR,
NOT,

TEST, SHL/SAL,SHR,SAR,ROR,ROL,RCR and RCL.

5.Define maskable

Ans: if an interrupt can be turned off by the programmer, then it is called maskable
interrupt.

6.Define Non-maskable

Ans: if an interrupt can never be turned off, then it is called non-maskable interrupt.

7.Explain memory mapping techniques in 8086

Ans: Basically, there are three mapping techniques which are of primary focus. These
include,

Direct mapping

Associative mapping

Set associative mapping technique.

8.What is bus cycle

Ans: Bus cycle: The cycle or time required by the processor to perform one read or write

transaction among the CPU and the external memory is referred as bus cycle.

9.what is an interrupt.

Ans: interrupt: In microprocessor, interrupts are the signals that break the current
execution of
instructions and transfer the control to a special program called interrupt service routine

(ISR).Thus,after the execution of ISR, the control is returned back to the main program
which

was being halted.

10.List various registers of the bus interface unit of 8086

Ans: The various registers of bus interface unit of 8086 processor are,

Queue(to store 6-byte instructions)

Code segment register (CS)

Data segment register(DS)

Extra segment register(ES)

Stack segment register(SS)

Instruction .

11.What are different types of peripherals?

Ans. 1.Internal peripheral

2.External peripheral.

12.Define interfacing.

Ans. The interconnection of the peripheral devices, Memory with in a microcomputer

system is

called Interfacing.

13.State the principles of Interfacing with peripherals.

Ans. The different principles (or) methods of Interfacing with peripherals or

Input/Output (I/O)

devices are,1.I/O Mapped 2.Memory Mapped.

14.state the features of USART (8251).

Ans. The important features of 8251 are,

 1.It has built in baud rate generator.

2.Support for full duplex transmission and reception.

3.It is available in extended and standard temperature ranger.

15.List the different modes of operation of 8086.

Ans.1.Maximum mode

2.Minimum mode.

16.List the different modes of operation of 8255.

Ans.1.Bit Set/Reset (BSR)mode.

2.I/O mode.

17.What is system clock?

Ans. System clock (CLK) is generated by a clock generator 8284.

18.What is peripheral clock?

Ans. Peripheral clock (PCLK) is generated by a clock generator 8284 by passing the CLK

signalthrough a divide by 2 counters.

19.What are the different types of serial data transfer?

Ans .There are two types of serial data transfer They are,

1.Synchronous serial data transmission

2.Asynchronous serial data transmission.

20.Define Synchronous transmission.

Ans. If operating clock frequency of transmitter and receiver is exactlysame,then it is

called

Synchronous serial data transfer.

21.Define Asynchronous transmission.

Ans. In this type of data transfer, there is slight difference in the frequency of transmitter
and receiver which can be adjusted by using stop bits after each character is transferred.
22.Define microprocessor?

Ans. It is a digital electronic component with miniaturized transistors on a single

semiconductor

Integrated circuit. It contains a CPU,which includes ALU ,register arrays and control
circuits.

23.Define microcontroller?

Ans. A highly integrated chip that contains all the components comprising a controller.
Typically, this includes a CPU , RAM ,some form of ROM,I/O ports and timers.

24.List the general registers of 8086.

Ans. The 8086 microprocessor has four 16-bit general purpose registers.They are as
follows,

1.AX register

2.BX register

3.CX register

4.DX register.

25.write the advantages of segmentation in a microprocessor environment.

Ans. 1.Non overlapped segmentation

2.overlapped segmentation.

26.State any three assembler directives.

Ans. 1.Define Byte(DB).

2.ASSUME.

3.END.

27.what are the arithmetic instructions of 8086?

Ans. 1.ADD .

2.ADC

3.INC
 4.DEC

5.SUB

6.SBB.

28.Explain XCHG Instruction.

Ans.XCHG Instruction stands for Exchange.The ECHG Instruction Exchanges the contents
of data

between source and destination registers.

29.Explain LEA Instruction.

Ans. LEA Instruction stands for LOAD EFFECTIVE ADDRESS. The Instruction transfers the

effective address of source to destination register.

30.Explain CMP Instruction.

Ans.CMP Instruction is used to compare the source operand with a destination operand.

31.Explain about the three errors in Asynchronous data transmission.

Ans.1.Overflow/Overrun error.

2.Framing error.

3.Parity error.

32.What is call Instruction in 8051?

Ans. Call Instruction is a control transfer Instruction, which is used to call a subroutine.

33.What are the types of call Instruction?

A ns.1.Long call Instruction

2.Absolute call Instruction.

34.What is PCON

Ans. PCON (Power control, Addresses 87H)

The power control SFR is used to control the 8051’s power control modes

Certain operation modes of the 8051 allow the 8051 to go into a type of
“sleep” mode which requires much less power. These modes of operation

Are controlled through PCON.

