Fourier Series and Fourier Transforms: Houshou Chen

Fourier Series and Fourier Transforms
Houshou Chen
Dept. of Electrical Engineering,

National Chung Hsing University
E-mail: houshou@ee.nchu.edu.tw
H.S. Chen Fourier Series and Fourier Transforms 1
Why Fourier
1. eigenfunction ejwt
P∞ jkw0 t
2. x(t) periodic ⇒ x(t) = k=−∞ ck e
3. ek1 w0 t and ek2 w0 t (k1 6= k1 ) are orthogonal over [0, T ] ⇒
Z
1 T
ck = x(t)e−jkw0 t dt
T 0
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• Representing signals as superpositions of complex sinusoids not

only leads to a useful expression for the system output, but also
provides an insightful characterization of signals and systems.
• We represent the signal as the ’linear sum’ of the sinusoids. The
weight associated with a sinusoid of a given frequency represents
the contribution of that sinusoids to the overall signal.
• The study of signals and systems using sinusoidal representations
is termed Fourier analysis after Joseph Fourier (1768–1830).

• There are four distinct Fourier representations, each applicable to

a different class of signals, determined by the periodicity
properties of the signal and whether the signal is discrete or
continuous in time.
• Fourier series (FS) for periodic continuous-time signals
• Discrete time Fourier series (DTFS) for periodic discrete-time
signals
• Fourier transform (FT) for aperiodic continuous-time signals
• Discrete time Fourier transform (DTFT) for aperiodic
discrete-time signals


Fourier Series
• Consider representing a periodic signal as a weighted

superposition of complex sinusoids. Since the weighted
superposition must have the same period as the signal, each
sinusoid in the superposition must have the same period as the
signal.
• This implies that the frequency of each sinusoid must be an
integer multiple of the signal’s fundamental frequency.

• If x(t) is a continuous-time signal with fundamental period T ,

then we seek to represent x(t) by the FS:
X
x(t) = A[k]ejkw0 t ,
k
2π
where w0 = T .

Fourier Transform
• In contrast to the case of the periodic signal, there are no

restrictions on the period of the sinusoids used to represent
aperiodic signals.
• Hence, the Fourier transform representations employ complex
sinusoids having a continuum of frequencies.
• The signal is represented as a weighted integral of complex
sinusoids where the variable of integration is the sinusoid’s
frequency.

• Continuous-time sinusoids with distinct frequencies are distinct,

so the FT involves frequencies from −∞ to ∞:
Z ∞
1
x(t) = X(jw)ejwt dw
2π −∞
X(jw)
• Here, 2π is the weight at frequency w.

FS
We will do the following step by step

1. The derivation of FS
2. Properties of FS
3. Some examples of FS

• Continuous-time periodic signals are represented by the Fourier

series (FS). We write the FS of a signal x(t) with fundamental
period T (fundamental frequency w0 = 2π T ) as
∞
X
x(t) = X[k]ejkw0 t
k=−∞
where Z T
1
X[k] = x(t)e−jkw0 t dt
T 0
are the FS coefficients of the signal x(t).

• We say that x(t) and X[k] are an FS pair and denote this
relationship as
F S;w0
x(t) ←→ X[k]
• In some problem it is advantageous to represent the signal in the

time domain as x(t), while in others the FS coefficients X[k] offer
a more convenient description.
• The FS coefficients are known as a frequency domain
representation of x(t) because X[k] is the coefficient associated
with complex sinusoid at frequency kw0 .

• The reason that x(t) and X[k] = ck with the following

relationship
X∞
x(t) = ck ejkw0 t
k=−∞
and Z T
1
X[k] = ck = x(t)e−jkw0 t dt
T 0
The reason is that any two signals ek1 w0 t ek2 w0 t at distinct

frequencies k1 w0 and k2 w0 are orthogonal over [0, T ].
• The derivation is as follows.

