Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 210e218

Review

Calcium for
extending the shelf ‘‘rich in cash/poor in time’’, there is a demand for ready-
to-eat products. For this reason, the market of minimally

life of fresh whole

processed fruits and vegetables has grown rapidly in recent
decades as a resu lt of changes in consumer attitudes (An
Bord Glas, 2002). Leafy vegetables in particular are

and minimally a rich source of antioxidants such as beta-carotene and as-

corbic acid (Arthey & Dennis, 1992; Negi & Roy, 2000).
Also, the link between the consumption of these products
processed fruits and and the lower risk of suffering certain chron ic diseases
(Ruowei, Serdula, Bland, Mokdad Bowman, & Nelson,

vegetables: a review
2000; Subar et al., 1995) has been contributed to the
consumer’s attitude change during recent decades.
Minimally processed vegetables, also called ready-to-use,
fresh-cut or pre-cut produce, are raw fruits and vegetables
A.B. Marti ´n-Dianaa,*, D. Ricoa,that have been washed, peeled, sliced, chopped or shredded
prior to being packaged for consumption (Barry-Ryan &
J.M. Frí asa, J.M. Baratb, O’Beirne, 1998). They are also defined as those subjected
G.T.M. Henehana andtoning some processing techniques of lesser magnitude than can-
or freezing but which, nevertheless, add value to the
C. Barry-Ryanaproduct before distribution and consumption (King & Bolin,
1989). The marketing of minimally processed fruits and veg-
aSchool of Food Science and Environmental Health,
etables is limited by a short shelf life and rapid deterioration
Postharvest Research Unit, Dublin Instituteofoftheir components due to tissue damage as a result of pro-
Technology (DIT), Cathal Brugha, Dublin 1, Ireland cessing, e.g. washing or cutting, and the microbial growth
(Tel.: D353 14024458; fax: D353 14024495; (Watada & Qui, 1999). In recent years, the use of physiolog-
e-mail: anabelen.martindiana@dit.ie) ically active compounds (PAC) has attracted interest of
b Institute of Food Engineering for Development, consumers and the industry (minerals, probiotics, etc.)
Department of Food Technology, Universidad (Alzamora et al., 2005).
Polite´cnica, Camino de Vera s/n, 46022, Titchenal and Dobbs (in press) point out some dark
Valencia,green
Spainleafy cabbage family vegetables and turnip greens
as good calcium sources, and most leafy vegetables as po-
tential calcium sources. The major source of calcium in the
The preservation of quality of fresh products is relevant Unitedfor the States diet is dairy products, which supply 75% of
industry due to its economic impact. This paper presentsthe a com-
intake, and vegetables, fruits and grains which supply
prehensive review of the use of different sources of calcium to the rest (Allen, 1982).
preserve fresh fruits and vegetables in order to extend the shelf The awareness of consumers on the benefits of calcium is
life and enhance the nutritional value. Emphasis is on discussing
relatively high. The calcium content in the diet is critical in
about the best sources of calcium, concentration, temperature most stages of life (Gras, Vidal, Betoret, Chiralt, & Fito,
and method of application, suitability of the commodities; and Dietary calcium raises concern for consumers and
2003).
some hints for the cost/benefit analysis are presented. health specialists due to the number of processes it is in-
volved in, the high amount present in the body, and the
continuo us research highlighting the benefits of an adequate
Introduction
intake. Nowadays, an increasing part of the products in the
Fruit and vegetable consumption is g rowing rapidly in
*recent years.
0924-2244/$ Associated
front matterwith
doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2006.11.027
Corresponding
- seeauthor. theElsevier
Ó 2007 new consumer’s food
Ltd. All rightsprofile
by The industry
beverages are
interest and
reserved. fortified,
in calcium especially
snacks (Caceres,
has dairy
intensified
Garcia, products
in recent
& Selgas,followed
years
2006).
as
 A.B. Marti´n-Diana et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 210e218 211

