CHAPTER I
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
- Traditionally used to measure physical and electrical
quantities, such as mass, temperature, pressure,
capacitance and voltage.
- Often made a part of a control system.
CALIBRATION-Process of configuring an instrument to
provide a result for a sample within an acceptable range.
RECALIBRATION- performed by adjusting the instrument.
MEASURAND – property that is being measured.
TOLERANCE - is term that is closely related to accuracy and
defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some
value
ACCURACY – refer to the CLOSENESS of measured value.
ISO – international organization for standardization
- Organisation Internationale de Normalisation
(French)
- Truness.
- Defines accuracy as describing a combination of both
of observation error
INACCURACY OR MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY
-is the extent to which reading might be wrong and
is often quoted as percentage of the full- scale reading of
instrument.
PRECISION – is the description of random errors and a
measure of statical variability.
- It refers to closeness of two more measurement to
each other.
REPEATABILITY - closeness output reading when the same
input is applied repetitively over short period of time.
REPRODUCIBILITY - described the closeness of output
reading for the same input when there are changes in the
method.
ERROR IN MEASUREMENTS
1. The instrument is not calibrated, and has an offset
2. Reading uncertainty due to the presence of random
noise.
3. Reading the instrument before it has reached it has
reached its steady state.
4. Mistakes in recording measured data and calculating a
derived measurand.
MEASUREMENT UNITS
MAGNITUDES OF MAESUREMENTS – are typically given in
terms of a specific unit.
CHAPTER II
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Pressure gauges or Vacuum gauges – instruments used to
measure pressure
Manometer – could also be referring to pressure measuring
instrument, usually limited to measuring pressure near
atmospheric
- is often used to refer specifically to liquid column
hydrostatic instruments
Vacuum gauges - is used to measure the pressure in a
vacuum, which is further divided into two subcategories: high
and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum)
Absolute pressure - is zero-referenced against a perfect
vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric
pressure
Gauge pressure - is zero-referenced against ambient air
pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus
atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted
Differential pressure - is the difference in pressure between
two points
Static pressure - is uniform in all directions, so pressure
measurements are independent of direction in an immovable
(static) fluid
Total pressure or Stagnation pressure – an instrument facing
the flow direction measures the sum of the static and
dynamic pressure
Dynamic pressure – directional component of pressure in a
moving (dynamic) fluid
- used to measure flow rates and airspeed
- can be measured by taking the differential pressure
between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow
Applications
 Altimeter
 Barometer
 MAP sensor
 Pitot tube
 Sphygmomanometer
Evangelista Torricelli – invented the oldest type of liquid
column (a vertical tube filled with mercury) manometer in
1643
Christian Huygens – invented the U-Tube in 1661
Hydrostatic gauge - (such as the mercury column
manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per
unit area at the base of a column of fluid
- measurements are independent of the type of gas being
measured, and can be designed to have a very linear
calibration
- they have poor dynamic response.
Piston-type gauges - counterbalance the pressure of a fluid
with a solid weight or a spring
- also called as deadweight tester
Liquid Column – gauges consists of a vertical column of liquid
in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures
Types of Manometer
 Simple Manometer
 Micrometer
 Differential manometer
 Inverted differential manometer
McLeod gauge – isolates sample of gas and compresses it in a
modified mercury manometer until the pressure is a few
mmHg
Aneroid – gauges are based on metallic pressure sensing
element which flexes elastically under the effect of a pressure
difference across the element
- “Aneroid” means “without liquid,” and the term originally
distinguished these gauges from the hydrostatic gauges
- aneroid gauges can be used to measure the pressure of a
liquid as well as a gas, and they are not the only type of gauge
that can operate without fluid. For this reason, they are often
called mechanical gauges in modern language
Gauges that rely on a change in capacitance are often
referred to as Baratron gauges
Bourdon - Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a
flattened tube tends to change a more circular cross-section
when pressurized
Eugene Bourdon – patented his gauge in France in 1849, and
it was widely adopted because of its superior sensitivity,
linearity, and accuracy
Edward Ashcroft – purchased Bourdon’s American patent
rights in 1852 and became a major manufacturer of gauges
Bernard Schaeffer – patented a successful diaphragm
pressure gauge, which together with the Bourdon gauge,
revolutionized pressure measurement industry, in 1849, in
Magdeburg, Germany
1875 – after Bourdon’s patents expired, his company
Schaeffer and Budenberg also manufactured Bourdon tube