35.What is TMOD?

Ans : (Timer Mode Control (TMOD) :

Both timers 0 and 1 use the same TMOD register which is an 8-bit register where the

lower 4-bits are set a side for timer 0 and the upper 4-bits are set a side for timer1. In
that case,

the lower 2-bits are used to indicate the timermode and upper 2-bits specify the
operation.

36.What is SCON?

Ans. SCON(Serial Controlregister) is an 8-bit register used to program the start bit, stop
bit and

data bits of data framing.These register is used to specify the mode in which the serial
port is to

work.

37.Define TCON.

Ans. TCON ( Timer Control register): This is an 8-bit register. Figure below shows the bit

assignments for TCON register. The upper 4-bits are used to store the TF andTR bits of
both

timer 0 and timer 1 and lower 4-bits are used for controlling interrupt bits.

38.List the different operating modes of serial ports of 8051.

Ans. The four modes of operation of serial ports are,

(a).Mode 0 (b).Mode 1

(c).Mode 2. (d).Mode 3.

39.Explain programming of external hardware interrupts.

Ans. The 8051two external hardware Interrupt pins. Pin 13(P3.3)of the 8051 , designated
as INT0 and INT 1 which are used as external hardware Interrupts.

40.List the features of programmable peripheral Interface (8255).

Ans. 1. It consists of three8-bit I/O ports.i.e., Port- A ,Port-B,port-C.

2.It is TTL compatible.

3.Higher DC driving capability.

41.What is the format of IP register in 8051?

Ans. IP ( Interrupt priority register) :is an 8-bit register. It is a bit addressable special
function register, whose address is 0 x B8H.

42.What is the format of IE register in 8051?

Ans. IE (interrupt enable register) :Is a bit addressable register,whose SFR address is O x
A8

43.What are the arithmetic instructions of 8051?

Ans. 1.INC destination instruction

2.DEC destination instruction.

3.ADD/ADDC destinationsource

4.SUBB destination, source

5.MULAB

6.DIV AB

44.What are logical instructions of 8051?

Ans. 1.ANL (AND Logic)

2.CPL (compliment)

3.CLR (clear)

4.Mov

5.ORL (OR logic)

6.SetB(Set bit)
45.What are the data manipulation instructions of 8051?

Ans. 1.CLR

2.CPL

3.RR (Rotate Right)

4.RRC ( Rotate Right with carry)

5.RL ( Rotate Left)

6.RLC ( Rotate Let with carry)

7.SWAP

46.What are different addressing modes in 8051?

Ans. 1.Immediate addressing mode

2.Register Addressing mode

3.Direct Addressing mode

4.Register indirect Addressing mode

5.Indexed Addressing mode.

47.List the memory organization of 8051 microcontroller.

Ans. 1.Program memory

2.Data memory.

48.List the different types of Program memory in 8051.

Ans. 1.External Program memory

2. Internal Program memory.

49.List the different types of data memory in 8051.

Ans. 1.External data memory

2. Internal data memory.

50.What are the JUMP Instructions Supported by 8051?

Ans. 1.Unconditional Jump Instruction

2. Conditional Jump Instruction.

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS

1.what are the main components needed for a communication?

Ans: sender, transmission line and receiver.

2. what is Radio communication?

Ans: Radio communication uses electrical energy to transmit information.Radio

transmitter

converts audio signals to electrical signals that are sent over wires or through
space.Radio

receiver converts the electromagnetic waves so that the information can be found out.

3. Range of Audio Frequency?

Ans :20Hz to 20KHz.

4. Range of Radio Frequency?

Ans: 10KHz to 1000GHz.

5. what is modulation?
Ans: Modulation is the process of changing the characteristics of the carrier signal with
respect

to that of the message signals.

6. what are the principle forms of modulation?

Ans: Amplitude modulation(AM)

Frequency modulation(FM)

Phase Modulation(PM)

7. what are the types of angle modulations?

Ans: FM and AM.

8. what is a mixer?

Ans: An electronic circuit that combines two frequencies

9. what is a product detector?

Ans: It is a detector whose audio frequency output is equal to the product of the beat

frequency oscillator (BFO) and the RF input signal

10. what is a beat frequency oscillator(BFO)?

Ans: An oscillator whose output frequency is approximately equal to the transmitters

carrier frequency.

11. what is known as band width?

Ans: Bandwidth is the frequency range,is hertz(HZ), between the upper and lower
frequency limits.

12. what is Harmonics?

Ans : Harmonics is the signals with frequencies that are an integral multiple of the

fundamental frequency.

13 .what is the range of frequency in commercial AM broadcasting ?

Ans: 540Hz to 1600Hz has a 10KHz bandwidth.