a result of evidences linking osteoporosis, hypertension

vegetables, inand which the effect of calcium chloride was stud-
cancer to calcium deficiency. While the causeied, of these
showing dis-sign ificant improvement in the quality of the
eases is multifactor and poorly understo od, there finalis product,
some ev-are grapefruit (Baker, 1993), hot peppers
idence to support the hypothesis that increased(Mohammed,
calcium Wilson, & Gomes, 1991) and diced tomatoes
intake might reduce the risk of suffering from (Floros,
theseEkanayake,
diseases Abide, & Nelson, 1992). The use of cal-
(Appel et al., 1997; Cumming et al., 1997).cium Also,chloride
the use isofassociated with bitterness and off- avours
phosphorous-free sources of calcium, such as(Bolin gluconate,& Huxsoll,
cit- 1989; Ohlsson, 1994), mainly due to the
rate, lactate, acetate and carbonate calcium salts,residualcan help
chlorineto remaining on the surface of the product.
obtain a good balance of calcium and phosphorous Calcium in the
lactate,
diet calcium propionate and calcium gluco-
(Cerklewsk i, 2005). To give consumers the opportunity
nate have shown to in-some of the benefits of the use of calcium
crease their calcium intake without resorting chloride,
to supplementa-
such as product firmness improvement, and avoid
tion, the industry has been encouraged to fortify some foodof the
anddisadvantages, such as bitterness and residual
beverages with calcium (Cerklewski, 2005).avour This (Yang
opens & Lawsless, 2003). Also, the use of calcium
new ways of supplementing calciu m intakesalts by increasing
other than calcium chloride could avoid the formation
the calcium content in these commodities. of Forcarcinogenic
this reason,compounds (chloramines and trihalometh-
the use of natural sources of calcium as preservativewith anu- anes) linked to the use of chlorine.
tritional fortification effect presents an advantage
Manganaris
for the in- et al. (2007) compared the effect of calcium
dustry and for the consumer. lactate, calcium chloride and calcium propionate dipping in
peaches. Calcium increased in tissues with no dependence
Calcium sources to maintain the shelf life on of fresh
the source used. Calcium incorporation by impregnation
vegetables and fruits with two calcium sources, calcium lactate and calcium
Different calcium salts have been studied gluconate,
for decaywas pre-studied in fresh-cut apple (Anino, Salvatori,
vention, sanitation and nutritional enrichment of fresh fruits & Alzamora, 2006).
and vegetables. Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate Another aresource of calcium is the calcium-amino acid
the main calcium salts added to foods in order chelate formulations which had been patented as nutrition-
to enhance
ally functional
the nutritional value (Brant, 2002). Other forms of calcium chelates. Lester and Grusak (1999) showed
used in the food industry are calcium lactate, calcium that chlo-
the use of calcium chelate doubled the shelf life of
ride, calcium phosphate, calcium propionate and calcium whole honeydew melon.