gauges
Diaphragm – a second type of aneroid gauge uses the
deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions of
different pressure
For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsule with
diaphragms on either side are often used.
Shape:
 Flat
 Corrugated
 Flatten tube
 Capsule
Bellows – bellows configuration is used in aneroid
barometers, altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and
the altitude telemetry instrument used in weather balloon
radiosondes
Electronic pressure sensors
 Piezoresistive strain gage - Uses
the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain
gauges to detect strain due to applied pressure
 Capacitive - Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to
create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to
applied pressure
 Magnetic - Measures the displacement of a
diaphragm by means of changes
in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall effect, or
by eddy current principle
 Piezoelectric - Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain
materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon
the sensing mechanism due to pressure
 Optical – Uses the physical change of an optical fiber
to detect strain due to applied pressure
 Potentiometric – Uses the motion of a wiper along a
resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by
applied pressure
 Resonant – Uses the changes in resonant frequency
in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or change
in gas density, caused by applied pressure
Thermal Conductivity - as a real gas increases in density -
which may indicate an increase in pressure- its ability to
conduct heat increases. - - In this type of gauge, a wire
filament is heated by running current through it
Thermocouple or resistance thermometer (RTD) - can be
used to measure the temperature of the filament
Pirani gauge - uses a single platinum filament as both the
heated element and RTD
Pirani (one wire) – Pirani gauge consist of a metal wire open
to the pressure being measured
- This type of gauge was invented by Marcello Pirani
Thermocouple gauges and thermistor gauges work in similar
manner, except a thermocouple of thermistor is used to
measure the temperature of the wire
Ionization gauge – are the most sensitive gauges for very low
pressures (also reffered to as hard or high vacuum)
Hot cathode - hot-cathode ionization gauge is composed
mainly of three electrodes acting together as a triode, where
the cathode is the filament
Most common ion gauge is the hot cathode Bayard-Alpert
gauge, with a small ion collector inside the grid
A glass envelope with an opening to the vacuum can
surround the electrodes, but usually the Nude gauge is
inserted in the vacuum chamber directly, the pins being fed
through a ceramic plate in the wall of the chamber
Cold cathode – there are two subtypes of a cold cathode
ionization gauges: the Penning gauge (invented by Frans
Michel Penning) , and the Inverted magnetron, also called a
Redhead gauge
Hydrostatic and elastic gauges measure pressure are directly
influenced by force exerted on the surface by incident
particle flux, and are called direct reading gauges
Thermal and ionization gauges read pressure indirectly by
measuring a gas property that changes in a predictable
manner with gas density
Indirect measurements are susceptible to more errors that
direct measurements
 Dead weight tester
 McLeod
 Mass spec + ionization
Sound – disturbances propagate from source as longitudinal
pressure variations along the path of propagation
Sound pressure – is the instantaneous local pressure
deviation from the average pressure caused by a sound wave
- can be measured using a microphone in air and hydrophone
in water
- are normally small and are often expressed in units of
microbar
 Frequency response of pressure sensors
 resonance
Effective sound pressure – is the root mean square of the
instantaneous sound pressure over a given interval of time.
CHAPTER III
MASS AND WEIGHT MEASUREMENT
•Mass is a quantitative measure of inertia of a body at rest.
• mass is the product of density and volume.
•Weight or weight force is the force with which a body is
attracted toward the Earth.
•Weight force is determined by the product of the mass and
the acceleration of gravity.
•weights-The embodiment of units of mass
• kilogram - unit of mass (SI)
• Newton - unit of weight ( SI)
• Slug- unit of mass ( English)
• Pound - unit of weight ( English )
•1893 -the pound has been defined in terms of the kilogram
WEIGHING INSTRUMENT
1. Platform Beam Balance
- this ohaus brand platform balance is a triple beam
poise carriage balance.
-patented in 1932
-To determine the weight of the object placed in the
weighing pan, the weights, known as POISE, must be moved
along the beam for hundreds, tens and units (grams).
-The position of POISE indicate the weight of the
object placed on the pan.
-This balance can weigh objects up to 610 grams.
2. Platform Dial Scale
-Ohause balance introduced on the market in 1957
-Marked a milestone in the history of this company
by introducing a new way system of counterweights.
-Ohaus introduced a dial system that was turned to
stabilize the beam in a perfectly horizontal position. When
the arrow of the beam is stabilized, the position of the dial
indicator the weight of the object placed in the pan.
-Known as "Dial-O-Gram"
-Used to measure small quantities of powder
3. Toledo Balance