Z T
since ejk1 w0 t e−jk2 w0 t dt
0
Z T
= ej(k1 −k2 )w0 t dt
0
1 j(k1 −k2 )w0 t T

j(k1 −k2 )w0 e |0 ,if k1 6= k2
= RT

0
1dt ,if k1 = k2

1 j(k1 −k2 )2π

j(k1 −k2 )w0 (e − 1) ,if k1 6= k2
=
 T ,if k1 = k2

 0 ,if k1 6= k2
=
 T ,if k1 = k2

I.e., any two signals ek1 w0 t ek2 w0 t at distinct frequencies k1 w0 and

k1 w0 are orthogonal over [0, T ], or in general over any period
[t0 , t0 + T0 ]
We said that {ejkw0 t }∞
k=−∞ are orthogonal basis for x(t) whose
fundamental period is T0
Apply this fact to x(t), we have
∞
X
x(t) = ck ejkw0 t
k=−∞

Z T0
(x(t), ejmw0 t ) = x(t)e−jmw0 t dt
0
Z T0 ∞
X
= ck ejkw0 t e−jmw0 t dt
0 k=−∞
∞
X Z T0
= ck ej(k−m)w0 t dt
k=−∞ 0
= T0 cm
Z T0
1
⇒ cm = x(t)e−jmw0 t dt for any m0 ∈ Z
T0 0
I.e., we have the Fourier series pair for a periodic signal x(t) of
fundamental period T0 .


 x(t) = P∞ c ejkw0 t
k=−∞ k
⇒ R
 ck = 1 (x(t), ejkw0 t ) = 1
x(t)e−jkw0 t
dt
T0 T0 T0

Recall:
V = hv1 , ..., vn i
n
X
v∈V ⇒v= ai vi
i=1
if {v1 , ..., vn } is an orthogonal basis

i.e. 
 A ,i = j
(vi , vj ) =
 0 ,i 6= j

then
Xn n
X
(v, vj ) = ( ai vi , vj ) = ai (vi , vj ) = Aaj
i=1 i=1
1
i.e. aj = (v, vj ) f or ∀j
A
Therefore the coefficient aj of an orthogonal basis can be obtained
from the inner product between v and vj .

 v = Pn a v
i=1 i i
 ai = 1 (v, vi )
A

For the space of periodic signals with period T0 , we have
2π
V = hejkw0 t i∞
k=−∞ w0 =
T0
Now hejkw0 t i∞
k=−∞ is an orthogonal basis
since 
jk1 w0 t jk2 w0 t
 T
0 ,k1 = k2
(e ,e )=
 0 ,k1 6= k2

 x(t) = P∞ jkw0 t
k=−∞ ck e
⇒ R
 ck = 1 (x(t), ejkw0 t ) = 1
x(t)e−jkw0 t dt
T0 T0 hT0 i
as we expect.

• If x(t) is real, we can use {cos(kw0 t), sin(kw0 t)}∞

k=0 as the
orthogonal basis for x(t).
Original basis:
{ejkw0 t }∞
k=−∞
Since 
ejkw0 t +e−jkw0 t

2 = cos(kw0 t)
ejkw0 t −e−jkw0 t

2j = sin(kw0 t)
we can replace {ejkw0 t , e−jkw0 t }∞ ∞

k=1 by {cos(kw0 t), sin(kw0 t)}k=1

Now if x(t) is real, we have

Z T0
1
ck = x(t)e−jkw0 t dt
T0 0
Z T0
1
c−k = x(t)e−j(−k)w0 t dt
T0 0
Z T0
1
= x(t)ejkw0 t dt
T0 0
Z T0
1
= ( x(t)e−jkw0 t dt)∗
T0 0
= c∗k
= |ck |e−j∠c−k
i.e. c−k = |c−k |ej∠c−k = |ck |e−j∠ck ⇒ |c−k | = |ck | and ∠c−k = −∠ck

∞
X
x(t) = ck ejkw0 t
k=−∞
−1
X ∞
X
= c0 + ck ejkw0 t + ck ejkw0 t
k=−∞ k=1
X∞ ∞
X
= c0 + c−k e−jkw0 t + ck ejkw0 t
k=1 k=1
X∞ X∞
= c0 + (c∗−k e−jkw0 t )∗ + ck ejkw0 t
k=1 k=1
X∞
= c0 + [(ck e−jkw0 t )∗ + ck ejkw0 t ]
k=1