gluconate, which are used more when the objective is the
preservation and/or the enhancement of the product Methods firm- for calcium application on fresh-like
ness (Alzamora et al., 2005; Luna-Guzman & Barrett, minimally processed fruits and vegetables
2000; Manganaris, Vasilakakis, Diamantidis, & Mignani, Two main ways of application of the calcium in fresh
2007). The selection of the appropriate source fruitsdepends
and vegetables
on have been reported: dippingewashing
several factors: bioavailability and solubility are the most (I) and impregnation (II) processes.
significant, followed by avour change and the interaction (I) Dipping treatments are commonly used for fresh
with food ingredients. products, especially those more perishable, such as leafy
Calcium chloride has been widely used asvegetables.
preservative It usually consists of the soaking of the product,
and firming agent in the fruits and vegetables applying
industry or not
for applying mechanical agitation, followed by
whole and fresh-cut commodities. Chardonnet, theCharron,
removal of excess washing solution. This treatment is
Sams, and Conway (2003) and Sams, Conway, Abbott, gentler to the product than the impregnation techniques
Lewis, and Ben-Shalom (1993) studied the effect whichofcan calcium
cause tissue damage and metabolic stress. The
chloride on fruit firmness and decay afterthe washing
harvest oftreatmentwhole is usually applied to the whole product
apples. Saftner, Bai, Abbo tt, and Lee’s (2003) or followed
work was byalso
other minimal procedures, including wash-
focused on the firming effect of calcium chloride treatmenting, peeling, cutting, shredding and/or slicing.
on fresh-cut honeydew. Luna-Guzman and Barrett Dipping(2000) treatments favour the dispersion of the solution
compared the effect of calcium chloride and calcium on the lactate
surface of the vegetable. This method has an extra
dips in fresh-cut cantaloupe firmness, microbialbenefit load, respira-
since the enzymes and substrates released from
tion and sensorial evaluation. Other authors (Garcia,
the injured Herrera,
cells during the minimal procedure are rinsed,
& Morilla, 1996; Main, Morris, & Wehunt, 1986; avoiding
Morris, oxidation
Sis- reactions that could lead to browning
trunk, Sims, Main, & Wehunt, 1985; Rosenand & off-
Kader, avours
1989; (Soliva-Fortuny & Martin-Belloso, 2003).
Suutarinen, Anakainen, & Autio, 1998) used Different
calciumfactors chlo- (pH, immersion time, temperature, and
ride as firming agent for processed strawberries. Wills and concentration) can affect product integrity.
Mahendra
on
Conway
berries
fresh-cut
treated
and
(1989)
peaches
Sams
withexamined
(1984)
calcium
from evaluated
a the
quality
chloride.
effect
point
the
Other
ofsafety
calcium
ofcantaloupe.
fruits
view,
published
of
(1999)
chloride
straw-
and
meanwhile
Theused Martin-Diana
dipping
work. periods
Luna-Guzman,
timeofranges
et5 al.
min(2005a)
from
for
Cantwell,
immersion
1 to
treated
5 min
andfresh-cut
of
Barrett
in fresh-cut
most of the
 212 A.B. Marti ´n-Diana et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 210e218