- manufactured in the USA in 1945
- based on a system of counter weights: the object to be
weighed is deposited on the pan and the counterweight
equilibrates the two ends of the weighing arm.
- NEEDLE indicates the correct reading.
- can weigh object up to 2500 grams
4. Analytic Balance
-electric model of a sartorious analytic or precision balance
dates from the 1950.
- used by researchers at the Institut de Microbiologie et
d'Hygiene de I'Universite de Montreal in 1964
-can measure precisely very small masses of substances --
in the order of the milligram-- is essential to laboratory
works.
5. Electronic Analytical Balance
-Mettler electronic analytic balance was purchased in 1976
by Armand- Frappier Institute researchers.
 - can measure with great precision very small quantities of
solid or liquid material.
- It is one of the first model of its category to integrate
electronics as a basis for functioning.
- the weight of the material in the pan can ne determined
up to 4 decimal smaller than unity ( 0.0001 grams)
6. Dial Torsion Balance
-the rectangular box is a precision balance know as a "
torsion balance" because its functioning is based on the
torsion of a metal wire.
- this type of balance has several uses
- measured weak force
- this instrument used at Institut de Microbiologie et
d'Hygiene in 1977
7. Two-Pan Balance
-it is often used to equilibrate, two by two, solutions
that will undergo centrifugation.
-By proceeding in this manner, the volume may be
different, but the weight will identical.
-This intrument must be installed om flat stable
surface.
CHAPTER V
VOLUME
Volume - is a quantity of three-dimensional space enclosed
by a closed surface.
- quantified numeriacally using the SI derived unit, m3 .
Volume of some simple shapes, such as regular, straight-
edged, and circular shapes calculated using arithmetic
formulas.
Volume with complicated shapes, calculated with integral
calculus.
Volume of a solid can be determined by fluid displacement.
Displacement of liquid - used to determine the volume of a
gas.
Laboratory vessels and devices - used for preparation of
solution and manipulation with liquid.
Volumetric vessels - usually calibrated for 20 degree Celsius.
Calibration temperature - written at every volumetric
vessels.
1. Beakers - approximate determination of the volume of
liquids and not necessarily classified as measuring tools.
- dissolving compounds, diluting liquids, and heating.
- unique for there ‘break’ that is used to pour liquids.
2. Volumetric Flasks and Cylinders - used to measure volume
of liquids contained in them.
- used for preparation of solutions of exact concentration.
Volume - ussually indicate in mL.
Cylinders - are less accurate and used solely for measuring
volume, they are not employed for dissolution, dilution or
mixing.
3. Burettes - used for titrations or whenever the same liquid
is respectively measured.
- glass or plastic tube with calibrated scale closed with a
stopcock.
- attached to a stand in a vertical position.
4. Glass Pipettes - rarely used in contemporary routine
laboratories; were replaced by semiautomatic dispensers.
- vary from 1 to 100 mL.
- non-scaled for measuring of a certain volume or
scaled with grades by 1 mL and 10 mL.
5. Mircosyringes - serve for dispensing small volumes of
liquids.
- consists of a needle attached to a scaled glass
cylinder with a piston.
- vary in the diameter of needles and pistons.
6. Piston dispenser - consists of a piston with a scale attached
to a flask.
- intended for repetitive dispensing of the same
volume from stock container.
Dispensers - designed for measuring aggressive liquids made
of borosilicate glass; plastic parts that are in contact with
measured liquid are made of PTFE, other parts of PE or PP.
7. Pipettors - manual and electronic pipettors can be
distinguised.
Manual pipettors - piston is moved by a thumb using an
operation knob.
Electronic Pipettors - piston is moved by a small electric
motor.
TWO BIG GROUPS:
“Air displacement” pipettors - also called air cushion, can be
designed as a single channel or multi channel.
Multi-channel pipettors - intended for simultaneous
pippeting of the same volume of liquid to several wells of a
microtitration plate.
Micropipettors - are constructed for one fixed volume or it is
possible to set the volume.
“Positive diplacement” pipettors - liquid is aspired into the
tip without any air cushion the piston is in contact with
measured liquid.
- suitable for very viscous ar voilatile liquids and for repetitive
pipetting.
Steppers - liquid is then delivered at once or in several steps.
CHAPTER VI
Temperature Measurement
Definition of temperature
 Degree of hotness or coldness of a body
 A condition of body which heat transferred to or
from other bodies
Ideal Carnot Cycle – a quantity whose difference is
proportional to heat obtained from a carnot engine
operating between a hot source a cold receiver.
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics - if two thermodynamics
system are each in thermal equilibrium with a third, then
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other
Absolute Zero – the temperature at which the
thermodynamic system has the lowest energy.
Temperature Scale
1. Celsius temperature scale
- Also called centigrade temperature scale
- Andres Celsius created a temperatures scale
2. Fahrenheit temperature scale
- DEVELOP BY Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
