Charles G. Salmon, John E. Johnson, Faris A. Malhas-Steel Structures - Design and Behavior (5th Edition) - Prentice Hall (2008) PDF

STEEL STRUCTURES
Design and Behavior
••
STEEL STRUCTURES
Design and Behavior
Emphasizing Load and Resistance Factor Design
FIFTH EDITION
CttA.RLES G. $ .\i ,10'-
Universi1y of i , • ~·
jOHN E. J O . · ·
University 0 1 • , f • • 1
FARJS A. M ' .
Universitv o/ I h 1, ,,,
•
Upper Saddle Rive r, NJ 07458
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PREFACE xiii
CONVERSION FACTORS xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
l.l Structural Design l
1.2 Principles of Design 1
L3 Hist o ricaì B2cl;ground o f St.eel Structures :\
I .4 I.,x:,:i~ :~
1.5 Tvpt.:. vf StnJs..t,iral Ste!':'. ":<.·krnher~ l 2
1.5 Stt:.·E-1 Stn iruJrf5 !6
1.7 Spe;::fit:a1:c. :s 2n è E;:iii<Hng Codes 20
.1.8 Ph•u<o,,h l(;-~ o f Dc,,;gn 2{;
l .9 h i._·\ors i-'r!l" S:1Jt'. _,,-ASD 1r,J U,.FD Coir·t.:arh 24
LJ O V•/1-·,y ~l tvn!d 1.1ffD Be UsecP 29
1.11 An~!ysis t",f 1·lw StEictwe 29
Sd, cted Refr 1\~nn,s .1 0
0
CHAPTER2 STEELS AfJD PROPERTIES 33

2.1 Structura I ~tee1s 33
2.2 Fastener St'E'cls 39
2.3 Weld Electrode and Filì er Matl'rial 40
2.4 Stress-Strain Rellav\or (Tension Test) at Atinospheric
Temperatures 41
2.5 Materiai Toughness 42
2.6 Yield Strength for Multiaxial States of Stress 44
2.7 Iiigh Temperature Behavior 45
V
vi • Contents
2.8 Cold Work and Strain Hardening 47

2. 9 Brittle Fracture 48
2.1 O Lamellar Tearing 52
2.11 Fatigue Strength 53
2.12 Corrosion Resistance and Weathering Steels 55
Selected References 56
CHAPTER3 TENSION MEMBERS 58

3.1 Introduction 58
3.2 Nominai Strength 59
3.3 Net Area 60
3.4 Effect of Staggered Holes on Net Area 61
3.5 Effective Net Area 65
3.6 Block Shear Strength 68
3.7 Stiffness as a Design Criterion 69
3.8 Load Transfer at Connectiom 70
3.9 Load and Resistance Factor Design-·Temio n
l'vfembers 71
• 3.10
3.11
Tension Rods 77
Allowabie StJength Desit1)1·Tensìon lvk m bers go
CHAPTER4 87
4.1 ·1y p0s of ;3,}!ts 87
4.2 Ub\i·.lft-r:al n;tcltgr1 ~;1nd of H.ì,gh~Stre~~~gU1_H,:;l:.s 89
4.3 Cms,.•s or JUvct O bsoif:5cence 90
4.4 r>etaiis c,f TEgh--:}trc-1'.i.gth .Solts 91
4.5 lnstallaèk >o PrucEr!m·,:s 93
4.6 Nominaì S!rength or ìn(1ividua/ Fa,te,~er~ 9.S
4.7 Load and Res.!~t(.i nce r~·a ctcr I),~-;ign---H ::;:!~ 9·.::,
4.8 Examples- Ten$ion Member 3earlng:cypr.i
Connections-LRFD 105
4.9 Slip-Criticaljoints HO
4.10 Allowable Strength Design-Bolts 114
4.11 Examples-Tension Members Using Allowabie
Strength Design 115
4.12 Eccentrìc Shear I 17
4.13 Fasteners Acting in Axial Tension 135
4.14 Combined Shear and Tension 139
4.15 Shear and Tension From Eccentric Loading 148
Problems 155
Contents • vii
CHAPTER5 WELDING 161

5.1 Introduction and Historical Development 161
5.2 Basic Processes 162
5.3 Weldability of Structural Steel 167
5.4 Types of Joints 168
5.5 Types of Welds 170
5.6 Welding Symbols 172
5.7 Factors Affecting the Quality of Welded
Connections 17 5
5.8 Possible Defects in Welds 178
5.9 lnspection and Control 180
5.10 Economics of Welded Built-up Members and
Connections 181
5.11 Size and Length Lirnitations for Fi\let Welds 182
5.12 Effective Areas of Welds 185
5.13 Nomina! Strength of Welds 186
5 .14 Load and Resistance Factor Design-Welds 189
5.15 Allowable Strength Design-Wekis 196
5 .16 Welds Connecting Members Subject to Direct Axial
Load 197
5.17 Eccen tric Shear Con nection:s-Strength Analysis 209
5 .18 Eccentric Shear Connec iions-Elastìc (Vector)
Analysis 2 ì 6
,. 5.19 Loads Appbx! t ccentric to the Plane of We!ds 223
Selec,e<l !lek ,f-nces 227
Probiem s 229
CHAPTER6 COMPRESSUJN Mf.::tJllflrif?S 236

PART I: COU JM!'Jt-; 236
6.1 Genera: 236
6.2 Eukr Eit1stìc BèKidi!lg ,m d Histmical
Background 2..'.', 6
6.3 B;-1sic Column Stre nglh 238
6.4 Inelastic Buckling 239
6.5 Residuai Stress 243
6.6 Development of Column Strength Curves Including
Residuai Stress 245
6. 7 Structural Stability Research Council (SS.RC) Strength
Curves 253
6.8 Load and Resistance Factor Design 256
6.9 Effective Length 261
6. IO Load and Resistance Factor Design of Rolled Shapes
(W, S, and M) Subject to Axial Compression 268
6.11 Allowable Strength Design 274
viii • Contents
6.12 ShearEffect 275

6.13 Design of Latticed Members 278
PART Il: PLATES 283
6.14 Introduction to Stability of Plates 283

6.15 Strength of Plates Under Uniform Edge
Compression 290
6.16 AISC Width/Thickness Limits A, to Achieve Yield
Stress Without Locai Plate Buckling 293
6.17 A!SC Width/Thickness LimitÀp to Achieve Significant
Plastic Deformation 297
6.18 AISC Prnvisions to Account for the Buckling and Post-
Buckling Strengths of Plate Elements 299
6.19 Design o f Compression Members as Affected by Locai
13uckling Provisions 305
Problem:, 316
CHAPTER 7 BEAMS: LATcRALLY SUPPORTED 321

7.1 lntrodu ction 321
7.2 Sirnp!e Bendìng of Symmetrical Shapes 321
7 .3 fkh avior ,:>l Late rally Stable Beams 322
7.4 Lalerally Supported Beams-Load and Resistance
.racror Dc~ign 325
7.5 Lateni.tly Supporl ed Beams-AISC-ASD Method 331
7.6 Scrvìceability o f B<:ams 332
7.7 Sbear o n RoJled Bearns 337
7.8 Concentrateci Loads Applied to Rolled Beams 343
7.9 Holes ir. Beams 348
7.10 Generai Flexural Theory 349
7 .11 Biaxial Bending of Symmetric Sections 356
Problems 36 1
CHAPTERB TORSION 365

8.1 lntroduction 365
8.2 Pure Torsion of Homogeneous Sections 366
8.3 Shear Stresses Due to Bending of Thin-Wall Open
Cross-Sections 369
8.4 Shear Center 370
8.5 Torsional Stresses in 1-Shaped Steel Sections 373
8.6 Analogy Between Torsion and Piane Bending 383
8. 7 Practical Situations of Torsional Loading 388
Contents • ix
8.8 Load and Resistance Factor Design for Torsion-

LateralJy Stable Beams 391
8.9 Allowable Strength Design for Torsion- Laterally
Stable Beams 396
8.10 Torsion in Closed Thin-Wall Sections 397
8.11 Torsion in Sections with Open and Closed Parts 400
8.12 Torsional Buckling 400
Problems 408
CHAPTER9 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS 413

9.1 Rational Analogy to Pure Columns 41 3
9.2 Latera! Support 414
9.3 Strength of T-Shaped Bea1ns Unct~r Uni form
Moment 4 16
9.4 Elastic Lateral- J'orsional Buckling -H?
9.5 lnelastic Later,ì:-Tù,sional Buckih,g n2
9.6 Load and Re~ist,nin:' foci~, 1"ì,::si gn--: ;;hapt:,i Beams
Subjec~•-' d lo 5trun.g-- Ax'.s 1~ending <\'>4
9.7 Allowable StreHg!l-: Des·;gn Ì'/J.ethod--T-Shaped Ht>{i ms
Subjeci-cd to Str<>r•g-A:-;.is -~ending 1_-; i
9.8 Effective Latei:,1 .Uy L-niJ.::r":...::d Lf:ngth
,:13·:
9.9 Exampk:,: L'..li.d Jn<i Rt~s\st:,rncc Faclot Design 6.B
9.10 Exampks; Allm-vabie St,;,,-ngrli DrsJgn 44.7
9.11 Weak-Axis Bendir:g of 1-Sl~<lf't;i Seu ion< 45 l
9.12 Latera! Euckling of Charu1ds, Zi:es, Y.ono$yirtt1ì.1~trìc
1-Shaped Sections_. and Tecs 4.SZ
9.13 Latera! Bracing Design 460
9.14 Biaxial Ilendìng of Doubly Symmetric r-Shaped
Sections 4 72
Problems 478
CHAPTER 10 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 484

10.1 Introduction 484
10.2 Plastic Strength of a Statically Indeterminate
Bearn 484
10.3 Plastic Analysis-Load and Resistance Factor Design
Examples 493
10.4 Elastic Analysis-AISC LRFD Method 507
10.5 Elastic Analysis-Allowable Strength Design 509
10.6 Splices 511
Problems 513
X • Contents
516
CHAPTER 11 PLATE GIRDERS
11.1 Introduction and Historical Development 516
11.2 Difference Between Beam and Plate Girder 518
11.3 Vertical Flange Buckling Limit State 520
11.4 Nominai Moment Strength-AISC Design 523
11.5 Moment Strength Reduction Due to Bend-Buckling of
the Web 528
11.6 Nominai Moment Strength- Hybrid Girders 534
11.7 Nominai Shear Strength-Elastic and lnelastic
Buckling 536
11.8 Nominal Shear Strength-Including Tension-Field
Action 540
11.9 Strength in Combined Bending and Shear 5-19
11.10 Intermediate Transverse Stiffeners 55 l
11.11 Bearing Stiffener Design 556
11.12 Longitudinal Web Stiffener~ 55 7
11.13 Proportioning the Sec\ion 559
11.14 Plate Girder Design Example-- LRH) 565
Selected l:eferenc:e, .535
ProblenE 586
CHAPTER 12 COMBINE'l..• SENDING AND /!..Xf.P.L i.Ot'W 591

12.1 lntrocmrtwn S91
12.2 DJffe_nl!,t,;u Cq1.:,:' ,.:,n for Axial Compression and
Bendilll'. 592
12.3 Momn , Magnifi(c'iior.---Simplifkc.i Treatment for
Meinber~ in Singk C!HV,1ture Wit hc:l,t E:1·i
Tr ari-,latt(•,, 596
12.4 Mome1, · :Magn ificath'n - Membe,s S1.:.:-:>j;;ct t ,; :Z•,,.i
Moments ;):'l1y; No Jo1d Tran:, lat:o n 599
12.5 Moment Magnlficatior:-Members with Sidt>swciv
Possible 602
12.6 Nominai Strength-- lnstability in t he Pìom: d
Bendìng 603
12.7 Nominai Strength--Failure by Combined Ben diog
and Torsion 604
12.8 Nominai Strength-lnteraction Equations 605
12.9 Biaxial Bending 607
12.10 AISC Design Criteria 609
12.11 Unbraced Frame- AISC Design 614
12.12 Design Procedure-AISC LRFD Method 626
12.13 Examples-AISC LRFD Method 628
Problems 648
.. ., . .
Contents • xi
CHAPTER 13 CONNECTIONS
855
13.1 Types of Connections 655
13.2 Simple Shear Connections 658
13.3 Seated Beam Connections-Unstiffened 674
13.4 Stiffened Seat Connections 681
13.5 Triangular Bracket Plates 687
13.6 Continuous Beam-to-Column Connections 691
13.7 Continuous Beam-to-Beam Connections 721
13.8 Rigid-Frame Knees 722
13.9 Column Base Plates 728
13.10 Beam Splices 735
Selccted References 739
Problems 743
CHAPTER 14 FRAMES-BRACED AND UNBRACED 748
14.1 Generai 748
14.2 Elastic Buckling o f Frames 751
14.3 Genera! Procedure for Effective Length 759
14.4 Stability of Framrs Undcr Prirnary Bending
MomE>n ts 759
14.5 13rncing Requirem ents- -Brc1ced Frame 764
14.6 Overaii ~Lability W hen Plastic Hinges For:n 771
Select<=d References 772
CHAPTER 15 DESIGN OF fUGIC i--JiA.&1ES 774
15.1 IntroGut::tion 774
15.2 Plastic Anai) sls of Onc-Story Frames 774
15.3 Al'.;c r..RFD Mr:thcd-·-One-Story Frames 785
15.4 \Iultistmy J: rarncs 801
::-,ekct.cd Rdcre n<.es 802
Problems 802
CHAPTER 16 COMPOSITE STEEL-CONCRETE CDNS-TRUCTJON 804
16.1 Historical Background 804
16.2 Composite Action 806
16.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 808
16.4 Effective Wi<lth 808
16.5 Computation of Elastic Section Properties 810
16.6 Service Load Stresses with and Without Shoring 813
16.7 Nominal Moment Strength of Fully Composite
Sections 815
16.8 Shear Connectors 819
16.9 Composite Flexural Members Containing Formed
Steel Deck 828
p
xii • Contents
16.10 Design Procedure-AISC LRFD and ASD

Methods 829
16.11 AISC Examples-Simply Supported Beams 829
16.12 ASD Example-Simply Supported Beam 836
16.13 Deflections 837
16.14 Continuous Beams 840
16.15 Composite Columns 843
Problems 847
APPENDIX 849
TABLE A 1 APPROXIMATE RADIUS OF GYRATION 850
TABLE A2 TORSIONAL PROPERTIES 851
INDEX 853
The public:.i:ion of thi:, tìfth edit.ion rd}ects Lhc continuing changes occuning in design rc-
quire,a,~rit~ for structural s,,,el. particnlarly the sig1,ificant change by the American lnstitute
vf Stee] Con,1rnc,1on (AISCJ r0 comb ine lhe Lo c11! and Resisrance Facror Design (LRFD)
Metiw d wi: /1 the A.ifov.ab/e Srress (nmr cailfd St re11grh ) D esign (ASD) Met/wd for
Sirunuw { S,ce/ Buddings.
Design of' su·uctural steel members has dcvelopcd over the past 11 Oyears from a sìm-
ple appmnd 1 io ,,olv~og a fow basic properties of stecl and elementary mathematics, to a so-
phislìcntt:d trcatment dem andiug a thorough knowleclge of structural and mate1ial behavior.
Present clcsig1.1 practìce ui.ilizes knowledge of mechanics of materials, structural analysis,
and particulariy, strnctnral stability. in combination with nationally recognizcd design rules
for safety. The most widely used design rnles are those of rhe American lnstilute of Steel
Construction (AISC), given in the Specifìcatio11 for Strnctura/ S1eel Buildings.
The specific occurrence dìctaring this fìfth edition is the publication of the 2005
AISC Specificmion (effective March 9, 2005) with Commeotary. along with the corre-
sponding handbook, Steel Construction Manual, 13th Edition . The thirteen arises from
nine editions of the Allowable Stress Design Manual and four editions of the Load and
Resìstance Factor Design Manual.
The fifth edition of this text follows the samc phìlosophìcal approach that has gained
wide acceptance of users since che first edition was published in 1971. Thìs edition contin-
ues to strive to present in a logica! manner the theoretìcal background needed for develop-
ing and expla.ining design requirements. particularly those of the 2005 AISC Specijica1ìo11.
emphasizing its LRFD Method. Beginning with coverage of background materiai. includ-
ing references to pertinent research, the development of specific formulas used in the AISC
Speciftcatio11 is foUowed by a generons number of design examples explaining in detail the
process of selectìng minimum weìght members to satisfy given condìtions.
Emphasis throughout this fifth edition is on the 2005 AISC Specification LRFD
Method. That specificacion is based on statistica! srudies of loads and the resistances of
steel structures subject to various types of load effects, such as bendìng moment. shear,
axial force, and torsional moment. The ratìonal treatmenl of both loads (including load ef-
fects) and resistances results in steel stnictures having more uniform safety throughout.
xiii
xiv • Preface
This modem philosophy of design, discussed only bricfly in one section of the second edi-
rion, is moving toward being the predominant approach to design.
Considerable emphasis has been placed on presenting forche beginner, as well as the
advanced student, the neccssary elastic and inelastic stabilily concepts, the underst.anding
of which is essential to properly apply sreel design rules. The same concepts are applicable
whether design uses the Load and Resistance Factor Design Method (LRFD) or the
Allowable Strength Design Method (ASD). The explanation of stability concepts is incor-
porated into the chapters in such a way that the render may either study in detail the stabil-
ity concepts in logica! sequcnce, or omit or postpone study of sections containing detailed
development, merely accepting qualitative explanarion and proceeding directly to design.
As chis fifth edition is prepared, considerable design is stili done according to the tra-
ditional ASD Method (formerly often called Working Stress Desigu). Tbat method focused
on service (working) loads and elascically compuced stresses, comparing those stresses
wich allowable limiting values. However, the logica! trend now should be toward che more
rational LRFD Mcthod. Strcngth design philosophy (ref1ected in the 1986 and 199'.l LRFD
Specifications) uses factorcd service loads and compares the strength provided with such
factored loads (or load effects). The srrength in any given case depends on the " limit state",
or mode of fai Iure, such as yielding. fracture. or buckling. The tradirional ''plast:ic design",
included as Chapter N of 1he l 989 ASD Specification. is an option integralìy included a~
part of the AISC LRFD Method,
Throughout the text, thc theory and backgrcund rnateri;;I. now being the same for
bo1h thc LRFD and ASD pbilowphies or design. havc he:ea :rncgra,ed The specific design
provisions and iilu·aralivc examples emphasize the Loa'.i and l< csisrancc F:,c!or Design
Mcthod.
The fi/"th edition contmues the 11.~e <'f SI una~ ,;1s a" rtd(1i1ion t(, the primary use of
lnch-Pound units. The 2005 A/S(' Sperijication has non-dirnen~i,)ua,;:?,ed thc fonnulas by
including rhc rnoduius of ela$cicity E of steel as a variable. Thc inciusion of E as a variable
in 1he formuias bas made m,:u1y of them cumbersome to use. In many parts of this texc, the
auchors han~ u,ed both ,he formulas containing E .ind the familiar coefficient version with
F,. in ksi uni!s. Tables and d,agrams generally contain both lnch-Pound and SI units.
Depe:idiug ,m ùie prnfkiency required ot thè \tudcnt. ihis textbook provides mater-
iai for twu c,rnr~e,~ of threc w fo \lr seme,ter-crerlir i.iours eac\.i. 1, ,s suggested that the be-
ginning course in s teel stmcnn~:, for undergraduatc ~tuden,s r.,if!,t co:,tain the 1m:terial of
Chapters I thro11gh 7, 9, IO, ì 2 and 16. excep( Secrjon, 6.4, 6.6, b . J2 Lo <il 9, 7.9 to 7 .11 ,
9.3 to 9.5. 9.8. 9. 12 to 9.14. and i 2.6 lO 12.7. The ~ccond ,·ourse would rcview sorne of che
sarne topics of the first course, but more rapìdly. èmphasizin~ items o;.n itted in che first
course. In addition. the remaining chapters- namely Chapte!· 8 un t•:•rsion; C h<1:1te, l I on
plate girders. Chapter i3 on connections, Chapcer 14 on frames. and Chaptcf 15 on fra me
de ign- are suggested for inclusion. The primary philoso1,hy en:;pli;;si-,,c· d in lw;!-, rourses
should be Load and Resistance Factor Design.
The reader will need ready access to the AJSC Mamwr' throughout the study of t.he
text, particularly when working with the examples. Howèver. it is not the nbjective of this
text chat the reader become proficient in the routine use of tables: the tables serve only as a
guide to obtaining experience with variation of design parameters and as an aid in arriving
at good design. The AISC Specification and Commentary are contained in the Steel Design
Manual and are thercfore not included in this book, except for various individuai provì-
sions quoted where they are explained.
•sreel Con$Jn1cti011 Mamial. 13th edition. 2005. Since nearly continuous refercnce is onade 10 the AJSC Mmmal
(which also contains thc 2005 Specification and Commentary). the reader will find it desirabk 10 secure a copy of
this document from thc American lnslinue of Steel Cons1rnc1ion. Inc.. One East Wacker Drive, Suite 700.
Chicago, IL 60601-2001.
Preface • XV
The direct use of the computer is not specifically ernployed anywhere in the text. Tue
authors believe the study of basic principles in the classroom is of the highest priority.
However, the reader may find that acquiring che data base of standard section properties,
available from AISC, will be helpful. There are many types of steel design software avail-
able to be used once the designer is knowledgable in structural steel behavior and design.
Features of this fifth edition are: (I) detailed presentation of strength-related back-
ground and design rules for the Load and Resistance Factor Design Method; (2) with some
limited treatment of the Allowable Strength Design Method. Tue authors believe intermix-
ing LRFD and ASD leads to confusion and mistakes. The authors also believe that teach-
ers of stmctural steel design have for qui te a few years now been teaching the logicaI LRFD
Method, and should continue to do so.
Other special features of this text are (3) comprehensive treatment of design of
I-shaped members subject to torsion (Chapter 8), including a simplified practical
method ; (4) detailed treatment of plate girder theory as it relates to Load and
Resistance Factor Design (Chapter 11) and a comprehensive design ex ampie of a two-
span continuous girder using two different grades of stee); (5) extensive treatment of
connections (Chapter 13), including significant discussion and illustration of the de-
sign of components. Ali chapters of the book were extensively rewritten for the fifth
edition to rct1ect the major changes made by the 2005 AISC Specifica1.ion. and im-
proved for betler readability and understanding as a resuh of suggestio ns from users.
The authors are indebted to students, colleagues, and other users of the first four edi-
tions who have suggested improvemcnts of wor<ling, identified errors, and recommended
items for inclusion or deletion. The suggestions have been carefully considered, resulting
in this complete revision. The continued cooperation and help from the American lnstitute
of Steel Construction is also appreciate<l.
Users of this fifth edition are urged to communicate with the authors regarding alias-
pects of this book, panicularly on identification of errors and suggestions for improvement.
The senior author affectionately dedicates tbis book m memory of his late wife, Bette
Salrnon, for her patience and encouragement through the tirst three editions.
The third author cledicatcs this book to his wife, Fikrat, and his children Ameen.
Sami, Tamara, and Layla for thcir patiencc, support. and encouragement.
Cl-l/\RLES G. S AUION
JOHN E. JoH1'SON
FARlS A. MALHAS
Some Conversion Factors, between lnch -Pound Units and SI Units, Useful in
Structural Steel Design
To Convert lo Multiply by
Forces kip forc~ kN 4.448

lb N 4.448
kN kip 0.2248
S1resses k.si MPa (i.e.. N/ mn/) 6.895
psi MPa 0.006895
MPa ksi 0.1450
.MPa psi 145.0
Momen1s ù-ki p kN·m l .356
kN·m f1-kip O.i376
llniform Loading !;_;p/(( kN/m 14.59
kN/m kipifl 0.06852
~1p/ ft~ kN/ m2 i.7.88
psf N/ n/ --l7.ll8
k'.V·m·' kip/ lt ' 0.(\20~9
--··- ---~-
For proper use of SI, see ·E'EE.//'.ST!J' s: 10 -2(.)02 Stcmdard fv1 Use .'.";I: the, il"te1nat1·:,11ai System of Units {SI);
The Modorn Metric S·,, tt«,. {Pts:.!ect', .ò.STM ~38:J ancJ ANS;'IEEE !>td 2G8 19!12, A~·, erican Societ~· lorTesling
and Matorials, \i\1est C-lm~hv<·(.1Ck.!:,,, i~· ?:)').>.
Basis of C:onve,siof':<{llèEÈ! ASlM !'-110;· ~ ,n. 2~ 4 mn-,: < il:' (o,~= 0
4.448 22 ! 0 15 260 5 nev.1ons
Basic Sl units r~l:1'1'1g te, Slf\:ct:.iròl &tee! d~~100:
Ouantiry u,,,, s,.-,,oo,
1engEh nì~Hf' n
kg
Der1v~a SI uniB relr;ting lo ~t,u-:tural (los•gn

Q1.:2 n tity Unit S ~·n1bof rotn,:::J
force r\0\ivtO n N kçJ · ,n.'s 7
prcssure, sn ess PQSCGl Po N/,11'
energy, or work j oule J N · p1
xvii
Introduction
1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Structural design nwy be dejìned as a mixture of art and science, combining rhe experi-
enced engineer·s intuitive feeling far rhe behavior of a structure with a sound knowledge of
the principles of sratics, dyrwmics, mechw,ics ofmaterials, and structural analysi.s, 10 pro-
duce a safe, economica/ struc1ure rhat will sen>e its intended purpose.
Unti! abour I 850, snuctural design was largely an art relyin.g on intuition co deter-
mine the size and arrangement of the structural elements. Early man-made structures
esscntially confonm:d to chose which could also be observcd in nature. such as beams and
arches. As che principles governing che behavior of structures and structural materials have
become better under»tood, design procedures have become more scientific.
Cornp111a1iom; involviog scienrific principles should serve as a guide 10 decision
making and noi be followed blindly. Tue art or intuitive ability of die experienced engineer
is utilized to maJ;e 1hc Jecisions, guidcd by the computational results.
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
Dc~ign is a proce;;s by w!iich an optimum solution is obt,;ined. In this text the concern is
with the ck:5;gn of stn1c1Ur<:s--in pmticular, steel structurt'.S. In any design, certain criterìa
nrnst be cs\abli~hed tu eva1uate whctber or not an optimum has been achieved. Fora struc-
ture, typical , ri(eria may be (a) minimum cost; (b) minimum weight: (e) minimum con-
Strt·ction lirnc:-: <d) r,,:,inimum labor, (e) minirnun, cost of manufoctnre of owner's products;
a, ,il (tì 1:rnxirnurn efficienc_y of ope11:lion io owner. Usually severa] critcria are i.nvolved,
e:iclt (>f wtuch may rcquire wcightit1g. Ollserving the above possible criteria. it may be
app.ìrent thai ,e11in:; clearly meas,,rnb!e crikrid lSuch as weight and cost) for establishing
a,. q )tinmrn frequrnrly w:n be àif!kult. and perhaps impossible. ir, mosr prnctical sirua-
tions. rhe evaluati.)n rrm.-,: be qualitative.
2 • Chapter 1 lntroduction
1730 fc Sears Tower, Chicago

