ECG426 – SOIL MECHANICS

WEEK 3

Physical properties and classification of soils;

1C) Soil Classification
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Week 3 : Coverage ~ Basis of soil classification system, PSD and Hydrometer and
Consistency limits.

Learning outcomes:
At the end of this lecture/week the students would
be able to:

i) Discuss the purpose and usage of soil classification test

ii) Carry out analysis of laboratory results to determine the grading characteristics of
soil
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

1C) SOIL CLASSIFICATION

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

1C) SOIL CLASSIFICATION

OUTLINE of PRESENTATION ~ cont’d…

1.12 Methods of Classification

1.13 Determination of Consistency Limits
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Methods of Classification

1.12 Methods of Classification

 Broadly, the procedures undertaken to classify soil is
based on whether it is a coarse grained material or a
fine grained material.
 For coarse grain sieving test is normally used to
determine the distribution of particle sizes. For fine
grain soil, hydrometer test (sedimentation test) is
adopted.
 The particle sizes in soils has a wide range from 200
mm down to the colloidal size particle of 0.001 mm in
clays.
 The aim of this analysis is to measure the
distribution of particle size in a soil sample.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Coarse grain analysis

1.12.1 Classification of Coarse Soil

In the case of coarse soil, the test conducted is
known as sieve analysis which is detailed out in :
BS 1377: 1990: Part 2 Methods of Test for
Soil for Civil Engineering Purposes: Test 9.
A coarse soil sample which have been separated from the
fines through the process of wet sieving, is oven dried and
then placed on standard nest of sieves arranged in
descending order according to the mesh size.
The nest of sieves is then agitated and the weight of soil
retained on each sieve is determined and the cumulative
percentage of the sub sample passing each sieve is
calculated.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Standard sieve sizes
BS5930:1999 ASTMD-2487:ASTM1991
TestSieveApertureSize(mm) SieveIdentification OpeningSize(mm)
50 3inch 76.2
37.5 2inch 50.8
28 1½inch 38.1
20 1inch 25.4
14 3/4inch 19.0
10 3/8inch 9.52
6.3 #4 4.75
5 #8 2.36
3.35 #10 2.00
2 #16 1.18
1.18 #20 0.850
0.600 #30 0.600 Sieve
sizes
0.425 #40 0.425
0.300 #50 0.300
0.212 #60 0.250 for BS
0.150 #100 0.150 and
0.063
-
#140
#200
0.106
0.075
ASTM
 9
Sieve sizes for ASTM
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Particle Size Distribution Test
1.12.1.1 Sieve Analysis Test

Discussion of the test will focus on :

 Apparatus
 Procedures of sieving
 Data processing
 Plotting of graph
 Analysis of test results
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Sieving Apparatus

Particle size
distribution apparatus
SOIL CLASSIFICATION

RIFFLE BOX

Notes :
Maksimum mass retained for each sieve size
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Procedures of Sieving
Method 1 : WET SIEVING
❖ Wet sieving is carried out to remove fine-grained particles and to
determine the combined clay/silt fraction percentage given in BS
1377: 1990: Part 2: Test 9.2.
• A sub sample is first oven dried and sieved to separate the
coarsest particle (>20 mm).
❖ The sub sample is then immersed in water containing dispersing
agent of sodium hexametaphosphate of about 2 g/litre solution and
is allowed to stand before being washed away in a 63 m mesh
sieve.
• The retained fraction is again oven dried and passed into a
nest of sieves.
❖ The cumulative percentage passing is calculated and the combined
clay/silt fraction is determined from the weight difference expressed
as a percentage of the total sub sample from hydrometer test.
• The coarsest fraction (>20 mm) is sieved and the result is
combined to complete the grading curve.
Note : Details procedure of wet sieving can be referred in BS1377-2:1990 Clause 9.2.4
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Procedures of Sieving
METHOD 2 : DRY SIEVING
 Dry sieving is carried out on
particles bigger than 63 m to
determine the coarse material in the
sub sample in accordance to BS
1377: 1990: Part 2: Test 9.3.
 The sub sample is first oven dried.
Fit the largest size test sieve
appropriate to the max size of the
material present to the receiver and
placed on the nest of sieves.
 The nest is then agitated on the
shaker shown and the weight
retained in each sieve is determined.
 The cumulative percentage passing
is calculated to plot the grading
curve. BS Test Sieve
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Analysis of Test Results

