Alexandria Engineering Journal (2019) xxx, xxx–xxx

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Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

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ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Examining the Thermal Performance of Vernacular

Houses in Asir Region of Saudi Arabia
Mady Mohamed a,b,*, Anna Klingmann a, Haitham Samir a

a
Architecture Department, Effat University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
b
Zagazig University, Egypt

Received 12 November 2018; revised 14 December 2018; accepted 13 March 2019

SUBJECT CLASSIFICA- Abstract The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the superior thermal performance of traditional
TION CODES mud architecture over contemporary concrete block construction. The case study consists of two
Building studies; adjacent buildings representing the two building techniques that are located in the Asiri highlands,
Culture; KSA. The research employed multi-field study techniques that include observation, as well as objec-
Architecture tive and subjective assessments. The objective assessment measured the different factors affecting
the thermal comfort inside the case study houses by using a data logger and handheld equipment.
The subjective assessment aimed to measure the response of the occupants by using semi-structured
interviews and self-directed questioners. The results will be a further stepping-stone in motivating
people to find value in their heritage and to preserve, reuse and reinhabit their houses while also
stressing the importance to pass traditional knowledge to younger generations. The results showed
a better performance for the vernacular houses while showed significant importance of adopting the
passive strategies even with the new concrete houses.
Ó 2019 Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction and research context
The region of Asir is located in the remote and rugged geo-
graphical region of south-west Saudi Arabia It has an area
of 76,693 square kilometres and an estimated population of
1,913,392. It shares a short border with Yemen. The geograph-
ical coordinates for Abha (The capital City of the Region) are
19.0969° N, 42.8638° E while the region lies between 1 7.5 and
20.5° N and 41 and 44° E [17] (see Fig. 1).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: momohamed@effatuniversity.edu.sa (M. Mohamed).
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University.
The vernacular mountain villages of Asir are examples of
self-sufficient sustainable communities that were able to adopt
a variety of passive strategies to optimize their buildings’ per-
formance to a variety of microclimates while depending on
local resources for building their homes and villages. Asir com-
prise four distinct geographical areas. Towards the coast of the
Red Sea lies the flat landscape of the Tihama, a hot and humid
region. This coastal plain leads to the rugged highlands called
the Sarat, which rises to an altitude of over 3000 m. As the
mountains retain the rainy clouds brought by the winter winds
coming from the northwest and catch the tail of the southwest
monsoon in the summer, precipitation is consistent and high.
The frequency of rain and the low incidence of evaporation
make the Sarat a rich agricultural resource [2]. Farmers used
to cultivate the lands, which are terraced to conform to the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.03.004
1110-0168 Ó 2019 Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article in press as: M. Mohamed et al., Examining the Thermal Performance of Vernacular Houses in Asir Region of Saudi Arabia, Alexandria Eng. J.
(2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.03.004
2 M. Mohamed et al.
Fig. 1
often-steep terrain. Between both extremes lies the hilly part of
the Tihama, which was traditionally settled by goat herders
and isolated farmsteads. Towards the east side, on the other
side of the mountains, emerges the Arabian tableland, which
contrasts the fertile area of the highlands with large stretches
of desert, which were historically inhabited by Bedouin
nomads [9]. Each geographical zone developed its own build-
ing style in response to climatic factors, natural features, tribal
traditions and locally sourced materials [4]. These customary
practices based on local craftsmanship and regionally devel-
oped methods were handed down from generation to genera-
tion [4]. Building materials included mud processed from
clay, rubble stone and tamarisk or palm tree branches, all of
which were adapted in different ways to suit micro-climatic
conditions, varying with rainfall, heat, cold and humidity
levels. In the highlands, northwest of Abha, stone was the pre-
ferred method of construction as these areas receive the highest
amount of rainfall, while in the Arabian tableland with little or