14. Range of frequency in AM baseband?

Ans: 100KHz to 5KHz.

15. what is baseband?

Ans: it is a band of frequencies occupied by a message signal.

16. what you mean by frequency translate?

Ans: It is the process of displaying the frequency contents of a signal to another place in
the

frequency spectrum.

17. Modulation index?

Ans: Modulation index (m) is the ratio between the amplitude of the message signal to
the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier signal.

18. what is percentage of Modulation?

Ans: The modulation index(M) is expressed as a percentage(%m).

19. Transmission efficiency?

Ans: It is the ratio of the total AM power to that of the sideband.

20. what is splatter?

Ans: Adjacent channel interference due to over modulation of carrier signal by abrupt
peak

message signal.

21. what is the selectivity of a radio receiver?

Ans: The ability of a radio receiver to select a desired signal frequency while rejecting all
others

is called selectivity.

22. what are the main components of a RF receiver?

Ans: RF filter, RF amplifier, mixer. local oscillator ,If filter,if amplifier and Envelope
Detector.
23. what is RF stage?

Ans: It is the first input stage in which primary selection , filtering and amplification of
the input

RF signal is performed.

24.what is IF stage?

Ans: It is the section of the receiver between the mixer and the detector .The IF stage
operates

at a fixed intermediate frequency(FIF) and it is where most of the amplification and

filtering

occurs.

25. what is envelope detector?

Ans: A circuit containing a diode in series with a RC network , used to perform

demodulation

.An envelope detector , which demodulates an AM signal, cannot demodulate an SSB

signal.

26. what is local oscillator?

Ans: An oscillator in which a piece of electronic equipment that is usually used as a

source of

electromagnetic wave frequencies for mixing with other frequencies that the equipment

handles.

27. what is diode detector?

Ans: A diode detector is a non linear charging circuit formed by a diode in series with a
parallel

with RC network.

28. what is a balance modulator ?

Ans: balance modulators translator a message signal to two sidebands and suppress the

carrier signal frequency to produce a DSB signal.

29. what is up conversion?

Ans: The process of increasing the frequency of a signal to a higher frequency for
transmission

is up conversion. The mixer,which is a balanced modulator, performs the up-conversion.

30. what is the function of AGC circuit?

Ans: A circuit that maintains the output volume of a receiver ,regardless of the variations
in the

received signal power.

31.what is center frequency?

Ans: center frequency is the frequency of the unmodulated FM carrier signal.

32. what is frequency deviation?

Ans: The maximum frequency change between a modulated and unmodulated carrier
signal.

33.what is discriminator?

Ans: Discriminator is a device that demodulates an FM signal.

34. FM modulation index?

Ans: The ratio of frequency deviation to the message signal frequency.

35. what is signal to noise ratio?

Ans: A signal to noise ratio is the ratio of the magnitude of the signal to that of noise
(often

expressed in decibels).

36. what are varactor diode and schottky diode?

Ans: varactor diode is a diode that changes capacitance with a change in input voltage.

Schottky diode is a diode that have a lowforward voltage drop in the range of 0.2v to
0.4v.

37. what is phase-locked loop(PPL)?

Ans: phase-locked loop(PPL) is a circuit that locks on to a phase relationship between an
input

signal and a VCO signal, and produces an error signal. The error signal is fed back to
control the

VCO frequency so that it equals the input frequency.

38. what is Frequency –shift keying (FSK)?

Ans: Frequency –shift keying (FSK) is shifting an analog signals frequency between two
values to represent the binary states high and low of a digital signal.A modem uses FSK
to transmit digital

signals over analog telephone lines.

39. what is voltage controlled oscillator(VCO)?

Ans: voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) an oscillator that uses an input voltage to control
its

output frequency.

40. what are the advantages and applications of PLL?

Ans:1. PLLs have high degree of noise immunity and a narrow bandwidth .do not require

complex coil adjustments.

2. PLLs are also used for Frequency-shift keying(FSK) operations in digital

communications.

3.A PLL operates by producing a voltage controlled oscillator(VCO)frequency(F vco) that

matches the RF frequency(fi).

4.PLLs are used in FM and AM demodulation because they do not require complex coil

adjustments.

41. what is noise?

Ans: An unwanted signal that will disturb the transmission or processing of signals in

communication systems. EG. shot noise, thermal noise.

42.what is shot noise?

Ans: A noise arises from the discrete nature of diodes and transistors.

E.g., a current pulse is generated every time an electron is emitted by the cathode.

43. what is thermal noise?

Ans: A noise arises from the random motion of electrons in a conductor.

44.what is white noise?

Ans: A noise is white if its PSD(power spectral density) equals constant for all
frequencies.

45. what is modulation?