∞
X
= c0 + 2Re{ck ejkw0 t }
k=1
X∞
= c0 + 2Re{(Re{ck } + jIm{ck })(cos(kw0 t) + jsin(kw0 t))}
k=1
X∞
= c0 + 2(Re{ck }cos(kw0 t) − Im{ck }sinkw0 t)
k=1

∞
X
⇒ x(t) = c0 + Ak cos(kw0 t) + Bk sin(kw0 t)
k=1
where Ak = 2Re{ck }
Z T0
1
= 2Re{ x(t)e−jkw0 t dt}
T0 0
Z T0
2
= x(t)cos(kw0 t)dt
T0 0
Bk = −2Im{ck }
Z T0
1
= −2Im{ x(t)e−jkw0 t dt}
T0 0
Z T0
2
= x(t)sin(kw0 t)dt
T0 0

Properties of Fourier Series
F S;w0
x(t) ←→ ak
F S;w0
y(t) ←→ bk
1.linearity
F S;w0
⇒ Ax(t) + By(t) ←→ Aak + Bbk
∞
X
c(t) = ck ejkw0 t
k=−∞

and
X X
jkw0 t
c(t) = Ax(t) + By(t) = A ak e +B bk ejkw0 t
k k
X
= (Aak + Bbk )ejkw0 t
k
⇒ ck = Aak + Bbk

2. time shifting
x(t) ↔ ak
x(t − t0 ) ↔ ak e−jkw0 t0
| {z }
bk
Z
1
bk = x(t − t0 )e−jkw0 t dt
T hT i
Z T
1
= x(t − t0 )e−jkw0 t dt
T 0
Z
1 T −t0
= x(τ )e−jkw0 (τ +t0 ) dτ
T −t0
Z
1
= ( x(τ )e−jkw0 τ dτ )e−jkw0 t0
T hT i
= ak e−jkw0 t0

3. frequency shifting
x(t) ↔ ak
x(t)ejM w0 t ↔ bk = ak−M
Z Z
1 1
bk = x(t)ejM w0 t e−jkw0 t dt = x(t)e−j(k−M )w0 t dt
T hT i T hT i
= ak−M

4. conjugation
x(t) ↔ ak
x∗ (t) ↔ bk = a∗−k
Z Z
1 1
bk = x∗ (t)e−jkw0 t dt = ( x(t)e−j(−k)w0 t dt)∗ = a∗−k
T hT i T hT i
in particular if x(t) is real ⇒ x(t) = x∗ (t)

therefore ak = a∗−k

5. multiplication
x(t) ↔ ak
y(t) ↔ bk
x(t)y(t) ↔ ak ∗ bk = hk
∞
X
i.e. hk = al bk−l
l=−∞
∞
X
x(t) = ak ejkw0 t
k=−∞
∞
X
y(t) = bl ejlw0 t
l=−∞

Finally, we have
∞
X ∞
X
x(t)y(t) = ak bl ej(k+l)w0 t
k=−∞ l=−∞
∞
X ∞
X
= ( am−l bl )ejmw0 t
m=−∞ l=−∞
∞
X
= hm ejmw0 t
m=−∞
where m = k + l.

6. convolution
z(t) = x(t) ∗ y(t) ↔ zk = T0 ak bk
proof:
Z
z(t) = x(t) ∗ y(t) = x(τ )y(t − τ )dτ
τ ∈hT0 i
Z
1
⇒ zk = z(t)e−jkw0 t dt
T0 t∈hT0 i
Z Z
1
= x(τ )y(t − τ )dτ e−jkw0 t dt
T0 t∈hT0 i τ ∈hT0 i
Z Z
1
= x(τ ) y(t − τ )e−jkw0 t dtdτ
T0 τ ∈hT0 i t∈hT0 i
Z Z
1 1
= T0 x(τ )e−jkw0 τ dτ y(λ)e−jkw0 λ dλ
T0 τ ∈hT0 i T0 λ∈hT0 i
= T0 ak bk

7. Parseval’s theorem for F.S.

Z T0 ∞
1 X
P = |x(t)|2 dt = |ck |2
T0 0
k=−∞
I.e., to find the average power P of x(t), we can either calculate in

time domain or in frequency domain.