(photo councsy of Oalen R.
Fry~inger)
1f a spccitic objective critcrion can be expressed mathematically, then optimization

techniqu,~s may be employect to obtain a maximum or minimum for the objective function.
Optimization procedures and techniques comprise an entire subject that i· outside lhe
scope of this text. The criterion of minimum weight is emphasized throughout, under the
generai assuinption tliat minimum materiai represents minjmum cost. Other , ub_ie-ctive cri-
1eria must be kept in mind, even though che integration of behavioral principles with design
of structural steel ekments in this text utilizes only simple objective crìteria. such as
weight or C()Sl.
Design Proce,iure
The design procedure may be considered to be composed of two pans- functwnal design
and strucn.:ral framework design. Funclional design ensures that intended results are
ad1;cved, s11ch as (a) adequate 1.vorking areas and clearances: (b) proper ventilat ion ancl/or
air conditioning: (e) adequ.ite lransportation facilities. such as elevato~ . ~,airways, and
cranes or matcrials handling cquipment: (d) adequate lightìng: and (e) aesthetics.
The strncrurnl fr:unework design is the selection of the arrangement and sizes of
srructural clcments so thar service loads may be safely canied, and displacements are
within aeceprablc limits.
The icerative design procedure may be outlined as follows:
1. Plan11i11g. Establishment of thc funciions which the structure mus! ~erve. Set cri-
teri a against which to measure. the resulting design for being an optimum.
Section 1.4 Loads • 3
2. Preliminary structuml configuration. Arrangemenl of the elements to serve the

functions in step 1.
3. Establishme11t of the loads to be carried.
4. Preliminary member selecrion. Based on the decisions of steps J, 2, and 3, selec-
Lion of the member sizes to satisfy an objective criterion, such as least weight or cosl.
S. Analysis. Structural analysis involving modeling the loads and the st:ructural
framework to obtain internal forces and any desired deflections.
6. Ewiluation. Are ali strength and serviceabilicy requirements satisfied and is the
result optimal'? Compare the result with predetermined criteria.
7. Redesign. Repetition of any part of the sequence l through 6 found necessary or
desirable as a result of evaluation. Steps I through 6 represent an iterative process. Usually
in this text only steps 3 through 6 will be subject to this iteration. since the structural con-
figuration and external loading will be préscribed.
8. Final decisio11. Tue determination of whether or not an optimum design has been
achieved.
1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Metal as a struccural materiai began with cast iron, used on a 100-ft (30-m) arch span
which was built in England in 1777-1779 [I.I].* A number of cast-iron bridges were built
during the period 1780-1820, mostly arch-shaped with main girders consisting of individ-
uai cast-iron pieces forming bars or trusses. Cast iron w as also used for chain links on sus-
pens ion bridges unti! about 1840.
Wrought iron bcgan replacìng cast iron soon afler 1840, the carliest important exam-
ple being the Brittania Bridge over Menai Straits in Wales, which was built in 1846-1850.
This -.vas a rnbuhr girder bridge having spans 230-460-460--230 ft (70-140-140-70 m).
which was made from wrought-iron plates and angles.
The proces!-. of rolling various shapes was developing as cast iron and wrought iron
received wiùc:r usage. Bars were rnlled on an industriai scale beginning about 1780. The
rollinf! of ~ails bégan .1tout i 8 20 and was extended to l-shapes by the l 870s.
'f:,e t.: e•:d opment of the Hf'ssemer proc:e~s ( l 855), the inrroduction of a basic liner in
the Bf'ssç;:no>r \:Onv,mer (1870\ and the open-hea11h fornace brought widespread use of
ìroi! ,,;, r:,roduu·s in budding maH·tials. Since 1890, s teel has replaced wrought iron as the
prin,:ipJ m;:-tr;1)ic tmildieg materi,~!. Curremly (2008 ). steel~ having yield stresses varying
frpm -~'l,UOO (,; ìOO or,{• pound,; p:::r sqnare inch, oi- p~i / l 65 to 690 megapascals,' or MPa).
,-..re arn.:Iabìe for ~truc!iiral uses. Tue \·a:ious ., teeis, tlieir uses and their properties are dis-
cus~~d in 1~hdnte1 2.
1.4 LOADS
- - -- - - -- ------------ -- -------- - - - -- - - -- -- - ----
The detcnrnnatìou of tJ1e loads to which i.l structure or structural ekment will be subjected
i,, al best. .lD es,imJte. Even if thc l0;1,b .u-e we!l J.:.nown atone locarion in a structure, the
cti~trihation ('f lo<iJ from clcmen1 Lo e k ment lhm 11ghout rhe strucnire usually requires
aswmption~ and ~ippwx 1mations. S,,rr.~ ,>f the mosr common kinds of loads are discus5ed
in Lhc fo!lowing St"ctions.
'Numbcrs in brackets ref"er tr> lhc Sckc1cd Rekren~e, ,,t ;hc end nf 1hc i:hapter.
' MPa. megapa~cals. are equiY3lenl to Newrnns per .,quare millimeter, N/nm,i . ìn SI unii, .
4 • Chapter 1 lntroductìon
Dead Load
Dead load is a fixcd-position gravity service load, so called because it acts ~ontin~ously
toward the eanh when che structure is in service. The weight of the structure 1s cons1dered
dead load, as are attachrnents to tbe structure such as pipes, electrical conduit, air-condi-
tioning and heating ducts, lighting fixtures, floor covering. roof covering, and suspended
ceilings; that is, ali items that remain throughout the !ife of the structure.
Dead loads are usually known accurately bui not unti! the design ha~ been com-
pleted. Under steps 3 through 6 of che design procedure discussed in Sec. 1.2, the weight of
the srructure or structural element must be estimated, preliminary secrion selected, weighl
recomputed. ami member selection revised if necessary. Tue dead load of auachments is
usually known with reasonable accuracy prior to the design.
Live Load
Gravity loads acting when the structure is in service, but varying in magnitude and loca-
tion, are termcd live /oads. Ex.amples of live loads are human occupants. forniture, mov-
able equipment, vehicles. and stored goods. Some live loads may be practically permanent,
other.~ may be highly transienr. Because of the unknown narure of the magnitude, location.
and density of live load iterns, realistìc magnitudes and the positions of such loads are very
difficult to determine.
Becanse nf the public concern for adeguate safety, live loads to be taken as service
loads in design are usually prescribed by state and locai building codes. These loads are
generally empirica i :md conservative, based on experience and accepted practice rather than
accura1ely COOJ!JIJtc.d values. Wherever locai codes do not apply, or do not exist. the provi-
sions from o ne o( severa! regional and national building codes may be w,eù. O ne such
widely rcrognizu t coèe, J,J fnimum Design Loadsfor Buildings nnd Otlrer S1mcti, res ASCE 7
(formerly ANSJ A58. l , publishtd by 1he American National Standard, lnsd,utc). for the
past fo,; ; _i'tòéì(i' h -1< heen dcve loped under the jurisdìction of the American Soc tl!ty of Civil
Enginecr:,. Th;~ ccde will hence rorth be referred to as the ASCE 7 Standard . Th.is S tandard
is u.pd:11cd fr•.>m time w tim:.:, mos, recently in 2005, making ASCE 7-05 I i ."2] :.he current
specific rcfon:o1cc. Sorne typ1eal hve loads from ASCE 7 are presented in Tab!,' l .4.1.
Uve Joa<l w:1en applicd to a structure should be posiùoned to give the ma.\1.,m:m effect,
induding partial !onding, alternate span loading, or full span loading as may be nece;;;ary. The
simplifiecl a$sump<ÌO;; .,,f full uniform loading everywhere should be used only ,•:hcn it agrees
with reality 01 is an approp,i at<:: approxirnation. The probability of having tl1e ;:;::-r:.,c tibed load-
ing appiied unìforrniy o,·er an entire floor, or over ali floors of a buildìng simultaneously, is
almos1 noncxi.stcnt Mcq CQdcs recognize this by allowing for some pcrce:l!:1ge reduction
from full loadi ng. For inst,UKc, ASCE 7 allows members having an influence area of 400 sq
ft or more to be designed fora reduced live load:
(1.4.1)
where L = reduced live load per sq ft of area supported by the member

lo = unreduced live load per sq ft of area supported by the memb.:-r (from
Table 1.4.1)
Ar = tributary area, sq ft
KLL = live load e lement factor
The Ii ve Ioad element factor K u, is equa! to 4 for interior columns and ex,terior columns
without cantilevered slabs: 3 for edge columns with cantilevered slabs; 2 for corner columns
TABLE 1.4.1 Typical Minimum Uniformly Distributed Uve Loads (Adapted

from Ref. 1.2)
Live load
Occupancy or use
Psf Pa*
I. Hotel guest rooms 40 1900
School c\assrooms
Private apanments
Private hospital rooms
2. Offices 50 2400
3. Assembly halls. fixed seats 60 2900
Lihrary reading rooms
4. Corridors, above first floor in schools, libcaries. and 80 3800
hospi1als
5. Assembly areas; theater lobbies 100 4800
Dining rooms and restaurams
Oftit:e building lobbics
Main floor, rctail stores
Assembly halls, movable seats
6. Wholesale stores, ali 0oors 125 6000
Manufacmring. light
S1oragc warehouses. li~ht
7. Armorie.s and drill hall; 150 7200
Stage floors
Librnry staà rooms
8. Manufacturing. heavy 250 12.000
Sidcwalks and driveways subject to trncking
Storage v,,arehouse.s~ h~avy
·s1 values are approximate conversions, using 1 pst (lb/sq ft) ~ 47.9 Pa.
with c::rn ikwrtd sl,:b~. edge beams without cantile.ver slabs,-and interior beams; and I forali
other mcmbers. The redtici:.d live load L shall not be less than 50% of the liYe load Lo for
memb~·~s ., urporting onù tfoor. nor Jç ,s than 40% of the live ioad Lo otherwise.
Highway Live Load
Higbway •,chic!c loading in lhe United Stat,:s has bccn standardizcd by the American
Am ,l:Ìiltion of Stat:: l-:llghway and Transportation Oflìcials (AASHTO) [ 1.3) into standard
tmck kiad., and lane loads tlrnt upproxirnat<" a scrie.s of trucks. Three basic types of live
load ckfincd t,y AASHTO are used in di.fferent combinations to produce maximum cffects:
the HS20 Design Truck Loadìng is :i tr:.1,:tvr trnck wi1h a semitrailer having a tota! of three
axlcs. ihe Dt:~ign Uniform Lane Lo.Jlh:ig con~i~t~ of a 1,1niform load of 640 pound~ per lin-
car foo1, ,l1' plf, and the Design Tanckrn Lùading wnsists of a two-axle vehicle with each
axle carrying a loa<l of 25 kilopound,, nr kips (Figs. 1.4.1 a-e). These livc lnads are for one
design lane an<l are referrd to as HL-93.
In designing a givcn bridge. rhe three differcnt lypes {)f live loads described above
are combined in threc <liffcrent ways hy AASHTO to obtain the 111axirnum cffect. The first
livc load c\1mhinati1m is made of one HS20 truck ìn additiOll to a uniform load of 0.64 klf.
The second live load combination is m<Jde of one tandem vchiclc in addition to tht' snme
uniform load. The third load combination is to produce maximum negative moments
betwcen points of inflection: two HS20 trucks are placed on two adjacent spans in additiun
to the same uniform \oad as above.
Railroad bridges are de.~igned to carry a similar semiempìrical loading known as the
Cooper E72 tra in, consisting of a series of concentnlled loads a fixed distance apan follo\Wd
10ft Typical lribulary widlll

Tandem j I
J2~ps
. i
TOP 25kips=IIOkN
or of design loadiog lane V !EW 6 ft I I Loading
Jm per axlc
(1.8 m) I ! lane
~
l _J___ .J_,
[
/1
rUnifonn design load per lane = 640 plf or9.3 kN/m f,
,__f--~;r::::::::::::::::::::::::::;~:::::::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::~(
t t t SJDE
VIEW
12.5~ kips
55 kN I 55 kN
j... 4 fi -,
Elevation (1.2 m)
Support, typical
Top view
:w
. '":
(a) (b)
Lane widthl
1
@.ti •
I I
I I
HS20 e::=:::::=::::: I I I
: r :
I . I
I I
I I
8.0 kips
(35kNJ
32.0 kips
(140 kN)
32.0 kips
(140kN)
:A:
: (1.8 m) :
I.. -I
14 ft 14 fl IO 30 ft
(4.3 m) (4.3 m IO 9.1 m ) IOtì
(3 m)
(e)
Figure I .4.1
AASHTO highway loadings. (a) Uniform Lane Loading, (b) Tandem Loading, (e) HS20 Design Truck Loading [J .3]
by uniform loading. This loading is prescribed by the American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA). [I .4].
Impact
The tenn impact a$ ordinarily used in structural design refers to the dynamic effect of a
suddenly applied !oacL lii the huilding of a ~tructure, the mate1ials are added s lowly; peo-
pJe emering a bo.ilding are alrn considered a graduai loading. Dead loads are sratic loads;
ì.c., they have no dfoct oche:- tban we ighr. Live Joads may be either static or thcy may have
a dyncl.mi;;; effect. Fernons :md h,miture would be trealed as stalic live load, bL!t cranes and
va.riom typcs of rna\.'hi,,.-, ry :il,c bave dynamic effects.
C onsidcr the spring--r,1as, systcm of Fig. I .4.2a, where the spring may be Lhought of
as :malogo1•~ ro an eb~t.ic l,cam. When load ìs gradually applied (i.e., static l,1ading) the
,rn1% ( weigf!l) det!e-:ts ,l.i, ,,mount x and the load on rhe spring (beam) is e qual tn the weight
W In Fig. .1.4.2b U:e J.::,ad is suddenly applied (dynamic loading), and the maxim1.un deflec-
tion is 2x; i.e., the maxi mum ioad on the spring (bea.in) is 2W. In this case lhl! r,,ass vibrates
in ~imple ila;:m0~lic n,o~ion wilh iìs neutra! position equal to its static det1ectel1 position. In
re~l stn,ctures, the haITconjc (v ibratory) motion ìs damped out (reduced to zero) very
rapi(\(,'. Once the motion ha$ stopred, 1he force remaining in the spring is the we ight W. To
accouut ::'or the incrca~e.d Force during the time the member is in motion. a io;id equa! to
twice th~ static load W sh0uld he used-add J00% of ù1e static load to represent the
dynamic eftecr. 1l1is is calkd a I00% impact factor.
Any iive load that can have a dynarnic effect should be increased by an iaipact factor.
Whiìe a dynamic analysis of a s trncture could be made, such a procedure is unnecessary in
ordinar; design. Thus, empirica( formulas and impact factors are usually n5e<l. In cases
T_l
-1-
X
:___
W .JI
Spring fon:c
= kx
w
I W I
Spring fon:e = kx
Load sud<lenly
---.J rele~frooihe"'
J_ 0 Load J?TOduol/y 1
~
applied w
k r;::-, Ose,llarion above
~ and below herc
Figure 1.4.2
Comparison of sta.tic and (a) No vibration: (b) Free vibra!ion:
dynamic loading. max. spring force ;: W max. spring farce = 2W
where the dynamic effect is small (say where impact would be less than about 20%), ic ìs
ordinarily accounted for by using a conservative (higher) value for the specified livc load.
Tue dynamic effects of persons in buildings and of slow-moving vehicles in parlcing
garages are examples where ordinary design live load is conservative, and usually no
explicit impact factor is added.
For highway bridge design, however, impact is always to be considered. AASHTO
[1.3] prescribes empirically that the impact factor expressed as a ponion of live load is
I = - 50
-- ~ 0.30 ( l.4.2)
L + 125
In Eq. 1.4.2, L (expressed in feet) is the length of the ponion of the span that is loaded to
give the maximum effect on tbc member. Since vehicles trave! dìrectly on the superstruc-
ture, ali parts of it are subjected to vibration and must be designed to include impact. Tue
substructure, including ali pon.ions not rigidly anached to the superstructure such as abut-
ments, retaining walls, and piers, are assumed ro h:we adequace damping or be sufficiently
remote from the application poi.nt of the dynamic load so that impact need not be consid-
ered. Again, conservative static loads may account for the smaller dynamic effects.
In buildings, impact is expiicitly provided for primarily in the design of suppons for
cranes and heavy machinery. To account for the magnification of imposed loads due to
impact. ASCE ì-05 (Secs. 4.7 and 4.10) f 1.2] requires an increase in the maximum live
load by the following percentagcs:
For suppons of elev2tors and elevator machinery 100%

Fo;- sDpport~ of iight machinery, ~haft- or motor-driven. not less than 20%
r,;i· support, of recipmcating roachinery or power-driven unit~.
no1 k ;:-;s rh;,n 50%
Fo?" haJ~gc-rs ~:upporrin,ç.. floor -- <1.n:J halconie~ 33o/c

h.~· ~"b-,,,per:f.ed tr.i"tling crnn: s:1ppi.'ft girdcrs and their connections 259,
F)r pe ndai,:-0i}trn.'el1 C::-;',Vf-liug crar·,~ suppùn girdcrs and lh<!-ir connections 10%
1-~ th~· i:ksip n of cran,! nuw.a:, gi,d,:rs (,,ce Fig. 1.4.3) ami rheir cnr.nections, t.hc hor-
i.:on:J.~ fotces ,ausw by moving ~'t:tn(:" !!oìk:;ys must be considered. ASCE 7-05 (Se.e. 4.10)
prcsc:.i& '.: u,;rng a mi;,i;;mm of ··:::.~'." i ,:,; 1h.e si:m of weigh1, of the liftèd lùad and of thc
et.ifa~ ig,!ky, l,1J1 e,;cJu~ì,e lYi rnhc·r parts 0f rhc crane. Th.:: forct' sh31l be assumed to be
ap pi:,~~t ·-1 :l~'. w:, of tk rads, a.::fa,z. i:i tnher tfatetion normai to the rum>.··a y rail,;.. and sha.11
t,e ~~is1d::1,e<l 1>. i~h d-ue r,:,gard for btcrc:ì n iffr1c;.s of thc structure ~upporting the rails ·•
8 • Chapr.r 1 lntroduc:tion
Crn.n.e
.. m~n.c1n~nt
_ n,.,Ucy
\
Trolley So:1100 :\ ·A
,,,cr~
EoJ truci.
C r i\t'h.' r-l--l,
nU ~~~~~~
~d-
,rur
f'a,uR 1..0 sL •s
enne arran~men1. .Jio,. mg A .J R u,11411y s1rdf." r
mo•Tmen1s dlaI contriburc J1l.1n \'le.""-
Sc..11on 8 -8
impact loeding.
·. · . . d. -cleraiil,n of 1hc enti re crnnc . ,, lo ng,illldinal

In add111nn. due 10 :i,·celcrnt,0 11 ,1n_t 1 ec •. . f lhc ·n·' iruck. wl
· - -
1rac11n: forcc 1, trn.n~m,ncd to thc rum\ ay g1ru"r · ., , tl111· n1"h
e-
tnc:11nn
•
(' i: u
• ,, .__ •
1cc
. 1.
,
·
"ith the e rane rJ 1I. ASCE 7 rcquin.:, . i \C , peuhcu, I O"" .,I min,.
· 1·o n.:L'. nn I·e,·~ Olhl.'.l"\\
tln,
mum of IOC,,. ofthc ru,n,m u m \\ hccl load, o f t he ,.rJ. nc. •ap phcd at thl' 11, p ol thc ra,I.
Snow Load
·
The h,c loJdmg for \\ h ,c h mof , .11\: dc-ignct I ,._
· ci··1t1c1· 1·nt·11l"
• J l'f ,nn11
.
1·,11I'- a ,now load
J • • •
Smce ,no,\ ha., J ,aria"le ,pec,fii.: grJ\ i1y. cvcn if c111c l.now, lhe J cotl, ' 1 , m)w lor whtch
de~ign i, 11, be mJde. the lo.nl per unii arca nf roof i, ;,t h..:q .' mly .i ~ li " . , .
Thc tlc,1 procedure for c,tabli, hing ,now loac..l for ,k:\1gn " ' " lolJ,,w ASCE 7: Thl\
Standard use, J map of 1h.: Vnited S1a1e, gi\ ing i,olinc, o f grnund 10 \ t ·orrc,pondmg 10
a 50-, ear mc:111 rccum:nce intel'\al. for u" · in c.k,ignìng mu,t perni, n •nt ,Lructurc~. The
grou~d ~no" i<s lhen muluplicd b} a cocfficien1 th,11 include, thc cm.~·1 111 rouf ,lopc. wind
ell[~ure. no nunifonn accumulatio n on pitched or cul'\ed ro<>f,. mul11pk , a ii.:, roof~. and
mulrile,·el roof:. :llld roof areru, adjacent to projcction, on a roof lcvcl.
Il i!> apparent thai the ~teepcr the roof 1he les)> ,now ca n accumulate. AIM>. panial
snow loading mus.r be considered in addition 10 full loading. if ,uch loading can occur and
would cause maximum effects. Wind may also act on a !>tructure 1hat i, c arrying ,now load.
Il is unlikely, however. that maximum snow and wind loads would act "imultaneously.
In genera), t.he ba.sic snow load used in design varies from 30 to 40 psf ( 1400 to 1900
Pa) ia 1be nonhem and eastem states to 20 psf (960 Pa) or less in the southem states. Aal
roors in normaJly wann ctimates should be designed for 20 psf (960 Pa> even when sudi
accamulalion of mow may seem doubtful. This loading rnay be thought or u due 10 pco-
pk plben,d on sucb a roof. Funbmnore, tbough wiod is fRquently ignored as a vel1ical
fon:e ~ a roof, oevenbeless il may caue socb an effec1. For dleSC reasons, a 20 psf (960
Pa) IIIID•PM•m loading. ewa lhouab il nmy DOI always be snow, il reasonable. Locai codcs.
Bel.a ...... coodiliw. ASCE 7, or lbe Canadlan Stn«:ruraI Conrnvntarie1 l'alt'
.(l.6).tboaldbe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
......,.•
Mm-. IJal hf la_..._..,,..... by Lew, Simiu. ud EUinpOOII il
l)(l.-7). 111d in lbe W01b of 0 '._..
1'111 m. a Waall [I
Wind Load
Ali srructures are subjccr lo wind load. but usually only those more than three or four sto-
ries high, as we.11 as long bridges. require special consideratìon.
On any typical building of rectangular pian and elevation. wind exerts pressure on
the windward side and suction on the leeward side, as well as either upli ft or downward
pressure on the roof. For most ordinary situations, vertical roof loading from wind is
neglected on the assumption that snow loading w ill require a greater strength than wind
loading. This assumption is not true for southern climates where the vertical loading due to
w ind must be included. Furthermore, the tota! Latera! w ind load, windward and leeward
effect, is commonly assumed to be applied to the windward face of the building.
In accordance with Bernoulli' s theore111 for an ideai fluid striking an object. the
increase in static pressure equals the decrease in dynamic pressure, give n by
q = -I pV ,- ( l.4.3)
2
where q is the dynamic pressure on the object, p is the mass density of air (specific weight
w = 0.07651 pcf at sea leve! and l 5°C), and Vis the wind velocity. In terms of velocity V
in miles per hour, che dyna mic pressure q (psf) would be
q
= _!_( 0 .07651
2 32.2
)(5280V) = 0_
3600
2
0 0256 v 2 * (L4.4)*
A SCE 7 defines the velocity pressure using a modified form of the above equation:
(1.4.5)
where Kr1 is the wind directionalicy factor,

K, i~ rhe velocity pressurc. exposure coeffi cie nt,
Ku t~ t11e lopographic fac tor,
I ,s t he importance factor, and
q;, l'i rhc calL·t.ilated lf: at n~.iùhcight of the roof.
fo desigo, the dynamic pres:;ure q is commonly convened into equivalent static pres-
s.i:t. ;;_\:·(:kh may bt> express~d [1.2, Sec. 6]
( 1.4.6)
., -~- q~ 1or wimJ1vard walls evaluated a t height z above the ground

q =-· (J·. for ieeward wa!ls ..~ide w,t!ls. and roofs
q, = q;, for 1eeward wa!ls. side walls . and roofs of enclosed buildings
q1 = q~ for positi\•e internal pressure e valuation in partially enclosed
buiiding~
= gust e ffect fac tor
C
CP= e x.ternal pressure coeffi cie nc
ccp, = internal pressure coetficie nt
Typically, with wind-resisting sysce ms only the firsr tenn is considered, because the second
tenn cancels out as it produces egual and apposite pressures on the windward and leeward
walls. Excellent details of application of wind loading ro structures are available in the ASCE
7 Standard and in the Nm iona/ Building Code of Canada [ 1.6].
*In SI units, q = 0.62V2, for q in MPa and \I in rn/sec. 0 .4.4)

1O • Chapter 1 lntroduction
For all builJings having nonplanar surt·aces. piane surfaces inclined IO the wind
directìon, or surfaces having significan1 openings, special determination of the wind forces
should be made using sources like the ASCE 7 Standard or the Natimwl Building Code r!f
Canada [ 1.6]- For more extcnsive treatment of wind loads, the render is referred 10 the
Report of the Task Committee on Wind Forces [ 1.33 ], Lew, Simiu. and Ellingwood in the
Building Struc111ral Design Ha11dbook (1.7, Chap. 2). Mehta [1.34], and Stathopoulos,
Surry. and Davenport [ 1.35].
Earthquake Load
An earthquake consists of horiwntal and venical ground motions, with the ve11.ical motion
usually having the much smaller magnitude. Because the horizontal motion of the ground
causes che most significant effect, it is that effec t which is often thought of as earthquake
load. When the ground under an object (strucmre) having mass suddenly moves, the iner-
tia of the mass tends to resist the movement. as shown in Fig. 1.4.4. A shear force is devel-
oped berween the ground and the mass.
Mosc building codes having earthquake provisions rcquire rhal the de signer e ithe r
(1) use a dynamic analysis of thc structure, or (2) for normal ge nerally rec tangular ,
medium-height builclings, use an empirica! laceraJ base shenr force CW. Tue dynanùcs of
earthquake action on structures is outside the scope of this text, and the reade r is roefern::d
to Chopra [ J .46J and Clough and Penzien ( 1.47).
The equivalenc lacerai base shear force procedure for dcs1gning eanhquake-res.isl:l.l'Ct
has traditionally becn used by most building codes to simplify the design process. For many
years, a widely used source has been the Structural Engineers Association of California
(SEAOC) recommendaùons f 1.44 ], ùie latest versi on of which is 1999. ASCE 7 contains an
equivalenc lateral Force procedure for " Buil<lings designaced as regular up to 240 feet,"
wherein the seismic base shear Vis given as
V= C, W (1.4.7)
where C_, scismic response coefficient, varying fn~n, around O.O! for a low velocìty-
relared accelerntìon coefficient (say, 0.05) on geod soil (say. rocl<) with a
good seismic-resisting structural system (say. a moment-resi-,ti.11g f,;,m>:> ) for
the maximum 240-foot-high "regular" bni!ding. ro ilfOlJlìè 0 .35 :or ::i. high
velocity-related acccleration coefficient (say, 0.20) on :ir;or ,oi! (sa,, snft day
or silt) wirh a poor moment-rcsisting system (say, ,mreinforc,:d m!\s0r,ry", for
a J 20-foot-high "regular" building.
W = tota!dead load of tbe building, including partitions, mid portivri, (,f N her
loads as defined in ASCE 7.
w w
CW ~ incr1i~
reaction
Figure I.4.4
-
Earthmotion
.....
Force deveJoped by eardl- (a) A1 resi ( b I Under horizomal motion
from earthqullkc
Sectìon 1.4 Loads • 11
The seismic re~ponse coefficient is given by
C = SDs ( 1.4.8)
·' R/1
where Sos = 5% damped design spectral response acceleration for shon periods
R = response modification factor relating to the seisrnic force-resisting struc-
tural system
I = occupancy imponance factor
However. the scismic response coefficient need not be greater than
S01
e s =--
T(R/1)
- for T ::s; TL (l.4.9a)
or
e = so,Ti forT > Ti (l.4.9b)

' T2(R / l)
whcre SDI = design spec1ral response parameter at a period of I .O s
T = fundamenrnl period of the strucwre
TL = long period transition period specified in ASCE7 for different regions
Also, Cs shall not be le, s than
Cs = 0.01 for S 1 < 0.6g (l.4.9c)

0.5S
e=
,
-R / 11 for S 1 ~ 0.6g (1.4.9d)
where 51 = mapped maximum , pectral response accderation parameter

The fu!~damen1..,1 period o f the s:ructure. T, used in Eqs. ( 1.4.9) shall not exceed
(l.4.10)
where Cu = ,:oeitil:1.::,~1 relating to Sm .