Ans: A process by which some characteristics of a carrier is varied in accordance with a

modulating wave (baseband signal).There are,

1.Amplitude modulation

2.Angle modulation(phase modulation,frequency modulation).

46. what is Transmission bandwidth?

Ans: Transmission bandwidth of an AM wave,

1. For positive frequencies ,the highest frequency component of the wave equals
fc+W,

and the lowest frequency components equals fc-W.

2. The difference between these two frequencies defines the transmission bandwidth

BT for an AM wave.

47. Limitations of Amplitude modulation(DSB-C)?

Ans: 1. Waste of power in the information-less ‘’with-carrier’’ part.

2.wasteful of power and bandwidth.

48.How to generate SSB signal?

Ans: 1.product modulatorto generate DSB-SC signal

2.band –pass filter to pass only one of the sideband and suppress the other.

49. Vestigial sideband modulation ?

Ans: Instead of transmitting only one sideband as SSB,VSB modulation transmits a

partially

suppressed sideband and a vestige of the other sideband.

E.g:Television signals

50. what is Angle modulation?

Ans: The angle of the carrier is varied in accordance with the base band signal.
Commonly used in angle modulation.
 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

1. Give the two segments of basic satellite communication.

A: a. Earth segment (or) ground segment

b. Space segment

2. Write short notes on attitude control system.

A: It is the system that achieves and maintains the required attitudes. The main
functions

of attitude control system include maintaining accurate satellite position throughout the

life span of the system.

3. What is declination?

A: The angle of tilt is often referred to as the declination which must not be

confused with the magnetic declination used in correcting compass readings.

4. What is meant by payload?

A: It refers to the equipment used to provide the service for which the satellite has been

launched.

5. What is meant by transponder?

A: In a communication satellite, the equipment which provides the connecting link

between

the satellite’s transmit and receive antennas is referred to as the transponder.

6. Write short notes on station keeping.

A: It is the process of maintenance of satellite’s attitude against different factors that can

cause drift with time. Satellites need to have their orbits adjusted from time to time,

because the satellite is initially placed in the correct orbit, natural forces induce a

Progressive drift.

7. What is meant by Pitch angle?

A: Movement of a spacecraft about an axis which is perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.

It is the degree of elevation or depression.

8. What is an propellant?

A: A solid or liquid substance burnt in a rocket for the purpose of producing thrust.

9. What is an Yaw?

A: Yaw is the rotation of a vehicle about its vertical axis.

10. Define S/N ratio.

A: The S/N introduced in the preceding section is used to refer to the ratio of signal
power to noise power at the receiver output. This is known as S/N ratio.

11. What is a single mode of operation?

A: A transponder channel abroad a satellite may be fully loaded by a single transmission

from an earth station. This is referred to as a single access mode of operation.

12. What are the methods of multiple access techniques?

A: FDMA – Frequency Division Multiple Access Techniques

TDMA – Time Division Multiple Access Techniques

13. What is an CDMA?

A: CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access Techniques

In this method, each signal is associated with a particular code that is used to spread

the signal in frequency and time.

14. What is SCPC?

A: SCPC means Single Channel Per Carrier. In a thin route circuit, a transponder channel

(36 MHz) may be occupied by a number of single carriers, each associated with its own

voice circuit.

15. What is a thin route service?

A: SCPC systems are widely used on lightly loaded routes, this type of service being

Ref

16. What is preamble?

A: Certain time slots at the beginning of each burst are used to carry timing and

synchronizing information. These time slots collectively are referred to as preamble.

17. Define guard time.

A: It is necessary to prevent the bursts from overlapping. The guard time will vary from

burst to burst depending on the accuracy with which the various bursts can be

positioned within each frame erred to as a thin route service.

18. What is meant by direct closed loop feedback?

A: The timing positions are reckoned from the last bit of the unique word in the
preamble.

The loop method is also known as direct closed loop feedback.

19. What is meant by feedback closed loop control?

A: The synchronization information is transmitted back to an earth station from a distant,

that is termed feedback closed loop control.

20. Define frame efficiency.

A: It is measure of the fraction of frame time used for the transmission of traffic.

21. Define earth segment.

A: Earth segment of a satellite communication system consists of transmit earth station

and receive earth station. Example: TV Receive only systems (TVRO systems)
22. Give the difference between KU-band and the C-band receive only systems.

A: Operating frequency of outdoor unit.

23. What is mean by ODU and IDU?

A: ODU – The Home Receiver Outdoor Unit

IDU – The Home Receiver Indoor Unit

24. Explain about MATV system.

A: MATV – Master Antenna TV system.

It is used to provide reception of DBS TV channels to the user group.

Example: Apartment users

25. Write about CATV system.

A: CATV – Community Antenna TV system.

As in MATV system, it consists of one outdoor unit and separate feeds for each sense of

polarization.

