Course Name: Hydraulics

Course Code: HDM 1221

Author: Kyle Jones O’Connor

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Authors Note:
Please note, unless stated, all material was referenced from:

Bernoulli's principle. (2019). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle

Born, K. (2019). Retrieved from

https://study.com/academy/lesson/boyles-charles-gay-lussacs-laws-pressure-volume-and-temperatur
e-relationships.html

Born, K. (2019). Charles' Law: Gas Volume and Temperature Relationship - Video & Lesson Transcript |
Study.com. Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/charles-law-gas-pressure-and-temperature-relationship.html

Conservation of Energy in Fluid Mechanics - Bernoulli's Equation. (2019). Retrieved from

https://www.nuclear-power.net/laws-of-conservation/law-of-conservation-of-energy/conservation-of
-energy-in-fluid-mechanics-bernoullis-principle/

Daniel Bernoulli: Biography, Inventions & Atomic Theory | Study.com. (2019). Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/daniel-bernoulli-biography-inventions-atomic-theory.html

Group, F. (2019). Heat And Its Impact On Hydraulic Systems | Flodraulic Group. Retrieved from
https://flodraulic.com/tech-tips/heat-and-its-impact-hydraulic-systems

Hydraulics: Bernoulli's Principle. (2019). Retrieved from

http://86.43.94.97/moodlecp9a/mod/resource/view.php?id=696

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac - New World Encyclopedia. (2019). Retrieved from

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac

Simpson, D. (2019). Pascal, Blaise | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from

https://www.iep.utm.edu/pascal-b/#SH3c

What is Bernoulli's equation?. (2019). Retrieved from

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/fluid-dynamics/a/what-is-bernoullis-equation

Yang Alcocer, Y. (2019). Blaise Pascal: Contributions, Inventions & Facts - Video & Lesson Transcript |
Study.com. Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/blaise-pascal-contributions-inventions-facts.html

Zeleny, E. (2011). Experiment Verifying Charles's Law. Retrieved from

http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ExperimentVerifyingCharlessLaw/
_​_______________________​Basic Laws and Principles Research Project​___________________________

Learning Objectives - Pascal’s Law

Learning Outcome Objectives

1. Understand how Pascal’s 1) Introduce Blaise Pascal

Law contributed to the study
of Hydraulics.
2) Provide history on Blaise Pascal.

3) Reference experiments that prove Pascal’s Law.

______________________________________________________
4) Discuss the relationship between Pascal’s law and
modern Hydraulics.

1) Introduction ​_____________________________________________________________
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662); ​was a French physicist, religious philosopher, and mathematician. Pascal is
recognized as an innovator; his inventions include the syringe, a roulette machine (He made this accidentally
while trying to invent a perpetual motion machine that could create energy.) the hydraulic press and the first
mechanical calculator (called the pascaline).
In his time; Pascal made significant contributions to the study of mathematics and physical science through
experimental and theoretical work including the existence and nature of the vacuum, hydraulics, and
atmospheric pressure. Pascal's study of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics explored the properties of fluids in
hydraulic systems.

In this report, we will be discussing one of Pascal's most notable contributions to the study of hydraulics,
referred to as "Pascal's law" which states:
"Pressure applied to a confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal force on
all equal areas, at right angles to those areas." In simple terms, Pascal’s principle states that an incompressible
fluid can transmit pressure applied to it when contained in a hydraulic system.

2) History​_____________________________________________________________________________
● Born June 19, 1623, in Clermont in the Auvergne region of central France.
● In 1631, After his Mother’s death, his father Etienne Pascal, (a respected mathematician), developed
an unorthodox curriculum with he used to homeschool his son. He intentionally omitted
Mathematics concerned that Blaise would lose focus on classical subjects due to his fascination with
geometry.
● By the age of 12, he began exploring geometry on his own. He developed his own terminology (as
he had not learned official terminology).
● At 16, Blaise presented his early theorems, including his Mystic Hexagram, to some of the foremost
respected mathematical thinkers of his time when he would accompany his father to meetings at
Mersenne's Academy in Paris.
● In 1640, Pascal published his first written work, "Essay on Conic Sections." The writings led to a
crucial leap forward in projective geometry. (This involved transferring a 3-D object onto a 2-D
 field).
● In 1642, at the age of 19, began building a mechanical calculator he called the Pascaline which was
inspired by the extensive labor his father performed in his job calculating taxes.
● Pascal’s “worldly period” (between 1651 and 1654) a period of intense scientific effort, during
which he authored several of his most popular monographs:
● Traité de l’équilibre des Liqueurs et de la pesanteur de la masse de l’air, The equilibrium of
liquid solutions, on the weight and density of air, and on the arithmetic triangle.
● Traité du triangle arithmétique. Treaty of the arithmetic triangle.
A fragment of the De Alea Geometriae, which laid the foundation for the "calculus of
probabilities."
● March 1662, His concern for the poor led him to invent and launch a public transportation system in
Paris.
● Died August 19, 1662, at the age of 39 In Paris France, Cause of death was from a malignant
stomach tumor in combination with complications of a lifelong illness, tuberculosis, and stomach
cancer.
● A programming language called "Pascal" was named to honor his early contribution to the science
of computing by the invention of the Pascaline.