Ya!") ing fmm 1.4 to l. 7 as So; varies from 0.4 to 1..7
T0 = ap9roximate fu11damental perioò detennined from
(1.4.11)
where C, a.nd x are par:uneters re lated to the type of structure and hn is the height of the
scrucrure abon: tbe base .
Note that rhe base shear force method is for ··regular'· buildings. Irregular buildings
are those which contain ( 1) pian structural irregularities, such as torsional irregularity. re-
enrrant comers. diaphragm discominuiry, out-of-plane offsets, and nonparallel systems,
and/or (2) l"enical structural irregularities. such as stiffness irregularity (soft story), mass
irregularicy, geometrie irregularity. in-piane discontinuity in vertical lateral force-resisting
elements, and discontinuiry in lateral strength (weak story). The base shear force method is
aJso limited co buildings not exceeding 250 ft in height.
After the base shear force Vis determined. the vertical distribution of seismic forces
must be detennined. The seismic design story shear must include direct shear as well as
torsion. The building must be designed to resist overturning effects caused by seismic
forces. Also, story drifts, and where required, member forces and moments due to P--deba
effects must be determined.
ASCE 7-05 is base(! oo the NEHRP Recowntkd Provision.s /or 11w Dlwio,.•
o/Seismic RegulDlions/or New Buildings ( 1.49), which is lhe definitive IOUl'CI far 11· t:
design. Various traditional building codcs for eanhquake-resistant desig~ a~e compared by
Chopra and Cru1. ( I .48]. Many states have adopted che fntemational Buddmg Code ( IBCJ
f J .48]. which contains provisions for seismic design generally based on_che ASC~ 7 Stan-
dard f 1.2]. For steel design. AISC has recently (2006) published th~ Se1sm1_c Design Man-
ua/ [1.53]. Other information on steeJ-relaced earthguake codes 1s prov1ded by PoPov
fl.51 l and Marsh [1.52].
1.5 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS
As discussed in Sec J .2, the function of a struccure is the principal fuctor detennining the
structural configuration. Using the structural configuration along with the design loads,
individuai components are selected 10 propcrly suppor! and transmit loads throughout the
structure. Steel mcmbers are selected from among 1he standard rolled shapes adopted by
the American Insritute of Steel Construction (AJSC) (also given by American Society for
Tes ting and Mate rials fASTMJ A6 Specification). Of course. weldiog permits combining
plates and/or o the r rolled s hapes to obtain any shape the designer may require.
Typical rolled shapes, the dimensions for which are found in the AISC Manual ll.15],
are shown in Fig. 1.5.l. Tue most commonly used section is the wide-flange shape (Fig.
1.5. la) which is formed by hot rolling in the steel mili. The wide-tlange shape is designated by
the nominai depth and the weight per foot, such as a W I 8 X 97 which is nominally 18 in. deep
(actual depth = I 8.59 in. according 10 AISC Manua{) and weighs 97 pounds pe r foot. (In SI
units the W 18 X97 scction could be designated W460X 144, meaning nominally 460 mm
deep and having a mass of 144 kg/m.) Two sets of dimens ions are found in the A!SC Manua/,
one set staced in decimals for the designer to use in computations, and anoù1er set expressed in
frac1jo11s <-ik in. as the smallest incremcnt) for the decailer to use on pJans and shop drawings.
Rolled W shapes are also designarcd by ASTM A6/ A6M* [ I .5) in accordance wilh we b thick-
ness as Groups I through 5, with the thinnest we b sections in Gro up I.
. The Ame rican Standard beam (Fig. l.5.1 b), commonly called the T-beam, has rela-
tively natTOW and s loping fl anges ;md a thic k web cornpared to the wide-flange shape. Use
I I [ L T
\V s e L WT or ST
(a ) \\'it!c-tfangc (b i AmedcJn ((') American ( d) A ngle ( e ) S1ruc tui-al
SM))< s1and,wd standard tee
hc"m channcl
Figure 1.5.1
Standard rolled shapes.
OD --
(f) Pipe
s~c 1ion
(g) Srn,crnral
1ubing
(hl Bars (il Pl~les
~ e M rcferi; lo lhe S( version of the ASTM Standard.

Section 1.5 Types of Structural Steel Members • 13
of I-beams has become uncommon because of excessivc mat.erìal in the web and relative
lack of lateral stiffness resulting from the narrow nanges.
The channel (Fig. 1.5.lc) and angle (Fig. 1.5. ld) are commonly used either alone or
in combination with other sections. The cha1111el is <lesignated. for example. as CI 2X20.7,
a nominai 12-in. deep channel having a weight of 20.7 pounds per foot. Angles are desig-
nated by their leg length (long leg first) an<l thickness, such as L6X4xj.
The stmctural tee (Fig. 1.5. le) is made by cuning wide-flange or 1-beams in half and
is commonly used for chord members ìn trusses. The tee is designated, for example, as
WT5X44, where the 5 is the nominai depth and 44 is the weight in pounds per foot, this tee
being CUI from a WIOX88.
Pipe sections (Fig. 1.5. lf) are designated "standard," "extra strong," and "double-
extra strong" in accordance with the thickness andare also nominally prescribed by dìam-
eter: thus I 0-in.-diam. double-extra strong is an example of a particular pipe size.
Hollow structural steel (HSS) (Fig. 1.5.1 g) is used where pleasing architectural
appearance is de.~ired with exposed steel. Tubing is designated by outside dimensions and
thickness. such as HSS 8X6X¼.
The sections shown in Fìg. 1.5. l a1·e ali hot-rolled; that is, they are fonned from hot
billet steel (blocks of steel) by passing through rolls numerous times to obtain the final
shapes. Many othcr shapes are cold-formed from plate materiai having a thickness not
exceeding 1 in., as shown in Fig. I .5.2.
Regarding size and designation of cold-fonned steel members. there are no truly stan-
dard shapes even though the properties of many common shapes are given in the Cold-Fonned
Steel Design Manual f l .9J. Various manufacturers produce many proprietary shapes.
CC 1_1 I I
(a) Chennd, th\ 7.ns (e) 1-shapcd do:it.le
c:hannc.i~
Figure 1.5.2
Some cold-formed shapes. (d) Aop·e
Tension Members
Tension mcmbers commonly occur :.,~; chord mernbcrs in a truss, as diagonal bracì.ng in many
types of structures, as direct suppor! for balconies, as cables in suspended roof systems, and
as suspension bridge main cables and ~uspendcrs that support the roadway. Typical cross-
sections of teosion members are shown in Fig. 1.5.3, and their design (except for special fac-
tors relating 10 suspension-type cable supported structures) is treated in Chapter 3.
Compression Members
Because compression member strength is a function of the cross-sectional shape (radius of
gyratjon), the area is generally spread out as much as is practical. Chord members in
trusses, and many interior columns in buildings, are examples of members subject to nxìal
OD
(b ) Cablcs composed ( e) Single a.nd
(•) RO<Jnd and rcciaogular
of many ~-m~ll wires dooble anglc.,
bar... jndudini; eyc
bars anrl upsd bl\~
Figure l.5.3
lypical tension members.
I
(dl Rolled W- and
S-~1ions
JL
(e) Structuml
k::=.
: f) Bu•lh,p box
$(-C( i! •TT\:
Pc.rfora1cd
1>lale.\
'\
'
compression. Even under the most idea] cond.ition. pu;?. axiai. c;,,mpres~ion 1s nol atu_in-
able· so desion for "axial" Joading assurnes the effect of any small s imulranem,-~ h,nd, 1,g
, ' "' - G • 4
may be neglected. Typical cross-sections of compression rnernbers are sho,vn m , ;f,. l ) ,
and iheir behavior and design are treated in Chapter 6.
I
( a) Rolled W - ;md
S-shapcs
d [~
(,b) Doublc
angl.c
D 11
n
c-·-J r--..,
(e) Struc1ur..1l
ree
(d) Stnir..: tur;,1 l
tubing
Figure 1.5.4
Typical compression
members.
o
(~) Pipe <ection
[_JI
(f) Built-up section<
Beams
Beams are members subjected to transverse loading and are most efficient when their area
is distributed so as to be located at the greatest practical distance from the neutra! axis. The
most common beam sections are the wide-flange (W) and 1-beams (S) (Fig. I.S.5a). as
well as smaller rolled 1-shaped sections designated as "miscellaneous shapes'' (M).
Por deeper and thinner-webbed sections than can economically be rolled. we\ded
1-shaped sections (Fig. l.5.5b) are used, including stiffened plate girders.
Section 1.5 Types ot Structural Steel Members • 15
I
(a) Rolled W-
and olher
1-shape<l
I
(~) Welded
1-shape
I
(piote girderl
(t':) Open-wcbjc,is1s
secI ions
I I
Figure 1.5.5
'fypical beam members. (d) Anglc (e) Cilarmel (f) Buih-up rncmbers {g) Compo~ile stcel·concrete
For modernt~ spanc. carrying hght loads. qlrn-web "joiscs" are often used (Fig.
1.5.5c). These are parallel chord ltuSf:-typc members used for rhe support of floors and
roofs. The steeJ ,nay be hot-rolled or coid-forme.J . Such joists are designated "K-Series,"
"LH-Series," :md 'DLH-~:erie~." The K--Serit'S is suitable for members having the direct
support of floor:, ,UKJ to,,f decks in b11i!dings. The LH-Sttie and DLH-Series are known as
Longspan mid Ceep :::_ongsµan, r~spe.::tively. Longsp.tn Steel Joists are shop-fabricated
trusses used "tor t11e dir.ect suppor! ,,f floor or roof i,lJbs or decks between walls, beams,
and main ~tructur-1[ memb~rs·· [ 1. 10). Dccp Longsp,m foists are used "for the direct sup-
port of roof siabs or decks between w,ill, beams ,md main ~tructural members" (1.10]. The
design of the chords fr:,r K-Serie, trusses is hased o,; a yidd strength* of 50 ksi (345 MPa).
while the \Veb sections may u~e eith~r 36 (248 Ml'a) or 50 ksi (345 MPa). Forthe LH- and
DLH-Series, the chorù. and 1;veb section~ design must be based on a yield strength of at
least 36 k.sì (248 :MPa) but not greater than 50 ksi (345 MPa).
The K-Series jois1.s have depths from 8 to 30 in . for clear spans to 60 ft. The
Longspan joìsts (LH-Series) have depths from 18 Lo 48 in. for clear spans to 96 ft. The
Deep Longspan joists (DLH-Series) have depths from 52 to 72 in. for clear spans to 144 ft.
All of these joists are designed according to Specificatious adopted by the Steel Joist
lnstitute (SJI) [I.IO]. which generally agree with the A/SC Specijication l l.13] for hot-
rolled steels, and with the A/SI Spec(fication [ 1.8] for coldformed steels. Designing with
Steel Joists, Joist Girders, Steel Deck by Fìsher, West, and Van de Pas [ 1.11] provides excel-
Jent treatmenr of joists and joist-related tloor systems. Dynamics of structures is outside the
scope of chis text, and the reader is referred to Chopra [ 1.46] and Clough and Penzien
[ 1.47).
For beams (known as lintels) carrying loads across window and door openings.
angles are frequently used; and for bearns (known as girts) in wall panels. channels are
frequently used.
*Referto Sec. 2.4 for definilion.

Bending and Axial Load

When simuhaneous aclion of tension or compression along wi1h bending occurs, a com-
bioed lond problem arises and the type of membcr used will be dependent ~n t~e type of
load that predominates. A member subjected to axial compression and b~n~mg 1s usually
referrcd to as a beam-column, the behavior and design of which is deal~w1Lh ~n Chaptcr 12.
The aforementioned illustration of types of rnembers to resist vanous krnds of load is
intended only to show common and represernative types of members and noi to be aH-1nclus1ve.
1.6 STEEL STRUCTURES

Structures may be divided into thrce generai categories: (a) framed structures, where ele-
menls may consist of tension members, columns, beams. and members under combined
bending and axial load; (b) shell-type structures, where axial forces predominate; and
(e) suspension-type structures. where :ixial tension predominates the prindpal support system.
Framed Structures
Most typical building conslruction is in this category. The multistory building usuall y con-
s ists of bearns and colurnns, either rigidly connected or having s imple end conni::-::tions
along with cli:igooal brncing to provide st.ability. Even though a multistory buil.dìng is
lhree-dimcnsional, it usually is designed w be much stjffer in one direc tion than the other;
thus ii may reasorrnbly be treated as a se.r ies of piane frames. However, if the frn .. ·rng is
Figure 1.6. 1
Floor joisr, (piane trusse~)
llnd llcel decking. (Photo by
C. u. SaJmoa)
Sec:tion 1.6 Steel Structures • 17
Figure 1.6.2
Space truss roof erected in
sections; afao shows piace
girder at lower leve) contain-
ing venical stiffener plates
and special stiffening around
rectangular holes through
girder web. Upjohn Office
Building, Kalamazoo. Michi-
gan. {Photo courtesy White-
head and Kales Company)
such that the behavior ( 1f di.: ,>,cnfre~-., ir: one piane M;bstamially inf\uences the behaviur in
another piane. 1h~ frame tmJsl r:,c treated as a three-dimensional space frame.
Indtmrial huildings arn.1 ,pe::~lll one,story buildìngs such as churches. schools, and
arenas. gene.rally ::ire either whnlly ,,r part1y framed structute~. Pa11icula rly thc roof syste m
may be a ~crics of p ia ne trusscs (see Fi.; l .6.1 ). a spa ce tru~s (see Fig. l .6.2), a dome (see
Fig. 1.6.3 ), or it may be part of a flat or g ablcd one-story rig1.J frame.
Figure 1.6.3
Dome roof. Brown University
audilOrium. (Photo courtesy
Bethlchem Steel Corporation)
Figure l.6.4
Continuous orthotrnpic plate
girder across Mississippi
River at St. Louìs, Missouri.
(Photo by C. G. Salmon)
Bridges are mostly framed structures. such as beams and plate girders (see F ig. 1.6.4),
or trusses, usually continuous (see Fig. I .6.5).
This text is devoted to behavior and design of elements in frarned s tructurcs.
Shell-Type Structures
In chis type of structure, the shell serves a use function in addition to participation in carry-
ing loads. One common type where the main stress is tension is the conta inrnent vessel
used to store liquids (for both high and low temperatures), of which the elevateci water tank
is a notable example. Storage bins, tanks, and the hulls of ships are otber exampk.,. On
many shell-type structures, a framed structure may be used in conjunction with the shell.
On walls and flat roofs, the "sian" elemenL~ may be in compression while they act
together with a framework. The aircraft body is another such example.
Shell-type structures are usually designed by a specialist andare nor within the scope
of this text.
Figure 1.6.S
CoaliDUOUI Clii&& bridge.
~ Crouiq. Sta1en
111111d. New Yodi:. (PIioro by
c. o. Selmaa)
Section 1.6 Steel Structures • 19
Fi_gu.re 1.6.6
Ca-ble-suspended roof for
Madison Square Garden
Sports and Entertainmenl
Center, New York. (Photo
courtesy Be1hlehem Sieel
Corporati on)
Suspension -Type Stmctmes
In the suspo2r,si.on-ty pe strncture, tension cables are major suppmting elements. A roof may
be cable-sn pported, as shown :n Fig. J.6.6 . Probably the most co111mon structure of this
type is the suspension b ridge. as shown in Fig. 1.6. 7. Usual!y a subsystem of the siructure
consists of a framed structure, as in th e stiffening cruss for the suspension bridge. Since lhe
tension element is the. most efficient way of carrying load. structw:es utilizing this concept
are increasingiy being used.
Figure l.6.7
Suspension bridge. Golden
Gau: Bridge, San Francisco,
Califomia. (Pholo by C. G.
Salmon)
·· · · b'nations of framed, shell-type, an<l

Many unusual structures unhzma
".
vanous com J • . •
h ty 1·cal designer must pnnc1pally
suspension-rype structures have been bu1lt. Howcver, t e P · ·
understand che design and behavior of frame<l structures.
1.7 SPECIFICATIONS AND BUILDING CODES

th
Structural s1eel design of buildings in the United S1ates is p1incipally b ascd on c sp.ecifi-
cacion of the American Institute of Steel Construction (A!SC). AISC 1s composcd ot steel
fabrìcator and manufacturing companies. as well as individuals i~terested in ?eel design
and research. The A!SC Specification is the result of the combrne~ Judgment ot r_e search_ers
and practicing engineers. The research efforts have been synthesized mto ~ractical design
procedures to previde a safe, economica! structure. The advent of the digital compute~ Ili
design practice has made feasible more elaborate design rules. Tbe cun-ent spccificahoo
which is referred m throughom this book is the 2005 De.,·ign Specification for Structura/
Steel Bui/dings [l.lll.
A specìfication containing a set of rules is intended to insure safety: however, the
designer must understancl the behavior for which thc rulc applies. Other.vi~e. an absurd
design may resnlt. cither unsafe or grossly conservative. The authors contend that it is virtu-
ally impossible to wri te ru\es that fully apply to every simation. Behavioral un dcrstanding
must come first: application of rules then follows. No m<1t1er what set of rules is llpplicable,
the designer has the 11/.timate respo11sibiliry for a safe struct11re.
A specification when adopted by AISC is actually a set of recommendation<. pa t fonh
by a highly resp~cted group of expe1ts in the field of steel research ami desig n. Cid y when
govemmentai bodies. such as city, state, and federai agencies, who have lega! resr unsibiJity
for public safoty. adopt or incorporate a specification such as the AlSC Steei Dc 5ign Specifi-
cation (ANSL'AISC 360-05) [1.1 3] into their building codes does it bec.:ome ìcgaHy officiai.
The design of steel bridges is generally in accordance w ith specìficati,;:-r,s of the
Americ an Associat1on of State Highway and Transponarion Officials (AASHTO) [1.3).
This is a legai set of rules because il has been adopted by the states (usually the state h igh-
way depanments have this responsìbility).
Raìlroad bridges are designed in accordance with the specificatio ns ad op ted by the
American Railway Engineering and Maintenance ofWay Association (A REM A) [ 1.4). ln
this case the railroads have rhe responsibility for safety and through their own organization
adopt the rules to insure safe designs.
The tenn building code is sometimes used synonymously with specifo.:ations. More
correctly a building code is a broadly based document, either a lega! documenl such as a
state or locai buildìng code, or a document widely recognized even 1hou2h no t legal which
covers the same. wide rang~ oftopics as the state o r locai building code. B~1ilding c~des gen-
erally treat a\l tacets relatmg to safety, such as structural design. architectural details. flre
protection,_~eat~ng and air conditionìng, plumbing and sanitation, and lig hting. On the other
h~nd, spec1hcauons_frequent_ly _refer t~ rules set forth by the architect or engineer that per-
tam to_only one pamcular buildmg wh1\e under construction. Buìlding codes also ordinarily
prescnbe standard loads for which the structure is to be designed, a s discussed in Sec. 1.4.
_ The_ reader should not be disturbed by che interchangeable use of building code and
spec1fic_auon, but should clearly understand that which is legally required for design Md
that wh1ch could be thought of a s recommended practice.
1.8 PHILOSOPHIES OF DESIGN

