Ionic and Covalent Bonds

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There are many types of chemical bonds and forces that bind molecules together. The
two most basic types of bonds are characterized as either ionic or covalent. In ionic
bonding, atoms transfer electrons to each other. Ionic bonds require at least one electron
donor and one electron acceptor. In contrast, atoms with the same electronegativity share
electrons in covalent bonds, because neither atom preferentially attracts or repels the
shared electrons.

Introduction
Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms. It is a type
of chemical bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. In ionic bonds, the metal
loses electrons to become a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal accepts
those electrons to become a negatively charged anion. Ionic bonds require an electron
donor, often a metal, and an electron acceptor, a nonmetal.

Ionic bonding is observed because metals have few electrons in their outer-most orbitals.
By losing those electrons, these metals can achieve noble gas configuration and satisfy
the octet rule. Similarly, nonmetals that have close to 8 electrons in their valence shells
tend to readily accept electrons to achieve noble gas configuration. In ionic bonding,
more than 1 electron can be donated or received to satisfy the octet rule. The charges on
the anion and cation correspond to the number of electrons donated or received. In ionic
bonds, the net charge of the compound must be zero.
This sodium molecule donates the lone electron in its valence orbital in order to achieve
octet configuration. This creates a positively charged cation due to the loss of electron.

This chlorine atom receives one electron to achieve its octet configuration, which creates
a negatively charged anion.

The predicted overall energy of the ionic bonding process, which includes the ionization
energy of the metal and electron affinity of the nonmetal, is usually positive, indicating
that the reaction is endothermic and unfavorable. However, this reaction is highly
favorable because of the electrostatic attraction between the particles. At the ideal
interatomic distance, attraction between these particles releases enough energy to
facilitate the reaction. Most ionic compounds tend to dissociate in polar solvents because
they are often polar. This phenomenon is due to the opposite charges on each ion.

EXAMPLE 11: CHLORIDE SALTS

In this example, the sodium atom is donating its 1 valence electron to the chlorine
atom. This creates a sodium cation and a chlorine anion. Notice that the net charge of the
resulting compound is 0.

In this example, the magnesium atom is donating both of its valence electrons to chlorine
atoms. Each chlorine atom can only accept 1 electron before it can achieve its noble gas
configuration; therefore, 2 atoms of chlorine are required to accept the 2 electrons
donated by the magnesium. Notice that the net charge of the compound is 0.

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons between atoms. This type of bonding occurs
between two atoms of the same element or of elements close to each other in the periodic
table. This bonding occurs primarily between nonmetals; however, it can also be
observed between nonmetals and metals.

If atoms have similar electronegativities (the same affinity for electrons), covalent bonds
are most likely to occur. Because both atoms have the same affinity for electrons and
neither has a tendency to donate them, they share electrons in order to achieve octet
configuration and become more stable. In addition, the ionization energy of the atom is
too large and the electron affinity of the atom is too small for ionic bonding to occur. For
example: carbon does not form ionic bonds because it has 4 valence electrons, half of an
octet. To form ionic bonds, Carbon molecules must either gain or lose 4 electrons. This is
highly unfavorable; therefore, carbon molecules share their 4 valence electrons through
single, double, and triple bonds so that each atom can achieve noble gas configurations.
Covalent bonds include interactions of the sigma and pi orbitals; therefore, covalent
bonds lead to formation of single, double, triple, and quadruple bonds.

EXAMPLE 22: PCl3PCl3

In this example, a phosphorous atom is sharing its three unpaired electrons with
three chlorine atoms. In the end product, all four of these molecules have 8 valence
electrons and satisfy the octet rule.

Bonding in Organic Chemistry

Ionic and covalent bonds are the two extremes of bonding. Polar covalent is the
intermediate type of bonding between the two extremes. Some ionic bonds contain
covalent characteristics and some covalent bonds are partially ionic. For example, most
carbon-based compounds are covalently bonded but can also be partially ionic. Polarity is
a measure of the separation of charge in a compound. A compound's polarity is
dependent on the symmetry of the compound and on differences in electronegativity
between atoms. Polarity occurs when the electron pushing elements, found on the left
side of the periodic table, exchanges electrons with the electron pulling elements, on the
right side of the table. This creates a spectrum of polarity, with ionic (polar) at one
extreme, covalent (nonpolar) at another, and polar covalent in the middle.

Both of these bonds are important in organic chemistry. Ionic bonds are important
because they allow the synthesis of specific organic compounds. Scientists can
manipulate ionic properties and these interactions in order to form desired products.
Covalent bonds are especially important since most carbon molecules interact primarily
through covalent bonding. Covalent bonding allows molecules to share electrons with
other molecules, creating long chains of compounds and allowing more complexity in
life.

Sigma and Pi Bonds

The hybridization model helps explain molecules with double or triple bonds (see
figure below). Ethene (C2H4)(C2H4) contains a double covalent bond between
the two carbon atoms and single bonds between the carbon atoms and the
hydrogen atoms. The entire molecule is planar.
 Figure 9.20.1: Geometry of ethene molecule.

As can be seen in the figure below, the electron domain geometry

around each carbon independently is trigonal planar. This corresponds
to sp2sp2 hybridization. Previously, we saw carbon undergo sp3sp3 hybridization
in a CH4CH4 molecule, so the electron promotion is the same for ethene, but the
hybridization occurs only between the single ss orbital and two of the
three pporbitals. Thus generates a set of three sp2sp2 hybrids along with an
unhybridized 2pz2pz orbital. Each contains one electron and so is capable of
forming a covalent bond.