Cu > 3 is well graded (Whitlow, 2004)

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Analysis of Test Results
100
Percentage Finer

Grading Curve

60

30

10

0
d10 d30 d60

Particle Size (mm)

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Tabulation of Test Data
EXAMPLE 1 : PSD
ANALYSIS ~ TABLE OF
CALCULATION
Data shown is
obtained from a
a typical three
stage dry sieving
PSD Graph
Analysis of Test Results

Determination
of the grading
characteristics
of the sample
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Tabulation of Test Data
EXAMPLE 2 : PSD
ANALYSIS ~ TABLE OF
CALCULATION
Data shown is
obtained from a
a typical three
stage sieving
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plotting of PSD Graph

PSD Graph
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Fine Grain Analysis
1.12.1.2 Grading of Fine Soil
METHOD 3 : Hydrometer Test (Sedimentation
Test)
 Hydrometer test is based on the
principles of sedimentation of soil
grained in water.
 This is based on Stoke’s law which
expressed that:
 s - w
 D2 Hydrometer
18
test bulb
where
v is the velocity
s is the unit weight of soil particles,
w is the unit weight of water,
 is the viscosity of water, and
D is the diameter of soil particles.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Hydrometer Test
Hydrometer Test (Sedimentation Test) – cont…

 In the laboratory, hydrometer test is conducted on a sedimentation

cylinder of 1000 ml using 50 g of oven dried sub sample in
accordance to BS 1377-2:1990 Clause 9.5
 A dispersing solution is a mixture of 33 g of sodium
hexametaphosphate combined with 7 g of sodium carbonate is mixed
with water of 1000 ml and allowed to stand for 24 hrs. This solution
only last for ONE MONTH only. Always recorded the date
prepared.
 Add only 100ml of dispersing solution to the 50g of sample in conical
flask, put it on a mechanical shaker for at least 4hr or overnight.
Shake the sample until all soil is in suspension.
 Transfer the suspension onto the 63m sieve that place on the
empty receiver or container. Wash the suspension retained on the
sieve using a jet of distilled water from wash bottle. The amount of
distilled water used during this operation SHALL NOT EXCEED
500ml.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Hydrometer Test
Hydrometer Test (Sedimentation Test) – cont…
 Transfer the suspension collected in the container to 1L measuring cylinder,
then add distilled water into that cylinder to make up to 1000ml. Use this
suspension for the sedimentation test ~ hydrometer method. Bring this
cylinder+suspension to the water bath for at least 1hr, then put a lid & shake
it for 60times in 2mins.

The hydrometer bulb is then placed in the soil suspension SLOWLY and
measurements are recorded immediately at 0.5min, 1min, 2min and 4min.
Remove the hydrometer from suspension measuring cylinder and rinse in
distilled water.

Reinsert the hydrometer at interval period, such as 8 min, 30min, 2hr, 4hr,
8hr, 16hr, 24hrs, 48hrs, or 72hrs. Do remove the hydrometer & rinse
immediately with distilled water for every measurement recorded at initial
time.
Notes: Prior to hydrometer measurement, all corrections and calibration

relevant to hydrometer test NEED TO BE carried out; such as volume
calibration of hydrometer, scale calibration of hydrometer, meniscus
correction, etc as instructed in Clause 9.5 ~ 9.5.8
Note : Details procedure for hydrometer test can be referred in BS1377-2:1990 Clause 9.5
Conical flask (contains sample +
dispersion solution) on rotating
mechanical shaker
Hydrometer serial no.
normally is printed here.
It is very important to
record serial no. when
performing calibration.

Record the reading

using hydrometer
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Comparison of the Soil Classification System

A. BS 5930:1999 ~ Code of Practice for

Site Investigation

B. ASTM:D 2487-06 ~ Unified Soil

Classification System (USCS)
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
A. British Soil Classification System

➢
BS 1377: 1990: Part 2 Methods of
Test for Soil for Civil Engineering
➢ Purposes
BS 5930: 1999: Code of Practice for
Site Investigation includes standard
➢ schemes for the description of both soils and
rocks which makes important distinction
between material and mass.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
BS Grading Characteristics ~ for coarse soils
▪ Well graded ~ A soil, in order to be classified
as well-graded, must have a good range of all
representative particlesizes between the
largest and the smallest. The soil in Figure 7
is well-graded.