3) Experiments ​__________________________________________________________________________

eg. 1:​ In 1646, Pascal demonstrated what we
now refer to as "Pascal's Law" during an
experiment he was performing on hydrostatic
pressure. Pascal inserted a 10-meter pole
vertically into a wooden barrel which he filled
with water. He poured water into the top of the
vertical tube which caused the barrel to leak
and eventually burst due to the increase in
hydrostatic pressure. This is the result of the
column of water producing significantly large
forces on the barrel.
eg. 2: ​Two connected cylinders with fluid have
pistons on either end.
The pressure exerted on Piston A will be
transmitted through the fluid and against the
bottom end of Piston B. The pressure against the
bottom of piston B will be equal to the pressure
being exerted by Piston A.
If Piston B had twice the diameter and area of
Piston A, and a load was placed on Piston A.
Additional pressure proportionate to the load will
be applied to the bottom of Piston B.
This pressure is distributed equally throughout and
acts on every square inch of the area of the Piston
B resulting in Piston B's ability to lift twice as
much weight. Pascal's law allows forces to be
multiplied.
4) How does it apply to Hydraulics? ​_______________________________________________________

The scientific branch of hydraulics deals with the conveyance of fluids through circuits made up of pipes and
channels used as a source of mechanical force or control. Pascal's Law plays a very important role in
understanding how a hydraulic system multiplies applied force to produce a mechanical force or control.
For example:

Hydraulic braking systems used by cars, trucks and large equipment. Mechanical force is applied to the brake
pedal which exerts pressure on the brake fluid and is transmitted uniformly from the master cylinder, through
the brake lines to the calipers or wheel cylinders which force the brake pads against the discs or drums attached
to the wheels slowing down the vehicle.
By pushing the fluid against a larger area, the system can multiply the force applied to create a much larger
brake force.

Note:​ This system works only because the brake fluid is incompressible.

In the case of an automotive hoist, air from a compressor is applied to the top of the oil in a sealed cylinder.
The oil then applies pressure to a sleeve/piston which lifts the load.

A hydraulic vehicle jack consists of two pistons which are connected by a fluid; with one piston smaller than
the other. A small force applied to the smaller piston fills the cylinder while applying pressure to the hydraulic
fluid. (By pumping the hand lever.) Pascal's law states that pressure is transmitted undiminished throughout the
fluid. The small force acting upon the small piston creates a pressure which is transferred through the
hydraulic fluid against the larger piston multiplying the force originally applied (due to the larger surface area)
and allowing the jack to raise the vehicle. This same concept applies to the hydraulic press. In the case of an
automotive hoist, air from a compressor is applied to the top of the oil in a sealed container. The oil then
applies pressure to a sleeve/piston that lifts the car

The human heart is another example. The pumping action of the heart applies a small force to our blood
forcing it through our blood vessels and around our body. The more our heart pumps, the higher our blood
pressure becomes.
_​_______________________​Basic Laws and Principles Research Project​___________________________

Learning Objectives - Boyle’s Law

Learning Outcome Objectives

1. Understand the significance 1) Introduce Robert Boyle.

of Boyle’s law to the study of
hydraulics.
2) Provide history on Robert Boyle.

3) Reference experiments that prove Boyle's Law.

______________________________________________________
4) Discuss the relationship between Boyle’s law and
modern Hydraulics.

1) Introduction ​________________________________________________________________
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) ​was a chemist, philosopher, and theological writer famous for Boyle's law and his
invention of a vacuum pump designed to remove all the air from a glass bulb, which made it possible for Boyle
to conduct experiments to see how things behave in a vacuum. (He used this vacuum pump to prove that sound
cannot be transmitted within a vacuum.)