lettuce and carrots for 1e5min. Manganaristhrough

et al. (2007)
partial water removal and impregnation with sol-
used a time period of 5 min for immersionutes, of whole
without peachaffecting the material’s integrity. The process
fruits. Longer periods were used by Suutarinen
drivenetforces
al. (1998)
can be osmotic gradient between the sample
with whole strawberries, lasting for 15 min. and solution, application of vacuum followed by atmo-
The effect of temperature has been shown spheric
to be ofcondition
major restoration, or both osmotic gradient
importance in the results of dippingewashing andtreatment.
vacuum conditions (Fig. 1)(Zhao & Xie, 2004). De-
Cool, room and warm temperatures (4, 20e25, pending
40e60 on C, the
re- time (minutes to days) of the process and
spectively) have been used with different calcium
the magnitude
solutions. of the vacuum (5e200 mbar) or solution
Results showed that the use of warm temperature concentration
(40e60 C)(20e75 Bx) used, the product obtained
increased the beneficial effects of the treatment
mightdue lackto the
higher
characteristics of a minimally processed
washing solution retention inside the product product
(Bartolome
and rather
& be considered a dehydrated product.
Hoff, 1972; Garcia et al., 1996; Rico et al., 2007).
Under vacuum conditions, when the porous tissue is im-
Luna-Guzman et al. (1999) compared different
mersed tempera-
in the solution, the air is extracted from the pores;
tures (20, 40 and 60 C) for treating fresh-cutwhen
cantaloupes
the atmospheric pressure is restored, the solution
with calcium chloride. The use of 60 C improved penetrates
the bene-
into the intracellular spaces by capillary and
ficial action of the calcium solutions in comparison
pressurewith gradients
40 or (Alzamora et al., 2005; Fito, 1994).
20 C. Similar results were observed by Rico Theetpartial
al. (2007)substitution of the internal gas by the new liquid
who found that the use of higher temperaturesphaseincreased
allows the reformulation of the food by the modifica-
the diffusion of calcium into carrot tissuestion
and of improved
the solid matrix, avoiding eventual stress due to long
the quality, especially related to texture maintenance
exposure toand gradient solute concentration as in osmotic pro-
browning reduction in comparison with lower cess temperatures.
(Fito & Chiralt, 2000; Mujica-Paz, Valdez-Fragoso,
The control of the pH in the washing treatments
Lopez-Malo, has been
Palou, & Welti-Chanes, 2003). Also, to obtain
considered an important factor. Acid pHhas product
been usually
stability,rec-
impregnation techniques have been used
ommend ed (Wiley, 1994). However, Adams to enhance
(1991) and the De-
textural properties and/or fortify the product
laquis, Stewart, Toivonen, and Moyls (1999) reported that (Fito et al., 2001; Gras et al., 2003).
lowering the pH from 8 to 6 did not significantlyImpregnation
improve provides broad applications in fruits and
the antimicrobial effect of cold or warm chlorinated
vegetables waterprocessing. Some of the advantages are the
washing treatment. Thus, they considered development
that there wasoflittle re-formulated products by impregnation
justification for the additional step of pH adjustment
with different of wash-
sources of calcium, also improving the final
ing water with the aim of reducing microbial load on vegeta- product quality (Fito et al., 2001).
bles. In the case of calcium, most authors used theGras solution
et al. (2003) applied vacuum impregnation to
without any pH adjustment, which ranged eggplant,
from 5.5 to carrot
6.5. and oyster mushroom obtaining texture
The concentrations of the calcium salts usedimprovements.
as washing Alzamora et al. (2005) and Anino et al.
treatments are usually within a range of 0.5e3%
(2006)(Luna-
have done extensive work to date applying vacuum
Guzman & Barrett, 2000; Luna-Guzman etimpregnation
al., 1999; Main in fresh-cut apple. Calcium lactate and cal-
et al., 1986; Manganaris et al., 2007; Martin-Diana
cium gluconate et al., were selected at 5% for 2e22 h. The final
2005b; Morris et al., 1985). product obtained after the long periods used for the impreg-
(II) Impregnation: the objective of thesenation
techniques
mightisnot be defined as a minimally processed prod-
the modification of the composition of food uct.material
Calcium decreased the force needed to sample rupture

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the equipment used for vacuum impregnation experiments (Anino et al., 2006).
 A.B. Marti´n-Diana et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 210e218 213