The 2005 AISC Specificati011 for Structural Sree/ Bui/di ·d ·
ment of Allowable Strength D s· ( . . ngs provi es an 101egra1ed 1reat-
e ign prev10usly referred lo by Al SC as the All~lwal>lt'
Section 1.8 Philosophies of Design • 21
Stress Method) :md Loa<l and Tksistancc Factor Design. Thc ncw specific:ition combincs
thc two c..lesign mcthods and rnplaces earlier spccitkntions that trea1nl thc two design
methods separarcly. Allowable Stress Design has bec.n thc prindpal philosophy uscd du.r-
ing the past I 00 years. During the past 20 years or so, structurnl design has been moving
loward n more rillional and p1·obabili1y-based design procedure refcrre<l to as "limit states"
design. Haaijer 11.24] and Kennedy [1.25. 1.26] have prescnted the current status of the
limit states concept and its use in design. Li1nit states design includes thc methods com-
monly rdc1red to as "ultimate strength design:· '·strength design."" "plastic design.'" "load fac-
tor design:· ··Jìmit design:· aJ1CI the more recenl ··Joad and resistance factor design (LRFD)."
Structures and struc1ural members mus t have adequate st.rength. as well a~ adequate
stitfness :md toughness. to pennit proper fonctioning: during thc service lifc of the structure.
The design must provide some re.serve su·ength above that which is neeùed 10 carry the ser-
vice loads: that is. the structure must provide for the possibility o f overload. Overloads can
arise from changing thc: use for which a particular structure wai: designed. from underesti-
mation of the effccts of loads by oven,implification~ in structural analysis, and from varia-
tions in construciion proçedures. In addition. there 11111st be :1 provi,ion fnr the possibiliry
of unden:trength. Devi;:itions in the dirnensions of mernbe rs, cvcn lhough within acceptecl
tolerances. can rest1 ILi11 a mernber having le. s tlrnn it~ cornputed streng1h. The matcrials
(steel for mernbcrs, b0li~. ,111ci -.velds) may huve le$~ ~Lrength tha11 t1scd in 1he design calcu-
lations. A ~tee! ,cction may occa$ionaliy have a y1cld stio::s, bclow thc minimum specified
value, b11t stil) within thc ~.atistic:illy acceptable liin1t~
Strnctural ,l,.;sign m11~1 provide for adc4u:11c sat\:ty no maLter wha1 philosophy of
design i~ uscd. Pmvi~icn 1,1us1 hc rn,Klc for both p;·erload and w1dersrre11grh. The study of
what constitu1es tlw :,n1per t"-mnulallt)n t .f stn1ctural s.1let) hns hcen continuing cluring the
past 30 years l l .' ì , : . ; SI. Tlw n1ain thnist h:1~ bcen to cxam1n..: by vari ous probabilistic
method~ the chancr~ .)f 'fai.lt11c· occ~r.rng i11 a tnCt"her. <'01H1tcti on. or system.
lbther tlnn 1 'fa1lur.:: lht tt·,m .. ,i.,nt\ ~t.1!e·· i~ prdo.:n..:d. l,imit sta/es 1ncans "those
condition~ ,)f a su\Kture ,lt which it ct:a~es tù fultill its intl n<le<l l'u nctio11·· I l.25J. Limit
states are gent!raily Jiviclt'd int,) t,-.v catcgom-~: s1rn1rrl, :md ,\1'n'il'eahi/i1_,·. Strengih (i.e.,
safety) limit \tate~ are such behaviorai phènomcna "~ achi:::vìng ductile maximum strength
(i.e.. plastic :-tre ngth). buckling. fatigue, fracture. ovcrlltrning. and sliding. Serviceability
limil states are lhose concemeù wilh occupancy of :i huilding, ,11ch as dc0ection. vibration.
perrnanent defon11.11ion. and cracking.
Both the loads aL·ting on the slructure and i1s re~i~tanc.:e (slrength) to loads are varì-
ables that musi be conside!'<'d. In gene rnJ, :1 thorough analysis of all uncerlainties that
might intluence aclucving a ·'fimit state'" is not praclical , or perhaps ewn possible. The
cun-ent approach tn a sirnplified method for obtaining a prob.1bili1y-baseù assessment of
structural safety uses .firsl-order sern11d-1110 111e111 relìabifil)' 111e1l10ds 11.29). Sm:h methoùs
assume that the load (or load effoct) Q and the resistance R are random variables. Typical
frequency distributions of these random variables are shown in Fig, 1.8.1. When the resis-
tance R exceeds the loatl (or load effect) Q there will be a rna.rgin of safcty. Unless R
exceeds Q by a large amount, there will be some probability that R may be less than Q.
Structural " failure'' (achievement of a limit state) may 1hen be examined by compa.r-
ing R with Q. or in logarithmi<.: fom1 observing ln(R/Q). as shown in Fig_. 1.8.2. '"Failure"
is represented by the cross-hatched region. Thc distance be1wee11 the failure line and the
mean value of the function [!n(R/ Q)l is detined as a multiple /3 of thc standard deviation e,
of lhe function. The multiplier f3 is called the reliability index. The larger is /3 the greater
is lhe margin of safcty.
As summarized by Pinkham I I. 18], the re liability indcx /3 i~ use fui in severa! ways:
I. lt can give an indicatìon of the consistency of safcty for variou<. rnmponi:nt.-. and
syscems using traditional design methods.
2. lt can be used to establish new n~lhods which will lmve consistent margins of safe1y.
22 • Chapter 1 lntroductìon
Frequency
Figure 1.8. l o
Frequency distributions of Resistance Il
load Q and resistance R. Load Q
3. lt can be u~ed tu varv in a rational manaer the margins of safety for those compo-
nems and systems having a g~eater or !esser need for safety dian thai req uircd in ordinary
situat.ions.
In generai, ,he C>.pn~s~:on fo1 the strncturnl safety requirerner,t may be written as
( l.8.1)
where the leìt sidè ;,f Eq. 1.8.1 represents the resìstance, N strèngth. of '-,'1C r: 0rrtp onent or
system, and l~c right side rcpresents the load expected to be caniul. On t,'<: strength side,
the nomim1i re-sistance R,, is multiplied by a resistance (streng!h reGL:(:tio:1) factor et, to
obtain the dè.j ign ~i.reng:i-, (also called usable strengrh or usable resiswnc~). On the load
side of che eql!ation. the various load effocts Q; (such as dead load, iivé: lc .1d, and snow
load) are multiplieci by overload factors "lito obtain the sum Ly,-Q, of factored loads.
AISC-Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
During the past 25 years, the generai "limit states design" approach has continued to gain
acceptance, particularly for steel design in the Uoited States with the adoption in 1986 of
a Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification by AISC. The latest version of that
Frequency
rr,.,R/Q> = •tandard dcv,a1ion of ln(R/ Q)
(ln(R/Q)I., ln(R/Q)
- 1wlrt/A/Q1- - --1
Section 1.8 Philosophies of Design • 23
Speciticatìon is 2005 [1.131, referred to throughout this book as thc AISC Speciftcation
LRFD Method. In Canada, limit states des ign for steel has been used since 1974. and since
1978 has been the only method used; lhe latest edition is 1989 [ 1.16]. The AlSC Speciftca-
tion LRFD Method was developed under 1he leadership of T. V. Galambos [ 1.20-1.23]. Thc
adapration of probabilistic methods lo stcel design and the development of that l 986 Specifi-
cation are explained by Galambos Ll.20, 1.221 and by Galarnbos and Ravindra [1.21. 1.23].
The safety requiremenl of thc LRFD Method is given by Eq. 1.8.1. This rneans the
design strength (/>R,, provided by the resulting design musi at least equa! the sum ~YiQ; of
the applied factored service loads. The subscript i indicates that there are terms for each
type of load Q ; acting, suc h as dead loa<l D , live load L, wind load W, snow load S, and
earthquake load E. ·nie Y; may be dìfferent for each type of load.
The AISC LRFD M ethod is based on the foll owing:
1. Aprobability-bascdmodel [1.21. l.29-1.3 1].
2. Calibration with rhe I 978 AISC Allowable Stress D esign (ASD) Specification.
3. Evalua1ion using judgment an<l past expe rience. along with studies of representa-
tive structures condun ed by design offi<.:es.
The development of probabilily-base<l crite1i a by Galambos, Ellingwood, MacGre-

gor, and Corne ll [l .2'-1-- l .3 l .J led te the facwred load combinations of the 1982 ANSI Stan-
dard, which has becomo ASC E 7 ( J.21. The ANSJ Srnndard was developed for use in
design w ith al! stru.:::u.al materials. I l is ,easonabl.e that the probability of overload with
certain types of load, ~hou1 d be anrelr.ted to the materia! of which a structure is built. With
this concepr in rornd, the AISC LRFD Metlmd adopied the ASCE 7-05 l 1.2) factored load
combinmions a~ follows·
1.4D ( 1.8.2)
1.2D -1- 1.6L + 0.5(L, or S or R ) (l.8.3)
J .2D + l.6( L, or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W) (l.8.4)
l.2D + 1.3W + 0.SL + 0.5( L, or S or R) ( 1.8.5)
1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S ( 1.8.6)
0 .9D ± ( 1.3W or 1.0E) (l.8.7)
where the nominai service loads indicated by Eqs. 1.8.2 through 1.8.7 are
D = dead load (gravity load from the weiglu of structural elements and permanent
attachments)
L = live load (gravìty occupancy and movable equipment load)
L, = roof live load
W = wind load
S = snow load
E= earthquakeload
R = raìnwater or ice load
Note that D, L. W. S, etc. are loads in a generai sense, which includes bending moment.
shear, axial force, and torsional momenl. Sometimes these internal forces are called load
effects. Thus, the symbol D means dead load, dead load mome nt. dead load shear, dead
load axial force, etc. An explanation of the statistics relating to snow and wind load factors
is given by Ravindra, Comell, and Galambos [1.32]. The factors for earthquak.e E are
reduced from J .5 in the 1986 LRFD Specification 10 I .O in the 1993 Specification. This
rcflects the new earthquake toads of National Earthquake Hazards. Reduction Program
(NEHRP) [ 1.49) and lhe A/SC Seismic Provisions [ 1.50), which specify larger eanhquake
forces than traditionally used.
AISC-Allowable Strength Design (ASD)

Tue AlSC ASD Method ha5 been included in the 2005 A/SC Spec~fication as an equa! alter-
native to the LRFD Method. The 1erm "allowable strength" is used to signify that the same
strength limi1 states are the basis for both the ASD Method and che LRFD Method. In the
pa.~t [i.e., the mos t recent (1978) AJSC ASD Spedficaùonl ASD was based on the concept
thai 1he maximum stress due to service load shall not exceed a specified allowable stress,
and the method was called "allowable stress design." Tue safety factors in tradirional ASD
were primarily based on experiencc and work.rnans hip, and had re mained the same for the
pasr 75 years. While thc actua1 leve! of safety provided by traditional ASD has always been
variable and unknown. s tructures design by ASD performed satisfactorily. The ASD
Melhod in the current AISC Specification (2005) uses the following AISC Formula (83-2)
1-
L y
!?,,] (R :. ,L.,y·Q·
r</JRn = -
n 2::
a
., J I I
(l .R.8)
The au1hors have reversed thc order of the equation, believing lhat normally the designer
would say ' ·the pr<'vided strength must equal or exceed thc expected loads"'. Note that y is
used herc similarly to the LRFD Method; however, here rhe y is attachcd to some loads
(.~ee Eqs. 1.8.9 ihrough 1.8. 14) to reflcct che probability of certain service loaùs occurring
s1mulcaneously. Tht: y is 1.0 for most loads because the loads are unfacrored h ere but are
factored for overload in the LRFD Method.
. The ldt-hand sidc of Eq. 1.8.8 represents the allowable strength. anJ tne right-hand
side rep;esenh the load LO be carried. The safety factor n is explicitly giYen in the specifi-
cation. The 2005 A ISC ASD Method adopted the following service load ·: ombinations
from ASCE 7-05:
D ( 1.8.9)
D + L ( 1.8.10)
D + L + (L, or S or R) (1.8.11)
D + (Wor0.7E) +L + (L,orSor R ) ( l.8.12)
0.6D +W ( l.8. l 3)
0.6D + 0.7E (1.8. 14)
1.9 FACTORS OF SAFETY-ASD AND LRFD COMPARED

Allowable Strength Design (ASD)
The ..safe1y factor" O uscd in Eq. 1.8.8 was not dete · d · .

·1· · h mune consc1ouslv by usmg proba-
b 1 1s11c met ods. The values used in the AISC ASD s ·ti · ' ·
many years and are the result f . . peci tcatton have been m use for
· o expenence and Judgm 1 ·
required must be a combination of economie . . ent. i_ ,s e1ear thai the safety
d
cally feasible to design a struclure so th thesao Slatt_s~ics. Obv,ous ly. il is not economi-
at of t:31·1 · ·
development of the J986 AISC LRFD S ·r. probab1hty
.
peci tcat1on tbc AISC
ure 1s zero. Prior to tht
s ·fi ·
through 1978 did not give a rationale for th ' peci 1ca1tons from 1924
e a11owable stresses prescribed.
Section 1.9 Factors of Safety-ASD and LRFD Compared • 25
One may state that the minimum resistancc must exceed the maximum applied load
by some prescribed amounl. Suppose the actual load exceeds che service load by an
amount l1Q, and lhe actual resistance is less than thc computed resistance by an amount
A R. A stnicture that is just adequate would have
R,, - èlRn = Q + t:.Q

R,,( I - ClRn / R,.) = Q( I + 6.Q/ Q) ( 1.9.l)
The margin of -~afety, or "safety factor," would be the ratio nf the nominal strength Rn to
nominai service load Q; or
n = R,, = l + t:.Q/Q
(1.9.2)
Q I - t:.Rn / Rn
Equation J.9 2 illustrates the effect of overload ( t:.Q /Q) and understrength ( t:.Rn/ Rn);
however it does not identify thc factors contributing to either. [f one assumes that occa-
sionai overlo:1d (t:.Q/Q) may be 40%· grearer than i1.s nominai value, and lhat an occa-
sionai ur1der~trength ( !l R,:/ I(., ) rnay be 15% less tban its nominai value, then
I + 0.4 i.4
\! ;_e, - - - e= - - ·= J 65
I -·- 0.1 5 0.85 .
The ahove is an oversimpl ification :mt it shows a possible scenario for obtaining the tradì-
rional AISC , .:Jht<! o-f fS = I 67 uscd ~1~ the basic value in Allowable Stress Design.
Load and f<csisLnce Fa,tor Design (LRFD)
As discl.:ss·..:d in Sec. 1.8. lhe tn,i:ors for overload are variablc depending upon the type of
load, and tne factore<l ioad combinations that must be considcred are those given by the
ASCE 7 S,andard [ i .2]. ami prese.nted as Eqs. l .8.2 through I .8.7. The other part of the
safety-related provisions i~ the factor, known as the resisrancefactor. Tue resistance fac-
tor <f> varies with the type of member and with the lirnìt state being considered. Some rep-
resentative resistance factors </> are as follows.
Tension Mernbers (AfSC-D2)
</> 1 = 0.90 for tensile yielding limit state

</>1 = 0.75 for tensile rupture limit state
Compression Members (AISC-El)
<Pc = 0.90
Beams (AISC-Fl and El)
<Pb = 0.90 for flexure

</Jv = 0.90 for shear
Welds (AISC-Table J2.5)
<J, = same as for type of action; i.e., tension, shear etc.
Fasteners in Tension and Shear (AISC-J3.6 and J3.7)
<J, = 0.75
. · b bilistic methods. thc natural Ioga-

In ordcr to estabhsh adequate safety usrng pro a h · F 82
. . d Q th t is ln(R/ Q) as s own in 1g. 1. . , may
rithm of the resistance R d1v1ded by the loa , a ' . .h oup~ (R and Q) f
be treated as a random vari ab le. lt is ,,impler than workmg w~l .two gr .· b . ··h ~
st 1
random variables as in Fig. 1.8.J. When ln(R/Q) < O, the hmlt ~~h rnt~ìet::ndi:~~de~,
and the shaded area in Fig. 1.8.2 is the probability of this event. . ~ s 0
R , d Q and che standard devw110,-is u R and O' Q of

I
develop LRFD uses the mean va 11es m an '" d d d d · t'
the resistance and load, respectively. Frequently. the mean values an SllanF ar lcvia ion_s
. 'b · cannot be obtarnec. rom t 1ese est1-
can be estimated even rhough the actuaI d1stn unons .
. . ,r o f the ln(R/ Q) may be approx 1mated as
. . che standard d ev1auon
mated quant1t1es,
(l.9.3)
ifJn(l?/ Q) ""' Vv~ + V~
where VR = a-R./Rm
VQ = crQ/ Qm
The margin ,)f sakty is lhe distance from the origin 10 the rnean. ~s shown in Hg.
l .8.2, and is exp,·cssed a,, a multiple {3 of O'Jn(li/Q ). The distance represenlmg th::- margin of
safety may be a:lproximatéd t l .14] as
(1 .9.4)
Thus, the ìa.rger rhe distancc thc smaller che probability of reaching the limit state.
The mulriplier f3 is called the re/iabiliry index. The expression for {3 from Eq. I .9.4
becomes
ln(R,,,/Qm)
/3 = -----,
vvi ======
+ vb
(1.95)
More discussion of the development of Eq. 1.9.5 is gìven in lhe AISC Commentary [ l .14],
by Ravindra and Galambos [1.23), and in NBS Special Publicati.on 577 ( !.29]. The treal-
ment of the theory of probabiliry is outside the scope of this book.
Using the factored load combinations given by the ASCE 7 Standard [ 1.2). the AISC
Task Force and Specification Commiltee calibrated the 1986 LRFD Specification 10 gener-
ally agree with past experience. Thu.s, the resis tance factors cp were set in LRFD wirh rhe
objective of obtaining the following values of /3:
Objective
Load combinations reliability index f3
Dead Joad + live load (or snow load) 3.0 for members
4.5 for connections
Dead load + live load + wind load 2.5 for members
Dead load + Jive load + eanhquake load 1.75 for me1nbers
Because of a lower probability of wind or earthquake occurring with full oravity Joad. the
reliability index /3 was made lower for those cases. The {3 values for connec7ions were maJe
higher than for members, in keeping with the tradition of making connections stronoer rhan
members. "'
ASCE 7 uses six factored
r load combinations, given as Eqs, I .8 . 2 t h rou,.,oh 1,8,7. This
was necessary to account ,or each of the separale load~ (dead livc roof , d dd~· · ,, ., ·-
. 'nd · · , , , wm a 111,,., 10 c-ra,
1ty, w1 oppos,te to gravuy, and earthquake)
. -., ·
acting al l'ts max·1mum 111e11me va1ue. L-·"'"
l""-"'
OCher than dead load and the load bemg maximized will act at an ,,.,..._ · · · , "
iuu1trary pomt- 1n- t111l<:
Section 1.9 Factors of Safety - ASD and LRFD Compared • 27
value. The '"arbitra1y point-in-time" value is lhat value which can be expected to be on the
structure at any time. The arbitrary point-ia-time value of live load (L) might be as low as
one-quarter of its mean maximum lifetime load, but its distribution varies widely. The arbi-
trary po int-in-time wind (W) is the maximum daily wind. The "lifetime maximum" is
taken as the 50-year recurrence value.
Thus, each factored load combination and ìts corresponding load occurring at ìts 50-
year maximum are as follows:
Load combination Load at its lifetim e (50 year) maximum
1.4D Dead load D during construction: othcr loads not present.

1.2D + 1.6L + 0 .5S Livc load L
1.2D + l.6S + (0.8W or O.SL) Roof load: i.e., snow load S or rain R other than ponding
cffect.
1.2D + 1.31-V + 0.5L + 0.5S Wi nd load \V addi1iw: lo dead load.
1.2D :!: I.DE + O.SI. , - 0.2S; Ea1thquake J,:,ad F ,l(idi1i11e 10 dead load.
0.9D :!: ( 1.3W or ! .0Ei1 W i11d ioad W or c a i thquake load E oppnsi1e to dead Joad.
• The sign follow in(.) 1.2D or O.iJD is to be taker, + o r· - so a~ to previde fo r the more severe
effect.
Note:W here snow S i;; ll$!!d ir. the above equat ions. e;~cf,pt in Eq. 1.8.6, t he meaning is snow S
OR roof live load L Q6. rai!l R ot_hf:f than oonding.
Comparison of LRrD with ASD for Tension Members
The orig inai LRFD SDt' ciì1cation vaiurs were calibrateci to the 1978 ASD Specification at
a live load 10 dead load ratio of 3. To determine the rel<'l tionship between q; and n, ù1e
nominai strengtbs from AS D and LRFD are equated. Using the live load and dead load
combinatio ns, with L = 3D, the reqoired nominai strength can be expressed as follows:
R
From ASD: --"- = D + L D + 3D = 4D
n
R,, = 4Dfl
From LRFD: c/>Rn = 1.2D + l.6L 1.2D + l.6 X 3D = 6D
6D
R = -
n tp
6D l 1.5
Equating and solving for n: O= -
~,
X -= -
4D <J,
Therefore, for et, = 0.9, the value of !l = 1.67 and for <J, = 0.75, !l = 2.00.
A similar method was used to determìne ali the !l values throughout the Specification.
The comparison of safety obtained for tension members designed by the two AISC
methods is indicative of the generai result expected . Direct comparisons have become easy
forali types of members since the nominal strength in both methods is the same .
For te nsion members acted upon by gravity dead and live loads. the resistance factor
4> = 0.90, and using Eq. 1.8.3 gives for LRFD
= 0.90R.,
1.2D + l .6L (1.8.3)
1.33D + l.78L = R,, LRFD

In ASD the factor of safely O = l.67 for a.xial tensioo, which gives from Eq. 1.8.8 where
(y /r/> is the factor of safety)
R 0 /!.67 = ~Q = D + L fl.8.8)
or
l.67 D + 1.67L = R" ASD
Nexl, dividing Eq. I .8.3 by Eq. J .8.8 gives
LRFD 1.33D + l.78L 0.8 + 1.07(L/D)

----- = I+ (L / D)
(1.9.6)
ASD 1.67D + 1.67L
Sin<:e this is a grav;ty load comparison, Eq. 1.8.2 must also be used as L/ D approaches
zero. Thus, Eq. 1.8.2 p,ives
1.4D = 0.<JORn
0 [1.8.2]
L.56[) = RII LRFD
Dividìng LRFD by ASD gìve-.
1.56D 0.93
-ASD
-= - - - ---= -+-(L/
l.67D + t.67L
-D)- ( 1.9.7)
Equations 1.9.6 and 1.9.7 are shown plotted in Fig. 1.9.1. The design of lension members
will be about the sarne in borb LRFD and ASD wben the live load to de2d load ratio (L/D)
is about 3. A~ the L/ D ratio becomes Jower (that is, dead load becomes more predorninant)
there will be economy in using LRFD. With L/D ratio Jarger than 3, ASD will be slightly
more economica!, but rarely by more than about 3%.
1.03
I.O
I
I
I
I
I
I
0.9 I
I
I
I
I
~1~
I
\ 0.83 I
11 I
0.8 I\ I
I 1.40 I
I
\/
I
I
I
I I
0.7 I I
I I
I I
I I
I
.......,.1 I
I
CMplrilaaofloadead
..........
_., ..... ..,,or
r ·• efletor deli,a wilb 0.12 2 4 6
Section 1.11 Analysis of the Structure • 29
l.l O WHY SHOULD LRFD BE USED?

The many advantage~ of LRFD are we\1-expressed by Beedle [ I .2TI. whose listing is thc
basi,, of the following:
1. LRFD is another "toor· for structural engineers ro use in steel design. \.Vhy not
have rhe same tools (variablc overload factors and resistance factors) available for steel
design as are available for concrete design?
2. Adoption of LRFD is not mandatory bui provides a flexibility of oprions to the
designer. The marketplace will diciate whether or not LRFD will become the sole method.
3. ASD is an approximate way to acé:Ollllt for what LRFD does in a more rational
way. Tha use of plastic design concepts in ASD has made ASD su<..:h that it no longer may
be called an "elastic design•· method.
4. The rationality o f LRFD has always be.:n attractive. Md becomes an incentive.
permirring the better and more ecooomical u.se of m:nerial for some load combin,1tions and
s tructural coufiguration,. h will also likely produce safer structures in view of the arbitrary
practice under AS D of combìning dead and !ivi.:. !oad.; and treating them the same.
5. Using m uliiplc load factor combinati(111s shc,uJd lead t l\ economy.
6. LRFD will 1:-tcilitate the input of new infor111ation on loads and Joad variations as
s uch information becorncs available. Considc rabie ki~owledge of the resistanl:e of steel
strui.:rures is av.,:lable. On (hf ol11er hand, o ur 1..i,o,vledge of l\1ad, :md their variation is
much le~s. Separating thc. lc::i<l,ng frcru !he rcsis:am;e ailow~ one to be changed without the
other if thai shouici be dci:1ri.:J.
7. Changc~ i11 .vcdoad factor< imd re,1stance fau or~ <!> are. much easier to make
than to c h::mg:: 1hc allowable strcs~ in .A.:'iD.
8, LRFD makc::~ dcsigr. in al! m,ncrial~ more corn patible. The variability of loads is
acllrn!ly unn-ìated ,o rb: materia] use d m 1he design. F uture ~pec ifications not in the limit
state5 fonnat for ::u,y marerial w i!J p,1t thai materia\ at a disadvantage in design.
9- LRFD provides rhc framework to h::mdle unusua l !oads that may noi be covered
by the Specifa:ation. The design rnay have un<..:ertai.nty rc!ating to the resistance of the
strncture, in wb..icii case the resìstanc e factors mny be modified. On the other hand. the
uncertainty may relate 10 lhe loads and different overload factors may be used.
10. Future adjustments in the calibration of the method can be made without much
complicarion. Calibration for LRFD was <lone for ,u1 average situation but might be
adjusted in the future.
11. Economy is likely to result for low live load to dead load ratios. For hìgh live load
to dead load ratios there will be slightly greater costs.
12. Safer s1ructures may result under LRFD because the method should lead to a bet-
ter awareness of structural behavior.
13. Design practìce is still at the beginning with regard to serviceabìlity limit states:
however, at least LRFD provides the approach.
1.11 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE
In generai, the structural analysjs to obtain the service loads (or load efjects bending
moment, shear, axial force, and torsional moment) on the members is perfom1ed the same
for LRFD as for ASD. Elastic methods of structural analysis are used ellcept when the
limit state is the plastic col/apse mechanism as described in Chapter 10. A first-onl~r
analysis (1.12] is sufficient in usual framed structures thai are braced against sw1y. In a
the o rioinal geometry of the stru .

fin;t-ordcr analysis. equilibrium equ.itions are based on "' ( h · c-
. . h · 1 rnaJ fo rces moments, s ea~ etc
ture. Th1s means that the designer is assum111g t e tn e - . ·t· • -J
·• ·
are not suff1c1en1ly . shape o f I he s1ructure toJ USll y. more. compr1·
afTected by ù1e chanoe m
cated analy~1s. - When the elashc . d1splacemen1s
. "' are sma Il compared to che d1mens1ons· th·1s
approximation will be satisfactory. b ·d d ·
The most common situali on where a seco11d-order effccl m~Sl e cons, · ere 15 in a
· ·
mulustory structure thai musi rcly on the su ffnesses o f thc ·n1eractm
1
0
0 beams
• •
and colu111ns
· ·
to rcs1st sway under lateral loadmg (wtn an or e· d d/ arthqu·tke)
' · Th1s 1s the . so-call6,,
""
wrbmced frame. In this case the lateral displacement .6. (also called sway _or drift) causes
.·
add1uona I bendmrz
· moments due to the grav1tv · Ioad s ( "-'P)
.,., acting at pos111ons that have
·
been d1splaced byan amount ~- Tue analys,s ~ mus-1 tn
· e lude th.is P. !:!,. secondary
. eftect-
5
There are varying degrees of sophistication thai are used in analy is to include the Pt,.
effecrs. In both ASD and LRFD the second-order effects may be computcd as a part of the
analysis or they may be accounred for using formulas in the Specification [ l .13) or Com.
me ntnry f 1.14].
The emphasis in this book is 0 11 designing the me mbers IO have_ udcquare streng1h
a nd proper service~1bility. rather than on strucrnral analysis. Thc reade r 1s rc ~e~ed to Wang
and Salmon 11. 12] for hasic strucwral analysis ropics. Other references spcc itically related
to an alysis for unbraced frames are g iven in Chapter 14. _ _
Most examples in this book use given service Ioads. or service load effects. actmg on
lhe s1111cturaJ mem ber to be dcsigned. These values are to be assumcd thc r:::~ult of struc.
tura i analysis. T hc service loads .;;.e to be factored using Eqs. l .8.2 through i .P..7 for design
in LRFD. bm uscd withour faciors in Eqs. 1.8.9 through 1.8.14 for design in ASI),
SELECTED REFERENCES
1. 1. .H,ui, Sirauh. J\ Histo1)· nf Ci,·,! b1gi11eeri11g. Cmnbridge. MA: M.I.T. Press. 1964 (pp. i ì 3- 180).
1.2. ASCE. .llini11111111 De<ign Looil, for B11iltli11gs a11d Othu S1nic111r,s. ASCE Slil!ldard 7-~. K . lon. VA:
Amencan Sodcty ofCivil Engine~rs (1801 Alcxnnder Beli Drive, Restcm. VA 2019\l . • ( ~I~.
l .3. Ai\SHTO. Swudartl Spt>rijìcatitms jlJr Highway Brid11es, 17th ed. Washingron OC· 'T hc <\rnerican Asso-
ciation c>f Slalc and Higl11, ay Transportniion Officiai,. 01 -Sep-2002.
1.4. AREM.-\. Ma1111a/for Rai/ll'av E11gi11eeri11g. Chapier 15 (Stcd S1rucrnres). Lan)lam. M[)· Tl1c Amcrican
Railway F.nginc:ering and Maimena.nce ofWay Association (10003 Derekwood Lan~ Sw te 210. Lan-
ham. MO 20706). 2006.
1.5. ASTM. Standard Specijìcatio11 /or Generai Req11ireme111s /or Rol/eJ Ste,,/ Plntes. Sl1e1pes. Slreet Pili11,~.
a11d Bar.,for S1r11ctural Use, A6/A6M-06a. w~sl Conshohocken PA: Amerkan Socie1y tor Tcsting and
Materiai~. 2006.
1.6. Nalional Rese~rch C'ouncil of Canada. Ca11adù111 S1111c111ral Commemaries Pan 4 10 lhe Naiional Build-
ing Code of Canada, Onawa. Canada. 1995.
1.7. H. S. Lew. Emil Simiu. and Bnicc Ellingwood. ''Loads." Chapler 2. 811ildi11g Struc111ml Desig11 Ha11d-
book. Richard N. Whitc and Charlcs G. Salmon. Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1987 (pp. 9-43).
1.8. AISI. North American Specìjicotio11 /or tbc Desig11 of C.0/d-Fonttecl Stee/ Strnctuml M em/>ers. Washing-
ron O.C.: Amcrican Jron and Stcel lns1i1u1e. 2001.
1.9. AISI. Cnld-F.J1·11wd Stul Desi.~11 Ma1111al: Pari I, Dimcnsions and Propenie,; Part li. Beam Desi~n: Pan
111, Column Design: Pan IV, ConnecLion~; Part V. Supplementary lnfonnation: and Pan VI. Test~Proc.:-
durcs. Washingron D.C.: American lron and Sleel Instirure, 2002.
I.IO. SJI. Stmrdard o/ Specificatiom, Load Tables & Wor•iglrt Tablesfur Steel Joists & Joi.<t Gird,•i-s. -l2od ~d..
Steel Joi"1 Institure, 2005. (3127 Mr. Joe Whit.: A~enue. Myrtle Btach, se 29577-6760)
I.Il. Jomes M. Fisher. Mkhacl A. Wcs1. and Julius P. Van de Pas. Desig11i11g \Vith Steel Joist,·. Joist Ginlm.
Steri Deck. Charloue. NC· Nucor Corporation. 1991.
1.1 2. Chu-Kia Wang and Charles G. Salmon. /111rod11ctory Strnctum/ A11aly.1is. Englewood Ciiff~. N.--w knt)·:
Prcnuce-Hall. lnc.. 198-l.
1.1 3. AISC. S~cification for Stmc111ml Stee/ Btiildi,igs (AISC 360--05). Chicago: American ln,tilute of Stttl
Construcuon. March 9, 2005.
1.14. Al~. Cum,,w,'.tary 011 !he Design Specificationfor Structura/ Stul B11iltli11gs tMan:h 9. :?{105).
Ctucago: Amcncan lnsurme of S1eel Construction. 2005.
1.15. AlSC. Stu/ Cun$lnminn Manual. 13th ed. Chicago: Americu IMtitutc of St-1e· · _......,
"""".._
-~ onstru,:11011.,
Selected References • 31
1.16. CANICSA S16-01 C