Boyle was profoundly religious and originally wanted to be an author of ethics and virtue. Later in life, Boyle
took an interest in chemical experimentation and the concept of atoms. After moving to Oxford, he became one
of 11 founding members of the Royal Society, an experimental group based in London that still currently
exists.

Boyle's Law discusses the relationship between gas and pressure. It states that when a gas is compressed, the
volume of the gas decreases inversely as the pressure increases and vice versa. Essentially, if the Pressure
increases, the volume must decrease by the same factor, and if the volume increases, the pressure must
decrease by the same factor.

P . V = Constant

Boyle initially performed his experiments with atmospheric air, but we have since determined that Boyle's Law
applies to all gas.

2) History​_____________________________________________________________________________
● Born on 27 January 1627 in County Waterford in Ireland.
● 1635, Boyle is sent to Eton College, a prestigious boarding school in Berkshire England.
● 1639, Was sent to Europe on a 'continental tour,' accompanied by his brother, Francis, and their
tutor, Isaac Marcolmes.
● 1644. Inherited his family estate and inheritance from his Father grand enough to sustain him for the
rest of his life without ever having to take up paid employment.
● 1644, upon concluding many years of traveling and studying in Europe, Boyle became remarkably
interested in science and built a laboratory in Dorset where he took residence.
 ● 1655, Boyle moved to Oxford and began working with his assistant Robert Hooke to develop the
vacuum chamber or air-pump.
● 1659, began writing and publishing his work on subjects as distinct as philosophy, medicine, and
religion (This continued until his death).
● 1662, The second edition of this work contained what would later be called Boyle’s law: "the
volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure."
● 1660, With 11 colleagues Boyle formed the Royal Society in London.
● 1668, Boyle moved to London, living with his sister.
● 1680, Boyle declines the presidency of the Royal Society because the oath he would have been
required to take violated his firmly held religious beliefs.
● 1665, Boyle received an honorary degree from Oxford having not attended college.
● 1669, ceased his communication with the Royal Society and most of the outside world due to his
declining health.
● 1691, on the 31st of December, Boyle died in London from paralysis a week after his sister.

3) Experiments ​__________________________________________________________________________
While experimenting with air and gases, Boyle and his
assistant Robert Hooke made their first grand discovery
using a glass J-tube tube with gas trapped inside of it.
Inside the tube, they used mercury to modify the
pressure on a fixed volume of air. Boyle discovered that
when there is an increase or decrease in the pressure on
a gas, the gas’s volume shrinks or expands to fit the area
it is contained within.

4) How does it apply to Hydraulics? ​_______________________________________________________

Boyle's law explains that when if we pump gas into an enclosed space, it will shrink to fit into that space, and
the pressure that gas puts on the space will increase as long as the temperature remains constant.
This makes a gas not ideal for use in a hydraulic application. The type of machinery that relies on pumping
gasses is called Pneumatic.

Pneumatics do not possess the potential force that hydraulics do. Therefore Pneumatics are not suited to lift or
move a heavy load. Hydraulic systems can lift and move loads because hydraulic fluids are incompressible,
compared to air and gas which shrinks to fit into the cylinder it is being compressed in with cylinder movement
or load changes. In order for a pneumatic cylinder to exert the same force required of a hydraulic cylinder, the
pneumatic cylinder would need to be much larger which is not practical for those applications. When gas is
used in a hydraulic system, it is generally a backup or storage system such as an accumulator which stores
pressure and acts as a shock load absorber.
_​__________________________​Basic Laws and Principles Research Project​___________________________

Learning Objectives - Charles’ Law

Learning Outcome Objectives

1. Understand the significance 1) Introduce Jacques Alexandre César Charles.

of Charles’ law to the study of
hydraulics.
2) Provide history on Jacques Alexandre César Charles.

3) Reference experiments that prove Charles’ Law.

______________________________________________________
4) Discuss the relationship between Charles’ law and
modern Hydraulics.

1) Introduction ​_______________________________________________________________
Jacques-Alexandre-César Charles (1746-1823) ​was a mathematician and physicist recognized for his
groundbreaking work with gases and hydrogen balloon flight. Most of the work published by Charles studied
mathematics; however, he was an enthusiastic scientist and inventor. He is recognized as having invented a
new type of hydrometer for measuring the density of fluids and a reflecting goniometer for measuring the
angles of crystals. He improved the design of the Willem Jacob 's Gravesande’s heliostat, Fahrenheit's
aerometer and duplicated several experiments that Benjamin Franklin and others had conducted on electricity.
Later in life, he became a professor of Physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers.