▪ Poorly-graded ~ soils are either those

containing a narrow range of particle sizes
or those with some intermediate sizes
lacking. Soils with a limited range of particle
sizes are called "uniformly graded”. Soils
which have some intermediatesize or sizes
not well represented or missing are called
"gap graded”. Sometimes gap graded is also
known as "step graded,”, or "skip graded”.
Figure 8 shows poorly graded soils
29
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
BS Grading Characteristics ~ for coarse soils
The well-graded soil is preferred for construction because :-
1. It can be easily compacted into a dense mass with
minimum voids.
2. The solid mass is denser because of the interlocking of
the particles which enable it to support heavier loads.
3. Since the particles are fitted, it realizes the best
downward load distribution.
4. The tendency for displacement of individual grains by
either loads or moisture is minimized because they are
locked in place.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
BS Plasticity Chart for the classification of fine soils

Plasticity Chart in
accordance to BS
Re produce from BS 5930:1981 - This table also can be found in Whitlow, R. (2001), Table 2.2 & 2.3, pg 18~23

Supersededby
BS5930:1999
Supersededby
BS5930:1999
 The dominant
secondary
fraction comes
immediately
before the
principal soil
term.

BS5930:1999 – USED THIS LATESTVERSION OF

COARSE/FINECOMPOSITION%
Soil Classification (PSD Curve) ~ BS
Soil Classification (PSD Curve) ~ BS

Grading characteristics according to BS5930:1999 for Soil A to F

are as below :
BS5930:1999-Section6~BritishSoilClassificationSystem
GradingCharacteristics Plasticity

Grading G S M C D60 D30 D10 Cu Cg wL wP Ip Soildescriptions

curve % % % % mm mm mm % % % (group&sub-group)
A 78 22 0 0 20 3.7 0.6 33.3 1.1 wellgradedverysandy
- - - GRAVEL
B 44 49 7 0 10 0.16 0.08 125 0.03 gapgradedsiltyverygravelly
- - - SAND
C 0 100 0 0 0.5 0.4 0.3 1.7 1.1 - - - uniformlygradedSAND

D 0 58 40 2 - - - - - 33 27 6 sandySILToflowplasticity

E 0 30 29 41 45 17 28 slightlysandyCLAYof
- - - - - intermediateplasticity
F 0 0 43 57 - - - - - 60 25 35 CLAYofhighplasticity

Compare the soil names obtained from PSD curves analysis for Soil A to F between BS and ASTM
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
B. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

❖ The original form of the Unified Soil Classification

System was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for the
use of airfield construction works undertaken by the
Army Corps of Engineers during World War II.
❖ The system was revised in 1952 with the cooperation
of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, widely used as
ASTM Designation: D 2487-06 (current edition
approved). This system classifies soil into two types,
mainly:
i) Coarse grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in
nature with less than 50 % passing through the No. 200
sieve (0.075 mm).
ii) Fine grained soils with 50 % or more passing through
the No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm).
ASTM: D 2487-06 Classifying Fine Soils
Latest version of USCS
ASTM: D 2487-06 Latest version of USCS

Classifying Organic Fine Soils

ASTM: D 2487-06 Classifying Coarse Soils
Latest version of USCS
Soil Classification
Plasticity Chart for fine soils ~ ASTM
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Comparison of sizes distribution
Figures below give a general overview of the British
Standard range size particles and the American Standard
range size particles, respectively, which are carried out
based on the weight percentages falling within the band
size represented by these divisions and sub divisions.