- The scale primarily used in the united states and
some Caribbean countries
3. Kelvin temperature scale
- Base unit of thermodynamics temperature
measurement
- Name after lord Kelvin
- A scale has as its zero point absolute zero
4. Rankine temperature scale
- Name after William John Macquorn Rankine
- Zero on both kelvin and Rankine scales is
absolute zero
- R=459.69 + F ; R= 9/5 K
5. Reaumur scale
- Also known as octogesimal division
- The freezing and boiling point of water is
defined as 0o Re and 80o respectively.
- Named for Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur.
- Re = 4/5 C
Re = (F – 32 ) + 4/9
Temperature Measuring Instrument
1. bimetallic Thermometer
- employs the principle of solid expansion and
consist of a bimetal strip.
-An increase in tempearature causes the deflection
of the free end.
2. Liquid in Glass Thermometer
- most common temperature measuring device.
-both the liquid and the glass expand on heating and
their differential expansion used to indicate the
temperature.
3. pressure temperature
- based on the principle of liquid expansion due to
increase in pressure
- one of the most economical, versatile and widely
used devices in industry temperature measurement
4. mercury In Steel Thermometer
- has a linear scale
- may be used in temperature ranging 25 – 550 oC
-the total expansion of the mercury is depend not
only on the bulb temperature but also on the
temperature of the capillary tube and bourdon. Tube
5. Vapour Pressure Thermometer
- a thermometer that uses a pressure gauge to
measure the vapour pressure of a liquid.
6. Constant Volume Thermometer
- this uses an inert gas, usually nitrogen
- the pressure of the gas increase with the increase
in temperature at constant volume
7. Electrical Resistance Thermometer
- employed a metallic conductor in the form of wire
which varies in electrical conductivity or resistance
as its temperature varies
8. Metallic Resistance thermometer/ resistance
Temperature Detectors (RTD’s)
- measure high accuracy temperature
-determining temperature by measuring the
resistance of pure electrical wire
9. thermowell
- consist of a tube closed at one end and mounted in
the process stream.
10. Thermo- Electric Sensors / Thermocouple
- produced a temperature dependent voltage as a
result of the thermoelectric effect and this voltage
can be interpreted to measure temperature
11. semiconductor resistance Sensor (thermistor)
- a phase change element overlaying the dielectric
material on a substrate and a heater element
disposed in the di electric material and couple to the
contact phase change element.
12. Quarts thermometer
-comprises a quarts resonator provided electrode
disposed on the margins of the upper and lower
surfaces parallel to the length direction
13. Pyrometer
- pyro means Fire and meter means measure
-a type of remote- sensing thermometer used to
measure the temperature of a surface
CHAPTER VII
Level Measurement
-determination of the position of an existing
interface between two media (media are usually
fluids)
METHODS OF LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• Mechanical or Direct Method
• Inferential or Indirect Method
Mechanical or Direct Method
-simple, straightforward & economical
-uses a direct measurement of distance(height) from
datum line, and used for local indication
• Dip Stick and Lead Lines
-level of measurement are unrivalled in accuracy,
reliability, and dependability
-inability to successfully & conveniently measures
level values in pressured levels
-flexible lines fitted with end weights called chains or
lead lines
-visual level measurement
• Chain or Float Gauge
-the float is connected to a pulley by a chain or a
flexible cable and the rotating member of the
 pulley is in turn connected to an indicating device Types of Flow Measuring Instruments
with measurement graduation
-uses the principle of a buoyant element that floats 1. Primary or Quantity Meters
on the surface of liquid and changes position  Signifies the amount of fluid in terms of
as the liquid level varies mass/volume that flows past a given point
Inferential or Indirect Methods in a definite period of time
-depend on the material having a physical property  Two methods:
-well suited to producing signals for remote  Volumetric method
transmission The fluid flowing in the flow
-employs even the very latest technology in its meter which is being calibrated
measurement is diverted into a tank of known
volume
• Buoyancy  Gravimetric method
-force produced by a submerged body which is equal The fluid flowing in the flow
to the weight of the fluid it displaces meter which is being calibrated
is diverted into a vessel which
• Hydrostatic head can be weighed either
-force or weight produced by the weight of liquid continuously or in the vessel
-this method relies on the pressure of the measured after a predetermined time
liquid head to provide level indication 2. Secondary or Rate Meters
 Do not measure the flow directly but
• Sonar or Ultrasonic instead measure another physical quantity
-level measuring applications where contact of the related to flow
measuring instrument with liquid in the  Also termed as inferential type of flow
process is not desirable measuring devices
-measure the distance from one point(reference  2 Categories: 1) Flow Rate Meters; 2)
point) in the vessel, to the level interface with Velocity Meters
another fluid The Transduction Principle of some typical Flow Rate Meters