26. Define S/N ratio.

A: The S/N introduced in the preceding section is used to refer to the ratio of signal
power

to noise power at the receiver output. This is known as S/N ratio.

27. What is noise weighting?

A: The method used to improve the post detection signal to noise ratio is referred to as

noise weighting.

28. What is an EIRP?

A: EIRP means Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power. It is a measure of radiated or

transmitted power of an antenna.

29. What is noise power spectral density?

A: Noise power per unit Bandwidth is termed as the noise power spectral density.
30. What is an inter modulation noise?

A: Inter modulation distortion in high power amplifier can result in signal product which

appear as noise and it is referred to as inter modulation noise.

31. What is an antenna loss?

A: It is added to noise received as radiation and the total antenna noise temperature is
the sum of the equivalent noise temperature of all these sources.

32. Define noise factor.

A: An alternative way of representing amplifier noise is by means of its noise factor. In

defining the noise factor of an amplifier, usually taken as 290 k.

33. Define Saturation flux density.

A: The flux density required at the receiving antenna to produce saturation of TWTA is

termed the saturation flux density

34. Give the 3 different types of applications with respect to satellite systems.

A: • The largest international system (Intelsat)

• The domestic satellite system (Dom sat) in U.S.

• U.S. National oceanographic and atmospheric administration’s (NOAA)

35. Give the types of satellite services.

A: a. Fixed satellite service

b. Broadcasting satellite service

c. Mobile satellite service

d. Navigational satellite services

e. Meteorological satellite services

36. What is mean by Dom sat?

A: Domestic Satellites: These are used for voice, data and video transmissions within the

country.
37. What is ECEF?

A: The geocentric equatorial coordinate system is used with the GPS system. It is called
asearth centered, earth fixed coordinate system.

38. Write about bit rates for digital television.

A: It depends format of the picture.

Uncompressed Bit rate = (Number of pixels in a frame) * (Number of pixels per

Second) * (Number of bits used to encode each pixel)

39. Give the satellite mobile services.

A: a. DBS – Direct Broadcast satellite

b. VSATS – Very Small Aperture Terminals

c. MSATS – Mobile Satellite Service

d. GPS – Global Positioning Systems

e. Micro Sats

f. Orb Comm. – Orbital Communications Corporation

g. Iridium

40. What is INSAT?

A: INSAT – Indian National Satellite System.

INSAT is a Indian National Satellite System for telecommunications, broadcasting,

meteorology and search and rescue services. It was commissioned in 1983. INSAT

was the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific region.

41. What is Satellite?

A: An artificial body that is projected from earth to orbit either earth (or) another body
of

Solar systems.

Types: Information satellites and Communication Satellites.

42. Define Satellite Communication.

A: It is defined as the use of orbiting satellites to receive, amplify and retransmit data to

Earth stations.

43. State Kepler’s first law.

A: It states that the path followed by the satellite around the primary will be an ellipse.

An ellipse has two focal points F1 and F2. The centre of mass of the two body system,

Termed the barycentre is always centered on one of the foci.

e = [square root of (a2– b2) ] / a

44. State Kepler’s second law.

A: It states that for equal time intervals, the satellite will sweep out equal areas in its
orbital

Plane, focused at the barycentre.

45. State Kepler’s third law.

A: It states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is perpendicular to the

cube of the mean distance between the two bodies.

a3= 3 / n2

Where, n = Mean motion of the satellite in rad/sec.

3 = Earth’s geocentric gravitational constant. With the n in radians per sec. the orbital

period in second is given by,

P=2/n

46. Define apogee.

A: The point farthest from the earth.

47. Define Perigee.

A: The point closest from the earth.

48. What is line of apsides?

A: The line joining the perigee and apogee through the centre of the earth.

49. Define ascending node.

A: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to north.

50. Define descending node.

A: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north to south.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

1. Write some examples for wireless communication system.

A: Cordless phones, handheld walkie-talkies, pagers, mobiles, remote controllers for

home entertainment.

Types: Information satellites and Communication Satellites.

2. Define Satellite Communication.

A: A fixed station in mobile system used for radio communication with mobiles. It has
transmitter and receiver section. It is located at the Centre of coverage area.

3. What is MSC?

A: Mobile Switching Centre coordinates the routing of calls in large service area. It
connects the base station and mobiles to PSTN. It is also called as MTSO (Mobile
telephone Switching office).

4. What do you mean by forward and reverse channel?

A: Forward channel is a radio channel used for transmission of information from station
to mobile .

Reverse channel is a radio channel used for transmission from mobile to base station.

5. What is function of control channel? What are the types?

A: Control channel is used for transmission of cell setup, call request, call initiation
&Control.

Types are forward control channel, reverse control channel.

6. Define cell?

A: Each cellular base station is allocated to group of radio channels to be used within a
small geographic area called as cell.