proof:
Z T0
1
|x(t)|2 dt
T0 0
Z T ∞ ∞
1 X X
= ck ejkw0 t c∗m e−jmw0 t dt
T0 0 m=−∞
k=−∞
∞ ∞ Z
1 X X
= ck c∗m ej(k−m)w0 t dt
T0 hT0 i
k=−∞ m=−∞
∞
1 X
= ck c∗k T0
T0
k=−∞
∞
X
= |ck |2
k=−∞

For real signal x(t), we have |c−k | = |ck |
∞
X
⇒ P = |c0 |2 + 2 |ck |2
k=1
also we have
Ak = 2Re{ck }
Bk = −2Im{ck }
therefore
2 2 A2k
2 Bk2
|ck | = Re {ck } + Im {ck } = +
4 4

Finally for real signal, we have another form:

∞
2
X A2 k B 2
P = |c0 | + + k
2 2
k=1

FT
We will do the following step by step

1. The derivation of FT
2. Some examples of FT
3. Properties of FT

Fourier Transform: from F.S. to F.T.
FT
f (t) ←→ F (jw)
F (jw) = F {f (t)} and f (t) = F −1 {f (jw)}


 F (jw) = R ∞ f (t)e−jwt dt
−∞
R
 f (t) = 1 ∞ F (jw)ejwt dw
2π −∞

Fourier transform pair for some common signals
Example 1: 
 1, −T ≤ t ≤ T
1 1
f (t) =
 0, otherwise

Z ∞
F (jw) = f (t)e−jwt dt
−∞
Z T1
= 1 · e−jwt dt
−T1
1 −jwt T1
= e |−T1
−jw
1 jT1 w−e−jT1 w
= (e )
+jw
2T1 ejT1 w − e−jT1 w
=
wT1 2j
sin(T1 w)
= 2T1
wT1
= 2T1 sinc(T1 w)
therefore F(jw) is the envelop function of T0 · Ck

i.e.
t wW
rect( ) ←→ W sinc( )
w 2

Example 2: x(t) = e−at u(t) (a > 0)
Z ∞
=⇒ X(jw) = x(t)e−jwt dt
−∞
Z ∞
= e−at u(t)e−jwt dt
−∞
Z ∞
= e−(jw+a)t dt
0
1
= e−(jw+a)t |0−∞
−(jw + a)
1
= (if a > 0)
jw + a

Example 3: x(t) = e−a|t| (a > 0)

Z ∞
−∞
Z ∞
= e−a|t| e−jwt dt
−∞
Z 0 Z ∞
at −jwt
= e e dt + e−at e−jwt dt
−∞ 0
Z 0 Z ∞
= e(a−jw)t dt + e−(a+jw)t dt
−∞ 0
1 1
= e(a−jw)t |∞
0 +
a − jw jw + a
1 1
= + if a > 0
a − jw jw + a
2a
= if a > 0
a2 + w2

Example 4:
x(t) = δ(t)
Z ∞
−∞
Z ∞
= δ(t)e−jwt dt = e−jwt |t=0 = 1
−∞
i.e.
δ(t) ←→ 1
similarly if x(t) = δ(t − t0 )
Z ∞
=⇒ X(jw) = δ(t − t0 )e−jwt dt
−∞
−jwt
= e |t=t0 = e−jwt0
δ(t − t0 ) ←→ 1 · e−jwt0

Example 5:
X(jw) = 2πδ(w)
Z ∞
1
=⇒ x(t) = X(jw)ejwt dw
2π −∞
Z ∞
1
= 2πδ(w)ejwt dw
2π −∞
= ejwt |w=0 = 1
i.e.
1 ←→ 2πδ(w)
similarly if X(jw) = 2πδ(w − w0 )
Z ∞
1
=⇒ x(t) = 2πδ(w − w0 )ejwt dw
2π −∞
= ejwt |w=w0 = ejw0 t

i.e.
1 · ejw0 t ←→ 2πδ(w − w0 ) (frequency shifting) )
With this, we can represent the periodic signal by FT:
∞
X
x(t) = Ck ejkw0 t
k=−∞
∞
X
=⇒ X(jw) = F{x(t)} = F{ Ck ejkw0 t }
k=−∞
∞
X
= Ck F{ejkw0 t }
k=−∞
X∞
= 2πCk δ(w − kw0 )
k=−∞

i.e.

