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General areas
in Section 2.3. In Figure 2.3, we illustrate the basic idea using a region
bounded by the function y = f (x) = x2 on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
1 1
y = f (x) = x2 y = f (x) = x2
0.8 0.8
N = 40 rectangles N →∞
0.6 0.6
True area of
0.4 0.4
region
0.2 0.2
1. Compute the area of a region between a function and the x-axis and x = a
and x = b using a spreadsheet, with a varying number of rectangular stripes.
y = f ( x ) = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
We set up the rectangles for the Riemann sum, determine the heights and
areas of these rectangles, sum their total area, and then determine how this
value behaves as the rectangles get more numerous (and thinner). Examples
of these rectangles are shown in Figure 2.3, we depict detailed labeling in
Figures 2.4.
i.e. xk = k(1/N ) = k/N. In the right panel of Figure 2.4, some of these
coordinates have been labeled. For clarity, we show only the first few points,
together with a representative pair xk−1 and xk inside the region.
Let us look carefully at one of the rectangles. Suppose we look at the kth
rectangle, which is shaded in Figures 2.4. The height of this rectangle is
determined by the value of the function, since one corner of the rectangle
is “glued” to the curve. The choice shown in Figure 2.4 is to affix the right
corner of each rectangle on the curve. This implies that the height of the
k-th rectangle is obtained from substituting xk into the function, i.e. height =
f (xk ). The base of every rectangle is the same, i.e. base = Δx = 1/N. This
means that the area of the k-th rectangle, shown shaded, is
ak = height × base = f (xk )Δx.
We now use three facts:
1 k
f (xk ) = xk2 , Δx = , xk = .
N N
Then the area of the k’th rectangle is
2
k 1
ak = height × base = f (xk )Δx = .
N N
f (xk ) Δx
GENERAL AREAS 43
A list of rectangles, and their properties are shown in Table 2.2. This may
help the reader to see the pattern that emerges in the summation.
Note: in general this table is not needed. It is presented for this example only
to help visualize how heights of rectangles behave.
The total area of all rectangular strips (a sum of the values in the right
column of Table 2.2) is
N N 2 N
k 1
AN strips = ∑ ak = ∑ f (xk )Δx = ∑ . (2.1)
k =1 k =1 k =1 N N
N
1
AN strips =
N3 ∑ k2 .
k =1
Eqn. (1.2) for the sum of square integers can be applied to the summation, Mastered Material Check
resulting in 9. Give (or recall) the formulas for
determining the sum of the first N
integers and cubes.
1 N (N + 1)(2N + 1) (N + 1)(2N + 1)
AN strips = = . (2.2)
N3 6 6N 2
In the box below, we use Eqn. (2.2) to compute that approximate area for
values of N shown in the first three panels of Fig 2.3. Note that these are
comparable to the values we obtained “numerically” above.
44 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S
If N = 10 strips (Figure 2.3a), the width of each strip is Δx = 1/10 = 0.1 unit.
According to Eqn. 2.2, the area of the 10 strips (shown in red) is
(10 + 1)(2 · 10 + 1)
A10 strips = = 0.3850.
6 · 102
If N = 20 strips (Figure 2.3b), Δx = 1/20 = 0.05, and
(20 + 1)(2 · 20 + 1)
A20 strips = = 0.35875.
6 · 202
If N = 40 strips (Figure 2.3c), Δx = 1/40 = 0.025 and
(40 + 1)(2 · 40 + 1)
A40 strips = = 0.3459375.
6 · 402
Definition 2.1 The true area under the graph of the function y = f (x) over
the given interval (if f (x) ≥ 0 for all points in the interval) is
A = lim AN strips .
N→∞
This means that the true area is obtained by letting the number of rectangular
strips, N, get very large (while the width of each one, Δx = 1/N gets very
small).
Recall that the heights of the rectangular strips were calculated as the val-
ues of the function in the upper right corners where the graph of the function
‘touches’ the rectangle. This is the so-called right endpoint rule. Similarly,
the rectangles can be built so that the graph of the function ‘touches’ the
rectangles in the left upper corner (left endpoint rule) or goes through the
middle of their top (midpoint rule).
In this section, our goal has been to compute the area bounded by the
function y = f (x) = x2 on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. When the area is approximated using
rectangular strips, the corresponding Riemann sum appears to approximate
the area of this region:
2
N
k 1 (N + 1)(2N + 1)
AN strips = ∑ N N
=
6N 2
.
k =1
Thus the true area is found by taking the limit as N gets large in this equation,
i.e.,
1 (N + 1)(2N + 1) 1 (N + 1)(2N + 1)
A = lim = lim .