7. What is foot print?

A: Actual radio coverage of cell is called as footprint. It is determined from the field
measurements or propagation prediction models.

8. What is channel assignment? What are the types?

A: For efficient utilization of radio spectrum a frequency reuse scheme with increasing
capacity and minimizing, dynamic channel assignment.

9. What is fixed channel assignment?

A: If the channel in each cell is allocated to the user within the cell, it will be called as
fixed channel assignment. If all channels are occupied, the call will blocked.

10. What is dynamic channel assignment?

A: If the voice channels are not allocated permanently in a cell, it will be called as
dynamic channel assignment. In this assignment, channels are dynamically allocated to
users by the MSC.

11. What is hand off?

A: When a mobile moves into different cell while conversation in progress , the MSC
automatically transfers the call from one cell to other cell without any interference. This
is called hand off.

12. Define dwell time.

A: The time over which the call may be maintained within a cell without handoff is called
as dwell time, this time is governed by factors such as propagation, interference,
distance between subscribers and base station.

13. What is co-channel interference?

A: The interference between the signals from co-channel cells is called as co-channel
interference.

14. what is soft handoff?

A: In CDMA system, MSC selects received signals from a variety of base stations within
the help of software. This is called as soft handoff.

15. Define co-channel reuse ratio.

A: It is defined as the ratio between the distance between the centers and of nearest co-
channel cells to the radius of cell. Q=D/R

16. Define adjacent channel interference.

A: Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the desired
signal is called adjacent channel interference.

17. Define grade of service.

A: It is defined as the measure of the ability of user to access a trunked system during
the busiest hour.

18. what is blocked call clear system(BCC)?

A: In a system, user is blocked without access by a system when no channels are

available in the system. The call blocked by the system is cleared and the user should try
again. This is called BCC system.

19. What is blocked call delay system?

A: If channel is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed until a
channel becomes available.

20. Define cell splitting?

A: Cell spitting is the process of subdividing congested cells into smaller cells each with
its own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter
power. It increases the capacity of cellular system.

21. What is sectoring?

A: Sectoring s a technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing

the system performance by using directional antennas.

22. What is propagation modal?

A: The propagation model is used to predict received signal strength, when unobstructed
line-of-sight path between transmitter &receiver.

23.Define large scale propagation model?

A: Propagation models that characterize the signal over large T-R separation distances
(several hundreds or thousands of meters).

24.What is small scale modal?

A: The propagation modal that characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal
strength over very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or short time duration.

25. What is free space scale model?

A: The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength, when
unobstructed line-of-sight path between transmitter & receiver.

26. define EIRP.

A: EIRP of transmitting system in given direction as the transmitter power that would be
needed, with an isotropic radiator, to produce the same power density in the given
direction EIRP=Ptgt Where Pt-transmitted power in wgt-transmitting antenna gain

27. Explain path loss?

A: The path loss is defined as the difference (in dB)between the effective transmitted
power & the received power, & may not include the effect of the antenna gains.

28. What is intrinsic impedance &Brewster angle?

A: It is defined by the ratio of electric to magnetic field for a uniform place wave in the
particular medium. The Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the
origin.

29. What is scattering?

A: When a radio wave impinges on rough surface, the reflected energy is spared out in
all directions due to scattering.

30. Define radar cross section

A: Radar Cross Section of a scattering object is defined as the ratio of the power density
of the signal scattered in the direction of the receiver to the power density of the radio
wave incident upon the scattering object & has units of square meters.

31. Name some of the outdoor propagation models?

A: Some of the outdoor propagation models are

1.Longely-rice model

2.Durin’s model

3.Okumura model.

32.What is the function of outdoor propagation models?

A: The outdoor propagation modal aim to predict signal strength at a particular point or
in a specific local area.

33. Define indoor propagation models?

A: The indoor propagation models are used to characterizing radio propagation inside
the buildings.

34. Mention some indoor propagation models?

A: Some indoor propagation models are

Long -distance path loss model

Ericession multiple break pointmodel

3.Attenuation factor model.

35.Explain small scale fading?

A: Small scale fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes phases,
or multipath delays of the radio signal over a short period of time travel distance.

36. What are the factors influencing small scale fading?

A: Factors influencing small scale fading are

Speed of surrounding objects

Multipath propagation

3.speed of the mobile

4. Transmission bandwidth of the signal.

37.Define Doppler shift?

A: The shift in received frequency due to motion is called the doppler shift.

38.What is frequency selective fading?

A: If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain &linear phase response over a
bandwidth which is greater than bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel
creates frequency signal will undergo flat fading.

39. What is frequency selective fading?

A: If the channel possesses a constant gain & linear phase response over a bandwidth
that is smaller than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, then the channel creates
frequency selective fading on the received signal.