Charles' most recognized work is his study into the relationship between the volume of a gas and its
temperature which is called Charles' law. This law declares that when the volume of a gas will increase
proportionately to a rise in temperature and at the same rate.
Charles had not published his work but was later cited by another French Scientist, Joseph-Louis-Gay-Lussac
who elaborated on this concept and published similar findings in 1802. Consequently, the law of the thermal
expansion of gases sometimes called Gay-Lussac's law is typically known as Charles' law.

V.T = Constant

2) History​_____________________________________________________________________________
● Born 1746 in Beaugency-sur-Loire, France.
● Not much is known about his youth besides his brief employment as a minor government official
under King Louis XVI.
● 1779, Benjamin Franklin visited France which inspired Charles to study physics. He soon became an
eloquent speaker to non-scientific audiences. His lectures and demonstrations attracted renowned
patrons and helped popularize Benjamin Franklin's theory of electricity and other new scientific
concepts.
● Aug 27, 1783, At 37 years old, Jacques launched the first hydrogen-filled balloon with no
passengers in it, from the site of the Eiffel tower, to which Benjamin Franklin observed. Terrified
peasants destroyed it after landing 21 km away.
● Dec 7, 1783, Charles and a co-pilot Nicolas-Louis Robert traveled 1800ft (550m) high in a
 hydrogen-filled balloon becoming the first humans to travel at such a height.
● In 1787, he discovered what we now know as Charles' law, while experimenting with hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen. He determined that at the volume of gas increases proportionately to its
absolute temperature.
● April 7th, 1823, Jacques died in Paris France at age 77.

3) Experiments ​________________________________________________________________________
An example of Charles' law relates to the effects of temperature on the inflation of the tires on a vehicle.
It is standard practice to inflate a tire to the vehicles specified psi when the tire is cold. As the operator
of the vehicle drives around during the day, the tires become hot from friction between the tires and the
road. The volume of air inside the tire will increase or decrease. Every 10° fluctuation in temperature (up
or down), represents approximately one psi of tire pressure change. If the operator measures the tires psi
after driving the vehicle, the air pressure will be higher than its incipient inflation.

An experiment conducted by Enrique Zeleny (March 2011) verifies Charles' Law by demonstrating that the
volume of a gas is proportionate to its absolute temperature.
A container filled with cold water and a balloon with a weight attached is submerged in the water. When
applying heat to the container, the balloon inflates (Its volume of air increases), and its buoyant force is
capable of lifting the weight attached to it. When the experimenter cools the container with ice, the air inside
of the balloon reduces in its volume and cannot lift the weight

As shown above, when heat is applied to the cylinder,the volume of air in the balloon increases inflating
the balloon.
 4) How does it apply to Hydraulics? ​_______________________________________________________
Charles' law as it relates to gases shares a relationship with fluid power systems. Adding or removing heat
from a gas alters the gas's volume, and the same concept applies to hydraulic fluid.
Understanding that the volume of oil mass increases with temperature and its density decreases (coefficient of
thermal expansion). We can apply this concept when determining the size of a cylinder or pump required when
the oil reaches the desired temperature (Minimum & Maximum Operating temperature). Including temperature
regulating systems to a hydraulic circuit such as heat exchangers, coolers etc, allows us to predict the
consequences temperature (system and environmental) has on the degree of its coefficient of thermal
expansion and manage it accordingly in order to;

● Determine the viscosity of the fluid to be used.

● Produce intended work.
● Prevent unintended leakage.
● restrict the use of a system under certain environmental conditions.
● Establish fluid fill points to prevent over and underfilling of the system.

Because fluid power systems have areas in which confined fluid is present, it is possible that heating this fluid
could result in damage to the component or explosion. If a system needs to operate in a hot atmosphere, the
circuit must include overpressure protection such as a relief valve or a heat/pressure-sensitive relief system.

_​_______________________​Basic Laws and Principles Research Project​___________________________

Learning Objectives - Gay-Lussac’s Law

Learning Outcome Objectives

1. Understand the significance 1) Introduce Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac.

of Gay-Lussac’s Law to the
study of hydraulics.
2) Provide history on Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac.

3) Reference experiments that prove Gay-Lussac’s Law.

______________________________________________________
4) Discuss the relationship between Gay-Lussac’s Law
law and modern Hydraulics.