British Standard Sizes Distribution

0.002 0.074 0.42 2 4.76 19.1 76.2

Fine Coarse
SILT

ASTM Sizes Distribution

Soil Classification (PSD Curve) ~ ASTM
Soil Classification (PSD Curve) ~ ASTM

Grading characteristics according to ASTM: D 2487-06 for

Soil A to F are as below :
ASTM:D2487-06~UnifiedSoilClassificationSystem
GradingCharacteristics Plasticity

Grading G S M C D60 D30 D10 Cu Cg LL PL PI Soildescriptions

curve % % % % mm mm mm % % % (group&sub-group)
A 67 33 0 0 20 3.7 0.6 33.3 1.1 Well-gradedgravelwith
- - - sand(GW)
B 43 48 9 0 10 0.16 0.08 125 0.03 Poorlygradedsandwithsilt
- - - andgravel(SP-SM)
C 0 100 0 0 0.5 0.4 0.3 1.7 1.1 - - - Poorlygradedsand(SP)

D 0 50 48 2 - - - - - 33 27 6 Sandysilt(ML)

E 0 22 37 41 - - - - - 45 17 28 Leanclaywithsand(CL)

F 0 0 43 57 - - - - - 60 25 35 Fatclay(CH)

Notes : Capital letters are not used to indicate principal soil types in ASTM

Compare the soil names obtained from PSD curves analysis for Soil A to F between BS and ASTM
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS

1.12.2 Classification of Fine Soil

In the case of fine soils, it is the shape rather

than the size of particles that has the greater
influence on the engineering properties.
Since plasticity of fine soils has an important
effect on such engineering properties as shear
strength and compressibility, plastic consistency
is used as a basis for their classification.
The consistency of a soil is its physical state
characteristics at a given water content. Four
consistency states may be defined.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS

Consistency relationships
Volume Ip

Natural water content, w

Plastic Liquid
Va Semi-
Vd plastic
Vs Solid
solid
% Water
wS wP wL Content
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS
It is convenient to define arbitrary limits corresponding to a
changeover moisture content:

i) wL - the liquid limit is defined as the water content of the soil to

which it ceases to be liquid and becomes plastic.

ii) wP - the plastic limit is defined as the water content of the soil to
which it ceases to be plastic and becomes semi-
plastic solids.

iii) wS - the shrinkage limit is defined as the water content of the soil
to which the drying shrinkage at constant stress ceases.
The two most important terms are the liquid and plastic limits
which represent respectively the upper and lower bound of the
plastic states and the range of this state is given by their
differences termed as plasticity index, IP.
Ip = wL - wP
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS

The common degree of plasticity used are given below:

i) Low plasticity: wL < 35 %
ii) Intermediate plasticity: wL = 35 % - 50 %
iii) High plasticity: wL = 50 % - 70 %
iv) Very high plasticity: wL = 70 % - 90 %
v) Extremely high plasticity: wL > 90 %
The relationship between soil’s natural water content and its
consistency limits, i.e. its natural or in situ consistency, is given
by the liquidity index (IL)
w  wP
IL 
IP
i) IL < 0: the soil is in semi-plastic solid or solid state.
ii) 0 < IL < 1: the soil is in plastic state.
iii) IL >1: the soil is in liquid state.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Chart - BS

Plasticity Chart in
accordance to BS
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Chart -ASTM

Plasticity Chart in
accordance to ASTM
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS
The degree of plasticity of the clay fraction itself is
termed as the activity of the clay

IP
Activity 
% clay particles ( 2um)

Activity of clays

Minerals Activity Soil Activity

Muscovite 0.25 Kaolinclay 0.4–0.5

Kaolinite 0.40 Gacialtillandloess 0.5–0.75

Illite 0.90 MostBritishclaysincludingLondon 0.75–1.25

Clay
Montmorillonite >1.25 Organicestuarineclay >1.25
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Plasticity Classification - BS
❖ The combination of very flaky particles and
circumstances which may change the water content
results in having inherently variable soil properties.
❖ The shear strength of cohesive soil will vary as
the water content changes. In addition, soils
with flaky particles behave like plastic where an
increase in applied stress usually result in an
irrecoverable deformation, though the volume
remains constant or reduced without any signs of
cracking and disruption.
❖ Plasticity of fine soils has an important effect on the
engineering properties of soils such as the shear
strength and compressibility, therefore plastic
consistency is used in the basis of classification for
fine soils also known as Atterberg Limits.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits

1.13 Determination of Consistency Limits

The three consistency limits (wL, wP and wS) are
determined by laboratory tests, namely the Liquid
Limit, Plastic Limit and Shrinkage Limit Tests.