and fracture occurred over a period of deformation,

Calcium complexes
as in to cell wall and middle lamella polyga-
ductile materials. lacturonic acid residues, improving structural integrity
Fito et al. (2001) modelled the vacuum impregnation in (Van-Buren, 1979).
oranges and eggplants and other fruits and vegetables Manganaris
using et al. (2007) suggested 62.5 mM calcium
different calcium sources. The authors considered
chloride this immersion treatment as a potential postharvest treat-
method a good choice to produce fresh-cut fruits mentorfor vegeta-
whole peaches, since increased tissue firmness
bles enriched or fortified with PAC. reduced the susceptibility to physiological disorders and
Coating is also a technique that can be used
reduced
to enrich
the risk of salt-related injures. Saftner et al. (2003)
minimally processed fruits and vegetables with found calcium.
calcium propionate, calcium chloride and calcium
Han, Zhao, Leonard, and Traber (2004) working
chelatewith treatments more than doubled tissue calcium content
strawberries and red raspberries used a chitosan-based
and inhibited coat-
changes in honeydew chunks firmness. Cal-
ing formulated with calcium lactate and calcium
cium lactate
gluconate.showed a more lasting effect of firmness preser-
Adding calcium did not alter the positive effects
vation of than coating,
calcium chloride during the storage (Fig. 2)in
which proved to extend the shelf life by decreasing
fresh-cut thecantaloupe (Luna-Guzman & Barrett, 2000).
incidence of decay and weight loss, changes in Calcium
colour,lactate was applied by vacuum impregnation to
titratable acidity and pH. eggplant, carrot and oyster mushroom (Gras et al., 2003).
Another technique that might have application
Calciumfor impregnation
treat- occurred in the intercellular spaces
ing fruits and vegetables with calcium solutions is of spraying
eggplant and oyster mushroom and xylem of carrot.
over the product surface. Spraying or uxing, Mechanical
however, has behaviour of eggplant and carrot was notably
been little researched to date. Ex perimentsaffected
with spray by calcium,
jets with an increase in stiffness and fragil-
for low-pressure cleaning have been carried out ity.by
Eggplant
Kaye, and oyster mushroom appeared to be highly
Pickles, and Field (1995) and Rose (1997) examining suitablethe for o btaining fortified products by using small
spray cleaning effect of selected nozzles on vegetable
concentrations
sur- of calcium in the impregnation solution.
faces. However, no conclusions on the applicationIceberg could lettuce is highly appreciated by the consumer
be derived from these studies. because of its characteristic crispy texture. Crispness, eval-
uated using a texturometer, of samples treated with calcium
Effect of calcium treatments on the commodities:lactate was significantly higher than crispness of samples
quality, safety and nutritional issues washed with chlorine (Martin-Diana et al., 2006; Rico
Calcium is involved in maintaining the textural
et al., 2007).
qualityHowever, when the washing treatment with
of produce since calcium ions form cross-linkscalcium
or bridges lactate was at 50 C (heat-shock), the texture re-
between free carboxyl groups of the pectin chains,
sults were
resulting
even better than at 20 C, significantly retarding
in strengthening of the cell wall (Garcia etthe
al.,1996).
softening process. Microstructural analysis (Cryo-SEM

Fig.at2.5 Firmness
air C and 95%(Nm)
RH.ofFor
fresh-cut
each evaluation
cantaloupe
day,
from
columnswith
experimentsame
1, dipped
letter in
arewater
not significantly
or 2.5%S.E.
calcium
different
(Luna-Guzman
lactate
(p <
for0.05).
1&min
Barrett,
N¼
at 25
14,2000).
orvertical
60 C, and
barsstored
indicate
under
2
214 A.B. Marti ´n-Diana et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 210e218