40. Define slow fading channel?

A: The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration. This type
of channel is called fast fading channel.

41. Define slow fading channel?

A: The channel impulse response channel at a rate much slower than the transmitted
baseband signal this type of a channel is called slow fading channel.
42. Write the advantages of MSK over QPSK.

A:1. In QPSK the phase changes by 90degree or 180degree. This creates abrupt
amplitude variations in the waveform, therefore bandwidth requirement of QPSK is
more filters of other methods overcome these problems, but they have other side
effects.

MSK overcomes those problems. In MSK the output waveform is continuous in phase
hence there are no abrupt changes in amplitude.

43. Define M-ray transmission system?

A: In the digital modulation intend of transmitting one bit at a time, two or more bits are
transmitted simultaneously. This is called M-ary transmission.

44. What is quadrature modulation?

A: Sometimes two or more quadrature carries are used for modulation. It is called
quadrature modulation.

45. What is QAM?

A: At high bit rates a combination of ASK & PSK is employed in order to minimize the
errors in the received data. This method is known as “Quadrature Amplitude
modulation”.

46.Define QPSK?

A: QPSK is a multilevel modulation in which four phase shifts are used representing four
different symbols.

47. What is linear modulation?

A: In linear modulation technique the amplitude of the transmitted signal variation in

the modulating signals. Non- linear modulations may have either linear or constant
envelopes depending on whether or not based waveform is pulse shaped.

48. Define nonlinear modulation?

A: In the nonlinear modulation the amplitude of the carrier is constant, regards of the
variation in the modulating signals. Non-linear modulation may have either linear or
constant envelopes depending on whether or not the baseband waveform is pulse
shaped.
49. What is the need of Gaussian filter?

A: Gaussian filter is used before the modulator to reduce the transmitted bandwidth of
the signal. It uses less bandwidth than conventional FSK.

50. Mention some merits of MSK?

A: 1. Constant envelope

2.Spectral efficiency

3.Good BER performance

RADAR SYSTEMS

1.What is a radar?

A: Radar is an electromagnetic system for the detection and location of reflecting objects
such as aircraft, ships, spacecraft, vehicles, people, and the natural environment. It
operates by radiating energy into space and detecting the echo signal reflected from an
object or target.

2. What do you mean by maximum unambiguous range?

A: Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulses are called the second time
around echoes The range beyond which the targets appear as second time- around
echoes is called the maximum unambiguous range, Run, and is given by Run=c
/Tp2=c/2fp.

3.What is the fundamental range equation?

A: R max= (Pt G Ae A 6min)^(1/4)

Pt=transmitted power , W

G= Antenna gain

Ae= Antenna effective aperture

S min = Minimum detectable signal

4. What is a PPI?

A:A typical radar display for a surveillance radar is the PPI or Plan Position Indicator. The
PPI is a presentation that maps in polar coordinates the location of the target in azimuth
and range.

5. What are the applications of radar?

A: ƒ Military

ƒ Remote sensing

ƒ Air traffic control (ATC)

ƒ Law enforcement and highway safety

ƒ Aircraft safety and Navigation

ƒ Ship safety

ƒ Space

6 .What are the main reasons for the failure of the simple form of the radar equation?

A: The failure of the simple form of the radar equation is due to

a. the statistical nature of the minimum detectable signal

b. fluctuations and uncertainties in the targets radar cross section

 c. the losses experienced throughout the radar system

d. Propagation effects caused by the earth surface and atmosphere

7. Define minimum detectable signal?

A: The weakest signal that can just be detected by the receiver is the minimum
detectable signal.

8. What is called a false alarm?

A: If the target were set too low, noise might exceed it and be mistaken for a target. This
is called the false alarm.

9. What is called a missed detection?

A: If the threshold were set too high , noise might not be large enough to

cause false alarms, but weak target echoes might not exceed the threshold and would
not be detected .This is called as missed detection.

10. What is called threshold detection?

A: If the receiver output is not of sufficient amplitude to cross the threshold, only noise
is said to be present. This is called threshold detection

11. What is called a thermal noise?

A: If the radar were to operate in a noise free environment so that no external sources of
noise accompany the target signal, and if the receiver itself were so perfect that it did
not generate any excess noise, there would still be noise generated by the thermal
agitation of the conduction electrons in the Ohmic portion of the receiver input stages.
This is called as thermal or Jhonson noise.

12. What is said to be the ray leigh region?

A: Radar cross section depends on the characteristic dimensions of the object compared
to the radar wavelength. When the wavelength is large compared to the objects
dimensions, scattering is said to be ray leigh scattering.

13. Give some examples of simple targets?

A: Some examples of simple targets are sphere, cylinder, flat plate , rod, ogive and cone.