A ? .onsu1·1dAt1on
· !R2007). Lù1111
. . Srates De,·w1
. of Steel Stmctures (Include, Up<late No. 3.
ugu,t -006}. and Supplenient No. I (2005) Canadian Standard~ Associ•tion/Nationa\ Sumdlll'd of Canada
1.17. ~S';E Task Committee on Structural Safcty of thc Administrative Committcc on Analysis and Design of
1
,eCEtructural Dìvisjon. ''Strucrura) S3fety: A Li1.era1ure Revicw," Jo11rnnl of th~ Struclural Di1.:isio11.
AS . 98. ST4 (Aprii 1972), 845-884.
1. 18. C~arkson W. Pi~kham. ''Design Phìlosophies;' Chap1er 3, Building Stru,:tura( Design fland1,ook,
Rtchard N. Whtte and Charles G. Salmon. Ed. New York: fohn Wiley & Sons, 1987 (pp. 44-54).
l.19. C. W. Pinkham and W. C. Hansen. "An lntroduc:lion to Load and Resistance foctm Design for S1eel
Buildings," Ellgìlleering Jo,mraJ, AISC. 15, I (First Quaner 1978). 2-7.
1.20. T. V. Galambos. "Load Factor Design of Steel Buildings." Ellgineering Journal AISC 9. 3 (July 1972}
108- 113. . ' ' .
1.21. The~dorc_V. Galambos nnd M. K. Ravindra. "Proposcd Criteria for Load an<.I Resistance Factor Design."
Engmeermg Jm,rnal, AlSC, 15, I (First Quaner 1978), 8- 17.
1.22. Theodore V, Gularnbos. "Load and Resistana Facwr Design," Engi11uring Journa/, A ISC. 18, 3 (Third
Quarter 198 I). 74-82.
1.23. Mayusandra K. Ravindra and Thcodore V. Galambos. "Load anù Resisrn.nce Faclnr Design for Stccl,"
Joumnl of rhe Str11c111ra/ Divìsion, ASCE, 104, ST9 (September 1978), 1337-1353.
1.24. Gcerhard Haaijer. "Limit Siates Design: A Tool for Reducing che Complcxity of Steel Structurcs," paper
presentcd at AISC National Eng ineering Confercnce, March 4, 1983.
1.25. D. J. Laurie Kennedy. '"Limit S1>tes Design of Sleel Structures in Canada," Journal of Strnctural Engi-
nèering, ASCE, UO. 2 (February 1984). 275-290.
1.26. D. J. Laurie Kennedy. "North Amcrican Limi! Staccs Desig n,'' Proceedings. 1'he )985 lntemmio11al
Engineering Symposium on Structum/ S teel. Chicago: American lnstiiure of Stecl Constructicin, May
22- 24, 1985.
1.27. Lynn S. Beedle. "Why LRFD?". Modem Sree/ Co,,s1ruc1ion, A.LSC, 26. 4 (4th Quarter 1986), 30--31.
1.28. Frank J . Heger. "Proposcd AJSC LRFD Design Crileria." Jo11rnal of the S tructural Oivision, ASCE, 106,
ST3 (March 1980). 729-734. (Disc. 106. STl2 (December 1980). 2576--2577)
1.29. Bruce Ellingwood. Theodore V. Galambos, James G. MacGregor, and C. Allin Cornei!. Development of
a Probabiliry Rused Loa,I Crirerionfi,r American National Standard A58, NBS Special Publication 577.
Washing1on, DC: US Depanment of Cornmercc, Natio11al Bureau of Staodards, Junc 1980.
1.30. Theodore V. Galambos, Brucc Elliogwood. Jamcs G. MacGregor, anù C. Allin Cornei!. ·' Probability
Based Load Criteri a: Asscssment of Currenl Design Practìce," Journa/ vf the S1rucw ral Division. ASCE,
108, ST5 (May 1982). 959- 977.
1.31. Bruce Ellingwood. Jame;, G. MacGrego(. Theodore V. Galambos. and C. Alh n Comcll. ··Prnhabiliry
Based Load Criteria: Load Factnrs nnd Load Combinations," Journal of rhe Structuml Division , ASC E.
108, ST5 (May I 9~2), 978- 997.
1.32. M ayasandra K. Ravindra, C. A ilin C omell. and Theodore V. G alarnbos. ·'Wind and Snow Load Factors
for Use in LRFD.' Jounwi ofthe Stn,ctura/ Division. /,SCE. 104. ST9 (September 1978), 1443-1457.
Wind Loads
1.33. ASCE. ' fask Committee 0 '.1 \Vind Fo,ce,. Cnmnnttee on Load~ and Stre,ses, Strucmral Division. "Wind
Force:; on S tn1ctures;· Jo11mai of r/re S,maurui Dil'i<ion. A SC E. 84, ST4 (J uly 1958) (Preliminary
Reportì: aod f:na1 Rcpo,t. Transc,.t:'o11s. ASCE, 126. pr. IJ (i961 ) , 1124- i 198.
1.34. Ki,;hor C Mehrn "Wimi i :>ad !'rovisicr.~ A."sS1 #A '>$.l-1%'2." Jmmw l of5m.,crural Engine ering. 110.
4 (Apri) l 984J. 769- 7è4.
1.35. TI,eodor e S,.ithoµou!o.• . D3,,',J S11rry, ani! .\ian G. t)avcnp<>it ' Effectivt '.i1ind Lo~ds on Fla1 Roofs,"
.lo,m,al ,itiie S1rn.1,,ra1 Div,sm11. ASCf 1 1!'7, ST?. (Febwary l9Rl), 281 - 298.
Snow Load'.>
1.36. Mici1ael J. O'Rnnrke and ljlfi~h Stietel. "R<:uf Snow Load~ for Slruclliral Design." Jounwl ofStntc111ml
Enginea ing, ASCE, 109. ·; fJuìy 1%J), 152ì - 15J7.
1.37. J. T. Templin and W. R. Schr;èV•èt. ''Lo,1,!\ due lO J)rì[rèd Snùw." .lournal ofrhe Sm,cwrnl Di1•isìon.
ASCE. 108, ST8 (A11gost 1982\. 19 16--- 1925.
1.38. Michael O'Ro11rke, Waync Tobiasson, ~.nd E velyn Wood. ''Proposed C ode Provisions far Driftcd Snow
Loads," Jo1mwl ,,:fSrnict:mJ! Engineering, 112. 9 (Sepcember 1986), 2080- 2092.
1.39. Michael J. O'Rourke, Robèr! Rcdtìeld. and Peter von B~adsky. "Unifonn Snow LL>ad, on StruciureS:'
Journa/ ofthe Srructural Divìsion, ASCE. 108. STJ 2 (December 1982). 2781- 2798.
1.40. Michael J. O 'Rourke. Robèrl S. Speck, Jr., and Ulrich Stiefel. ''Drift Snow Loads on Mullile\'el Roofs,''
Journal ofSrrucwml E11gineering, ASCE. 111, 2 (February 1985), 290-·306.
1.41. R. L. Sack. "Snow Loads on Sloped Roofs," .lr11mia/ of SiruC/uml E11gin ,ain:s. ASCE, 114. -' (Marc·h
1988), 501- 517.
1.42. Michacl O' Rourke and foannis Galanakis. "Roof Snowdrifts due lo Bliuard,." Jo11n111I o/'Siru,·um,I
J:,ngi,1eai11g. ASCE. J16. 3 (March 1990), 641-658.
1.43. Ro na ld L. Sack and Paul M. Gic\'er. "Predicting Roof Snow Loads on _Gabled Siructures," Journ,,1 of
S3tructurol E11g;.,eeri11g. ASCE, ll6, 10 (Octobcr 1990), 2763-2779. Errata, 116. 11 (November 1990)
2A9-32SO. ,
Earthquake Load
SEAOC. Hecomme11ded Lorera/ Force Requi~menrs and Commenrary. 7 th ed. San Francisco. CA: Sei,.
1.44 . mology Cummìttec. Structural Engineers Association of California, Los Angeles, CA. 1999.
Ani! K. Chopra and Ernesto F. Cruz. "Evaluatioa oi Building Code Forrnulas for Ea11hquake Fon:c,;-
1.45.
Joumal of S1ruc111ral Engineering. ASCE. 112, S (August 19R6), I881- 1899.
Ani! K. Chopra. Oynamics ofStructurcs, Theory a1t1i App/ictJ1ions to Eorthquake Engineering. (2nd ed.)
l.46.
Englewood Chffs, NJ: Prcnticc-Hall, Inc., 2001.
R. W. C!ough and Joseph Penzien. ow,amìcs af s1, 11ctures. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1975.
1.47.
IBC. lnrernarional Building Code. F~lls Church VA: Jnternation•I code Council. 2006.
1.48.
BSSC. NEHRP (National Earthquake Haz.ards Reduction Program) Recommended Pmvisionsfor New
1.49. Br.ìlding., and Otlra Structum,, Port /: Prrwis·ions (FEMA 450). Washington. D.C.: Building Seismic
Safery Council, Federai Emergency Management Agency. 2003.
AISC Seismil· Pmvisions for Srructural Steel Bt1ildings. Chicago. IL: American lnstitute of Stecl Coo-
l.50.
strucuon, March 9. 2006.
Egor P. Popov. "U.S. Seismic Stecl Codes " Engineering Journal, AISC, 28, 3 (3rd Quarter \9'}1)
1.51.
11 9-128. ' .
- · James W..Marsh. '·Eanhquakes: Steel Structurcs Performance and Design Code Developments:'
1 52
Eng mcermg Joumnl, AISC. 30, 2 (2nd Quarter 1993). 56-65.
2.1 STRUCTURAL STEf.:t,:.·
- - - - -- -- -- ······· · - -·-
Dt11ing m,.,,-t of the venod from :he imroduction of structural steel as a major building
materi;ù unti! about l 960 . the stet·l used was classified as a carbon steel with the ASTM
(American Society for Testing anc! Materials) dcsignation A 7. and had a minimum speci-
fied yieid sire ·s o f 33 ksi. Most designers merely referred to "steel" without further identi-
fication, and ,h~ ATSC Specification prescribed allowable stresses and procedures only for
A 7 1;c1:,el. Othcr structural steels, Sl1ch as a special corrosion resistant Iow alloy steel (A242)
and a more readily weldable steel (A.373), were available bui they were rarely used in
buildings. Bridge design made occasionai use of these other steels.
Today (2008) the many steels available lo the designer permit use of increased
strength materiai in highly stressed regions rather than increase the size of members. Tue
designer can decide whether maximum rigidity or least weight is the more desirable
attribute. Corrosion resistance, hence elimination of frequent painting, may be a highly
impo11ant facLOr. Some steels oxidize to form a dense protective coating that prevents fur-
ther oxidation (corrosion), acquiring a pleasing even-textured dark red-brown appearance.
Since paintjng is not required, it may be economica) to use these ''wcathering steels" even
though the ìnitial cost is somewhat higher than traditional carbon steels.
Certain stee ls provide better weldability than others; some are more suitable than
others for pressure vessels, at temperatures either well above or well below room
temperatures.
Structural steels are referred lo by ASTM designations, and also by many propri-
etary names. For design purposes the yield stress in tension is the materiai property that
specifications, such as AISC, use to establish strength or allowable stress. The term
yield stress is used to include either ''yield point," the well-defined deviatio n from per-
fect elasticity exhibited by most of the common structural steels; or ··yield strength,"
the unii stress at a certain offset strain for steels having no well-defined yield point.
Today (2008) steels are readily available having yield stresses from 24 to I 00 ksi ( 170
IO 690 MPa).
Steels for structural use in hot-ro lled applications may be classified as n1rbo11
steels, high-strength Jow-alloy stee/s, and alloy sreels. The generai requirements for such
33
34 • Chapter 2 Steels and Properties
fohn Hancock Center,

Chicago, showing e:i:cerior
diagonal bracing. (Photo by
C. G. Salmon)
steels are covered under ASTM A6/A6M Specification [1.5]. Table 2.1.1 lisrs rhe com-
mon steels, their minimum yield stresses, and their tensile strengths. Their common uses
are given in Table 2. I .2.
Carbon Steels
Carbon steels are divided into four categories based on the percentage of carbon: low carooo
(less than 0.15%); mild carbon (0.15--0.29%); medium carbon (0.30--0.59%); and high car-
bon (0.60-1.70%). Structural carbon steels are in the mild carbon category; a steel sucb a.s
A36 has maximum carbon varying from 0.25 to 0.29% depending on tlùckness. StJUcrural
carbon steels exhibit definite yield points as shown on curve (a) of Fig. 2.1. I. lncreased car·
bon percent raises the yield stress but reduces ductility, making welding more difficult.
The carbon steels given in Table 2.1.1 are A36 (2.1 ), A53 (2.2], A500 [2.8). A50I
[2.9], A529 [2.11 ], and A 709 [2.16), Grade 36.
High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels
This category includes steels baving yicld stresses from 40 to 70 ksi (')75 10 -180 Mfal.
exhibiting the well-dcfi.ned yield point shown in curve (b) of Fig. 2.1. l. lhe-~ ti shown by
- --- ----------·-
Section 2.1 Structural Steels • 35
TABLE 2.1.1 Properties of Steels Used for Buildings and Bridges
Fy F., Maximum
Minimum Tensile thickness ASTM A6
yield stress strength for plates groups~
ASTMt ksi ksi in. tor
designati on (MPa)t (MPa)i (mm ) shapes
A36 32 58-80 Over 8
(220) (400-550) (200)
36 58- 80 To 8
(250) All
(400-550) (200)
A53 Grndtc H 35 (240) 60 (415)
A 242 42 f.3 4.5
Over I { to 4
(290) (43Si (40 to lOO)
46 67 O ver j to 1~ 3
·317\ \460) (20 to 40)
5(;
'3·t=-')
70
(48fl)
To1 l, 2
(20)
·--- ---·-··-
A50G U:.1de A
------
33 (?2~) 45 (.3 10} Round
<:,ad~ Il -n<?90; 58 (400) Round
fì ·aà,: ~: it,!<l;I 6 2 (-1:!7) Round
·-·--
----- -
Grlde A 19 (269) 45 (310) Shaped
Grade R .!f i3 1?: 58 (400) Shaped
Gradt C 50045ì 62 (427) Shaped
A5 :0 36 (250) 58 (400)
A5 !4 90 l00-130 Over 2! 10 6
(620) (690-895) (65 to 150)
lOO l 10-130 To 2½
(690) (760-895) (65)
A529 Grade 50 50 65- 100 To½
(345) (450-690) (13)
Grade 55 55 70-100 To 1 l. 2
(380) (485-690) (25)
A572 Grade 42 42 60 To6 All
(290) (415) (150)
Grade 50 50 65 To4 Ali
(345) (450) (100)
Grade60 60 75 To 1¼ I. 2, 3
(415) (520) (32)
Grade 65 65 80 Tot¼ I, 2. 3
(450) (550) (32)
A588 42 63 Over 510 8
(290) (435) (125 to 200)
46 67 Over4 to5
(315) (460) (100 to 125)
so 70 To4 Ali
(34S) (485) (100)
A606 45 (310) 65 (450)

(Co111i111wd)
50(345) 70 (485)
ildings and BridçJe!' lC'o,,1i11uedi

TABLE 2.1. ! Properties of Steels Used for Bu ---·- ·· ·
- ···---·-- -- ·--··- ··---·· Maximum
Fy F., A STMA6
thickness
Minimum Tensile g roups*
for p lates
yield stress strength tor
in.
A.ST i\ii' ksi ksi shapes
(MPa)1
(mml
designation (MPa)1
- -, · -- ·· · - - - · -·•-••-•n
A6l~ Grade:; l&ll 50 (345) 70 (485) To j in. w.ii ls

G racle fTl t.; p(:;45 ; 65 (450)
To4 Ali
A709 Grade 36 36 58-80
( l()())
C250ì (400-550) Al\
Grnde 50 50 65 To4
(450) (100)
\345)
To 4 Ali
Grade 50\V so 70
(100)
(345) (485)
Grade 70W 70 90-1 IO To4
(485) (620-760) ( 100)
Grade 100 90 100-130 Ovcr 2 ~ to 4
& JOOW (620) (690-895) (6~100)
Gradc l00 100 110-130 To 2 }
& 100\V (690) (760-895) (64)
A852 70 90-110 To 4
(485) (620-760) (100)
A913 Grade 50 50 (345) 60(415)

Grade 60 60 (415) 75 (520) Ali
Grade65 65 (450) 80 (550)
Grade 70 70 (485) 90 (620)
A992 50 (345) 65 (450) All
A I 008 Grade 40 40 (275) 55 (380)

Grade 45 45 (310) 60(415)
Gradc 50 50 (345) 65 (450)
AIO! I Grade 40 40 (275) 55 (380)
Grade 45 45 (310) 60 (415)
Gradc 50 50 (345) 65 (450)
t AII steels listed are approved under the AISC Specification 11. 13] A709.
• ASTM A6/A6M 11.5) places structural rolled shapes (W, M, S, HP, C, MC, and L) in Groups 1
through 5 according to size tor tensile property classification. AII rolled flanged sections having
at least one cross-section dimension 3 in. (75 mm) or greater are included. The si2e basis for
groups is approximately the web thickness corresponding to the maximum thickness lor
plates, with the thinnest web sections in Group 1. The specific sections included in each group
are given inASTM A6/A6M 11.5] and in the AISC Manua/11.1 5).
; Ali SI values are those given in the par1ic ular ASTM Specification.
carbon steels. Tue addition to carbon steels of small amounts of alloy elements such as
chromium, columbium, copper. manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus. vanadium. or
rirconium improves some of the mechanical properties. Whereas carbon steels gain their
strength by increa~ing carbon contene, the alloy elements create increa-.ed strength from a fine
rather than coarse microstructure obtained during cooling of the steel. High-strength low-
alloy sleels are used in the awolled or nonnalized condìtion; i.e., no heat trcatment is used.
Thc high-strength low-alloy stcels ofTable 2.1.1 are A242 [2.3]. A572 l2.12]. A588
[2.13], A606 [2.14], A6l8 (2.15], A709 f2.16] Gradcs 50 and 50W. A992 (2.18). and
AIO! I (2.20].
Section 2.1 Structural Steels • 37
TABLE 2.1.2 Uses of Various Steeis
ASTM* designat io n
Commo n usage
A36 Carbon steel Generai structural purpuses, bo!tcd :md welded. mainly for buildings
A53 Carbon steel Wdded :md se,unkss pipe
A2~2 High-strength WeJdeù and bolted brid:;c con~rmc:1on wherc con·o~ion resistance is desired;
low-alloy steel essentially superseded by Aì09, Cìr.1de 50W
A500 Carbon Site! ,_·old-forrned welded aod se<1m 1es:; rounll. ~qnare. rt·ctangular, or special shape
$(mctural !,.mmg for bolted .:1:tl wclded gen.:rnl strucrnral purpose.s
A501 Carbon steel i t-l-formed ,~dded and sc:milé- , squwc, r.:cr.i.11glll,,r. rouud. or special shape
~trucrur:ii !llt,i1,g for bolted and weldP.J generai :;trnctural purposes
A5 )4 Alloy steel. qucnd1eà P!ate~ in J.ick.ne:-ses of 6 in. ( 150 mm) a'.ld undcr. pri,nru·ily for welded bridges;
and tempered ì.11i;el) ::tipc:,edc-d b:,•A 709 ror b1idges
A529 Carbon steel
Plate~ .1nd bars ½in. (1 3 mm) and le~~ in thic:kne s ur diamcter and Group 1 shapes
[ 1.5] for 1:se in bolted :md weldeJ metal building system frames and trusses
AJOI I/Al01 LM-05a Jk1t-rolled carbon sred sheet and strip of slrucniral <.JUality in cut lengths or coils for
Carbon sreel cold-formed sec1ion~ [maximu1J1 thickne~s 0.229 in. (6 nun)]
A572 High-strength, low-alloy. Struc turn) shape~. p!ates. sliect piling, ant! bars for bolted and weldcd
columbium or vanadiurn sreei buildings; 1,·clded bridge, in Gratk~ 42 and 50 only; essentially superscded
by A 709. Grade 50
A588 High-strengrh Stmctnral shapes. plaics, and bars for welded buildings ami bridges where weight
low-alloy steel savings or added durability are necded; atrnospheric corrosion resislance is about
four tirnes that o f A36 sted; essenrially supcrseded by A709, Grade 50 for bridges
A606 High-strength Hot- and cold-rolled sheet and stri p in lengths or coils; for cold-forrne<l sections,
low-alloy steel where enhanced durabili1y is desired; atmospheric c<mosion resistance for
Type 2 at Jeast twice that of carbon steel; and for Typc 4 at least four times
that of carbon steel
A607 High-strength low-alloy Hot- and cold-rolled sheet an<l strip in lengths or coils; for cold-formed scctions,
columbium or vanadium steel where greater strength and weight savings are important; atmospheric corrosion
resistance (without copper) is the ,ame as carbon steel; with copper, corrosion
resistance is l wice thai of carbon steel
A61 l Carbon steel Cold-rolled sheet in cut lengths or coils for making cold-formed sections
A61 8 High-strength Hot-formed welded and seamless square, rectangular. round. or special shape
low-alloy steel siructural tubing for bolted and welded generai structural purposes; Grade Il has
corrosion resistance about twice that of carbon steel; Grade I has corrosion
resistance about four times that of ca.rbon s1eel; Grade Ili for enhanced corrosion
resistance may have copper specified
A709 Carbon; high-strengtb Structural shapes. plates, and bars in Grades 36, 50. and 50W for use in bridges;
low-alloy; and quenched plates in Grades 100 and IOOW for use in bridges; when supplementary
and tempered alloy requirements are used, requirements of A36, A572, A588. and A514 are exceeded;
Grades S0W and IOOW are weathering steels
A852 High-srrength, low-alloy; Plates 10 4 in. thick for welded and bolted construction where atmospheric corrosion
and quenchcd and tempered alloy resistance is desired
A9l3 High-strength low-alloy steel Structural shapes for bolted and welded construction
A992 High strength low-alloy steel Structural shapes used in building framing or bridges with a yield stress range of 50 ksi
to 65 ksi, a minimum tensile stress of 65 ksi and a maximum yield-to-tensile
strength ratio of 0.85. A maximum carbon equivalent of 0.45. Supersedes
A572 Grade 50.
*Ali steels listed ere epproved under the AISC Specification [1.15) exeept A611 and A709.
0 _2(jj offsél .----....:- Je!!si!c 1rrcng1h. F,,