micrographs) showed a loss of turgor (shrinkage) increasing of the

the temperature of the calcium solution in con-
tissue cells in the lettuce samples washed with chlo tact rine,
with the fruit or vegetable, or at a different stage.
an effect less evident when using calcium Mild lactateheat(Fig.
has3).been reported to activate the pectin methyl-
The combined treatment of calcium lactateesterase and warm (PME) (Bartolome & Hoff, 1972). Endogenous
heating also showed more effectiveness inand maintaining
added calcium can make plant tissue firmer by binding
the turgor of cortex tissue cells and reducing to the
the pectin
extent carboxyl
of groups that are generated through the
lignification at cutting-edge areas in carrots action
(Fig.of 4).PME (Stanley, Bourne, Stone, & Wismer, 1995).
Complementing calcium treatments with mild heating Calcium can also help to keep longer the fresh-like
(w40e70 C, w5 min or less) is an interesting appearance
alternative. of minimally processed fruits and vegetables
Time and temperature of the heat treatment by mustcontrolling
not com-the development of browning. Control of
promise the fresh-like characteristics of thethe commodities.
esh browning has been observed in fruits in different
Heat can be applied with the calcium treatment studies, bye.g. in peaches (Manganaris et al., 2007) and pine-
apple (Hewajulige, Wilson-Wijeratnam, Wijesundera, &
Abeysekere, 2003). Saftner et al. (2003) found treatments
with calcium inhibited colour changes and development
of tissue translucency in honeydew chunks.
Another benefit derived from the use of calcium treat-
ments is the incorporation of significant quantities of cal-
cium to the fruit or vegetable matrix. This is also one of
the objectives and driving forces promoting the research
on these types of treatments. Anino et al. (2006) analysed
the ability of fresh-cut apple matrix for calcium incorpora-
tion by impregnation techniques using calcium lactate and
calcium gluconate (Fig. 5). These authors explored the pos-
sibility of obtaining a product fortified with calcium. The
calcium amount incorporated into the apple matrix would
satisfy about 23e63% (200 g of fruit) of the adequate in-
take. Sensory analysis also showed that the use of calcium
improved the textural characteristic of the product during
storage. Calcium content of fresh-cut lettuce significantly
increased when treated with calcium lactate compared
with chlorine treatments (Table 1). A combination of cal-
cium lactate and heat-shock further increased the calcium
content of the samples (Rico et al.,2007). Alzamora
et al. (2005) regard impregnation as a feasible technology
for making fruit and vegetable matrices suitable for forti-
fied food development. Also, these auth ors emphasise on
the high produce-specificity of this process and point to
the need for further research in this area.
Sensory analyses of minimally processed products
treated with calcium have been reported in some cases, de-
pending on the source of calcium used, bitterness as a side
effect of the treatment. Luna-Guzman and Barrett (2000)
imparted calcium chloride (w173 mM) in fresh-cut musk
melon finding undesirable bitterness, which was avoided
when using calcium lactate at the same concentration
(Table 2). Saftner et al. (2003) found that sensory evalua-
tions with calcium propionate and calcium chelate
(40 mM) were taste free and did not impart a lip feel.
Meanwhile, calcium chloride solutions had slightly salty
taste and lip feel. Martin-Diana et al. (2005a) did not find
significant differences in sensory attributes (browning, tex-
Fig. C)
with
(25 3.
120
and
Cryo-scanning
mg/L
at 50chlorine,
C (heat-shock)
electron
(Martin-Diana
15 g/Lmicrographs
calcium
after 1etday
al.,
lactate
of
2006).
of storageture
lactate
attributes
atures
fresh-cut
at room 4or
C and
off-
were
(browning
attemperature
lettuce calcium
avours)
used, abetween
washed chloride.
significant
and texture)
samples
However,
improvement
wastreated
observed
whenwith
warm
in(Fig.
sensory
calcium
temper-
6).
 A.B. Marti´n-Diana et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 210e218 215

Fig. 4. Lignification observations in Cryo-SEM micrographs of sliced carrot tissues in the 10 peeler-wounded area (orientation 1) at day 10 in samples
treated with chlorine (120 mg/L), 11 calcium lactate (15 g/L) at 25 C and calcium lactate at 50 C(Rico et al., 2007).

Importance of calcium in the industry: and interest rates have generally been declining throughout
cost and be nefits the 1990s, substantially increasing consumer’s disposable
Today’s consumer has, on average, a busier lifestyle
income.than
This means that consumers have the ability to
in previous decades. Income, as measured by Gross
spendNa-
more on higher value or added-value foods, even
tional Product (GNP), has been rising over the
though
past two
the de-
current percentage spent on food from the total
cades, thro ughout the EU and the US. Both unemployment
household budget has fallen over the past 30 years. This
re ects the fact that people do not consume more food as
their income rises, but rather tend to purchase higher value
food. Fishbein (2004) considers it important to diversify the
sources of calcium due to dynamic dietary changes, which
transcend age, gender, ethnicity, geographic, and economic
status, and creates the necessity for the consumer to have at
their disposal multiple sources of calcium (dairy, non-dairy,
fortified foods and supplemental).
The existing methods for application of the calcium
treatment in fresh fruits and vegetables have already been
studied on a significant number of commodities, showing
positive results for the feasibility of this type of products.
The fact that the calcium treatment is applied to keep the
quality and properties of the product and not only for
calcium enrichment purposes is an advantage for the imple-
mentation of this type of products. Also, the perspective of
growth for the enriched food market makes this a very in-
teresting opportunity from the industry’s point of view (Al-
zamora et al., 2005).