Example 6:
1 jw0 t 1 −jw0 t
x(t) = cosw0 t = e + e
2 2
1 1
=⇒ X(jw) = 2πδ(w − w0 ) + 2πδ(w + w0 )
2 2
= πδ(w − w0 ) + πδ(w + w0 )
1 jw0 t 1 −jw0 t
x(t) = sinw0 t = e − e
2j 2j
1 1
=⇒ X(jw) = 2πδ(w − w0 ) − 2πδ(w + w0 )
2j 2j
= jπδ(w + w0 ) − jπδ(w − w0 )

In conclusion
x(t) ←→ X(jw)
1 ←→ 2πδ(w)
ejw0 t ←→ 2πδ(w − w0 )
δ(t) ←→ 1
δ(t − t0 ) ←→ e−jwt0
1
e−at u(t) ←→ (a > 0)
jw + a
2σ
e−a|t| ←→ 2 2
(a > 0)
a +w
∞
X X∞
Ck ejkw0 t ←→ 2πCk δ(w − kw0 )
k=−∞ k=−∞

cosw0 t ←→ πδ(w + w0 ) + πδ(w − w0 )

π π
sinw0 t ←→ δ(w − w0 ) − δ(w + w0 )
j j
1
u(t) ←→ πδ(w) +
jw
2
sgn(t) ←→
jw

Properties of FT
x(t) ←→ X(jw)
y(t) ←→ Y (jw)
ax(t) + by(t) ←→ aX(jw) + bY (jw)
x∗ (t) ←→ X ∗ (−jw)
1 w
x(at) ←→ X( )
|a| a
x(t − t0 ) ←→ X(jw)e−jwt0
x(t)ejw0 t ←→ X(j(w − w0 ))
X(t) ←→ 2πx(−w)

1. linearity
x(t) ←→ X(jw)
y(t) ←→ Y (jw)
ax(t) + by(t) ←→ aX(jw) + bY (jw)

2. conjugation
x(t) ←→ X(jw)
x∗ (t) ←→ X ∗ (−jw)
Z ∞ Z ∞
x∗ (t)e−jwt dt = ( x(t)e−(−jwt) )∗ = X ∗ (−jw)
−∞ −∞
if x(t) = x∗ (t) real =⇒ X ∗ (−jw) = X(jw)




 Re{X(−jw)} = Re{X(jw)}


 Im{X(−jw)} = −Im{X(jw)}
=⇒


 |X(−jw)| = |X(jw)|


 ∠X(−jw) = −∠X(−jw)

3. Time scaling
F 1 w
f (αt) ←→ F( )
|α| α
Interpretation:
• If α > 1, we obtain that compression in the time domain
corresponds to expansion in the frequency domain.
• If 0 < α < 1, we obtain that compression in the time domain
corresponds to expansion in the frequency domain.

4. Time shifting
F
f (t − t0 ) ←→ e−jwt0 F (w)

Example: Recall the Fourier transforms of δ(t) and δ(t − t0 ).

Proof:
Z ∞
F [f (t − t0 )] = f (t − t0 )e−jwt dt
−∞
Z ∞
= f (σ)e−jw(σ+t0 ) dσ
−∞
−jwt0
= e F (w)

Combining Time Scaling and Time shifting :

1
F w +jt0 w/a
f (at + t0 ) ←→ F ( )e
|a| a
This is obtained by (i) shifting f(t) by t0 and (ii) scaling the result of
(i) by a.

5. Frequency shifting
F
ejw0 t f (t) ←→ F (w − w0 )
for any real w0 .
Example: Recall the Fourier transforms of 1 and ejw0 t , and u(t) and
cos(w0 t)u(t). Also ,examine the ”modulation” property below.

Proof:
Z ∞
F[ejw0 t f (t)] = ejw0 t f (t)e−jwt dt
−∞
Z ∞
= f (t)e−j(w−w0 )t dt
−∞
= F (w − w0 )

6. Duality 
 F (−t) ←→ 2πf (w)
 F (t) ←→ 2πf (−w)

Proof:
Z ∞
1
f (t) = F (w)ejwt dw
2π −∞
Z ∞
2πf (−t) = F (w)e−jwt dw
−∞
Z ∞
2πf (−w) = F (t)e−jwt dt = F[F (t)]
−∞
where the last line is obtained by interchanging t with w.