no rainfall stretching south and east of Abha, mud houses are
favored. In the transition zone between the Arabian Tableland
and the highlands, which receives moderate rainfall up to
thirty-five centimetres, the settlements are built with madmak,
a series of continuous layers of mud. In this technique, a
course of mud is molded directly onto the walls and each layer
is left to dry for one day before another one is added on top.
Throughout history, people have tried to adapt their build-
ings to the harsh climate by reducing heat impacts [13]. Since
the traditional building process was limited to the capacity
of local materials, certain building standards developed, which
encouraged a consistent appearance over consecutive time
periods. Room sizes, for example, were based on the tensile
strength of roof joists made from local wood and therefore
measured rarely more than four meters by six meters [3].
Please cite this article in press as: M. Mohamed et al., Examining the Thermal Performance of Vernacular Houses in Asir Region of Saudi Arabia, Alexandria Eng. J.
(2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.03.004
Asir region in KSA, after [17].
Although some houses had tanks to collect rainwater from
the roof, the main supply of water was carried from a nearby
well. Windows were small in size and square in shape to allow
for ample privacy and enhance protection. Arranged in a lin-
ear fashion, the openings, protected by sturdy wooden shut-
ters, located in the inner portion of the exterior wall,
provided enough sunlight and cross ventilation for cooling in
the summer but were also able to prevent the entry of cold
winds and rain during the winter. The exposure to the solar
radiation maximizes the required thermal mass to optimize
the warming effect of solar radiation. In the study area, which
has a fair amount of rainfall, most mud houses are also
equipped with a resilient foundation wall, made of rubble
stone, which overlaps with the external mud wall to protect
it from water seepage.
It is evident that a growing movement, particularly among
NGOs, academics and researchers investigating how vernacu-
lar techniques and materials may play a decisive role in the cre-
ation of more sustainable and energy efficient buildings while
seeking to liberate the vernacular from its prevailing associa-
tions with outdated traditions and a pre-industrial past. There-
fore, despite the existing neglect and disregard of many
vernacular settlements in Saudi Arabia and elsewhere in the
world, there is a growing awareness that sustainability is inex-
tricably linked to vernacular construction methods and mate-
rials. More importantly, that the expertise of vernacular
builders might be relevant not only in the conservation and
retrieval of vernacular settlements already in existence but also
in the construction of sustainable and resilient buildings for the
future. Thus, in the current discourse on sustainability, vernac-
ular architecture does not only play a vital role as a cultural
and scientific document to be conserved for future generations
but also presents a valuable resource and learning method to
Examining the thermal performance of vernacular houses
rethink the creation of a more resilient type of architecture.
Consequently, global challenges such as population growth,
global warming, housing needs, and questions of social and
economic equality can be addressed [8].
Over the last thirty years, the revival of vernacular building
techniques and materials such as rammed earth and mud has
steadily progressed through scientific research and publica-
tions as well as through the development of academic and
non-academic training programs [6]. In addition, there has
been steady growth in projects highlighting themes of ‘‘build-
ing simply”- in an effort to resolve the housing crisis for the
poor, which promote mud construction as a resourceful,
low-impact, and self-empowering construction method of
low-cost housing [18,5]. Moreover, it has been proven that
earthen construction materials such as mud brick, rammed
earth, and compressed earth block, are optimally suited for
sustainable building since they not only eliminate the costly
need for the transportation of imported materials, but also sig-
nificantly reduce the use of non-renewable, rare and energy
intensive products such as lumber, concrete blocks and
cement. As a raw material, mud is inherently regional, com-
pletely recyclable and reparable. In addition, loam also pos-
sesses superior thermal storage and transmissive properties
that, when combined with passive solar design, can dramati-
cally help to lower energy consumption in addition to reducing
pollution [15].
Over the last thirty years, the revival of vernacular building
techniques and materials such as rammed earth and mud has