Discussion of the tests will focus on :

 Apparatus
 Data processing
 Plotting of graph
 Analysis of test results
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits

Cone Penetration &

Casagrande Apparatus
for Liquid Limit Test
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits
1.13.1 Determination of Liquid Limit
1.13.1.1 Cone Penetration Method
Procedure

 The cone penetrometer consist of a stainless steel

cone of 35 mm long with an apex angle of 30o, which
has a mass of 80 g.
 The sample tested is taken from BS sieve of 425 mm,
mixed thoroughly with distilled water into a smooth
paste and stored in an air tight container for about 24
hrs to allow full penetration of water into the sample.
 At the time of testing, the soil is remixed for 10
minutes and a portion of it is placed in a brass cup.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits
 The cone is then lowered so that it just touches the
surface of the soil paste and the dial gauge reading
is set with the reading noted.
 Then the cone is released to penetrate the soil paste for
exactly 5 s and the first dial gauge reading is taken.

 The same procedure is repeated several times on the

same paste mix to obtain the average penetration
and the small portion of the soil is taken to determine
its water content.
 The whole penetration procedure is repeated with paste
mix of different water contents, five or six times in
all. A graph of penetration vs water content is drawn
and the liquid limit corresponds to a penetration of
20 mm.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Consistency Limits

Analysis of Test Data

(mm)
Penetration

20 mm penetration

Liquid Limit Water

Content (%)

Sample of Cone Penetration Method

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Liquid Limit
Determination
of Liquid Limit
using
Cone
Penetration
Apparatus

Tabulation
and plot
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Casagrande Method

59
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Liquid Limit

1.13.1.2 Casagrande Method

Procedure

 The Casagrande’s device consists of a brass cup and a

hard rubber base.
 The brass cup is dropped onto the base by a cam
operated by a crank.
 The soil paste is placed in the brass cup and a groove is
then cut at the centre using a standard grooving tool.
By using the crank, the cup is lifted and dropped at a
height of 10 mm.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Liquid Limit

Procedure - cont…

 The moisture content required to close a distance of

12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows
is defined to be its liquid limit.
 This procedure is repeated to obtain at least five or six
points based on the number of blow, N.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Liquid Limit

Water Content (%)

Liquid Limit

25 no. of blow
Number of
Blows, N
Figure shows the preparation of
sample in the brass cup and the
sample before and after the test.
Sample of Casagrande’s Method
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Liquid Limit
Determination
of Liquid
Limit using
Casagrande
Apparatus

Tabulation
and plot
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Plastic Limit

1.13.2 Plastic Limit

Procedure

 Approximately 20 g of the soil paste is moulded in hand

until it dries sufficiently for slight cracks to appear.
 The sample is then divided into two approximately
equal portions and these are again divided into
four sub-samples.
 One of the sub-samples is taken and rolled into a ball
and then it is rolled on a glass sheet to form a
thread of soil. The rolling using the palm and
fingers with light pressure is continued until the
diameter of the thread reaches 3 mm.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Plastic Limit

Procedure - cont….

 This procedure is repeated until the thread starts to

crumble as the diameter reaches 3 mm.
 The other three sub samples are rolled based on the
previous procedure and their combined water
content is obtained.
 The average of the two water contents from both of
the samples are reported to be the plastic limit of
the soil.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Plastic Limit

Figure shows how plastic limit is obtained (1) apparatus for

plastic limit, (2) preparation of specimen, (3) the soil is rolled
into a thread of 3 mm and (4) crumbling of the soil at 3 mm
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Linear Shrinkage
1.13.3 Linear Shrinkage Test
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Linear Shrinkage
Determination of Linear Shrinkage

• For soils with less clay content, the liquid and plastic
limit tests may not produce reliable results.
• Therefore, an approximation of the plasticity index may
be obtained by measuring the linear shrinkage using
this expression:
IP  2.3 x LS

• The soil is prepared for the liquid limit test and a 150 g
specimen is taken for the linear shrinkage test where
the specimen is remixed thoroughly with distilled water
to form a smooth paste at approximately the liquid limit
of the soil.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Determination of Linear Shrinkage
PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
TYPES OF SOIL IN MALAYSIA

1. Residual soils

2. Soft soils :
a) alluvial and marine clays
b) organic and peat soils
PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
1. RESIDUAL SOIL

GRANITIC RESIDUAL SOIL

- Covers three quarters of land in Peninsular Malaysia
- In-situ under tropical weathering condition
- Granitic /Sedimentary residual soils.
- Composition: Sand+Clay+Silt at varied proportions depending on the
geological setting of the soil and weathering degree.
- Soil formed from granite -> higher clay content compared to sedimentary
formed.