14. Define the term fluctuations?

A: change in the resultant phase and amplitude of the composite echo signal which
results in target cross section fluctuations.

15. What is called frequency diversion?

A: It means that more than one transmitter, each at a different frequency is utilized in
parallel with each transmitter channel operating as a separate radar.

16. What is called frequency agility?

A: Pulse to Pulse change in frequency is called frequency agility.

17. What is called as revisit time?

A: It is the time that an antenna takes to return to view the same region of space. It is
also called as scan time.

18. What is a radome ?

A: A typical ground based metal space frame radome might have a two-way
transmission loss of 1.2db at frequency ban from L to X band.

19.What are bipolar and unipolar videos?

A: The output of the MTI radar is called bipolar video, since the signal has negative as
well as positive values. Unipolar video is rectified bipolar video with only positive value.

20.Define blind speeds.?

A: The limitations of single DLC results in target speeds called blind speeds, where

the target will not be detected and there will be an un cancelled clutter residue that can

interfere with the detection of moving targets.

21.Why VHF is not considered as a desirable frequency choice for a long range air
surveillance radar?

A: 1.Resolution in range and angle are poor due to narrow bandwidths and large

beam widths.

2.This portion of electromagnetic spectrum is crowded with other than radar

services.
 3.Low altitude coverage ally poor.

22.Define three-pulse canceler.?

A:A canceler with two delay lines that has the same frequency response as the

double delay-line canceler, but which is arranged differently is known as three-pulse

canceler.

23.Define Navigation?

A:Navigation is the art of directing the movements of craft from one point to another
along a desired path.

24. What is the need of a Chronometer?

A:With the help of Chronometer, the navigator was able to determine his longitude by
noting the transit time of heavenly bodies.

25. Define electronic navigational aids?

A:Navigational systems which employ electronics in some way

26. What are the four methods of navigation?

A: 1. Navigation by pilotage

2. Celestial or astronomical navigation

3. Navigation by dead –reckoning

4.Radio navigation

27. Define astronomical navigation?

A: Celestial navigation is accomplished by measuring the angular position of

celestial bodies.

28.Define Navigation?

A: Navigation is the art of directing the movements of craft from one point to another
along a desired path.

29. What is the need of a Chronometer?

A: With the help of Chronometer, the navigator was able to determine his longitude by
noting the transit time of heavenly bodies.

30. Define electronic navigational aids?

A: Navigational systems which employ electronics in some way

31. What are the four methods of navigation?

A: 1. Navigation by pilotage

2. Celestial or astronomical navigation

3. Navigation by dead –reckoning

4.Radio navigation

32. Define astronomical navigation?

A: Celestial navigation is accomplished by measuring the angular position of

celestial bodies.

33. What are the types of automatic direction finders?

A: 1. The radio compass

2. A VHF phase comparison automatic direction finders

34. What are the two types of radio ranges in use?

A: 1. Low frequency four course radio range

2. VHF Omni directional radio range

35. What are the sources of errors in VOR system?

A: 1. Ground station and aircraft equipment

2. Site irregularities

3. Terrain features

4. Polarization

36.What are the different hyperbolic navigational systems?

A: Different hyperbolic navigational systems are LORAN, DECCA and OMEGA.

37. What is the operating frequency of LORAN-C?

A: LORAN-C operates in the band 90-110 KHZ.

38.What are the advantages of OMEGA system?

A: 1. At low frequency in the 10KHZ range, the coverage is increased

2. Loss of power at this frequency is low.

39. Give the Secondary Radar systems?

A: 1. DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)

2 . TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation)

40. Define TACAN?

A: TACAN provides both range and bearing information with the same radiation.

41. What are the types of landing aids?

A: 1. Instrument landing system

2. Microwave Landing system

3. Ground controlled approach.

42.What are angel echoes?

A: Echoes produced by birds , insects

43. What is called velocity modulation?

A: The electrons getting accelerated and decelerated by the signal producing bunching of
electrons.

44. What are called Linear beam tubes and Cross field tubes?

A: The electric field and magnetic field are parallel to each other in linear beam tubes
and they are perpendicular to each other in cross field tubes.

45.Define Signal Processing?

A: Methods for the detection of desired signals and the rejection of undesired noise,
clutter and interference in radar are called signal processing.
46.What is the need of integrator?

A: Integrator integrates or adds the energy from the received pulses available from the
target.

47.What is the need of pulse compression?

A: Pulse compression is used to achieve high range resolution without the need of high
peak power.

48.What are the basic radar measurements that can be achieved from a point target?

A: 1.Range

2.Angle

3.Radial velocity

4.Tangential velocity.

49.Explain about the radar cross section of targets?

A:Simple targets

Complex targets

50. Define CONSOLAN?

A: It is same as CONSOL except that a two antenna system is used instead of three
antennas.