1- ..,,.,. Hea1-1rca1cd consuiJctiona.1
li ,,...-·"- _,.,-- allov <teel<= ASl 4 qucoched
I00 ' "- and ·,crnperod alloy stccl
Min imum yfe.ld
, 1reng1h
r, = H)()bi High· strength. low·
] 80 I (e\
, I alloy carbon , 1cels:
A572
(b)
\Carbon stecls:
( &. )
A36
2() I-·
L__,__.L_____L___J______,_----:-=--~,_J
1).05 o.io 0.15 0.?0 o. 25 O.~O C.35
Figure 2.1.1
Typical stress-strai n curves. SirJtn. inc:hcs per inch
Alloy Steels
Low-alloy steels may be quenched and ternpered to obtain yield strengths of 80 to_ 11~ ksi
(550 to 760 MPa). Yield strength is usually defined as the stress at 0.2% offset sti-am, since
1hese steels do not exhibit a well-defined yield point. A typical stress-strain curve is shown
in Fig. 2.1.1. curve (e). These steels are weldable with proper procedures, and ordinarily
requìre no additional beat treatment after they have been welded. For special uses, stress
relieving may occasionally be required. Some carbon steels, such as certain pressure vessel
sleels, may be quenched and tempered to give yield strengths in the 80 ksi (550 MPa)
range, bul mosl steels of this strength are low-alloy steels. These Iow-alloy steels generally
have a maximum carbon content of about 0.20% to limit the hardness of any coarse-grain
microstructure (martensite) that may forrn during heat treating or welding, thus reducing
rhe danger of cracking.
The heat treatment consists of quenching (rapid cooling with water or oil from at
least J650°F (900°C) to about 300-400°F]; then tempering by reheating to at least l l50°F
(620°C) and allowing to cool. Tempering, even though reducing the strength and hardness
somewhat from the quenched materiai, greatly improves the toughness and ductility.
Reduction in strength and hardness with increasing temperature is somewhat counteracted
by the occurrence of a secondary hardening, resulting from precipitation of fine
columbium, titanium. or vanadium carbides. This precipitation begins at about 950°F
(5 l0°C) and accelerates up to about l 250°F (680°C). Tempering at or near l 250°F to get
maximum benefil from precipitating carbides may result in entering the transformation
zone. thus producing the weaker microstructure that would have been obtained without
quenching and tempering.
In summary, the quench.ing produces manensite, a very hard, strong, and brittle
microstructure; reheating reduces the strength and hardness somewhat while increasing the
toughn~ss and ductili~. For more detailed infonnation conceming the metallurgy of the
quenchmg and tempenng process, the reader is referred to the Welding Ha11dbook (2.21 J.
The quenched and rempered alloy steels of Table 2.1.1 are A514 [2.lOI, A709 (2.161
Gr.ides 100 and IOOW, A852 [2.17], and A913 [2.44).
Sectio n 2.2 Fastener Steels • 39
2.2 FASTENER STEELS
The detailed treatment of the design of threaded fasteners appears in Chap!er 4. A brief
dcscription of Lhe materials used for bolts appears in the following paragraphs. [The head-
ings are the ASTM specification exact titles.)
A307 [2.4], Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 psi

Tensile Strength
This materia! is used for what are commonly referred to as " machine bolts." These are usu-
al ly used only for remporary installa1i.ons. Ind uded are Grade A bolts for generai app\ica-
tions, which have a minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi (415 MPa): and Grade B bolts for
fl anged joinrs in pipi!,g syste.ms where one-or both nanges are cast iron. The Grade B bolts
have a maximum tensile ~trength li mitation of 100 ksi (700 MPa). No well-defined yield
poinr is ex hibited by ,!-iese bolts, and no minimum yield strength (for instance, 0.2% offset
strength) is specified.
A325 [2.51. High ..Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints
f h i,; quericherì a ;id temp,:red medium car bon siee! i , u5ed for bo\ts commonly known as
··1-,. ~',-sneng,ii srructural bolt ' : · or high-strength bolts. T bis materiai has maximum car·
bon of (1.30%. i ì is t,enHreated by quencl,ing and thea by reheating (tempering) to a
t<:Mp:!r<ltL,re ,,f ,1t i,,as1 800°F. 1n a tension re~t, this sted behaves more like heat-treated
k,,. a Uoy si.c>ds than iike carbon sh:el. Tt has an uhimate te nsile strength of I 05 ksi {724
MPa'1 ( l ~ cc, ! ½-i,:.-d1a.rn bolt~) to 120 ksi (827 MPa) {~ to 1-in.-diam bolts). Its yield
:;t.-c.1gfo. measured :n 0.2% offset. is prescribed at 81 ksi (558 MPa) minimum for I ½ to
ì j-11:.-diam bolts. :md 92 k..~i (634 MP.i) for bolts ½to I in. diam (see Table 4.1.1 ).
A449 [2.6.L Quenched and Tempered Steel Bolts and Studs
'I11esc bolts have tensile strengths and yield stresses (strength at 0 .2% offset) the same as A325
for bolts I ½in. diam and smaller; however, they have the regular (instead of heavy) hexagon
head and longer thread length of A307 bolts. They are also available in diameters up to 3 in.
Tue AISC Spt'cification [ 1.13 l pennjcs use of A449 bolts only for certain structural joints
requiring diameters exceeding I ½in. and for high-strength anchor bolts and threaded rods.
A490 [2.7), Heat-Treated Steel Structural Bolts, 150 ksi

(1035 MPa) Minimum Tensile Strength
This materiai has carbon content thal may range up to 0.53% for l ½in.-diam bolts. and has
alloying elements in amounts similar to the AS 14 [2. 10) steels. Afte r que nching in oil, the
materiai is tempered by reheating to at least 900°F. The minimum yield stre ngth, obtained
by 0.2% offset, ranges from 115 ksi (793 MPa) (over 2½ in. to 4 in. diam) to 130 ksi (896
MPa) (for 2½in. diam and under).
Galvanized High-Strength Bolts
In order to provide corrosion protection, A325 bolts may be galvanized. Hot-dip galvanizing
requires the molten zinc temperature to be in the range of the heat trcatmenl 1emperaturc~
rhus. t.he mechanical propcrtìes obtained by heat 1reatn1ent may be diminished. ~henever
galvanized bolls are usect. rhe nuts nrnst be "oversized." [f che nuts are also galvamzed, they
must be "double oversized."
l?
Steels having tensile strength in che range of 200 ksi or higher are subject hydro-
~e-n embrittlemcnt when hyclrogen i~ pennitted to remain in the s_ceel and h'.gh tensile Stress
IS applied, The introduclion of hydrogen occurs during t.he picklmg opera!IOll of the galva-
nizing process and the subsequent "sealing- in" of the hydrogen a~d z.mc coa~ing (2.22].
The minimum te ns ile w encth of A325 bolts is well below the criticai 200 ks1 range. On
the 01her band. A490 bo!ts have a maximum tensile strength of L70 k!'i, a value considered
too c:ose to tbe criticai range . Thus, galwmizing of A490 bolts is nor permitted.
2.3 WELD ELECTRODE AND FiLLER MATERIAL

--- - ----------
Thc d etailed trea.tmen• r-f welding and welded connections appears in Chapler 5. The e\ec-
trnde ~ ;;sed in sh1t>lded metal are welding (SMAW) (see Sec. 5 .2) abo , erYe as the filler
mater;al ,md ,u·t· (;,>verecl by Arnerican Welding Sociely (AWS) AS . l ar,d A.5.5 Specifica-
1
tion.~ [2.23J. Snch c onsrnHable ekctrodes are classified E60XX , E ì OXX, t-2 ) XX, E90XX
1
E lOOXX. and E I !OX X. The "E" denotes clectrode. The first two digit6 im icate the tensil~
~t,;:n,~th in ksi: 1irn5 tht 1c11sìle srrength ranges from 60 to 110 ksi (4 t-1 to '160 MPa). Tue
X s represe11( ,iumben, indicating the usage of the electrodc.
TABLE 2.3.1 Electrodes Used forWelding '
Process
Shielded Submerged Gas metal Fll1x cored

metal are are are are Minimum Minimum
welding welding welding welding yield tensile
(SMAW) (SAW) (GMAWì (FCAW) stress strength
AWSAS.1 AWSAS.17 or AWSA5.18 AWSA5.20
orAS.5 AS.23 or AS.28 or A5.29 (ksi) !MPa) !ksi) (MPa)
E60XX E6XT-X so 345 62 min 425

F6XX-EXXX 50 345 62-80 425-550
E70XX ER70S-X E7XT-X 60 415 72 rnin 495
F7XX-EXXX 60 415 70-90 485~20
E80XX 67 460 80min 550
F8XX-EXXX E8XT 68 470 80-100 550-690
ER80S 65 450 80 rnin 550
EIOOXX 87 600 IOOmin 690
FJOXX-EXXX 88 605 100-130 690-895
ERIOOS 90 620 100 min 690
EJOXT 88 605 100-120 690-830
EJ 1-0X 97 670 l lOmia 760
FIIXX-EXXX 98 675 110-130 760-895
ERLIOS 98 675 II0min 760
E11XT 98 675 110-125 760-860
•Filler metal requirement given by AWS D1.1 (2.231, Tabie 3.1 to match th e var1ous
. structural steels.
Section 2.4 Stress-Stra in Behavior (TensìonTest) at AtmosphericTemperatures • 41
For submerged are welding (SAW) (see Sec. 5.2), the electrodes which also serve
as filler 111aterìal are specified under AWS A5. l 7 and AS.23. The weld-electrode combi-
nations are desìgnated F6XX-EXXX, F7XX-EXXX, etc. up to Fl lXX-EXXX. The "F'
designates a granular flux materiai that shields the weld as it is made. The first one or
two of che three digits following the "F" indicate the tensile strength (6 means 60 ksi, 11
means I LO ksi). The "E" stands for electrode and the other X's represent numbers relat-
ing ro use. The yield stresses and tensile strengths of commonly used electrodes are
given in Table 2.3. I.
2.4 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOR (TENSION TEST) AT ATMOSPHERIC

TEMPERATURES
Typ:cal slress-strain curves for tension are shown in Fig 2.1.1 for the three categorics of
steel already discussed: carbon, high-strength low-aHoy, and heat-treated high-strength
low-a!loy. The same behavior occurs io compressioo when support is provided so as to pre-
clude buck.ling:. The ponior1 of each of the stress-strain curves of Fig. 2. l . I that is utilized
;n ordHlary design is shown enlarged in Fig. 2.4. 1.
Thc: &tress-strain curves of Fig. 2.1. l are det.ermine<l using a unii stress obtained by
dividing ,hc load by rhe origina] cmss-sectional area of the specimen, and the strain
(inch·::~ per i nd ;) is obta ined as the elongation divided by the originai length. Such curves
" . •: Ì\l\()WI~ ,,is engineering stress-s;min curves and rise to a maximum stress level (lulown
,··; tbc tensile strength) a.nd then fall off with increasing strain unti I they terminate as the
&i:..:...:i men breaks. Insofar as the materia! itself is concerned, the unit stress continues to
dsc UNil failure :.:,ccurs. The so-called true-stress/true-srrain curve is obtained by using
rhc; ac·i.,a! cross-section even after necking down begins and using the instantaneous
incri.~rnent.al slrt¾n.
800
10,f For F, = 100 ksi; rypical for sLeels

wìth f,. > 65 ksi
600
80
500
~ 0.2% Offset (0.002 in./in.)

"
c.
~
.,;
!!
60 For F, = 50 le.sì; typical for most structural
· steels with F, ,;; 65 le.si
..e
.,;
.;; cii
300
40 A36 stcel
200
Elastic range
20 Plastic range Strain-hardening range
to max. tensile strength 100
Fìgure 2.4.1
F.nlarged typical suess-strain o 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
curves for differeot yield Strain E, in,/in.
stresses.
· oht-linc rclationship up 10 a point
•. ·2 4 I) show a s1ra1,,, . . Id . 1·
Stres~-strain curves (as per Fig. · · · · ·de~ w1th the y1e po in1 or most
. ,. . . . . I . ·h ssentially comc1 . . . I ·h d
known ns 1he pmportumal [mut, w 11c e . a 65 ksi (450 MPa). fo1 t ,e q ucnc_ e and
structurnl sreels with yield poi11ts not exceedin., . ht line occurs gradually, as 111 curve
teinpered Jow-·tJlov · · from a straig · te
stccls. the d.ev1auon curve (e), y 1.·.eId Jtreng1h ·,s
• , . · . 1101 appropna 10
(~•·), Fio.,. 2.4 . J . .Since the temi y1eld. potnt O 291,s. or alternauv , ely. a o.5% exteo-;ion
. unùer load
. ,
uscd for the stress at an offset srram of · 17 ' include the um t stress at a yteld
. d · . the generai 1ern1 ° 1
as shown in Fig 2.4.1 . Y,el stress 1s
)oinl when one exists, or the yield slrcnglh - . ht J'ine i·eg1·0n is k.t'lown as the modulus
· · · · " ·J stra1° ·
' The ratio of stress to stram 111 the mitili · "' t r~l "tecls n,av be takcn approxi-
h' h for slJ1JC u " ., ,
of clasricity, or Young's modulus. E, w ,e . ht ,·ne region Joading aod unloading
. MP ) J0 the stra1g - t ' .
matcly m, 29.000 ks1 (200,?00 . a · . . the elastic range The !>.!rv,ce loaù unit
11 1
results in no permanent deformauon; hence ~ ,. bclow thc proport1onal limit, even
. . . I . . 1ended to be sa1e 1y -
stress 111 s1eel design 1s a ways m . 1 fa·,lui·e or exce·""..: de tormation
· i f tOrs agains ·· ·
rhough in order 10 asc~rtam sa ely ~e . r u
10
a ~crain aboc.t •.1 lù 20 timcs the
know!cdge is required o! thc stress-scrain behav,o P
maximum elastic strain. . a) and (b) o f Fill. 2A ! . the long plateau
For steels e_xhibiting yield pornts. ~s cu_rves ( wn as the >ias~ic ranpc'. The load and
for which essenually constane stress _ex1s1s is k~o is ran e T~e higher ~u cngth steels typ-
resisrnnce foctor design method consc,ously uses h g · b d t' - t'
ifi~d by curve (e) of Fig. 2.4. 1 also have a region thai might e ca11e ,,e P1as ic range;
· · I, · as·ng (instead of rcm(i1mng constant)
however, in this zone the stress is conunuous } mere 1 . . _ . .
· · . F I k
as stram mcreases. or ac o avmg f h · a regi· on of constant su-e$S wtth ml:r:.:ismg
. .stram. thc
.
steeIs whose y,e· Id stress exceeds 65) ksi· are not permiued to be used for . rnclasllc analys1s
..
(AlSC-Appendix I), Tnelastic analysis (treated in Chaps. 6 and LO) relies o n the abthty of
steel to deform (strain) at constant stress. . . .
For strains areater than 15 lo 20 cimes the maximum elastic strarn , the stress again
increases but with a much flatter slope than che originai elastic slope. This increase in
strength is çalled strain hardening. which continues up to the tensile strcngth. The
slope of the stress-strain curve is known as the strain-hardening modulus, Es, . Average
values for this modulus and the strain E,1 at which it begins bave been determined
[2.24] for two steels: A36 steel, Esr = 900 ksi (6200 MPa) at E.w = 0.014 in. per in.;
and A441 , E, 1 = 700ksi (4800 MPa) at E,, , = 0.021 in. per in. The Strain-hardening
range is not consciously used in design, but certain o f the buckli ng l imitations are con-
servacively derived to preclude buckling even at strains well beyond onset of strain
hardening.
The stress-strain curve also indicates the ductility. Ductility is defined as the amount
of permanent strain (i.e., strain exceeding proportiona] lim.it) up to the point of fracture.
Measurement of ductility is obtained from the tensio n test by determining the percent elon-
gation (comparing final and originai lengths over a specified gage distance) o f the speci-
men. Ductility is important becausc it permits yielding locally due to high stresses and thus
allows the stress distribution lo change. Desig n procedures based on inelast ic behavior
require _large inherent ductility, particularly for treatment of stresses near h oles or abrupt
change m mcmber shape. as well as for design of connections.
2.S MATERIAL TOUGHNESS
The use of ste~ls having higher strength than A36 without heat treatmcnt has resulted in
problems relatmg to lack of ductility and materiai fracture f2 26] 1
h . · ·
· · h
; a a mm1mum. t e use
of
sue steels requ1res the $tructural engineer to be more conscious of t . I beh -
In structural steel d . . ma ena avtor.
. es1gn, toughness ,s a measure of the ability of stcel to resist frac.
ture; 1.e ., to absorb energy. According to Rolfe 12 t . •.
·251 , ma ena1 toughness 1s delined 11S "the
Section 2.5 MaterialToughness • 43
resistance lo unstable crack propagation in the presence of a notch." Unstable crack propa-
gation produces brittle fracture, as opposed lo stable crack growth of a subcritical crack
frum fatigue.
For uniaxial tension, coughness can be expressed as the tota! area under the stress·
strain curve out to che fracture poinl where the diagram terminates. Since uniaxial tension
rarely exists in real strncturcs, a more useful index of toughness is based on the more com-
plex stress conùition at che root of a notch.
Notch 1011gh11ess is the measure of the resistance of a metal lo thc start and propa-
gation of a crack at the base of a standard notch, commonly using the Charpy V-nocch
test. This test uses a small rec tangular simply supported beam having a V-notch at
midlength. The bar is fractured by a blow from a swinging pendulum. The amount of
e nergy absorbed is calculated from the heìght the pendulum raises after breaking the
specìmcn. The amount of energy absorbed wìll incre,1se with increasing temperature at
whicb the test is conduc1ed.
Though the Charpy Y-notch test has bee n a common means of determinìng notch
toughness, other fracture criteria and more recently fracture mechanics have been used
[2.25]. Barsom und Roìfe [2.27] and Barsom [2.28. 2 .29) have excellently prese nted the
imp011anl factors rel.ating to fracture of steel.
Figure 2.5. l shows the typical relationship between temperature and toughness, and
also show~ the transition from ductile io brittle be havior, such as one may obtain from the
CJ;arpy V- notch test. The temperature al the point wherc tbe slope is steepest (point A of
;::.·ig . 2 5.1) is the transition temperature. Sincc brittlencss and ductility are qualitative
terme: ;he v;;riou~ struct ural steels have differem rcquirements for ductìlity al various tem-
p::raru;,~é de.:,,.,nding on their service environment (loacling. temperature, stress and strain
it ve i~ iuadin.g raie, and number of lo ad repctirions).
Fvr e~ample , a moderate a mount of ductility may be required for ordinary structures
whern ve1y low remperattcres are not cxpected; in such cases, 15 fl-lb has commonly been
the e nergy :ibsorption required. The corresponding temperature obtained from the test
n::sull~ 3hown in Fig. 2.5.1 would be about 17',F The temperature at which marked
òecrease in slope begins to occur is known as the ducriliry transition temperawre. This
would indicate that the matctial may be expected to be brittle when service temperatures
are below l7° F.
Temperature. °C
-30 -20 -IO o +IO
Ducrilicy rransirion temperature

ar 15fr-Jb.say 17°F
60 80
50
"'
~ Transition temperature al 60 \:
.::: 40 z
steepest slope, say + 30° F
>,
e!' 30 ~
e"
'1,l
40 !
20
20
Figure 2.5.1 lO
Transition temperature curve
for carbon sieel obtained from -20 o +20 +40 +60
Charpy V-notch impact tests.
(Adapted from Ref. 2.24) Temperature, °F
2.6 YrELD STRENGTH FOR MULTIAXIAL STATES OF STRESS

Only when rhe load-carTying member is subject 10 uniaxial rensile stress can rhe propenies
from the rcnsion tesi be expectcd ro be identica! wirh those of the SlruCtural member. 1t is
easy to forget 1hat yielding in a real structure is usually not 1he w~ll-<lefincd behavior
ohserved in thc tension test. Yiclding is comrnonly assumed to be achieved when any onc
componerlt of stress reaches the uniaxial value F, .
For ali states or stress other than uniaxial,-a definition of yielding is needed. These
dclinitions. and thcre l\Tt: frequ,~ntly severa! fora given state of stress, are called yield con.
di1io11s (or rheories offai!ure) andare equations of interacrion between the stresses acting.
Encrgy-of-Distortion (Huber-von Mises-Hencky) Yieìd

Criterion
This most commonly accepted thcory gives rhe uniaxial yicld stress in terms of the three
piincipal stresSès. T ne yield cri1erion* may be stated
(2.6.t)
where a- 1 , a-., . a~ are !he tens ile or compressive s1resses thai act in the rhree principal
dirccLilm,: i.e.. tlie stresses that act in the 1hree murually perpendi.rn!,u planes of zero
sheac, and a, i, the "yield stress" that may be compared with 1he un.ic.1;., i.1l value F,.
FN most ~tructural design situations, one of Lhe principal stres,el. l'; eirher zero oc
small 0nough tu be neglecred; hencc Eq. 2.6.1 reduces to the followint- i0r tlle case of the
plane stress (all stresses considered are acting in a piane)
(2.6.2)
When stresses on thin plates are involved. the principal stress acting trans verse to the piane
of the plale is usually zero (at least 10 first-order approximation). FlexuraJ stresses on
beams assume zero principal stress pcrpendicular to the plane of bcnding. Furthermore,
structural shapes (Fig. 1.5. 1) are comprised of thin plate elements, so that each is subject to
Eq. 2.6.2. The piane stress yield criterion, Eq. 2.6.2, is the one used throughout the remain-
ing chapters where necded, and is illustrated in Fig. 2.6.1.
Shear Yield Stress
The yield point for pure shear can be determi.ned from a stress-strain curve with shear load-
ing, or if the multiaxial yield criterion is known, that relationship can be used. Pure shear
occurs on 45° planes 10 the principal planes when u 2 =
- u 1• and the shear stress -r = u 1•
Subslitution of u 2 = - u 1 into Eq. 2.6.2 gives
U~ = U[ + uf - U1(-ui) = 3uf (2.6.3)
<T1 = -r = ul/\/3 = shear yield (2.6.4)
which indicates that the yield condition for shear stress acting alone is
'l'y = O'y/\/3 = 0.58uy (2.6.S)
•See Anhur P. Boresi, Ricbard .l Schmidt, and Omar M. Sidebottom, Advanc,d Mtchania o/ .v~
5th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. lnc., 1993, pp.133-134.
Section 2.7 HighTemperature Beha11ior • 45
q J :;: ql
T = tT 1
t t
- ql --.-o- - tf1 <T;....,._o-,r.
i <11
i
= (1.
+I.O ------ ---

Pure shcar strcs~
condition
+ I.O
u,
"·
• I
' I
- rr2 = ·· ,, ,
_)L---------~
-": -··+-O ~ - ·J .
- -- I
Figure 2.6.1
t
- O .i_.., - •.11
I
Energy-of-distortion yield HyJroMi~w: s?:1.·~..
cri1erion for piane stress. çn1u!i1lon
\Vhen ,tr,c.% 1s 2,1,pli<c·d i: oric dircction . strnin~ a.r1~ induc-ed IH) t only in the direction of
appticJ ~tress bllì ,lise: rn :he other two mu,uaì!y pcrpemlicular directions. The usual value
of f.L u~t::d is that obtained from the uniaxial stress conùit:nn, where it is the ratio of the
tni.nsverse strain lo longitudinal straìn onder load. For ~tructural steels, Poisson's ratio is
approximately 0.3 in rne elastic range where the materiai i, compressible and approaches
0.5 when in the plastic range where the materiai is essentially incompressible (i.e.., con-
stant resistance no matrer what the strain).
Shear Modulus of Elasticity
Loading in pure shear produces a stress-strain curve with a straight line ponion whose
slope represents the shear modulus of elasticity. lf Poisson's ratioµ and the tension-com-
pression modulus of elasticity E are known, the shear modulus G is defined by the theory
of elasticity as
E
G= - - - - (2.6.6)
2(1 + µ)
which for structural steel is just over 11,000 ksi (75,800 MPa).
2.7 HIGH TEMPERATURE BEHAVIOR