- Natural and Cut slopes consists of residual soils.

- Cut slopes exposed residual soil at different weathering grades
- Rainfall infiltration rates varies according to soil density, mineralogy, grain
size and void ratio
- For example -> Infiltration rate increase from Grade 6 to 4 and decrease
from Grade 4 to 3 -> governed by porosity and void ratio
PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
RESIDUAL SOIL

BUKIT LANJAN , 2004 BUKIT ANTARABANGSA, 2008

PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
RESIDUAL SOIL

Typical profile residual soil subjected to different weathering grades

 PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
RESIDUAL SOIL
Problems:
Shear strength -> vital component in the stability of slopes

- Heavy rainfall, hilly slopes, steep terrain causing slope failure problems

Why??
- Groundwater level is very deep in hilly areas
- Matric suction /negative pore pressures is high at zone above the groundwater
- table
- Matric suction is high -> Shear strength is high
- Rainfall causing soil matrix becomes saturated -> matric suction decreases
and becomes zero -> shear strength is reduced -> Shallow landslides OCCURS!!

REFERENCES:
Salih, A.G. (2012), Review on Granitic Residual Soils’ Geotechnical Properties,
Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,

Ali, F.H., Huat, B.K. & Low, T.H. Infiltration Characteristics of Granitic Residual Soil at
Various Weathering Grades, American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 1(1), 64-68
 PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
2a. ALLUVIAL AND MARINE CLAY

• Formed by erosion of Quaternary sediments soil which have

been transported and deposited by flowing water
• Influence by parent material, depositional processes, erosion,
consolidation and fluctuations in groundwater levels
• Consists of final clays to very coarse gravels and boulders and
sometimes organic matter (normally clayey with high plasticity) -
> marine clays
• Coastal regions and river valleys Thickness 5-30 m
Stability and settlement problems
PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
ALLUVIAL AND MARINE CLAY
PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
ALLUVIAL AND MARINE CLAY

• Low bearing capacity

• Settlement
• Stability – low undrained shear strength
• High water content
• Example:
Construction of North South Expressway in Muar crossing 10-
20 m thick of soft clay -> Settlement.
West coast Peninsular Malaysia -> 20 m thickness with 25 km
extension.
Full scale test embankment to fail -> quasi slip circle ->
rotational crack at 5.5 m height -> tension crack propogating
vertically through the crust and fill.
PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
ALLUVIAL AND MARINE CLAY

Failure of full scale embankment test where development of

cracks seen on the surface.
PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
2b.PEAT SOIL

- Malaysia has approximately 2.6 Mha of peatlands, of which about 70 % (∼1.6 Mha)
area in Sarawak
- Distribution of peatlands : Sarawak (68%) , Peninsular Malaysia (Klang, Johore,
25%) and Sabah (5%)
- Consists of high amount of organic matter -> more than 65% and high amount of
water content (250 – 900%)
- Made of plant remains such as leaves and stems -> incomplete decomposition of
plants growing in wet place which is lack of oxygen.
- Composition depends on temperature, climate, humidity and origin of fibre.

- Problems: construction of roads, embankments and housing due to excessive

Settlement!!
PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
PEAT SOIL

Physical peat model

Peat classification a) Fibrous, b) Hemic and c) Sapric

 PROBLEMATIC SOILS IN MALAYSIA
PEAT SOIL PROBLEMS
SETTLEMENT
- Highly compressible
- Long term consolidation settlement is more significant
- Secondary compression still occurring at constant effective stress
- Material properties is changing with time due to decomposition process.
- Decomposition process is very slow but can be accelerated due to favourable
environmental conditions such aeration, temperature, nutrients, etc.

STRENGTH
- Low in shear strength
- Low in bearing capacity
- Decomposition is higher -> strength is lower unless contains high mineral content
- Decomposition is lower -> Higher shear strength
- Poor bearing capacity.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
- Drained pealands -> By product of decompostion -> Carbon dioxide (gas) and
water -> global warming
- Undrained peatlands -> methane (gas)