• Microwave I. Variable Head Meters

-similar to ultrasonic but uses microwave instead of “obstruction type” of meters
ultrasonic beam 1. Venturi Meter
 Uses converging section
• Conductance of pipe to give an increase
-conducts electricity between two fixed probe in the flow velocity
locations or between a probe and vessel wall 2. Orifice Flow Meter
-electical conductivity  Commonly used in clean
• Capacitance liquid, gas, and steam
-property of a circuit that stores electrons and thus services
opposses a change in voltage in the circuit  Available for all pipe sizes
 Can be made of any
• Radiation material but stainless
-material measured absorbs radiated energy steel is most common
3. Nozzle Flow Meter
• Weight  Consist of a short nozzle,
-uses a weighing machine attached to the tank to held in place between two
weigh the liquid pipe flanges
 Simpler and less
• Resistance expensive than venturi
-pressure of the measured material squeezes two meter but not as simple as
narrowly separated conductor together, orifice meter
reducing overall circuit resistance in an amount  Venturi Meter < Frictional
proportional to level Loss < Orifice Meter
4. Weir
• Micro-Impulse  Operate on the principle
-"time of flight", electrical pulses launch and travels that a restriction of a
back in frequency directly proportional to the level of liquid specified shape and form
is placed on the path of
flow
CHAPTER VIII  Simple in construction,
FLOW MEASUREMENT easy to install, quite
accurate for measuring
Flow Measuring Instruments large volume of liquids in
open channels
- Essential in many applications such as transportation  Forms and Classifications:
of solids as slurries, compressed natural gas in 1) Rectangular Weir; 2)
pipelines, water, and gas supply systems to domestic Triangular or V-notched
consumers, irrigation systems and a number of Weir; 3) Trapezoidal or
industrial processes Cipolletti Weir
- Used in the calibration of other flow measuring 5. Target Flow Meter
devices
  Flowing fluid impinging
on the target is brought
to rest
6. Turbine/Propeller Type Meter
 Fluid flow causes rotation
of the curved vanes
7. Ultrasonic Flow Meter
 Transit of time of the
ultrasonic pulse between
the transmitter and
receiver is obtained
which is a function of the
average velocity flow
8. Electromagnetic Flow Meter
 Magnetic field applied on
the moving conducting
fluid
9. Hot Wire/Hot Film Anemometer
 Resistance of a thin
heated wire changes due
to the cooling effects of
the flowing fluid system
10. Laser Doppler Anemometer
 A laser beam gets
scattered due to the
presence of particle in a
flowing fluid
II. Variable Area Meter
The change in area causes change in the
drag force of the body placed in the flowing
fluid
1. Rotameter
 Consists of tapered glass
tube with the smallest
diameter on the bottom
 Made of high strength
borosilicate glass to allow
direct observation on the
flat position
 Give direct visual
indication on linear scale
and can be used for wide
ranges
 Disadvantage: can only
be mounted in vertical
direction
III. Variable Head and Variable Area Meters
A specified-shaped restriction is placed in
the path of the flow which causes a rise in
the upstream liquid level
IV. Constant Head Device
Applied to cause a laminar flow in the
capillary tube. Applied head is loss in fluid
friction but it causes a flow rate which can
be metered
Positive Displacement Meters
Applied to a flow measuring device so designed that the
metered fluid is repeatedly filled and emptied from a space of
known volume
Widely used in low flow rate metering applications where the
high accuracy and repeatability under steady flow conditions
are required
1. Nutating Disc Meter
 Consist of eccentrically mounted disc
which nutates and wobbles in the
metering chamber which has spherical
sides
 Has simple and rugged construction ,
low pressure drop, low cost, and good
accuracy
 Finds a wide applications as domestic
water meter
2. Sliding Vane-Type Meter
 Has an accuracy machined body having
a rotor with fur evenly space slots which
form the guides for the vanes
 Has low pressure drop
 Used for dispensing petrol/diesel or
compressed natural gas in the fuel filling
station
3. Lobed Impeller Meter
 Consists of two rotors mounted on
separate parallel shafts
 Relatively expensive, clearances have to
be made very fine
Other Flow Measuring Devices
1. Linear Resistance Element Meter
 Also known as capillary flow meter
 Suitable for very small flow rates or for
highly viscous flows
 Working principle based on Hagen-
Poiseuille equation
 Disadvantage: metering element is
subjected to plugging if metered fluid is not
clean
2. Pitot Static Tube
 Flow rate can be determined by integrating
the velocity data over the area of flow
passage
 Invented by a French engineer: Henri Pitot
 Not suitable for measuring low or highly
fluctuating velocities
 Better known as air speed indicator used in
air crafts
3. Target Flow Meter
 Very good dynamic response
4. Turbine Flow Meter
 Incorporates some form of multi-vane rotor
driven by metered fluid
 Cup type anemometer
5. Vortex Shedding Flow Meter
 If a bluff body is placed in a fluid stream,
vortices are shed alternately on each side of
the bluff body
6. Ultrasonic Flow Meter
 Suitable for both liquid and gases
 Offers negligible resistance to the metered
fluid
 Linear relationship between velocity and
output
7. Electromagnetic Flow Meter
 Detect flow by using Faraday’s Law of
Induction
8. Anemometer
 Measures and indicates the force or speed
and sometimes direction of wind
9. Hot Wire Anemometer
 Commonly used for measuring mean and
fluctuating velocities in fluid flows
 Can be analog or digital
 Small in size
10. Laser Doppler Anemometer
 Implies the technique of using the Doppler
shift in a laser beam to measure velocity in
transparent