steadily progressed through scientific research and publica-
tions as well as through the development of academic and
non-academic training programs [6]. In addition, there has
been steady growth in projects highlighting themes of ‘‘build-
ing simply”- in an effort to resolve the housing crisis for the
poor, which promote mud construction as a resourceful,
low-impact, and self-empowering construction method of
low-cost housing [18,5]. Moreover, it has been proven that
earthen construction materials such as mud brick, rammed
earth, and compressed earth block, are optimally suited for
sustainable building since they not only eliminate the costly
need for the transportation of imported materials, but also sig-
nificantly reduce the use of non-renewable, rare and energy
intensive products such as lumber, concrete blocks and
cement. As a raw material, mud is inherently regional, com-
pletely recyclable and reparable. In addition, loam also pos-
sesses superior thermal storage and transmissive properties
that, when combined with passive solar design, can dramati-
cally help to lower energy consumption in addition to reducing
pollution [15].
2. Research problem
Currently, most of the houses in Asir lie abandoned, falling
into sever decay as their owners moved to modern concrete
block villas for more space and comfort and are not willing
to dedicate their resources to the upkeep or renovation of their
mud houses. This is a document to the fact that vernacular
architecture in many places of the world still continues to be
associated with the past and the primitive, underdevelopment
and poverty, driven by a perceived hegemony of Western stan-
dards and technology [16]. In the current context of advanced
information technologies, deregulated markets and digitally
Please cite this article in press as: M. Mohamed et al., Examining the Thermal Performance of Vernacular Houses in Asir Region of Saudi Arabia, Alexandria Eng. J.
(2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.03.004
3
advanced star architecture, vernacular architecture is fre-
quently perceived as an obstacle to progress and material
wealth and, in most parts of the world, relegated to the pro-
duction of heritage destinations, created for the purpose of
eco-tourism. According to Asquith and Vellinga, ‘‘there seems
to be limited interest among planners, architects, and politi-
cians in the achievements, experience and skills of the world’s
vernacular builders or the environmentally and culturally
appropriate qualities of the buildings they produce” [19].
3. Research aim and objectives
The research aims at comparing and quantifying the effective-
ness of both – mud construction and concrete construction in
order to compare their thermal performance. This analysis was
achieved through the following objectives:
(1) Objective assessment for the environmental performance
of the case study buildings.
(2) Subjective assessment with the occupants of the case
study buildings.
4. Research methodology and framework
The methodology of this research depends, on a field study
approach that is divided into three main techniques. These
techniques include (i) obtaining and analysing the hourly cli-
matic data file for the location, (ii) objective assessment and
(iii) subjective assessment [10,11,12,14]. Fig. 2 illustrate the
employed detailed methodology of the research.
(i) In order to analyse the climatic context, a suitable set of
climatic data of the location under investigation is
needed. The proposed methodology employs a method
of designing hourly climatic data, which can be used
instead of actual data when necessary. The data depends
on utilizing synthesised climatic data generated by
Meteonorm software, which interpolates the climatic
data for a certain location by using the information from
the meteorological stations located closest to this loca-
tion. The interpolated data is then rescaled by using
the ‘Synthesis Data’ feature of Weather Tool software.2
On obtaining the hourly climatic data, Weather Tool
software is used to visualise and analyse the data to pro-
pose potential passive design strategies and measures.
(ii) An objective assessment was also conducted for the sake
of comparison analysis. Data logger’s equipment and
handheld instruments were used to measure the thermal
performance of comparable spaces in a traditional mud
house and a concrete house under the same macro-
climatic and micro-climatic conditions. The case study
comprises a concrete house and a mudbrick house
standing side by side. It is located at Al-Wadeen in the
Asiri region to the south east of Abha, the capital city
of Asir, (18.09736° N, 42.81503° E).
(iii) Finally, a subjective assessment was conducted with res-
idents through a semi-structured interview and self-
directed questionnaires. Both closed-ended and
2
www.squ1.com/software/ weather-tool/features.html.
4 M. Mohamed et al.