The design of structures to serve under atmospheric temperature rarely involves concern
about high temperature behavior. Knowledge of such behavior is desirable when specifying
welding procedures, and is necessary when concemed with the effccts of fire.
Tempcra1urc , °C IOOo
200 400 600 ~
1600 2000
o 400 800 1200
Ternpcramre. G-f
. . .. t re on Y·ield Smmgth
(a} Avcrage Etfecl oflemp~ra u
1600 2000
400 8fXl 1200
Temperature. vp
(b) Average Effcc1 ofTempcrature on Tensile Sirength
Figure 2.7.1
Typical effects of high tem- 200 400 600 800 1000
perature on stress-strain curve Temperature, °F
properties of structural steels.
(e) Typ,cal Effccl of Temperature on Modulus of Elas1icity
(Adapted from Ref. 2.24)
When temperatures exceed about 200°F (93°C), the stress-strain curve begins 10
become nonlinear, gradually eliminating the well-defined yield point. The modulus of
elasticity, yield strength, and tensile strength ali reduce as temperature increases. The
range from 800 to l000°F (430 to 540°() is where the rate of decrease is maximum. While
each steel, because of its different chemistry and microstructure, behaves somewhat differ-
ently, the generai relationships are shown in Fig. 2.7.1. Steels having relatively high per-
centages of carbon, such as A36, exhibit "strain aging" in the range 300 to 700°F ( 150 10
370°C). This is evidenced by a relative rise in yield strength and tensile strength in 1hat
Section 2.8 Cold Work and Stra in Hardening • 47
range. Tensile strength may rise to about 10% above that ut room temperature and yield
strength may recover to about its room temperature value wben the temperature rcachcs
500 to 600°F (260 to 320°C). Strain aging results in decreased ductility.
The modulus of elasticity decrease is moderate up to l000°F (540°C); thereafter it
decreases rapidly. More importantly, at temperature..~ above about 500 to 600°F (260 to
320°C), steels exhi bit deformation which increases with increasing time under load, a phe-
nomenon known as creep. Creep is well known in concrete struc1ures; and ils effect in steel,
which does not occur at atmospheric temperatures, increases with increasing temperature.
Othcr high temperature effects are (a) improved notch impact resistance up to about
150 to 200°F (65 to 95°C), as discussed in Sec. 2.5; (b) increased brittleness due to metal-
lurgical changes, such as carbide precipitalion discussed in Sec. 2. l, begins to occur at
aboul 950°F (5 10°C); ancl (e) corrosion resistance of structural steels increases for temper-
atures up IO about 1000°F (540°C). Most sceels are used in applications below I 000°F, and
some heat treated steels should be kept below about 800°F (430°C).
2.8 COLO WORK ANO STRAJN HARDENING
After the strain Ey = F,./ r:., at first yield has been exceeded appreciably, and the speci-
men ir, unloadetf, reloaòing may gjve n stres,--strain rdationship differing from that
oh~e, vi::d durin6 Lhe ir..itial !oading. Elastic lo?.dirg .::.1td unloading results in no residuai
sm.iw howevè':·, initi.1t loading beyon<l the yield point s,1ch ,\s lo point A of Fig. 2.8.1,
re:,ulh :ri u,i0iding to , t strain at poinl B. A penr.a11e1;, ~et 08 has occun·ed. The ductility
cap:·city 1 3ci lx:cn n;,1uced fro:;n strain OF to sm,1i1 BF. Reloading exhibits behavior as if
tì1.;- .;~1s:i.1Vitf~1!l ongin werc at point H; the pia·,tic zone p1ior ro strnin hardening is also
rt<i"..,ce<.~.
\•/kn ìc:ding 11,!:· occc1;-re;d unti! point C is ru1r.h1:d. unloading fo\lows the dashed
!i.:",t t•) ~oin( i); i.e.. thc ocigin for a 11ew loading is :10w pe int D. The length of the line CD
is ~I.:O.,t>r, ir:dicating tho.t the yicld point has increascd. Tt11,; increased yield poinl is referred
to a!. a s trair. hardening effrct; thc ductì!ity remaining w hen loading from point D is
sc-:t-rely r·edu,;cd from 1ts origina! value prior lo the ini1i:1l loading . The process of loading
T.cnsilc-
strength
lde"l clasti,-plastic
Fra<.:rurc
stress·slrain E
relationship strength - -
1
I
I I
I
r--"?"--.....,~------- -- --,1-:-~ Strain I
I
f hardening I
I
1 yie.ld poin1 I
I I
Etasric I I
slope I I
I I
''
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
D I F I
O L-ll---'1~--- - - -- -t---4-- - - - - - --<i.-----;- Strain
\ 1- - - - Plastic range ----1------ S1rain hardening - - - - ~
Elast ic range
Figure 2.8.1
Effecu ol suaining beyond __Pem1ane~I
lhedMlicrange.
""'
Y1d11 pmnt I.
,n,,:n.-~,e I
:- -,. . . _
lro,n..:;1r,)in
I
I l
Yid<l puinr mt re.1,:.· I
I I
nging I I
1,,,m , 1r;11 n ~ I I
I I
hunknin_;!
'
I
I
'
I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
L ____________,{..!:.'o:__
. _______ --:-'- - ,___ _ ~1r~1in
Fi!:tm:::'.t\.2
Efic,:1 of main aging nfler j
J--
Dui,:tili1v afh:I'
,1 rflirt h;~rdcning - -
I
slralning into srrain-llarde•11i11g ~1ml ,1u111 ~,gml!,
range and unlond.ing.
· I · · .-·1· bl ' d11l· t·111·1y whc n d,•,qc at atmos-

beyond thc· cl:1st1<: range to cause a e 1,111ge 111 av,11 ,t e · . . ,
plwri..: (Clllpcralure. i~ k llùWll as cviii \l'/)/'A. Sincc real struc tures :1rc not IC1.i:l1:ù ,n nt11ax-
i;il tensinn-co rnprc~~ion. 1hc culd wurk effect Ì$ much mure compkx. ami ,,ny lhcorellcal
~tudy 01' it i, t>m,idc 1hc sCt1pe of thc text. .
\Vhcn struc\llral ~hapc~ are made by cold-forming from plates al •.llmosphe nc tem-
pe ratun:. incla~tic dcfnrmations occur nt tht· bend~. Cold working imo thc s.r.::n h_ardening
range at the ~nd loca1iorn: increases the yield strength. which <ks1gn sp<>c•ttcallons may
pennit rnling into account. The Nortlt A111aica11 Specifirnticm .for the Devign o.f Co/d-
Fon11<'d Stt'<'I S1n1d1iral M<'ml>crs* \ 1.8] has suc h provisions.
Upu11 u111L1ading and after a pcriod of rime. the stecl will have acquircd differel'll
prop,'rties fnn11 those n;prese n1ed by points D. C. and E of Fig. 2.8. I by a phe nomenon
known as ,,11'(1111 aging. Str:iin aging. ;1s ~hown in Fig. 2.8.2. prnd uce5 an additional
increase in yield poinl. restores a plastk zone of constant stre,s. and g ives a new strain
hardening zone at an elevated stress. The originai shape of the stres~·SLrain diagram is
rcstored. but 1he ductiliiy is reduced. The new stress-strain diagram may be used as if it
werc the originai for analyzing cold-formed seetions. as long as the ductility that remains
is sufficient. The corner regions of Cùld-formcù shapes generally would not require high
ùuctility for rotational strain :1bout the axis of the bend.
Stress relieving by annealing will eliminate the effects of cold work should that be
desired. Annealing involves heating to a temperature above transformation range and
allowing slow cooling; a recrystallization occurs to restore the originai propenies. B-ìttenct'
[2.30] provides an excellent sumrnary of the basics of heat treating.
2.9 BRITILE FRACTURE

As has been discussed in severa! sections, steel that is ordinarìly ductile can become brìttle
under various conditions.
Barsom [2.28, ~.29], Barsom and Rolfe (2.27], and Rolfe [2.25] have provided an
excellenl
• summary
· ,. ot fracture and fatigue contro! for structural engmeers.
· -·-151
. Ro 11·e [,
d ehnes 1mtt
. 1e 1ractu~ as "a type of catastrophìc fa1·1ure that · h · 1
occurs wu out prior p IIS1·1c
deformauon and at eitremely hìgh speeds" · Fracture behav1·0 r 1s
· a t1·ected b y temperature.
•Re(erred 10 henccfonh 111 che AISI Specificalion.

Section 2.9 Brittle Fracture • 49
loading rate. stress leve!. flaw size, plate thìckness or conslraint, joint geometry, and
workmanship.
Effect of Temperature
Notch LOughnes s. as determined by the Charpy-impact energy vs temperature curves

(se.e Sec. 2.5), is an indication of the susceptibility to brittle fracture. Temperature is a
vita) factor in severa! ways: (a) the value below which notch roughness is inadequate;
(b) rhe 600 to 800°F (320 to 430°C) range causes formation of brittle microstructure;
and (e) over I 000°F (540°C) causes precipitation of carbides of alloying elements to
give more brittle microstructure. The other temperature factors have already been dis-
cussed in earlier sections.
Effect of Multìaxial Stress
The complex stress condition found in usual structures, particularly at joints, is another
major fact or affecting brit1leness. The Primer 011 Bri11/e Fracture [2.3 I) provides an excel-
lent. rational prescmation of this a.nd fom1s the basis for what follows. The engineering
'.>tre ~-su ain curve is for uniaX_ial stress; prior to fracture a necking down occurs. as shown
in Fig. '.? 9.la. l f biaxial lateral loading as shown in Fig. 2 .9.lb could be applied, plastic
n.?ckmg vown could be suppressed to the poinl where lhe bar would break in a brittle man-
11er •,, irhout elongation ancl without reduction in area. The fracture stress based on the unre-
d1....:etl ,;r"·,'.>-~ectional area would be the same higb value as that based on the necked-down
.:ross ,t"::lioi1 in lbe uniaxial te nsion case. The unit stress would be far above the nomina\
n ,1:,.11nt.::n tensile srrength of the engineering stress-strain curve, which is always com-
puri.;d on lhe ba. i ~of orig inai cross section.
Atso thc effects of notches have been aHuded to in the discussion of notch toughness
in Sec. 2 ..). The notch serves somewhat the same purpose as the theoretical triaxial loading
ofFig. 2.9. ib , in that it restrains plastic flow whìch orherwise would occur and thus at some
higher stres, may \ikely fai! in a brittle manner. Figure 2.9.2 shows the effect of a notch in a
te nsile test specimen. The cross-sectional area at the base of lhe notch corresponds to the
·1.rea of the originai specimen of Fig. 2.9.1 b. The reduced section tries to become narrower
t t
i;--- Biaxial uansvcrse
\ loading prcvcnts
:..------Ned.ing necking down
down near
fr.1c1ure load
(a) Threadcd test bar (b) Threaded test bar

near frac:ture near fracture
FJ&Uf'C 2.9.1 (triaxial loading)
Uaiuial and criwa.l loading. (uniaxial loading)
50 • Chap1er 2 Steels and Properties
-
Figure 2.9.2
reslraml
- I
- l..a1eral
rescraint
'
Effect of notch on uniaxial
tension test.
as thc axial tcnsh~n inueases, but is resisted by che diagonal pull that deve!ops in the cor-
ncrs. as shown in Fig. 2.9.2. Tue test bar will fai I at high stress by brittle fwcture.
Notches can occnr in real stroctures by use of unfilleted comers ia des:ign or frorn
improperly made welds that may crack. Such occurrences can lead to brittle ness. Notches
aod cracked weids can. however, be minimized by good design and weldmg procedures.
Unusual cont1gurnlions and changes in section should be made g:1-.1dually so the
stress flow li ne$ are not required to make abrupt changes. Whenever thc co::•plex.ity is such
as to giw rise to chree-dimensional stresses, the tendency for brittlenes~ ir.creases. Cast-
ings, for inslance. have the reputation for brittleness. Primarily this is because of the built-
in three-dimensional continuity.
Multiaxial Stress lnduced by Welding
In generai. welding crcates a built-in restraint that gives rise to biaxial and triaxial stress and
strain conditions. which result in brittle behavior. To illustrate, consider tbe loaded simply
supponed beam of Fig. 2.9.3, which in tum supports a plate in tension. Due to flexure, the
A
j------ Web tension .____ t
__.,.c...l'_~_,-t:bnt::\~-~-,1-,'-~~;;;I-L,--_~,__-
- _/,. .-_-_-_-----:..~11--~-----=--=-\:-
Figure 2.9.3
Comparison of stress condi-
lions in bolled and welded
joinli. <•l Bol1ed jolnt (b} Weldedjoint
Section 2.9 Brittle Fraeture • 51
bottoni ~ange of the beam is in tension; therefore, thc stress at point A is uniaxial tension
(~eglec~!ng Lh_e ~mail effects of beam width and attachment of flange to web). Connecting
tic !ens,011 plate w,th anglcs and bolts puts thc flange bohs e~sentially in uniaxial tension,
put~ !he boli which passes through the suspender plate in shear, and di~torts the horizontal
legs of Lhe angles in bending; so thai there is no appreciable effect on the stress at point A.
In _orh_e r words, the stress condilions in the conneciion of Fig. 2.9.3a are approximalely uni-
ax1al m nature.
. Next, consider che censi le suspcnder plate welded to the tension flange of thc beam,
as m F,g. 2.9.3b. The siress at poin1 A is now biaxial because of the direct attachment to the
flange at rhat poi 111. The weld region, 1herefore, is suhject to triaxial stress; biaxial f"rom the
directly applied loads. plu~ the resìstance to deformation along the axis or the welds result-
ing from con1inuo11s attachmem (Poisson's ratio effecl). The design of welded joints
sh1)uld consider the possìbilities of brittleness due to three-dimensional stressing. The
.sub_ject of lamel/ar tearing is created in Sec. 2. LO.
Effect of Thickness
As J i~cushed in Sec. 2.6, thin plates may usually he assumed to be in a siate of piane stress
in which the three di mensionai stress èffects may be ignored. This is 1101 generally the case
fn1 thick plate elements for which three-dimcnsional stress contributes to britcleness. Brit-
tlèn,·,5 1:, thick plates al~o increases due to the manufacruring process. The slower cooling
r:!t:> 1 1oduce~ a coarser microstructure , and a higher carbon conteni is required to achieve
!·:e Hrength otherv,, ise obtained by hoo. working in 1hin plates.
!11e ,ery thick rolled W-shapes (ASTM A6/ A6M 11.5]. Groups 4 and 5); i.e. , the so-
l\1t'.ed '_iumuo ~l:apes," exhibit low fracture toughness at the core of the thick flange-lo-
~· ec j111:ctiM and the cenrer of the web adjaceni to it (2.32). This low fracture toughness
ni::iy ca11sc hnttle failure .. when these heavy W-shapes are used as rension members. For
!]· ,. reason their use is intended only for compresl\ion members [2.33].
W he n ASTM A6/A6M, Groups 4 and 5 rolled shapes are to be ··used as members
subject to primary tensile stresses due to tension or flexure. tough.ness need not be specified
if splices are made by bolring. TJ such members are spliced using complete joint penelTation
we ldc;. the s teel shall be specified in che contract documents to be supplied with Charpy V-
Notch testing in accordance with ASTM A6, Supplementary Requirement SS. (AlSC-
A3. I e) The Bethlehem Steel Technical Bulletin , Use of Heavy S1ruc1ural Shapes in Tensìon
Applications [2.34] provides additional guidance. Even though jumbo sections were not
01iginally intended for tension applications, designers use them in such situations.
Effect of Dynamic Loading
The stress-strain propenies referred to so far have been for static loading slowly applied.
More rapid loading, such as that of forge drop-hammers, earthquake, or nuclear blast
changes the stress-strain properties. Ordinarily, the increased strain rate fro m dynamic
loading increases the yield point, tensile slrength, and ductility. At about 600°F (320 °C)
there will be a s mall decrease in strength. Some increased brittleness has heen noted with
high s train rate, bue it seems principally associated with ocher faccors already discussed,
such as notches where scress conce ntrations exist and the temperature effect on toughness.
The more important factor relating to dynamic load application is not that a rapidly
increasing strain rate occurs, but that it is combined with a rapidly decreasi11g strain rate.
The effect of s tress variation is discussed in the section on fatigue.
Table 2.9. 1. fro m Ref. 2.31, provides a list of factors ''to help detennine whethcr or
not the risk of brinle fracture is serious and requires special design considerations."
. A lyze in Estimating
TABLE 2.9.1 The Element of R1sk: Factors to dna t d From Ref. 2.31}
Seriousness of Brittle Fracture (A ap e
7 Th Iower the 1cmpera111rc. the
1. Whar is the minimum anticipateli service temperature· e
gre<1ter lhe ,usceptibility to brillle fracturc. . .
2. Are tcnsion stresses involved? Brittle fracture can occur only under coo<lit,ons of
tensile stress.
10
3. How thick is the materiai? The thicker the sleel, the grcatcr the susceptibility
brittle fracture.
. . . . ? Th d' ·onal continuity givi ng rise to
4 . Is t I1ere 1hrec-d1mens1onal continuity. ree- nnen.,01 . • . . .
multiaxial slates of stress. tends to restrain the stecl from yielding and mcreascs
susceptibiliry to britrle fraciurc.
5. Are notches present? The presence of sharp notches increases susceptibility to
brinlc fracturc.
6. ls loading applied ara high rate? TI1e higher the rate of loading. the greate.r
thc susccptibili ty ro brittle fracture.
7. ls rhere a dianging rate of s tress? Brittle fracturc occurs only under conditions of
increasing rare -..1f scress.
8. Ts welding invoived? Weld crack~ can act as severe notches.
2.10 LAMELLAR TEARING

Lamellar 1earing is a forni of brittle fracture occurring "in planes essen<i~tlly parallel Lo
the rolled surface of a plate under high through-thickness loading." [~ .35ì. Because
srrains rcsulting {rom service loads are well below t:,., normai loads are noi believed to
initiate or prop;gate. lamellar tears. and somcthing else must be responsible . In a highly
resrrained welded joint "t.hru-lhickness" strains t: are induced by weld mtt:.ii shrinkage.
The localized strains rcsuhing from weld metal shrinkage, which can be sç'.veral times
larger than yicld rnain € J', are the source of the problem.
The subJec1 of lamellar tea1ing has received considerable attentìon :,u1ce lhe early
1970s, resulting in a tendency for strucmral engineers to blame lamellar tearing for many
brittle fractures. The AISC has provided an excellent summary of the pheno menon [2.36].
Thornton [2.37) has provided design and supervision procedures to rninimize larnellar
tearing. For more detailed rreatment, the reader is referred to Kaufman, Pense, and Stout
[2.35] and Holby and Smith [2.38).
As a result of the hot rolling operatìon in manufacture, steel sections have different
prope1ties in the direction parallel to rolling (see Fig. 2. IO. I), in the transverse direction,
and in the "chru-thickness" direction. In the elastic range, both the rolling and transverse
directions exhibit similar behavior, with the elastic limit for the transverse dircction being
only slightly below that for the rolling dìrection. The ductility (strain capability), however,
in the "thru-thickness" direction may be well below that for the rolling direction.
/
Tr,1uisverse
direction
Rolling direc1ion
Fipre 2.10.1
De6nilion of di~tion tenni-
nology. (From Ref. 2.36) z Z = Thru-thiclcne<s direcrinn
Section 2.11 Fatigue Strength • 53
(a) (h)
Figure 2.10.2
Joints showing typical lamel-
lar tears resulting from
shrinkage of large wclds in
rhick materiai under high
reslraint. (From Ref. 2.36) (t }
Ge,1ernUy. !-sh::,,ì:-ed steel sections are adequate1 y d.uciile ·,vhen loaded either parallel
i··I tr0,:,,;v0N:', tr, tl,e ;·olling t..li,ertion.
They will defom1 lcc:iìly to strains greater than the
y1eld ~,:rai_11 {FJEJ. carrying \oad with some of the matcrial acting at the yield stress and
t,i:inging ad3ac'.~nt materiai imo participation if added strnngrh is 11eeded. When, however,
th1: ,;trai:, is locah,:ed for instance in the "thru-thickness" dire<.:tion atone thick flange of a
section, <t restr:.tìned situation exisrs because the strain c:an11ot redisuibure frorn the flange
:l>rough ,he wc;b to the opposite flange. Thc large iocaliz.ed "tbru-thickness" strain may
r ,:ceed tht yield pOÌLlt strain, cansing decohesion and leading to a lamellar tear.
Figure 2. 10.2 shows conditions that promme lamel\ar rearing in welded joints. Inter-
naljoint restraint tbat inhibits !arge strains E resulting fro:n we ld shrinkage can potentially
cause lamelìar tearing. Figure 2.10.3 indicares weld shrinkage in rhe "thru-thickness' '
direction, increasing susceptibility to lamellar tea1i11g. The weld detail should be made
such that weld shrinkage occurs in the rolling direcrion so diat the shrinkage pulls on the
fibers longitudinally in their strongesr orientation. References 2.36 and 2.39 ~uggest ways
of avoiding the p.roblem.
2.11 FATIGUE STRENGTH

Repeated loading and unloading, primarily in tension, may eventually result in fai Iure even
if the yield stress is never exceeded. The tennfatigue rneans failure under cyclic loading. lt
is a progressive failure, the final stage of which is unstable crack propagation. The fatigue
strength is govemed by three variables: ( l) the number of cycles of loading, (2) the range
of service load stress (the difference between the maximum and minimum stress), and (3)
the initial size of a flaw. A tlaw is a discontinuity, such as an extremely small crack.
In we lded assemblies, a flaw could be the ·'notch" intersection of two elements or a
"discontinuity" such as a boli hole. Flaws may be the result of poorly made wclds, rough
I
' I
\ I
\ I
Susa·r• ibk del ail Jmproved dctatl
' I
'
S1J,::cl:pl1bl~ delJÌ! lmpro.,.·ed de.tail
(b)
Figure 2.10.3
Susceptibility 10 lamclla.r 1ear-
ing can be reduced by carefu I Jmprovcd ddail
--u--
delailing of welde<l connec-
tion~. (From Ref. 2.36} (c J
cdges nc:!,ul1 ing frorn sheari11g, punching, or flame cutting, or small holes. Sue!, tlaws may
be o f no concern : how<"v,;r, trnder many cycles of loading the flaw (notch dfccl.J may give
rise to a crack that in::reases in length with each cycle of load and reduces the section car-
rying rhe Joiid, ('.ùnscquently incrcasing rhc stress intensity on lhe uncracked part, The
fatigue strc.n~,h ìs mon: depenòent oo the localized state of stress than i~ thc ~tatic strength.
Fatigue is always a service load consideration; lhe actual service load state of stress is what
detcrmines crack propagation.
The gradc of steel has no apparent affcct on the number of cycles tl> fai Iure, and the
effect of minimum stress (attributable lo dead load) ìs considered lo be negligible for
desìgn purposes. On the other hand, the specimen geometry, including lhe smface condi-
tion and internal soundness of the weld, bave a significant effect. These factors are
reflected in the Structural Wdding Code f2.23J rules for welded struct11re design.
Work by Zuraski and Johnson [2.40] evaluating the remaining life in steel bridges
has shown that under certain conditions repeated stressing in steel sections can actually
increase their fatigue !ife. The phenomenon, known as coaxing, was first studied by Sin·
clair (2.41] and results from repeatedly stressing near, but below, the fatigue limit and
gradually increasing the stress.
The AISC Spec/fication [ I .13) in Appendix 3 prescribes no fatìgue effect for fewer
!han 20,000 cycles, which is approximately two applìcations a day for 25 years. Since most
loadings in buildings are in that category, fatigue is generally not considered. Thc excep-
tions are crane-runway girders and structures supporting machinery. Fatigue is a)ways con-
sidered in the design of hìghway bridges, which are expected to have in excess of 100.000
cycles of loading.
Volume I of the We/ding Handbook 12.2 l l shows severa! good examples of the
fatìgue relationships for welded plate girders and cover-plated beams, Extended discussion
of fatigue is given by Barsom and Rolfe [2.27].
5
Section 2.12 Corrosion Resistance and Weathering Steels •
l . !2 cORROSION RESISTANCE AND WEATHERJNG STEELS

~ e 1hc .:arliesl uses of slcel, onc of ils imporumt Jrawbacks wa, thai painting was
· · 1· h Ib s1·on (rus1jng·) The lower-strerH!.lh
r,·quired IO prew,111 1he de1enorallon o t e meta Ycorro. · ·. . -
c;trbon stcds were inexpen~ive bul very vulnerable to cotTosion. Corroston res1s_tance may
be improved by 1he addilion of copper as a11 alloy clemenl. However. copper-beanng carbon
ste:d isHigh-slrenglh
100 expensive for generai use.
low-alloy stet'I, have severnl times [2.43] the corrosion resistance of
s1ruc-tural carbon s1ecl, wilh or withoul lhe addition of copper. as shown in Fig. 2.12.1. Thc
high-stre.ngth low-alloy steels do nol pit as severely as carbon steels an<l the rust that forms
be.:omcs a pro1ective coating IO prevenc fu11ber deterioration. With certain alloy cle ments
thc high-strength luw-a\loy steel wi!l develop an oxide protectìve coaiing that is pleasing in
appearancc: and is described as follows*: " lt is a very den~e conosion- actualiy a deeply
co!ored brown, red, purple.... Jr h<1s a 1cxture and color whìch cannoi be reproduced ani-
ficially- a ch,tracier only nalure can give, as with swnc, .marble, and gr an ite:· \Vhen steels
are IO be unpaìnted and lcft exposed they are calle.ti weathering steels.
As might be expectcd, 1be corrosion properties of any steel. including tbe w.:athering
steels, are dependcnt on the chcrnical composition, tbe degree o [ poilutJOn in the atmo,-
phere, and the fre4uency of wening and drying of the steel.
_Since _its fu·st major i:se in 1958, for rhe Administrative Ccntcc kr Deere t ("oin-
~any III Molrne. lllinois, the use of weatheling stecl bas received cvn~iderable :::t.~r,tio;,- ~i
, such
first . .stee!~
. were .specified under ASTM A242. \,· h.1c·h as . prevwush, . ,.
,,1.:tù~~td i-" ·· n
gcnein1/ ilowrng a w,de variation in chemistry. · · ' •
\\ ith lhe adoption of A588 ~teel in 1969 and A709.
obsolete. A588 is "en . ·, - . .·
• -, ,, 1, .
. m l9?:i ,-\_"'2 n;-,,; t::,$-~nt1aily
,
~
and IOOW f . , _<..I ~r.ilty use~ tor v,c:Jth.:rmg ~tee! m buildlngs cr.d />,ilY<) Gr::,j.?'- '-lì\"
. OJ\\ea1 ienng ,teel m bndge< (,.~e Tabk: 2.L2). . -
d ~ _ ." ·
FabncatJon and erec u·on of weath-cnn., steel · . 1 .. .
scratcbecS. and dents should be
. . , .
requU"es 1..arc. Jns1g,•tl" gcun,·
avc>,cIe . i-·aimmg e, ·en f' 'd 'fi . . . ~
m1zed, smce ali marks n1ust b . - . -1 f
. · e 1cmovel a t" cte
, ,
· or .1. enll IL<ll!fH1 _,,,)ul('. I'<'· r.'\.i~•-
·' "·
oratron from welding also must be removed~.T~ erect1on ,s ccrnpletccl <;;,;aJ.c an!! di,c.1!-
and erectmn is offset by the elirnination of .' . e e~tra ex~nse resu1tm1• i rom f:.:r-11c-.;:·ti0n
Th . pamtmg at mterva.ls d ' h 1-- •
e pract1ce of using weatherino ,teels i ,. ' . unng' e ih: o• tht' slru~:un:
has been summarized by Coburn [2.421 wh , nc!,1dmg the resu!ts of 30 years expericnc·e.
. o pre~enh the follow in,• '·ru· ...
1. For opti . e 1es ,
boldl . mum perlormancc: in the un )aimed ..
y exposed to the elements. I cond1t1on, the struc!ure shoul<l be
,g Struttur~tl C{1rbou , t~cl

5
'O A
'U -~
~
~
= '
e«, "·
t: ~
~ ~
Figure 2.12. I
..,'( -~~ S1n11:turat carhor, "le,~t
~~
·-
wi1h coppe,
Comparative corrosioo of ~
stcels in an industriai ::.

20
~ Cr - Si - C\i - P 1tcc!
acmosphere. Shaded areas I.O (high-, 1rcng1h, lo" -alloy •
indicate range for individuai
specimens. (Adapced from
Ref. 2.43) I 2 3 4 ~ 6 7 8 9 10
Time. yl!ar.s
• Architec1,mt/ Record, Augu,1 1962.

. · fil is best achievcd under normai expo.

