Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Second edition

Robert W. Erickson
Dragan Maksimovic
University of Colorado, Boulder

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 1 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Introduction to power processing

1.2. Some applications of power electronics
1.3. Elements of power electronics
Summary of the course

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 2 Chapter 1: Introduction

 1.1 Introduction to Power Processing

Power Switching Power

input converter output

Control
input
Dc-dc conversion: Change and control voltage magnitude
Ac-dc rectification: Possibly control dc voltage, ac current
Dc-ac inversion: Produce sinusoid of controllable
magnitude and frequency
Ac-ac cycloconversion: Change and control voltage magnitude
and frequency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 3 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Control is invariably required

Power Switching Power

input converter output

Control
input

feedforward feedback
Controller

reference

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 4 Chapter 1: Introduction

 High efficiency is essential

1
Pout
η= η
Pin
0.8
1 –1
Ploss = Pin – Pout = Pout η

0.6

High efficiency leads to low

power loss within converter
Small size and reliable operation 0.4

is then feasible
Efficiency is a good measure of
converter performance 0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5
Ploss / Pout

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 5 Chapter 1: Introduction

 A high-efficiency converter

Pin Pout
Converter

A goal of current converter technology is to construct converters of small

size and weight, which process substantial power at high efficiency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 6 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Devices available to the circuit designer

+
–
DTs s T
Linear-
mode Switched-mode
Resistors Capacitors Magnetics Semiconductor devices

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 7 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Devices available to the circuit designer

+
–
DTs s T
Linear-
mode Switched-mode
Resistors Capacitors Magnetics Semiconductor devices

Signal processing: avoid magnetics

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 8 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Devices available to the circuit designer

+
–
DTs s T
Linear-
mode Switched-mode
Resistors Capacitors Magnetics Semiconductor devices

Power processing: avoid lossy elements

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 9 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Power loss in an ideal switch

Switch closed: v(t) = 0 +

i(t)
Switch open: i(t) = 0
v(t)
In either event: p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 0

Ideal switch consumes zero power

–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 10 Chapter 1: Introduction

 A simple dc-dc converter example

I
10A
+

Vg + Dc-dc
converter R V
– 5Ω 50V
100V
–

Input source: 100V

Output load: 50V, 10A, 500W
How can this converter be realized?

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 11 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Dissipative realization

Resistive voltage divider

I
10A
+
+ 50V –
Vg + Ploss = 500W R V
– 5Ω 50V
100V
–
Pin = 1000W Pout = 500W

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 12 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Dissipative realization

Series pass regulator: transistor operates in

active region
I
+ 50V – 10A
+

Vg linear amplifier –+ Vref

+ R V
– and base driver
100V 5Ω 50V
Ploss ≈ 500W
–
Pin ≈ 1000W Pout = 500W

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 13 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Use of a SPDT switch

I
1 10 A
+ +

Vg 2
+ vs(t) R v(t)
– 50 V
100 V
– –

vs(t)
Vg
Vs = DVg

0
DTs (1 – D) Ts t
switch
position: 1 2 1
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 14 Chapter 1: Introduction
 The switch changes the dc voltage level

vs(t)
Vg
D = switch duty cycle
Vs = DVg 0≤D≤1
0
Ts = switching period
DTs (1 – D) Ts t
switch
position: fs = switching frequency
1 2 1
= 1 / Ts

DC component of vs(t) = average value:

Ts
Vs = 1 vs(t) dt = DVg
Ts 0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 15 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Addition of low pass filter

Addition of (ideally lossless) L-C low-pass filter, for

removal of switching harmonics:
1
i(t)
+ +
L
Vg 2
+ vs(t) C R v(t)
–
100 V
– –
Pin ≈ 500 W Pout = 500 W
Ploss small

• Choose filter cutoff frequency f0 much smaller than switching

frequency fs
• This circuit is known as the “buck converter”
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 16 Chapter 1: Introduction
 Addition of control system
for regulation of output voltage