1) Introduction ​________________________________________________________________
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) ​was a French chemist who proposed two fundamental laws of gases.
He grew up during the French and Chemical revolutions as a privately tutored son of a well-respected lawyer.
Gay-Lussac’s career as a professor of chemistry and physics began at the École Polytechnique. He came to the
conclusion that with a consistent increase in temperature, the volume of any gas will expand proportionately.
Jacques Charles had arrived at nearly the same conclusion 15 years prior but hadn't published his work.
Although the two arrived at the same conclusion, there is a difference between them:

Charles law​ states that if our pressure is the constant, the volume of the gaseous system is directly
proportional to the temperature.
In other words: If we apply more heat, we increase the volume by the same factor.
Gay-Lussac's​ ​law​ states that if our Volume is the constant, the pressure of the gaseous system is directly
proportional to the temperature.
In other words: The harder we pressurize a fluid, the hotter it gets.

P . T = Constant

2) History​_______________________________________________________________________________

● Born December 6, 1778 in Saint-Léonard-de-Noblat, France.

● 1789, at the beginning of the French Revolution, his parents chose to homeschool him.
● 1797, Gained admittance to Ecole Polytechnique.
● 1802, Published an important paper relating to the properties of gases, later called Gay-Lussac's
Law, and later Charles and Gay Lussac's Law.
● 1804, He and his partner Jean-Baptiste Biot made a hot-air balloon ascent to a height of 7,016
meters to collect samples of the air at varying heights to record variations in temperature and
moisture.
● 1805, Joined Alexander von Humboldt on a year-long tour of Europe, met many of the famous
scientists of his day. He discovered that the structure of the atmosphere is independent of altitude
and pressure.
● Also discovered that water is composed of two parts of hydrogen and one part oxygen.
● 1807, Gay-Lussac joined the Societe d'Aucuiel.
● 1808, became a professor of physics at the Sorbonne and succeeded in isolating what he called the
"radical of boric acid," not aware that it was an element.
● 1809, became a professor of chemistry at the Polytechnique and married his wife.
● 1811 – He identified iodine as a new element, characterized its properties, and suggested the name
iode.
● 1815, Gay-Lussac conducted necessary research on iodine and its compounds. Officially named the
element, iode, and its English derivative, iodine.
● 1824, developed an improved version of the burette that included a side arm
● 1832, resigned from the Sorbonne, accepted the chair of chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes.
● 1831, was elected to represent Haute-Vienne in the chamber of deputies.
● May 9th, 1850, died at the age of 72, at his residence at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris.

3) Experiments ​________________________________________________________________________
Gay-Lussac used an air balloon in his experiments to prove his law.
When a flame is ignited in a hot air balloon, the parachute will fill up with heated particles. The constant
in the case of a hot air balloon is the volume of the parachute, and if the operator turns up the flame the
temperature increases. When the temperature increases, the pressure increases proportionately causing
the heated particles to move quicker inside of the parachute, causing the hot air balloon to rise.
Controlling the flame will control the pressure and bring the basket higher or lower through the air.

Another example of Gay-Lussac's law, If an aerosol can, cigarette lighter, or even a semi-full propane
tank was subjected to extreme heat such as a fire, the result would be an equal increase in pressure. If the
pressure increases too high for the container to handle, the pressure will break the container, and an
explosion would result.
 4) How does it apply to Hydraulics? ​_______________________________________________________
Gay Lussac's Law indicates that when pressure is applied to a fluid, the result is an equal increase in heat. In a
hydraulic system, heat has significant detrimental consequences on hydraulic components.

● At high temperatures, oxidation of oil is accelerated reducing the service life of the oil, creating sludge
and acids. Sludge can plug orifices and cause rapid deterioration of moving parts.
● Heat can lower the oil’s viscosity and reduce its ability to lubricate the moving components of the
hydraulic circuit.
● The chemical characteristics of most hydraulic fluids can be compromised significantly by repeatedly
heating and cooling the fluid to excessive temperatures.
●
In order to reduce the detriment of heat in the hydraulic system, systems designed to dissipate that heat are
necessary such as:

● Adding a solenoid vented relief valve on fixed displacement pumps and a solenoid vented control on
pressure compensated pumps.
● Creating larger fluid reservoirs in order to take advantage of the cooling capabilities of a reservoir with
a larger surface area.
● Installing the reservoirs in an area that will allow it to receive the most amount of airflow.
● Installing heat exchangers.
● Using synthetic oils with additives that allow for longer service life in higher temperatures.
_​_______________________​Basic Laws and Principles Research Project​___________________________

Learning Objectives - Bernoulli’s Principle

Learning Outcome Objectives

1. Understand the significance 1) Introduce Daniel Bernoulli.

of Bernoulli’s Principle to the
study of hydraulics.
2) Provide history on Daniel Bernoulli.