Table 1. Calcium content in fresh-cut lettuce after being treated

with 120 ppm chlorine at 25 C and 1.5% calcium lactate at two
temperatures (25 and 50 C) (Rico et al., 2007)

Treatments Calcium (mg/100 g)

Calcium lactate
25 C 0.162a
subjectedtoimpregnation
impregnation
Fig.Ca2þ:
out and(grey);
(B) invacuum
the isotonic
5. Effectofcalciumincorporationonthe
with calcium without impregnation
calcium glucose
rupture
(white); (Anino
solution
force (Fr
(A) up etValues
withandwith-
al., 2006).
atmospheric
)ofapples designated by the same
(p 50 C are not significantly different
Chlorine
>0.05).
letter 0.191a
0.122b
216 A.B. Marti ´n-Diana et al. / Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 210e218

research.
Table 2. Mean sensory scores of fresh-cut cantaloupe dipped inDifferences in density of the solution and the com-
modity (usually
calcium chloride or calcium lactate solutions (Luna-Guzman & lower) makes keeping in contact sample and
Barrett, 2000) solution more difficult. Approaches to solve the problem are
Treatment Sensory attribute
the use of stirring, compressing or sinking rods. These
methods can cause damage to the product and increase the
Bitterness Flavour Hardness Moisture
cost of thecontent
process. More research might be necessary in
this area to obtain acceptable levels of quality for fresh-like
Just-cut 2.6c 4.6a , b 3.4c 5.9a , b minimally processed products.
1.0% Calcium chloride 4.8a , b 3.1b 5.1a , b 6.4a
An important aspect needing further research is bioavail-
2.5% Calcium chloride 5.8a 4.2a , b 4.8a , b, c 4.8b, c
ability of the calcium incorporated to the product. The
1.0% Calcium lactate 2.7c 5.6a 4.7b, c 4.5c
2.5% Calcium lactate 3.4b ,c 4.7a , b 6.0a 4.5b, c
bioavailability depends on a large number of factors, such
Under each attribute, means followed by same letter asare
commodity
not signif- pH or fibre content, and needs to be studied
icantly different (p <0.05). For each attribute, a higher for each
number particular
rep- case when obtaining a fortified product.
resents higher intensity on a 0e10 scale. Also, the antimicrobial effect of the treatments based on
calcium salts on fruits and vegetables has been relatively
Some of the purified calcium sources might little resu
studied,
lt tocompared
be with the amount of reports showing
expensive, but the fact that the treatment is also adding the effects of these treatments on the quality.
value to the product is an advantage to balance Thethemarkets
cost/ for convenient, fresh and fortified foods are
benefit rate. Other alternatives are calciumcontinuo chelates,usly
al- growing. This extensive knowledge gathered
though more expensive than other salts (Saftner and theetfurther
al., research proposed can be exploited for the
2003). Calcium chelates are not corrosive development to processing of novel fresh-like minimally processed fruits
equipment and are more likely to penetrateand vegetables
deeply in plantenriched in calcium that can take advantage
tissues; however, problems associated with their low solu- of these three market niches.
bility have been reported.

Future research needs Acknowledgements

From the point of view of the possibilities This
in theresearch
fortifiedwas supported by a Technological Sector
food market, there is a wide range of opportunities
Researchto Grant
develop
(2002e2006) and International Collabora-
new products using calcium treatments, due tion
to Award
the highScheme
and (ICAS) (2005e2007). Authors acknowl-
increasing demand of fresh and healthy food.
edgeWhen using
Elsevier im-
publications for the permission to reproduce
pregnation techniques, the behaviour of the vegetable or fruitparts of figures and tables for this review.
matrices is highly produce-specific, increasing the amount of
research needed. Also, some issues regarding impregnation
techniques, especially vacuum impregnation need further References
Adams, J. B. (1991). Enzyme inactivation during heat processing of
+ 5.5 food-stuffs. International Journal of Food Science and Technology,
26,1e20.
Allen, L.25°C
H. (1982). Calcium bioavailability and absorption: a review.
50°C
The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 35, 783e808.
CHL
4.5 Alzamora, S. M., Salvatori, D., Tapia, M. S., Lopez-Malo, A., Welti-
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