Power Switching converter Load

input
+
i

vg + v
–
Sensor
– H(s) gain

Transistor Error
gate driver signal
δ Pulse-width vc G (s) ve –+ Hv
δ(t) modulator c

Compensator
Reference
dTs Ts t input vref

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 17 Chapter 1: Introduction

 The boost converter

2
+
L
1
Vg + C R V
–

5Vg
4Vg
3Vg
V
2Vg
Vg
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 18 Chapter 1: Introduction
 A single-phase inverter

vs(t)
1 + – 2
Vg +
– + v(t) –
2 1
load

vs(t) “H-bridge”
Modulate switch
duty cycles to
obtain sinusoidal
t low-frequency
component

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 19 Chapter 1: Introduction

 1.2 Several applications of power electronics

Power levels encountered in high-efficiency converters

• less than 1 W in battery-operated portable equipment
• tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts in power supplies for
computers or office equipment
• kW to MW in variable-speed motor drives
• 1000 MW in rectifiers and inverters for utility dc transmission
lines

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 20 Chapter 1: Introduction

 A laptop computer power supply system

Inverter Display
backlighting

iac(t) Charger
Buck Microprocessor
vac(t) PWM converter
Rectifier Power
management

ac line input Boost Disk

85–265 Vrms Lithium
battery converter drive

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 21 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Power system of an earth-orbiting spacecraft

Dissipative
shunt regulator

+
Solar
array vbus

Battery Dc-dc Dc-dc

charge/discharge converter converter
controllers

Batteries
Payload Payload

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 22 Chapter 1: Introduction

 An electric vehicle power and drive system

ac machine ac machine

Inverter Inverter control bus

battery
µP
+ system
controller
3øac line Battery
charger DC-DC
vb converter
50/60 Hz
Vehicle
– electronics
Low-voltage
dc bus

Inverter Inverter

Variable-frequency
Variable-voltage ac
ac machine ac machine

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 23 Chapter 1: Introduction

 1.3 Elements of power electronics

Power electronics incorporates concepts from the fields of

analog circuits
electronic devices
control systems
power systems
magnetics
electric machines
numerical simulation

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 24 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part I. Converters in equilibrium

Inductor waveforms Averaged equivalent circuit

D' VD
vL(t) RL D Ron D' RD D' : 1
Vg – V

+
–
+
DTs D'Ts
t Vg + V R
–V – I
switch
position: 1 2 1 –

iL(t)
iL(DTs)
∆iL
Predicted efficiency
I
iL(0) Vg – V –V
100%
0.002
L L 90%
0.01
80%
0 DTs Ts t
70% 0.02

60% 0.05

η 50% RL/R = 0.1

40%

Discontinuous conduction mode 30%

20%

Transformer isolation 10%

0%
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 25 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Switch realization: semiconductor devices

iA(t)
The IGBT collector
Switching loss
transistor
waveforms Qr
Vg
gate iL
vA(t)

0 0
emitter t

Emitter iB(t)
diode
waveforms iL
vB(t)
Gate 0 0
t
area
–Qr –Vg
n n n n
p p

minority carrier
n- injection tr

p pA(t)
= vA iA
area
~QrVg
Collector area
~iLVgtr
t0 t1 t2 t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 26 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part I. Converters in equilibrium

2. Principles of steady state converter analysis

3. Steady-state equivalent circuit modeling, losses, and efficiency

4. Switch realization

5. The discontinuous conduction mode

6. Converter circuits

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 27 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part II. Converter dynamics and control

Closed-loop converter system Averaging the waveforms

Power Switching converter Load gate
input drive
+

vg(t) + v(t) R
–
feedback
connection t
–

transistor actual waveform v(t)

gate driver compensator including ripple
δ(t) pulse-width vc G (s) –+ v
modulator c
averaged waveform <v(t)>Ts
with ripple neglected
δ(t) vc(t) voltage
reference vref t

dTs Ts t t

Controller

Vg – V d(t)
L
1:D D' : 1
+
–
+
Small-signal
+
averaged vg(t)
– I d(t) I d(t) C v(t) R

equivalent circuit –

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 28 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part II. Converter dynamics and control