Fig. 2 Detailed methodology of the research.

opened-ended questions were utilized to explore the res-

idents’ opinions. As a second step, both objective and
subjective assessments were compared and analyzed in
order to validate the results. The thermal sensation
seven-point ASHRAE (American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers) scale Fig. 3 The thermal sensation seven-point scale, after [1].
was employed in this investigation to measure the ther-
mal comfort of the residents [1] Fig. 3.

The observation was conducted by eye and a professional

camera with wide angle and tripod, while the objective assess-
ment was conducted by using observation and field monitoring
techniques. Figs. 4 and 5 show external perspectives for the case
studies in addition to the monitored spaces inside the concrete
and the mud-houses. The occupants of the four houses were
asked to close their air-conditioning systems and to leave the
windows partially open during the monitoring days. The ther-
mal neutrality model was applied on analyzing the hourly cli-
matic data to determine the thermal comfort range during the
time of the field investigation. The concrete houses are elevated
one meter above the ground floor level while the mud houses are
located below street level. Therefore, to assure the validity of the
comparison, certain spaces from the ground floor of the concrete
houses were compared with similar spaces located on the first
floor of the mud houses, which demonstrated the same level
and the same orientation. Fig. 6 shows the ground floor plan Fig. 4 External perspectives for the two case studies, captured
for the two concrete houses and the first floor plan of the two by the research team.
mud houses with the monitored space highlighted in each one.

4.1. The measurements inside the houses include3:
(1) Monitoring the air temperature of two representative
spaces for three days inside the two houses in each case
study using Hobo Data Loggers H124 and TMC6-HD
3
Note: All the employed data logger and handheld equipment in the
objective assessment are a property of the first author.
4
Hobo Data Logger H12, a device to log the air temperature and
relative humidity at certain intervals for a period of time, shown in
Fig. 8.
Temperature Sensor C/W 50 ft Cable (Fig. 7). The data
loggers were fixed at 1.50 m above the fnishing floor
level of the selected spaces. The data logger was pro-
grammed to collect data at 15-minutes intervals.
(2) The data was analyzed by using statistical analysis soft-
ware SPSS to quantify the difference in thermal perfor-
mance between the two houses (concrete/mud) through
Mann-Whitney U test5 (Hague and Harris 1993). In
5
Mann-Whitney U test is similar to a t-test but does not require the
assumption of normal distribution for the values of the two samples.

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Examining the thermal performance of vernacular houses 5

Fig. 5 The monitored spaces inside the concrete houses and the mud house, captured by the research team.

Fig. 6 The ground and the first floor plans of the concrete and the mud houses.

Fig. 7 The employed data loggers and handheld equipment in the study.