7. Convolution
If all the involved Fourier transforms exist, then
x(t) ∗ h(t) ←
F
→ X(w)H(w)

Proof:
Z ∞ Z ∞
F[x(t) ∗ h(t)] = [ h(t − τ )x(τ )dτ ]e−jwt dt
−∞ −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
= x(τ )[ h(t − τ )e−jwt dt]dτ
−∞ −∞
Z ∞
= x(τ )[e−jwt H(w)]dτ
−∞
Z ∞
= H(w) x(τ )e−jwt dτ
−∞
= H(w)X(w)

8. Modulation
If all the involved Fourier transforms exist, then
1 F
x(t)m(t) ←→ X(w) ∗ M (w)
2π

Proof:
Z ∞ ∞ Z
1 0 jw0 t
F[x(t)m(t)] = x(t)[ M (w )e dw0 ]e−jwt dt
−∞ 2π −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
1 0 −jwt +jw0 t
= M (w )[ x(t)e e dt]dw0
2π −∞ −∞
Z ∞
1
= M (w0 )[X(w − w0 )]dw0
2π −∞
1
= M (w) ∗ X(w)
2π
Example: This result can be used to calculate F[cos(w0 t)u(t)].

9. Time Differentiation
If f (t) is continuous and if f (t) and f 0 (t) = dfdt(t) are both absolutely
integrable (and thus satisfy the Dirichlet conditions),then
df (t) F
←→ jwF (w)
dt

Proof:
Z ∞ Z ∞
f 0 (t)e−jwt dt = f (t)e−jwt |∞
−∞ + jw f (t)e−jwt dt
−∞ −∞
The key step now is to observe that since f (t) is assumed to be

absolutely integrable, then f (t) → 0 as t → ±∞ and thus the first
term on the RHS evaluates to zero. The second term is simply
jwF (w)

10. Parseval’s Theorem
Parseval’s Theorem
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
|f (t)|2 dt = |F (w)|2 dw
−∞ 2π −∞

Proof:
Z ∞ Z ∞
2
|f (t)| dt = f (t)f ∗ (t)dt
−∞ −∞
Z ∞ ∞ Z
1
= f (t)[ F ∗ (w)e−jwt dw]dt
−∞ 2π −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
1
= F ∗ (w)[ f (t)e−jwt dt]dw
2π −∞ −∞
Z ∞
1
= F ∗ (w)F (w)dw
2π −∞
Z ∞
1
= |F (w)|2 dw
2π −∞

Fourier Series and Fourier Transforms: Houshou Chen

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Fourier Series and Fourier Transforms: Houshou Chen

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Fourier Series and Fourier Transforms

Dept. of Electrical Engineering,

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• Representing signals as superpositions of complex sinusoids not

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• There are four distinct Fourier representations, each applicable to

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• Consider representing a periodic signal as a weighted

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• If x(t) is a continuous-time signal with fundamental period T ,

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• In contrast to the case of the periodic signal, there are no

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• Continuous-time sinusoids with distinct frequencies are distinct,

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

We will do the following step by step

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• Continuous-time periodic signals are represented by the Fourier

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• In some problem it is advantageous to represent the signal in the

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• The reason that x(t) and X[k] = ck with the following

The reason is that any two signals ek1 w0 t ek2 w0 t at distinct

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

I.e., any two signals ek1 w0 t ek2 w0 t at distinct frequencies k1 w0 and

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

if {v1 , ..., vn } is an orthogonal basis

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

For the space of periodic signals with period T0 , we have

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

• If x(t) is real, we can use {cos(kw0 t), sin(kw0 t)}∞

we can replace {ejkw0 t , e−jkw0 t }∞ ∞

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Now if x(t) is real, we have

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Properties of Fourier Series

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

in particular if x(t) is real ⇒ x(t) = x∗ (t)

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

7. Parseval’s theorem for F.S.

I.e., to find the average power P of x(t), we can either calculate in

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

For real signal x(t), we have |c−k | = |ck |

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

Finally for real signal, we have another form:

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University

We will do the following step by step

Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University