N→∞ N 2 6 6 N→∞ N2
To evaluate this limit, note that when N gets very large, we can use the
approximations, (N + 1) ≈ N and (2N + 1) ≈ 2N so that (simplifying and
cancelling common factors), Mastered Material Check
10. Why, when N gets very large can we
(N + 1)(2N + 1) (N ) (2N ) use the approximations (N + 1) ≈ N
lim = lim = 2.
N→∞ N2 N→∞ N N and (2N + 1) ≈ 2N?
GENERAL AREAS 45
Comments
Many students who have had calculus in high school, ask “why do we bother
with such tedious calculations, when we could just use integration?” Indeed,
our development of Riemann sums foreshadows and anticipates the idea
of a definite integral, and in short order, some powerful techniques help to
shortcut such technical calculations. However, there are two reasons why we
linger on Riemann sums:
x
0
1
y
k’th
rectangle yk =f(x k )
(enlarged)
x
x 0=0 xk
x1 x2 xN=1 Δx
length of interval: xN − x0 = 1 − 0 = 1
Mastered Material Check
number of segments: N
1 13. In Figure 2.5, what is N? Δx?
width of rectangular strips: Δx =
N
1 k
the kth x value: xk = k =
N N
height of the kth rectangular strip: f (xk ) = xk (1 − xk )
The representative kth rectangle is shown shaded in Figure 2.5; its area is
1 k k
ak = base × height = Δx · f (xk ) = · (1 − ) .
N N N
Δx f ( xk )
Using the summation formulae Eqns. (1.1) and (1.2) from Chapter 1 results
in:
1 N (N + 1) 1 (2N + 1)N (N + 1)
AN strips = − .
N2 2 N3 6
Simplifying, and regrouping terms, we get
1 (N + 1) 1 (2N + 1)(N + 1)
AN strips = − .
2 N 6 N2
GENERAL AREAS 47
This is the area for a finite number, N, of rectangular strips. As before, the
true area is obtained as the limit as N goes to infinity, i.e. A = lim AN strips .
N→∞
We obtain:
1 (N + 1) 1 (2N + 1)(N + 1) 1 1 1
A = lim − lim 2
= − ·2 = .
N→∞ 2 N N→∞ 6 N 2 6 6
ez ≈ 1 + z.
where r = e4/N . This is a finite geometric series. Because the series starts
with k = 1 and not with k = 0, the sum is
2 1 − r N +1
AN strips = −1 .
N 1−r
48 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S
Example 2.3 (More general interval) Set up the calculation for determin-
ing the area under the curve y = f (x) = x2 on the interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 5.
4. In general, a function f (x) may take on both, positive and negative values
on an interval [a, b]. More consideration is required when finding areas
then (see Chapter 3).
Note: the calculation may be non-trivial, and might involve sums that
we have not discussed in our simple examples so far, but in principle the
procedure is well-defined.
Example 2.4 In Section 2.2 we computed the area under the function y = Figure 2.7: Area under y = f (x) = x2
f (x) = x2 on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and found its area to be 1/3 (see on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
Eqn. (2.3) and Figure 2.7). Rewrite using definite integral notation.
Solution. 1
1
x2 dx = .
0 3
50 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S
Solution. 1
1
x(1 − x) dx = .
0 6
Mastered Material Check
17. For each of Examples 2.4 - 2.9,
Example 2.6 Rewrite the result of Example 2.2 using integral notation. sketch the region depicted if not
already provided. In all cases, label
Solution. In Example 2.2 we found that the area of the region under the with the computed areas/integrals.
graph of y = f (x) = e2x over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 was approximately 26.799.
Thus we write: 2
e2x dx ≈ 26.799. y
0
Example 2.7 Using geometry, calculate the area under the function y =
f (x) = x over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and write your solution in definite integral
notation.
Solution. As seen in Figure 2.8, the region under the function y = f (x) = x
over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is triangular, with base and height 1. The area of x
this triangle is thus A = (1/2)(base× height) = 0.5. Hence, 0 1
1
x dx = 0.5. Figure 2.8: Area under y = f (x) = x
0 on 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.
y
Example 2.8 Determine the area under the constant function y = 1 over the
interval 2 ≤ x ≤ 4. Write your solution in integral notation.
where N denotes the “end” of the sum, and k keeps track of where we are
in the process of summation. The symbol s, sometimes called a “dummy
variable” is analogous to the summation symbol k.
In the upcoming Chapter 3, we investigate properties of this new “area
function” A(x) defined above. This leads us to the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, and provides new and powerful tools to replace the summations
that we had to perform in much of Chapter 2. Indeed, we are about to dis-
cover the amazing connection between a function, the area A(x) under its
curve, and the derivative of A(x).
Summary
1. We can calculate the area of a region in the plane that is bounded by the x-
axis, two lines of the form x = a and x = b, and the graph of a positive
52 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S
function y = f (x).