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6 M. Mohamed et al.
addition, the WeatherTool software was utilized to iden-
tify the range of thermal comfort of the highlands of the
Asiri region at the study time (27–29 April 2017).
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Architectural description of the Asiri houses
The Asiri houses are designed to provide shelter for man and
tamed animals such as sheep and goats. The building normally
consists of one ground and two upper floors. Spaces in the
ground floor were dedicated to animals, poultry and stores
for grains and seasonal crops. The first floor includes the main
sitting room while sleeping rooms and kitchen used to be on
the top floor. An open terrace was typically added to the upper
floor for washing purposes. This terrace occupies one corner of
the building. The staircase occupies the middle of the houses,
built of mud and supported by wooden beams. Mud is the
dominant material of the Asir houses with local stone. Stone
used in walls are essential to support the mud durability [7].
Local timber is used as a roofing material only as structure?.
The buildings are built on stone strip footings or natural rock
followed by subsequent courses of mud. The mud walls, which
can range from 50 to 90 cm in depth, provide a high thermal
inertia, absorbing the hot summer air during the day and
release it during the cool nights. In the winter, this thermal
barrier also helps to insulate against the cold. The exterior
walls lean inwards allowing for less thickness in the upper
floors. The openings are relatively small because of the wall
bearing construction system. However, this size of openings
helps to control the pentation of the solar radiation and the
prevailing wind. The disadvantage of this building technique
is that it requires a high level of maintenance, as this material
is brittle and easily susceptible to water damage. Furthermore,
the heat during the summer months causes fissures in the exte-
rior walls, which need to be periodically repaired. To mitigate
these disadvantages, each layer of mud is separated by hori-
zontal bands of ragaf (projecting stone slates), which cascade
the rain away from the vulnerable clay and help to prevent ero-
sion. The orientation of the slates also help to block direct
solar rays in the summer but help to maximize their absorption
in the winter, thus keeping the inside temperature of the build-
ing at comfortable levels in both seasons [2].
5.2. Location and macro-climatic analysis
An hourly climatic data file for Abha, the capital city of Asir,
and the nearest city to the location of the case study has been
generated by using Meotonorm and Weather Tool. The file has
been analyzed and visualized to identify the proposed passive
strategies that should be followed in order to correspond with
the existing climatic conditions and enhance the thermal per-
formance of the case studies. The annual mean temperature
range is moderately cool, but during winter, it can get much
cooler. On analyzing the hourly climatic data of Abha, the
data showed that the average monthly outdoor air temperature
ranges from 15 °C in January to 26 °C in August, while the
maximum monthly temperature ranges from 25.3 °C in
December to 34.6 in October. The average daily direct solar
radiation ranges from 8882 wh/m2 in January to 10,446 wh/m2
Please cite this article in press as: M. Mohamed et al., Examining the Thermal Performance of Vernacular Houses in Asir Region of Saudi Arabia, Alexandria Eng. J.
(2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2019.03.004
in October. Based on the average daily incident radiation on
a vertical surface using Weather Tool, the optimum
orientation in Abha is the south-east (122.5°) (Fig. 8). The pre-
vailing wind is mostly blowing from the northeast direction
(Fig. 9).
The expected effectiveness of applying different passive
strategies on the thermal performance of the buildings is
shown in the below Fig. 10. It is clear that the thermal mass
effect, natural ventilation, and indirect evaporative cooling
have the best effect on enhancing the thermal performance
of the buildings in the highland of Asir region. The thermal
comfort range is identified by using the Weather Tool, by
the Thermal Neutrality Model for free running buildings
(Fig. 11). The diagram demonstrates that the range of thermal
comfort for the case studies’ location in April is between 23 °C
and 27 °C.
5.3. The subjective assessment
The questionnaire targeted a sample of 18 participants. All the
participants that were involved in the questionnaires have lived
in Asir for more than 10 years. Only two participants have
moved out to the major metropolitan cities of Riyadh and
Dammam. Respondents were selected randomly from house-
holds. The survey was administrated by two groups of students
on a face-to-face basis over a course of 3 days. Each group
contained three students supervised by one of the investigators
[7]. In the first part of this research project, the results of the
participants were analyzed except one question regarding the
thermal comfort inside the buildings. The results revealed a
significant difference between the thermal satisfaction inside
the concrete and the mud houses. Almost 90% of the partici-
pants confirmed that they enjoy the thermal performance of
the mud houses more than the concrete houses. They added
that they prefer to spend their time in the mud houses espe-
cially during the extreme weather times. Fig. 12 shows the ther-
mal comfort of occupants inside the mud and the concrete
houses based on the ASHRAE Seven Point Scale. It is clear
from the figure that the thermal comfort inside the mud house
is slightly better than in the concrete houses. At the time of
measurement, the climate was characterized by a moderate cli-
mate where the average temperature degrees ranged from
10 °C to 26 °C. The authors’ hypothesis is that the slight differ-
ences are more significant in favor of the mud houses during
the extreme hot and cold weather periods.
5.4. The objective assessment
The air temperature degrees of the two case studies were mon-
itored for two complete days at 15-minute intervals. The tem-
perature ranged from 20 °C to 26.5 °C at the two case study
sites. The average temperature for the concrete house was
20.76 °C while it was 22.67 °C for the mud house. By compar-
ing the air temperature degrees of the two houses with the aid
of a Mann-Whitney U test on the air temperature data, the
results revealed a significant difference (P < 0.05)6 between
6
In the majority of analyses, an alpha of 0.05 is used as the cut-off
for significance. If the p-value is less than 0.05, this confirms the
hypothesis that there is a significant difference between the means. If
the p-value is larger than 0.05, this proves the Null-Hypothesis of no
significant difference exists Hague and Harris, Sampling and Statistics.
Examining the thermal performance of vernacular houses 7