Figure 9.20.2: Hybridization in ethene.

The three sp2sp2 hybrid orbitals lie in one plane, while the
unhybridized 2pz2pz orbital is oriented perpendicular to that plane. The bonding
in C2H4C2H4 is explained as follows. One of the three sp2sp2hybrids forms a
bond by overlapping with the identical hybrid orbital on the other carbon atom.
The remaining two hybrid orbitals form bonds by overlapping with the 1s1s orbital
of a hydrogen atom. Finally, the 2pz2pz orbitals on each carbon atom form
another bond by overlapping with one another sideways.

It is necessary to distinguish between the two types of covalent bonds in

a C2H4C2H4 molecule. A sigma bond (σσ bond) is a bond formed by the
overlap of orbitals in an end-to-end fashion, with the electron density
concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. A pi bond (ππ bond) is a
bond formed by the overlap of orbitals in a side-by-side fashion with the electron
density concentrated above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding
atoms. The figure below shows the two types of bonding in C2H4C2H4.
The sp2sp2 hybrid orbitals are purple and the pzpzorbital is blue. Three sigma
bonds are formed from each carbon atom for a total of six sigma bonds total in
the molecule. The pi bond is the "second" bond of the double bonds between the
carbon atoms and is shown as an elongated green lobe that extends both above
and below the plane of the molecule. This plane contains the six atoms and all of
the sigma bonds.

Figure 9.20.3: Sigma and pi bonds.

In a conventional Lewis electron-dot structure, a double bond is shown as a

double dash between the atoms as in C=CC=C. It is important to realize,
however, that the two bonds are different: one is a sigma bond, while the other is
a pi bond.

Ethyne (C2H2)(C2H2) is a linear molecule with a triple bond between the two
carbon atoms (see figure below). The hybridization is therefore spsp.

Figure 9.20.4: Ethyne structure.

The promotion of an electron in the carbon atom occurs in the same way.
However, the hybridization now involves only the 2s2s orbital and
the 2px2px orbital, leaving the 2py2py and the 2pz2pzorbitals unhybridized.

Figure 9.20.5: Hybridization in ethyne.

The spsp hybrid orbitals form a sigma bond between each other as well as sigma
bonds to the hydrogen atoms. Both the pypy and the pzpz orbitals on each carbon
atom form pi bonds between each other. As with ethene, these side-to-side
overlaps are above and below the plane of the molecule. The orientation of the
two pi bonds is that they are perpendicular to one another (see figure below).
One pi bond is above and below the line of the molecule as shown, while the
other is in front of and behind the page.

Figure 9.20.6: The C2H2C2H2 molecule contains a triple bond between the two
carbon atoms, one of which is a sigma bond, and two of which are pi bonds.

In general, single bonds between atoms are always sigma bonds. Double bonds
are comprised of one sigma and one pi bond. Triple bonds are comprised of one
sigma bond and two pi bonds.

Summary
 Sigma bonds form between two atoms.

Pi bonds form from pp orbital overlap. Introduction

Many organic compounds found in nature or created in a laboratory contain rings
of carbon atoms with distinguishing chemical properties; these compounds are
known as cycloalkanes. Cycloalkanes only contain carbon-hydrogen bonds and
carbon-carbon single bonds, but in cycloalkanes, the carbon atoms are joined in
a ring. The smallest cycloalkane is cyclopropane.

Figure 4.1.1:

If you count the carbons and hydrogens, you will see that they no longer fit the
general formula CnH2n+2CnH2n+2. By joining the carbon atoms in a ring,two
hydrogen atoms have been lost. The general formula for a cycloalkane
is CnH2nCnH2n. Cyclic compounds are not all flat molecules. All of the
cycloalkanes, from cyclopentane upwards, exist as "puckered rings".
Cyclohexane, for example, has a ring structure that looks like this:

Figure 4.1.2: This is known as the "chair" form of cyclohexane from its shape,
which vaguely resembles a chair. Note: The cyclohexane molecule is constantly
changing, with the atom on the left, which is currently pointing down, flipping up,
and the atom on the right flipping down. During this process, another (slightly
less stable) form of cyclohexane is formed known as the "boat" form. In this
arrangement, both of these atoms are either pointing up or down at the same
time
In addition to being saturated cyclic hydrocarbons, cycloalkanes may have
multiple substituents or functional groups that further determine their unique
chemical properties. The most common and useful cycloalkanes in organic
chemistry are cyclopentane and cyclohexane, although other cycloalkanes
varying in the number of carbons can be synthesized. Understanding
cycloalkanes and their properties are crucial in that many of the biological
processes that occur in most living things have cycloalkane-like structures.

Glucose (6 carbon sugar) Ribose (5 carbon sugar)

Although polycyclic compounds are important, they are highly complex and
typically have common names accepted by IUPAC. However, the common
names do not generally follow the basic IUPAC nomenclature rules. The general
formula of the cycloalkanes is CnH2nCnH2n where nn is the number of carbons.
The naming of cycloalkanes follows a simple set of rules that are built upon the
same basic steps in naming alkanes. Cyclic hydrocarbons have the prefix "cyclo-
".

Contents
For simplicity, cycloalkane molecules can be drawn in the form of skeletal
structures in which each intersection between two lines is assumed to have a
carbon atom with its corresponding number of hydrogens.

same as same as
Cycloalkane Molecular Formula Basic Structure

Cyclopropane C3H6

Cyclobutane C4H8

Cyclopentane C5H10

Cyclohexane C6H12

Cycloheptane C7H14

Cyclooctane C8H16

Cyclononane C9H18
 Cyclodecane C10H20