CHAPTER IX
DENSITY MEASUREMENT
DENSITY - defined as mass of a given volume of a substance.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (SG)
Determined by dividing the density of that substance
by the density of the standard substance obtained under
same conditions.
Dimentionless ratio; termed “relative density”
The sg of liquid and gases under reference conditions are
given by:
Liquid SG = density of liquid density of water
Gas SG = density of gas density of air
SOLID DENSITY – Once the volume of the solid and its mass
are known, the density can be found using the basic ratio:
density= mass/volume.
FLUID DENSITY – measurement of densities of fluids is much
more complex than for solids.
MODERN DENSITY MEASURING DEVICES
1. Pycnometric Densitometers
Static devices
Manufactures as fixed volume vessels that can be
filled with the sample liquid.
2. Buoyancy – type Densitometers
 Basically, uses Archimedes principle
 A suspended sinker, with a known mass and
volume attached to a fine wire, is totally
immersed in the sample liquid.
 Give accurate results and are used for the
calibration of the other liquid density
transducers.
3. Hydrometers
 Most commonly used device.
 Uses buoyancy principle as the main technique
of operation
 Can be calibrated for different ranges for
surface tensions and temperatures
4. Hydrostatic Weighing Densitometers
 the most common device consists of a U-tube
that is pivoted on flexible end couplings.
 The total weight of the tube changes, depending
on the density of fluid flowing through it.
5. Balance- Type Densitometers – suitable for liquid and
gas density measurement.
A. Balanced- Flow Vessel
-While the liquid is flowing continuously through the
vessel, it is weighed automatically by a sensitive scale – a
spring balance system or a pneumatic force balance
transmitter.
B. Chain Balance float
-The fixed volume and weight plummet totally
suspended in the liquid assumes equilibrium position,
depending on the density.
C. Gas specific Gravity
-The weight is translated into the motion of an indicating
pointer, which move over a scale graduated in units of
density or specific gravity.
D. Buoyancy Gas Balance
-The ratio of the pressure of air to the pressure of gas is
then the density of the gas relative to air.
-Commonly applied under laboratory conditions and is
not suitable for continuous measurements.
6. Column – type Densitometers
A. Reference column Densitometer
-Two identical tubes having the same distance from
the surface are placed in water and liquid.
-Water with known density is used as the reference.
B. Two – tube column Densitometer
-The pressure difference at the differential pressure
transmitter depends on the relative positions of the openings
of the pipes and the density of liquid.
C. Suppression type, two – tube column
Densitometer
Has an additional constant pressure drop chamber.
7. Vibrating Element Densitometers
A. Magnetic Drives
 Usually achieved using small coil
assemblies.
 Signals picked up by the sensors are
amplified and fed back as drive to maintain
the disturbing forces on the vibrating body
of the meter.
B. Piezoelectric Drives
 Demonstrate good temperature
characteristics as do magnetic drive types.
 Low in cost
 Do not require magnetic sensors.
C. Vibrating Tube Densitometer.
 Tube containing fluid is vibrated at resonant
frequency by electromagnetic vibrators.
 Resonant frequency is measured accurately.
D. Tuning Fork Densitometer
 The cylinder can be excited to vibrate in a
hoop mode by magnetic drives mounted
either in or outside the cylinder.
8. Index or refraction type densitometer
 The angle of refraction of the beam
depends on the shape, size, and thickness
of the container, and the density of fluid in
the container.
 Accurate measurement of the position of
the beam is necessary.
9. Absorption – type Densitometers
- Used for density measurements in specific
applications. (e.g. x-rays, visible light, UV light and sonic
absorptions)
- Attenuation and phase shift of a generated beam
going through the sample is sensed and related to the density
of the sample.
CHAPTER X
TORQUE AND POWER MEASUREMENT