3) Reference experiments that prove Bernoulli’s Principle.

______________________________________________________
4) Discuss the relationship between Bernoulli’s
Principle and modern Hydraulics.
1) Introduction ​________________________________________________________________
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) ​was a Swiss physicist and mathematician referred to as the father of
mathematical physics. Bernoulli is acknowledged for his work in hydrodynamics and his formulation of the
kinetic theory of gasses. He is credited as having founded the principle of aerodynamics which is what allows
planes to fly and established the sciences of both hydrodynamics and aerodynamics.

His publication of Hydronamica in 1738 established several significant theories of hydrodynamics. The most
important among them became Bernoulli's principle which describes the relationship between the velocity of
fluids and the pressure surrounding it. Bernoulli's research was the first attempt at explaining the relationship
between pressure, temperature and the behavior of fluids and gases which later became the basis for atomic
theories. He did not receive much credit until a century later with regards to the atomic theory.

Bernoulli's principle states: As the velocity of a fluid increases, the pressure surrounding it will decrease. In
other words, The speed and pressure are inversely proportional to the space the fluid flows through meaning:

- As the space the fluid is traveling narrows, the fluid's pressure will decrease, and the speed will increase.
- As the fluid travels through a wide space, its pressure will increase, and its speed will decrease.

His principle in a general format can be expressed in an equation as:

​(Wikipedia:"Bernoulli's principle", 2019)

v ​represents the fluid velocity at a specific point on a streamline.

g ​represents the acceleration as a result of gravity.
z ​represents the elevation of a point above the reference plane.
p ​represents the pressure at a specific point.
ρ ​represents the density of the fluid.

The constant depends on the streamline chosen, v, z, and p are dependent on a specific point in the streamline.

2) History​_______________________________________________________________________________
● Born Jan. 29, 1700, in Gröningen, Netherlands.
● 1724, Received a doctorate in medicine. Published a book called Mathematical Exercises.
● 1725, In Venice, he invented a new type of hourglass that could be used to tell time on a ship and
won a prize from the Paris Academy.
● 1726, moved to St. Petersburg, Russia, to become a professor of mathematics.
● In 1738 Bernoulli published Hydrodynamica which contained “Bernoulli's principle”.
● 1782, died in Basel.

3) Experiments ​________________________________________________________________________
Bernoulli wanted to determine the relationship between the speed at which blood flows and blood
pressure. He experimented with a length of pipe with fluid passing through it, he punctured a hole into
the pipe and inserted a straw. He discovered that the varying height of fluid in the straw was
proportionate to the pressure of the fluid in the pipe.
 This concept inspired Physicians to measure their patient's blood pressure by installing glass tubes
directly into their arteries and watching the varying level of blood in the tube in relation to the patient's
heartbeat.

Bernoulli's principle is used in the design of high-performance race cars in order to keep them planted
on the track and make sharper turns by use of a spoiler.
The spoiler of the car is designed to force the velocity of air on the top of the spoiler to move slower,
therefore creating more pressure on the top of the car and pushing the car down. The velocity of air on
the bottom of the spoiler is much faster; therefore less pressure is forcing upward underneath the
vehicle.

Airplane wings rely on this principle for flight. The top of the airplane wing uses a design (shape) that
increases air velocity at the top of the wing and reduces velocity at the bottom. This means the
pressure on the top side of the wing is low and the opposite for the bottom.

4) How does it apply to Hydraulics? ​_______________________________________________________

Bernoulli's principle applies the theory of conservation of energy to hydraulic systems. The Theory of
conservation of energy essentially states that the energy of an isolated system is always consistent; energy
cannot be created or destroyed, only converted to another form of energy.

Fluid friction created by constrictions in a hydraulic system such as; hydraulic fittings, joints, tube
convergence, turns, and other physical properties accounts for pressure loss because the fluid is trying to
overcome friction (this is called head loss). The consequence of head loss due to friction results in a
corresponding increase in the temperature of the fluid(the friction converts the head energy to heat energy). In
order to design an efficient hydraulic systems it is important to first understand the flow of fluid through the
circuit in order to compensate for pressure losses and heat generated by fluid friction.