7. Ac modeling

8. Converter transfer functions

9. Controller design
10. Input filter design

11. Ac and dc equivalent circuit modeling of the discontinuous

conduction mode

12. Current-programmed control

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 29 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part III. Magnetics

n1 : n2

transformer i1(t) iM(t) i2(t)

the layer 3i
design LM
proximity
3
–2i
2Φ
R1 R2 effect 2i
layer
2
–i
ik(t)
Φ
i
layer d
1
: nk Rk

current
density
J
4226

transformer 3622 0.1

size vs. 0.08

Pot core size

2616 2616
2213 2213

Bmax (T)
switching 1811 1811
0.06

0.04
frequency 0.02

0
25kHz 50kHz 100kHz 200kHz 250kHz 400kHz 500kHz 1000kHz
Switching frequency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 30 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part III. Magnetics

13. Basic magnetics theory

14. Inductor design

15. Transformer design

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 31 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part IV. Modern rectifiers,
and power system harmonics

Pollution of power system by A low-harmonic rectifier system

rectifier current harmonics ig(t)
boost converter
i(t)
iac(t) + +
L D1

vac(t) vg(t) Q1 C v(t) R

– –
vcontrol(t) vg(t) ig(t)
PWM
Rs
multiplier X va(t)
v (t)
+– err Gc(s)
vref(t)
= kx vg(t) vcontrol(t) compensator
controller
100%
100%
91%
percent of fundamental
Harmonic amplitude,

THD = 136%
80% 73% Distortion factor = 59% iac(t) Ideal rectifier (LFR) i(t)
60% 52% + 2
p(t) = vac / Re +
40% 32%
Model of
vac(t) Re(vcontrol) v(t)
20% 19% 15% 15%
13% 9% the ideal
0%
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
rectifier – –

Harmonic number ac dc
input output
vcontrol

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 32 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part IV. Modern rectifiers,
and power system harmonics

16. Power and harmonics in nonsinusoidal systems

17. Line-commutated rectifiers

18. Pulse-width modulated rectifiers

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 33 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part V. Resonant converters

The series resonant converter

Q1 Q3 L C
D1 D3 1:n
+

Vg +
– R V

–
Zero voltage
Q2 Q4
D2 D4

switching
1 Q = 0.2 vds1(t) Vg
0.9
Q = 0.2
0.8
0.35
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.35 Q1 X D2 t
conducting
M = V / Vg

0.75 devices: Q4 D3
0.5
0.5 1
0.4 turn off commutation
0.75
1 1.5 Q 1, Q 4 interval
0.3
1.5
2
2
0.2
Dc 0.1
3.5
5
3.5
5

characteristics
10 10
Q = 20 Q = 20
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
F = fs / f0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 34 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Part V. Resonant converters

19. Resonant conversion

20. Soft switching

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 35 Chapter 1: Introduction

 Appendices

A. RMS values of commonly-observed converter waveforms

B. Simulation of converters
C. Middlebrook’s extra element theorem
L iLOAD
D. Magnetics design tables 1 2
50 µH
3
+

2 CCM-DCM1
Vg
+ C R1
– 500 µF R v
11 kΩ
28 V

5
20 dB 4
|| Gvg || Open loop, d(t) = constant –
0 dB R2

3
85 kΩ
Xswitch C2
–20 dB R=3Ω R3 C3
L = 50 µΗ 2.7 nF 1.1 nF
fs = 100 kΗz
–40 dB 120 kΩ
+12 V
8 7 6 – 5
–60 dB Closed loop R = 25 Ω +
vx –vy LM324
VM = 4 V vz
–80 dB vref R4
5 Hz 50 Hz 500 Hz 5 kHz 50 kHz Epwm + 47 kΩ
f value = {LIMIT(0.25 vx, 0.1, 0.9)} –
5V
.nodeset v(3)=15 v(5)=5 v(6)=4.144 v(8)=0.536

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 36 Chapter 1: Introduction