HISTORY
From an ancient Roman flour mill in Barbegal, France to the
modern Dukovany Nuclear Power Station the common
denominator is the rotation of a shaft generating torque or
power
TORQUE
o Twisting force that tends to cause rotation.
o Originated from the Latin word, torquere
meaning to twist.
Torque = Force applied x lever arm
Lever arm – perpendicular distance from the axis of
rotation to the line of action of the force.
Measured in ft-lb or N-m.
 “Give me a lever long enough and a place to stand
and I will move the world.” — Archimedes (Greek
mathematician and inventor).
POWER
o Measured in Hp or Watts.
o Invented by the Scottish Engineer James
Watt in the 18th century.
P = 2πNT/60
P = power developed by machine (Watt)
N = rotation of shaft (rpm)
T = torque (N-m)
A breakthrough concept was developed by Samuel
Christie and later, improved and popularized by Charles
Wheatstone, known as Wheatstone Bridge.
Wheatstone bridge diagram
o Wheatstone Bridge laid the foundation for
invention of the strain gage in 1938 by
Edward Simmons and Arthur Ruge.
o Both discovered that the small diameter
wires are made of electrical resistance
alloys could be bonded to a structure to
measure surface strain.
o Had the advantage of responding well to
static strains.
DYNAMOMETER
o Most common tool used in evaluation of
torque and power
o Advantages: being very accurate, allowing
many types of testing
o Limited by their cost, size and capabilities.
o Their size limits their capability for tests
onboard marine vessel and in tight spaces.
o Some systems are too large for any type of
dynamometer testing.
TYPES OF DYNAMOMETER
Absorption type dynamometer
Working Principle:
Power measure is converted into heat by friction or
by other means
1.1 Prony Brake Dynamometer
Construction:
Consists of 2 wooden blocks placed around a pulley
fixed to the shaft of an engine whose power is required to be
measured.
Blocks are clamped by means of bolts and nuts.
A helical spring is provided between the nut and the
upper block to adjust the pressure on the pulley to control its
speed.
The upper block has a long lever attached to it and
carries a weight W at its outer end. A counter weight is
placed at the other end of the lever which balances the brake
when unloaded.
In order to limit the motion of the lever, two stops
provided.
Working:
When the brake is to be operated, the long end of
lever is loaded with suitable weights W and nuts are
tightened until the engine shaft runs at a constant speed and
the lever is in horizontal position.
The moment due to the weight must balance the
moment of frictional resistance between the blocks and the
pulley.
Let,
W = weight at the outer end of the lever (Newton)
L = horizontal distance of the weight from the center of the
pulley (meter)
R = radius of the pulley (meter)
N = speed of the shaft (rpm)
The moment of the frictional resistance or torque of
the shaft,
T = W x L (N-m)
Brake power = T x 2πN 60 = (WxL) x 2πN (Watts)
Limitations:
When the driving torque on the shaft is not uniform,
this dynamometer is subjected to serve oscillations.
Applications:
Measuring power or torque developed by power
source such as engines or electric motors.
1.2 Rope Brake Dynamometer
Construction:
It consists of one, two or more ropes wound around
the flywheel or rim of a pulley fixed rigidly to the shaft of the
engine.
Upper end is kept in position
Lower end of the ropes is kept in position by
applying a dead weight.
To prevent the slipping of the rope over the
flywheel, wooden blocks are placed at intervals around the
circumference of the flywheel.
Working:
For the operation of the brake, the engine is made to
run at a constant speed.
The frictional torque due to rope, must be equal to
the torque being transmitted by the engine.Let,
W = weight at the end of the rope (N)
S = spring balance reading (N)
N = engine speed (rpm)
D = diameter of the brake wheel (m)
d = diameter of the rope (m)
(D + d) = Effective diameter of the brake wheel
Then,
work/revolution = torque x angle turned per revolution
= (W- S) x ((D + d)/2) x 2π
 = (W - S) x (D - d) x π Construction:

work done per minutes = (W – S)π(D + d)N It consists of a pulley A (called driving pulley) which
is rigidly fixed to the shaft of an engine whose power is
required to be measured.
work done/ sec = ((W - S) π (D - d) N)/60 Pulley B (called driven pulley) mounted on another
shaft to which the power from pulley A is transmitted.

Brake power = ((W - S) π DN)/(60 x 1000) (kW) or = ((T x Pulleys A and B are connected by means of a
2πN)/(60 x 1000)) (kW) continuous belt passing round the two loose pulleys C and D
which are mounted on a T-shaped frame.
Advantage:
The frame is pivoted at E and its movement is
Cheap and easy construction. controlled by two stops.
Limitations:

Not accurate because of change in friction

coefficient of the rope with temperature. Working:
Applications: Since the tension in the tight side of the belt (T1) is
Most commonly used. greater than the tension in the slack side of the belt (T2) so
the total force acting on the pulley C (i.e. 2T1) is greater than
2. Driving Dynamometer the total force acting on the pulley D (i.e. 2T2).
Working Principle: It is thus obvious that the frame causes movement
about E in the anticlockwise direction.
Measure power or torque and as well provide
energy to operate the device to be tested. In order to balance it, a weight W is applied at a
distance L from E on the frame.
2.1 Epicyclic Train Dynamometer
Now taking moments about the pivot E, neglecting
Working: friction,
Consists of a simple epicyclic train of gears, i.e. a 2T1 x a = 2T2 x a + (W + L) or T1 – T2 = (W – L)/2a
spur gear.

Spur gear is keyed to the engine shaft and rotates in

anticlockwise direction. Work done in one revolution = (T1 – T2)πD (Nm)
Annular gear is keyed to the driving shaft and rotates Work done per minute = (T1 – T2)𝜋DN (Nm)
in clockwise direction.
Brake power = (T1−T2)𝜋𝐷𝑁/60 (Watts)
The pinion or the intermediate gear meshes with
both the spur and annular gears.

The pinion revolves freely on a lever.

A weight W is placed at the smaller end of the lever

in order to keep it in position.

The tangential effort P exerted by the spur gear on

the pinion and the tangential reaction of the annular gear on
the pinion are equal

2P x a = W x L or P = W x L/2a

R = pitch circle radius of the spur gear (meter)

N = speed of the engine shaft (rpm)

Torque transmitted, T = P x R

Power P = T x 2πN/60 = (P x R) x 2πN/60 (watts)

2.2 Belt Transmission Dynamometer

Working Principal

When power is being transmitted by the belt from

one pulley to another, the tangential effort on the driven
pulley is equal to the difference between the tension in the
tight and slack sides of the belt.

A belt transmission dynamometer is called a Froude

or Throneycraft transmission dynamometer.