2. We introduced the terminology “definite integral” (Section 2.3) and the
notation (2.4) to represent that area.
3. One of our main efforts focused on how to actually compute that area by
the following set of steps:
(a) Subdivide the interval [a, b] into smaller intervals (width Δx).
(b) Construct rectangles whose heights approximate the height of the
function above the given interval.
(c) Add up the areas of these approximating rectangles. (Here we often
used summation formulae from Chapter 1.) The resulting expression,
such as Eqn. (2.1), for example, was denoted a Riemann sum.
(d) Find out what happens to this total area in the limit when the width Δx
goes to zero (or, in other words, when the number of rectangles N goes
to infinity).
4. We showed both the analytic approach, using Riemann sums and summa-
tion formulae to find areas, as well as numerical approximations using
a spreadsheet tool to arrive at similar results. We then used a variety of
examples to illustrate the concepts and arrive at computed areas.
5. As a final important point, we noted that the area “under the graph of a
function” can itself be considered a function. This idea emerges later and
leads us to the key concept linking the geometric concept of areas with
the analytic properties of antiderivatives. We shall see this link in the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, in Chapter 3.
10
Exercises 8
6
2.1. Areas in the plane.
4
(a) Compute the area of the staircase shown in Figure 2.12.
(b) What would be the area of that region if, instead of the ten steps 2
shown, it consisted of 100 steps, each of width 0.1 and with heights
2 4 6 8 10
0.1, 0.2, . . . 10?
(c) If there are a very large number of steps of very small width, and Figure 2.12: Figure for Exercise 2.1; area of
a staircase.
very small height increments, what would be the approximate area
of the region shaded? y
2.2. Area of bounded region. Find the area bounded by the x-axis, the y-
axis, and the graph of the function y = f (x) = 1 − x. (See Figure 2.13.)
y = f (x) = 1 − x
(a) By using your knowledge about the area of a triangular region.
(b) By setting this up as a Riemann sum, i.e., as a sum of the areas of
N rectangular strips, using the appropriate summation formula, and
letting the number of strips (N) get larger and larger to arrive at the x
result. 0 1
(c) Show that your answer in (b) is then identical to the answer in (a). Figure 2.13: Figure for Exercise 2.2; finding
the area bounded by the line f (x) = 1 − x
This exercise practices setting up and computing Riemann sum. and the x and y-axes.
2.3. Areas in the plane. Compute the areas of the two shaded regions
for the interval 0 < x < 20 in Figure 2.14 created using right and left
endpoint rules, correspondingly. The curve shown on the diagram is
y = x2 and there are twenty rectangles forming the staircase in both
cases. How do the areas of the shaded regions relate to the area A
under this curve?
2.4. Estimating area. Estimate the area under the graph of f (x) = x2 + 2
from x = −1 to x = 2 in each of the following ways, and sketch the
graph and the rectangles in each case.
Note: use of a spread sheet is encouraged, though not necessary.
(a) By using three rectangles and left endpoints.
(b) Improve your estimate in (a) by using 6 rectangles.
(c) Repeat part (a) using midpoints.
(d) Repeat part (b) using midpoints.
(e) From your sketches in parts (a), (b), (c) and (d), which appears to
be the best estimate?
2.5. Finding area. Find the area A between the graphs of the functions:
y = f (x) = 2x and y = g(x) = 1 + x2 between x = 0 and their
intersection point.
54 I N T E G R A L C A L C U L U S W I T H A P P L I C AT I O N S F O R L I F E S C I E N C E S
400 400
300 300
200 200
100 100
5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
y = f (x) = x2 + 2x + 1 a≤x≤b
h1 h2 2
b 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(a) Find the appropriate value of H. Assume that the width is the Symmetric leaf
distance between the leaf edges at the midpoint of the leaf.
Figure 2.16: The shape of a symmetric leaf
of length L and width w is approximated by
the quadratic y = Hx(L − x) in Exercise 2.16.
GENERAL AREAS 57
(b) Find the area between the x axis and the function y = f (x) =
Hx(L − x).
(c) Use your result from (a) to express the area of the leaf in terms of
the width and length of this leaf.
y = f (x) = x2(1 − x)
2.17. Tapered Leaf. Consider the shape of a leaf shown in Figure 2.2.17,
and given by the function y = f (x) = x2 (1 − x). This leaf is not fully
symmetric, since it is tapered at one end. By choice of the function 0 1
that describes its top edge, the length of the leaf is 1 unit.
(a) Find the width of the leaf (distance between edges at the widest Tapered leaf
place) (hint: use differential calculus to determine where the widest
point occurs). Figure 2.17: The shape of a tapered leaf is
approximated by the function y = x2 (1 − x).
(b) Find the area of this shape by dissection into rectangles.