Fig. 8 Optimum orientation in Asir location, using Weather Tool.

Fig. 9 Prevailing winds for Asir city, using Weather Tool.

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8 M. Mohamed et al.

Fig. 10 Recommended passive strategies for Asir city, using Weather Tool.

Fig. 11 The monthly diurnal average temperatures and the thermal comfort range, using Weather Tool.

the two houses, despite the two sets of data trends being con-
sistent. Table 1 presents the statistical analysis output from the
SPSS software.
When comparing the results with the range of the thermal
comfort of the case study’s region in April (22–27 °C), it
revealed that the thermal performance of the mud house is bet-
ter than that of the concrete house since it brings about 90% of
the air temperature degrees inside the comfort zone (Fig. 13).
The results of the objective assessment validates the previ-
ous results from the subjective assessment.
6. Conclusion and recommendation
The current paper aimed to demonstrate the superior thermal
performance of traditional mud architecture over contempo-
rary concrete block construction. Both subjective and objective
assessment for two case studies of attached concrete and mud
houses in Asir region of Saudi Arabia were carried out in this
research. Air temperatures were monitored and measured dur-
ing the same times and intervals. The measurements demon-
strated that the thermal performance of the mud houses was

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Examining the thermal performance of vernacular houses 9

Fig. 12 % of the occupant’s thermal comfort inside the mud/concrete houses based on ASHRAE Seven Point Scale.

ments. It minimizes environmental impacts, and thus mini-

Table 1 Statistics comparison between the hourly air temper-
mizes the import of goods and energy as well as the
ature degrees of the two houses.
generation of waste. Aside from the environmental response
Comparison item The The mud to the local climate and geography, vernacular architecture
concrete house also enhances a feeling of identity and community [8]. Conse-
house quently, the vernacular settlements of Asir should not only be
Mean temp. 20.76 22.67 seen as a symbolic reminder of a bygone era but rather be
T- Test P = 0.000 regarded as a valuable stepping stones to a more sustainable
The difference between the two sets of S future whereby traditional passive building techniques and
air temperature at the two courtyards materials can be augmented with active sustainable technolo-
(S = Significant)
gies and contemporary scientific means.
Current construction activities should recognize the natural
energy systems and aspire to a symbiotic relationship with
superior to that of the concrete houses where air temperature their surroundings by learning from and improving on the ver-
degrees inside the mud houses were almost completely inside nacular building principles that provided sustainable solutions
the thermal comfort zone of the Asiri highlands. to energy needs for many generations. These principles can be
Sustainable design balances human needs with the carrying used as guidance to resolve complex design requirements in
capacity of regional climatic conditions and cultural environ- new construction. By recognizing the micro climatic factors

Fig. 13 The air temperature comparison between the concrete and the mud houses, by the first author after by using Hobo Ware.

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10
of a site in which a building is located, much of a building’s
natural energy patterns can be enhanced.
Acknowledgements
This paper has been developed from the outcomes of a
research project entitled: Developing intergenerational knowl-
edge transfer of vernacular building techniques in the southwest
of Saudi Arabia. The research project was granted by Effat
University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and carried out by the
authors and a team of students at the school of Architecture
and Design. Thus, the authors would like to thank Effat
University for supporting and all the students for their contri-
bution to the project.
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