2. The development of the protective o.xi de I m ' . · d d dun· ,1g d·iylight h
· b d ~ rmat1on an ry dl
sure. wherein the surfaces are wet at 111ght Y ew O
' f. - ours
·
h the s1eel regar esso 1ts gradc is
3. Because this wet-dry cycle cannot occur w_ en .d ·1'1 t t·orm a nd the pe f . .
· m
buned · the s01l
· or tmmersed
· ·m water, th e protect1ve ox1 e w1 no d' . .. r or-
mance will resemble that of mild carbon steel exposed to the same con mon,.
SELECTED REFERENCES
36M-04a) Wesi Conshohocken. PA: Ameri.
2.1. ASTM. Standard Speciftcatio11jor Strucwral Stee/ ( A36/A ·
can Socielv for Testing and Ma1erials. 2004.
, · k d H 1 o· ped Zi11c-Coated Welded cm d Seam-
2.2. ASTM. Stanàard Specifica1io11/or P1pe, Su,e/. 8/ac on °·_ 'P '-i; . " d M·t
3 11
al l002
less (A53/A53M-02). Wes, Conshohocken. PA: American Soc,eiy for e 5 un" an ; ·, ~- •
2.3. ASTM. Stam/,,,tl Specifia,tinnjor High-Strength Low-Alloy _Sm1c111ral Sue/ (A 2421 A- 42 '• 04). Wes1
Conshohocken. PA: American Socie1y for Tes1ing and Ma1enals. 2004.
2.4. ASTM. Standard Specificatio,rfor Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs. 60 000 psi Tensile Stre•i;;tr (A307-03).
West C0t1shohocken. PA: American Society for Tes1ing and Matenals. 2003.
2.5. ASTM. Stm,dard Specificatio,rfor Struc111ra/ Bolts. Sue/, Hea1 Trented, 1201105 ksi M i,:,;,,/.?: Tensile
Strength (A325-04b), Wesi Conshohocken. PA: Amcrican Sodety for Tesong and Makn.,,,. '2004.
2.6. ASTM. S1,mdard Speclf;('(lfionfnr Quenched ,mt! Te11111aed Steel Boli.< m,,1 S11,ds 1A<l-l'l ') West
Conshohocken. Pk A.,;1erican Socie1y for Testing ,md Matcrials. 2004.
2.7. ASTM. S1<1J1'!111rJ Specijìcatio,r Jor Heat-heatetl Stul Str11c111ral Bolts, 150 ksi Mi11ìmu:n, '' '/ile
S1re,ig1h (A490-04): also SpNijìcatio11 /ot High-Stw11;1h Steel Bolts, Cl~sses 10.9 ""1/,;~
1uml Steel Jomts /Metric] \A490M-04). West Conshohocken. PA: Amencan Soc1e1y .or "fr,•ing and
·/or S1r11c-
Materiai,. 2004.
2.8. ASTM. Stand,ml Specificotionfor Cold-Formed Welded a11d Scmnless Ct1rb_on Steel S:r'.tdrtral Tubing
in Ro11nds rmd Shnpes (A500-03a). We si Conshohocken. PA: Amencan Soctety for Tci un:· ~nd
Materials. 2003.
2.9. ASTM. Standard Speciftcarion for Hot-Formed Welded a11d Scamless Carbo11 Sred Stm c.,,•ul Tubing
(AS0l-01 ). West Conshohocken, PA: Amerìcan Soèiety for Testìng and Mat.crials, 2001.
2.10. ASTM. Standard Specificatio11/or Higlr-Yield S1re11gth. Quenched 011d Tempered Alloy Sreel Plme, S1,i1-
able /or Weldi11g (A514/A514M-00a). Wesc Conshohocken. PA: American Socie1y for Tcs11ng a11d
Materiai,, 2000.
2.11. ASTM. Sta11dard Speci/icatio1J /or High-Smmgth Carbon-Ma11ganeu Steel of Stmctural Quality
(A529/A529M-05). West Conshohocken. PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 2005.
2.12. ASTM. Stm,dard Specificarionfor High-Srrenf?lh Lmv-Alloy Co/11mbi11m-Va,wdi11111 Sreels of Strnc-
tural Qua/il)• (A572/A572M-04). West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and
Materiai,. 2004.
2. 13. ASTM. Standard Speciftcarionfor High-Stre11g1h Lnw-Alfoy Structuml Steel wir/1 50 bi /345 MPa/
Minimum Yield Poim to 4 in. f /00 mm/ Thick (A588/A588M-04). West Conshohocken, PA: American
Society for Testìng and Ma1erìals, 2004.
2.14. ASTM. Srandard Speciftcarion for S1ee/, Shu1 and SrriJ>. Higlt-S1re11gth, Low-Alloy. Hor-Rolled and
Cold-Rolled, with Tmproved Atmospheric Corrosio11 Resis1a1rce (A606-04). West Conshohocken. PA:
Amerìcan Society for Testing and Materiai,. 2004.
2.15. ASTM. Standard Speciftcationfor Hot-Fornu,d We/ded and Seamle.,s High-Srre11gih Low-Alloy Sm,c-
tural Tubi11g (A618/A618M-04). West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and Malerìals.
2004.
2. 16. ASTM. Standard Speciftcationfor Sm,ctural Steel fnr Bridges (A700/A 709M-04). West Conshohocken.
PA: American Society for Testing and Materials, 2 004.
2.17. ASTM. Sta11danl Specificationfor Quenched ami Tempcred Low-Alloy Structura/ Stee/ Pinte wiJh 70 ksi
/485 MPa! Minìm~m Yield Stm1gth to 4 i11. I J()() mm} Thick (A852/A852M-03). West Conshohocken,
PA: Amencan Soc,ety for Tesung and Materials. 2003.
2.18. AS~ . Stund~rd Speciftcationfor Structura/ Stee/ Shapes (A992/A992M-04). West Conshohocken. PA:
Amencan Soc1ety for Tesung and Materials. 2004.
2.19. ASTM ~tandard Specification /or _Stee/, Sl,eet. Cold-Rolled, Carbon, Stmctuml. 1/ìgh-Strmgth U1".
Alloy, H1gh-Strength low-Alloy w11h lmproved Formabili!)', Solution Hardened, a,rd Bake Hanlenablr
( Al008/Al008M-05b): Wes_t Co_nshohocken. PA: American Society forTestìng and Materials. 2005.
2.20. ASTM. Standard Specificatwnjor Steel. Sl,eer and Strip Hot Rolled
, _ , Ali . dH' h S , .. . •
b e S H' I
, or 011, tructumI, I!/,. 11t'11g
th s
....,., - oy an 1g · tre11_g1h u,w:Alloy wrr/1 Tmpnwed Formnbiliti• (A IoI I/A Io11 M-04) w
Conshohocken, PA: Amencan Soc,ety for Testing :md Materials, 2004 _ e,l ·
2.21.
Selected References
• 57
AWS IVeldi,1 H
\'o/ ~ a11dbook WHB 1 .,
N "':'<' 2. We/di,ig Prore« . ,- .8 Rev 8 cd .. Volwne I We[d·
. V.·. uJeunc Rùad PO ;s. • 004 revision. Miami FI. A _111g Tec/1110/og,· (AWS WHB-1 81 2001
2.22. Re~àrch C'ouncil 's· . ox 351040. Mìam1. FL 33135) mencan Wclding Society. 1987, 1991: (5S0 •
IIS7M A on · iructural Con . · ·
· 325 ur i\490 Bolt, Ch·. nccuons. Commenta')• on S 'fi. .
22) AWS..•S·11w.·111ra/ \\I ·/d· ·C· icago· . .
Ame · pecr callon,jor
ncan 1nstitute of Steel C .
Struc1ura1loint, Using
Dl.1--0-1). Miami Fl._."l o_,le-S1eel. Nineteenth Edition Effe t'on~ucuon, lune 8, 1988.
2.24. R. L. Bro,:kenb . l . mencan Welding Society. 2004 ' e ,ve ecember 30, 2003 (ANSI/AWS
. . roug 1 and B. G J ·
poration. 1968. (Chap. I ). . ohnston. Sreel Design Ma,1ua/. Pi11sburgh PA' U .
2.25. S. T. Rolfe "Fr • · · 1llled States Stcel Cor-
· acturc and Fatigu C .
Quancr 1977) 2- I s e ontml rn Sreel Strucrures .. E . .
K . .. . ngrneermg Jnurnal, AISC. 14 I (1
2 26. . A. Godfrev, Jr. "H' h s ' SI
J h M · ig
2 27. o n . Barsom and S1anley T R 11· lrength Steel: C1i~is or N .,.. e- · .
o. ' ivi/ Engmeering, May 1985 5(}...53
111,c Mec/1 · 1 · 0 e. Frt1ct11re and Far'
m11c.1. ~nd ed. Englewood Cl' ff N
e . '
. ,gue ontro/ 111 S1,uc111res Applica,·
· ., F
2 28. lohn M. Barsom "M· t . I C . . i s, ew Jersey: Preniice-Hall !ne. 1987 ,ons n, rac-
• i a ena ons1derat· . S . • ' .
- . .. .
"'Il Cori}ern1a & e, f · ,ons 10 • tructural Steel Design" p 4. .
lion. Aprii 29--May ~\~;;e~ '; ~peroh1i11g Persum,e/. Chicago: Ame~lca;~~:ti::~~~~:~:7~ Erigineer-
1
2.29. J. M . Bars· om. ..Matcnal -·. • • roug 1-15.
Considerations i s . ..
onstruc-
<3rd Quancr 1987), l.!ì- 139. Il tructural Steel Design, E11gineeri11gJourna/. AISC, 24,3
2..30. lohn C. Bi11c-nce ·'In B· · ·
. · e a~ics ot Heat Trc:.ting- Wh· t ·1 D . H ·
'11ac1une Dni1111, lunuaT)' ..,4 197·' l'"- ., ' oe,- ow Il Works- Where lo Specify it"
• · ... vu- 1 I I· February 7 1974 117 12 1 '
2..31. A Prime, <>11 Rri11/c Frac111re Bo >kl ' ' • - ·
hem, PA. · ' et 1960· A. Sieel Design File, Be1hlchem Steel Corporation, Bcthle-
John W. Fì,her aml Alan W. Pense. "Ex

Joumal. AISC. 24, 2 \ ~nd Quaner 198r~;~;;_w11h
. . . . . .
Use ot Heavy W Shapes tn Tension," Engineeri111:
2.33. "The U"~ of Jumbo Shapes in N I · . ..
ler 19861. 96. on-eo umn AppbcatJons. Engineering Journal. AISC, 23, 3 (3rd Quar-
"U,e of Mea, y Structural Shape,- ·i~ ~ension

TB-J p B ' lhl •h ' S I C
· r . ..
App icauons Co11strucrion Marke1ing Techn;cal Bulle,;n
•· e e cm. ree orporallon, June 1992.
E..
\V. J. · · •1nd R· O · Stciut · "A n E.v,al uauon
Id·Kaufm~n ' A · W · Pen,e 0 · of Factors Signiflcant lo Lamellar Tearing
e lllg Jo1m111/. 60. March 1981. Research Supplement, 43s-49s. '
2.36. "Commen1;1ry on Highly Restrained Welded Connectìons," Engineering )flurna/ AISC 10 3 (3rd Qu· .
ter!973l.61- 73. ' • ' ar
2.37. Char!eç H. Thomto n. "Qualìty Contro! in Design and Supervision Can Eliminale Lamellar Tearing,"
Engmeem1g Jounwl. AISC. IO, 4 (4th Quaner 1973), 112-116.
2.38. E. Holby and J. F. Smith. "Lamellar Tearing: The Problem Nobody Seems to Want to Talk About."
\Veldil,g Jo11mal, 59, February 1980. 37-44.
2.39. "Causcs and Prevention of Lamellar Tearing.~ Civil Engineering, Aprii, 1982, 74-75,
2.40. P. D. Zuraski and J. E. Johnson. "Research on the Remaining Life in Steel Bridges," Proceedings, ASCE
Specìalty Coriferr:11a mi Probabi/ìstic Mechanics and Strucrura/ Relìability. Berkeley. CA: January
11-13.1984. 414-418.
2.41. G. M . Sinclair. "An [nvestigation of the Coaxing Effect in Fatigue of Metals," Proceedings, ASTM. S2
(I 952). 743- 758.
Sevmour Coburn. "Theorv and Practice in Use of Weathering Steels." Proceedings. Narìona/ Engineer-
2.42.
i11g Conference & Confe.-~11ce of Opera1i11g Personnel. Chicago: American lnslitute of Steel Construc-
tion, Aprii 29- May 2. 1987, 14-1 through 14-25.
c. P. Larrabee. "Corrosion Resistance of Hìgh-Sr:rength Low-Alloy Steels as lntluenced by Composition
2.43.
and Environmcnt." Cormsion, 9, August 1953, 259-271.
ASTM. Standard SpecificarioJJ for High-Strength Lmv-Alloy Steel Shapes of Sm,ctural Quality, Pro-
2.44. dr,ced by Quenchi11g and Selj-Tempering Process (QST) (A9131A913M-93). West Conshohocken. PA:
American Society for Te.sting and Materials, 1993.
3.1 INTRODUCTJON
Tension members are encountered in mosl steel structures. The.y occm ar. principal struc.
turni members in bridge and roof trusses, in trus~ structures s uch as tr,-iismi.ssion tower~
and wind bracing systems in multistoried buildings. They frequently a~pcar as tie rods to
stiffen a t:russed floor system or to provide intermediate support for a wall girt system.
Tension mernbers may consist of a single structural shape or they rnay b,: built up from a
number of srmctural sbapes. The cross-sections of some t ypical wm.i n rnembers are
sh()wn in Pig. 3.1.1.
.J
• L _JL
Doublc angle
r
S11,rred
Round Flal bar Angle
bar anglc
[ ][ I I
Channel Double Laniced W-section S-seclion
channel channels (wide-nange) (Amencan
Slandard)
Figure 3. I. I
Cross-section of rypical
iension members.
n- l~I
-
Built-up box section•
58
Section 3,2 Nominai Strength • 59
S1ruc1ural s1cel fr:unewo1-i.: 1 · d.. n .

, . W1th
lrus~ . tcns 1011
. rods. (Phmo a m1ern1c 1.11e oor leve l. Tius leve! suspended Erom roof space
by C. G. Salmon)
3.2 NOMTNAL STRENGTH
The stri.'ngth of a tension member may be described in tenn~ of the "limit states" that gov-
ern. The controlling strength limil st:1te fora tension member wi\l beone of the following:
(a) yielding of the grnss cross-section of the membcr away from the connection. (b) frac-
ture of the effectivc net area (i.e., through the hoks) al thc connectìon [3.1 ], or (e) block
~he,11· fo1cture through the bolt hok, at the connection.
When lhe lìmit state is generai yielding of the gross section over the me.mber length,
typificd by a tension member without holes (i.e .. with welded connections). lhe nominai
strength T n may be expressed
(3.2.1)
where F_,. = yield stress
A~ = gross cross-sectional area
For tensìon members having holes..~uch as for bolts, the reduced c~>ss-section ,is
referred to as the net area. Holes in a member cause stress concentr~tions at scrv1ce load ~s, tor
example. shown in Fig. 3.2.1 a. Theory of elasticity shows that tensile stress adJacent to a hole
,-[$1-' - f av~ ()Il net s:ccrlon

--
1~
1 f m» "" 3/~,c
FÌ!?Ufl' J.:!. I
Strei.i. dii.uibutiùn with holes (b) N1Jrmnal , trr ngth conditilln
presene.
60 • Chapter 3 Tension Members
h I area However. as each tiber reaches yield

wìll be about three times tbe average stress on I e ne F. 'th deformation continuing w· h
.· _ . /E · th b mesa constant :r• wi
.-tram tEy - f ,. ., • 1ts stress en eco .
. . , 1t
eeded the stram l!E , (F1g. 3.2.1 b)
. . I -;, ·1 t- Il ali fibe have ach1eved or exc . .
mcrea5mg o,tu unu ma Y rs . . · in a fracture throu"h h
· · 1· I 1·17ed vieldmg resu1nn., 0
o t e
When che ltmlt state s a oca · , h ·nal stren<>th T 1nay b
effecrive net area of a tens1on . membcr havme · o holes• t e no011 , · e " e
expressed
T., = F11 Ae (3.2.2)
where F,, specified minimum tensile strength (see Fìg. 2 -1-1l

=
A e = effective net area = V A,. (see Secs. 3.4 and 3.S)
A,, = net area
V = reduction coefficient (an efficiency factor)
Because o f srrmn · hanemng,

l · that is. , 1he rise
· in resistance when the tensile strain
.
bècomes large (Sec. 2.4), the actual suength of a ductile mcmb~r may exceed _rhat 1ndi-
cated by Eq. 3.2. 1 f.3.1 J. Howevcr, the large elongations re,;ultJJlg from yieldmg of the
member along its entire length may cause the member ends 10 ~O~'e unacceptably far ~pan
and distress the structure: thus. the member no longer serves 1ts mtended purpose. Enher
unrestraìned yieldi ng or frncture through reduced section a~ h~les may lirnit t'h e structural
usefulness of thc rnember. Traditiona)ly, a higher margin ot satety has be..:n u~ed m design
when considering the fracrure Limit state than for the yìelding limit stm,·.
3.3 NET AREA
Whenever a tension member is to be fastened by means of bolts or rivels, holes must be

provided at the connection. As a result. the member cross-sectional area at the connection
is re<luced and the strength of the member may also be reduced depending on the size and
location of !he holes.
Several rnethods are used to cut holes. The rnosr common and least expensive
method is to punch standard holes ~ in. ( 1.6 mm) larger than the diametcr of the rivet or
bolt. In generai, the plate thickness is less than the punch diameter. During che punching
opcration. the metal at che edge of the hole is damaged. This is accounted for in design by
assurning that the exrent of the damage is limited to a radiai distance of in. (0.8 mm) TI
around thc hole. Therefore the tolal width to be deducted (AISC-D3.2) is to be taken as the
nominai dimension of the ho/e normai to the direction of applied load plus i~ in. (1.6 mm).
For fasteners in standard holes, the tota! deduction is equa) to the fastener diameter plus
iin. (3.2 mm).
A sccond method of cutting holes consists of subpunching them in. (4.8 mm) f6
diametcr undersize and then reaming the holes to the finished size after the pieces being
joined are assembled. This rnethod is more ex:pensive than that of punching standard
holes but does offer the advantage of accmate alignment. This method and the next
mcthod produce better strength, both static and fatigue, but this is ignored in design pro·
cedures.
A third _method c~nsists of drilling holes to a diameter of the bolt or r.ivet plu~ in. k
(0.8 mm). Th1s method 1s used to join thick pieces, and is the most expensivc of rhe com·
mon methods.
When greater latitude is needed in meeting dìmensional tolerances during erecrion.
!
larger than srandard_holes can be used with high strength bolts in. diameter ancl J~·ger with-
out adversely affectmg the pe~formance. The maximum sizes for ovasi:ed. shorr-slotuil
and lonl(-slotted holes are spec1fied in AISC-13.2.
Section 3.4 Effeet of Staggered Holes on Net Area • 61
EXAMPLE 3.3.1
What is the net are A f h .

a n or t e tens1on member shown in Fig. 3.3. l '!
Figure 3.3. 1
Pinte..!._ X 4
4
Sland i hole fora ¾· in.-diam boll
Tcnsion rnernber fot_·
Exa111ple 3.3. 1. d J-1
Sol11tùm:
A8 = 4(0.25) = 1.0 sq in.
Width to be deducted for ho\e = 14 + 8l = 28 ,·n·

A,. = Ag - ( widrh for hole )( thìckness of plate)
= I.O - 0.875 (0.25) == 0.78 sq in.

•
_3._1_ EFF:'(~T
_ or STAGGEREO HOLES ON NET AREA
:Vhe1~eve~ there is more than one hole and the holes are nor lined up transverse to the load-
mg d1rect10n, more than one potencial failure line may exist. The controlling failure line ìs
chat which gives the largest stress on an effective net area. In many cases, the criticai faìl-
ure path is also the path that has the minimum net arca.
ln Fig. 3.4. la the failure line is along the section A-B. In Fig. 3.4. lb showing two
lines of staggered holes. the fai Iure line might be through one hole (section A-B) or it might
be along a diagonal path, A-C. At first glance one might think section A-B is criticai since
rhe path A-B is obviously shorter than path A- C. However, from path A-B, only one hole
would be deducted while two holes would have to be deducted from path A-C. In order to
determine the controlling secrion, both pa1hs A- B and A-C must be investigated. Accurate
check.ing of strength along path A-Ci., complex. However, a simplìfied empirica] relation-
ship proposed by Cochrane [3.21 has been adopted by AISC-D3.2 to account for the differ-
ence between the path A-C and che path A-B, expressed as a length correction,
s2
4g
where s is the stagger, or spacing of adjacent holes parallel to the loading dìrection (see
Fig. 3.4.1 ), and g is the gage d.istance transverse to the Joading direction. Thus the net
A
A
Q -r
r-
~
r- -T
B
Figure3.4.I (bi
Palhi of failure on net sec1ion. (al
lengths of pa!hs A-8 and A-C would be

Nel length of A-8 = lenglh of ( A-8) - ( width of hole + ft in.)
.,.2
NetlengthofA-C = Jengthof(A-B) - 2(widthofhole + ftin.) + 4g
Tue minimum net area would then be determined from the minimum oet length muJ.
tiplied by the thickness of lhe plate.
In the years since Cochrane proposed the simple s2 / 4g ex?ression, many investiga.
tors have proposed other rules [3.3-3.6) but none of them gives s1gmficantly better results,
and ali are more complicated.
Consistent wirh the aeneral trend toward using strength-related design approaches
the work of Bijlaard (J.7{'and others [3.8-3.10) has provided limit analysis theories 1~
2
obtain net area ìn tension. These theories do not deviate from the s /4g mcthcd by more
than 10 to 15 percent.
The reader is refe1Ted to McGuire [3.11] fora more complete covcrngc of this sub.
ject of net section through staggered lines of fasteners.
EXAMPLE 3.4.1
Determine the minimum net area of the plate shown in Fig. 3.4.2, assuminiz ft-in.-diarn
holes are located as shown.
Solutio11:
f ~cording to AISC-DJ.2, the width used in deducling for holes is the hole Jhrncter plus
16 tn., and the staggered Jength correction is s 2 / 4g.
Path AD (two holes):
[12 - 2C: + 1~) Jo.25 = 2.50 sq in.

Path ABD (three holes: two staggers):
[
12 - 3(!2 + ..!_) + (2.125)2 (2.125)
2
]
= 2.43 sq in.
16 16 4(2.5) + 4 (4 ) 0.25
Path ABC (three holes; two Slaggers):
[
12 - 3(!2 + _!_) + (2.125)2 + ( l.875) ]
2
= 2.42 sq in.
16 16 4(2.5) 4 (4 ) 0.25
(controls)
I"
4 li.. (A36)
Fi1ure 3.4.2
- T
EumpJe3.4.I.
I
Section 3.4 Effect of Staggered Holes on Net Area • 63
Angles
When holes are staggered on two legs of an angle, the gage lenglh g for use in the s2 / 4g
expression is obtained by using a length between the centers of the holes measurcd along
the cenlerline of the angle thickness, i.e., che distance A-B in Fig. 3.4.3. Thus the gage dis-
tance g is
(3.4.1)
Every rolled angle has a standard value forche location of holes (i.e., gage distances
g 0 and gb), depending on the lenglh of the Jeg and 1he number of lines of holes. Table 3.4.1
shows usual gages for angles as lìsted in the ATSC Manua/*.
(i,of anglc
Figure 3.4.3
Gage dimensions for an
angle.
TABLE 3.4.1 Usual Gages* for Angles, lnches (From AISC Manual 1"ì
Leg 8 7 6 5 4 3.!.2 3 212 2 1~ 112 1 ~8 11

• •
•
l
g, 412 4 3!2 3 21
'
2 11
• \1 Il 7
i 'i
82 3 212 21
• 2 ' '
g3 3 3 212 11
•
*Other gages are pennìtted 10 suit specific requirements subject to clearances and edge distance lim-
itations.
t,,.JSC Monual [1.15}, p. 1-46
*AISC Manual (1.15]. p. 1---46

64 • Chapter 3
EXAMPLE 3.4.2
-
Tension Members
..
Determine the net a.rea An for the angle given in Fig. 3 ·4 ·4 if J¾-in.-diam holes are u~.
I •
L6 X.~ X
2 ( Ll52 X 102 X 12.7) _ _ __ _ _ __
-...__- - 1
Figure 3.4.4
Examp!e 3.4.2. ~iegs ~nd !hickness in mm
Solution:
For l!ec are.i r:alcuiation the angle may be visualized as being flattened ìnto a platc 11
~hown in Fig. 3.4.5:
..., s2
A,, = Ag - ~ Dt + Ì: --
4g
t
wherc l> is the ,,.,idth te be deducted for the hole.

?'1tt: ,1C :
4.75 - 2C! + / )o.5 = 3.75 sq in.

6
PaihABC:
15 l ) [ (3)
2
(3)
2
l .
4.75 - 3(
16 + 16 0.5 + ( _)
4 25
+ 4 ( 4 _25 )j0.5 = 3.96 sq m.
Since che smallest A,, is 3.75 sq in., that value governs.
A 6" leg
Figure 3.4.S
..,....
AaaJe (o, Example 3.4.2 wilh
. . lbown ''flaaeaed" imo
Section 3.5 Effective Net Area • 65
3.5 EFFECTrVE NET AREA

The net area as computed in Secs. 3.3 and 3.4 gives the reduced section that resists tension
bui .~liii may not correctly rcflect the strength. That is particularly trne whcn the t.ension
member has a profile consisting of elements not in a common piane and where the tensile
load is transmitted at che end of the member by connection lo some but not ali of the ele-
ments. An angle section having connection to one leg only is an example of such a ~itua-
tion. For such cases the tensile force is not uniformly distributed over the net area.
AISC-D3.3 provides that the effective 11et orea A,. be computed as
A,= VA,, (3.5. l l
where U =e reduction coefficient

A,, = net area
The above equation logically applìes for l>oth fastener connections having holes and
for welded connections. For welded connections, the net area equals the gross arca A g
since there are no holes.
When a tensile load is applied eccentrically 10 a wide plate. the stress di stribution
across the width of the plate is nonuniform. The mechanism by which stress gets transmit-
ted from the location of thc applied load to sections distane from ù1e load is by shear
stresses acting in the piane of 1he plate. The fact thai the stress is lower the farther the loca-
tion is from the applied load mean~ that the shear transfer ··1ags·· or is inefficient. Thus. 1he
nonuniformity of stress in wide plates or plate elements of rolled sections when a tensile
load is applied nonuniformly. is rcferred to as ··shear la.g··.
For bolted co1111ecrio11s. the reduction coeflicient U. the shear lag factor, relates lo the
eccentricity x of loading in the connection. Whenever tension is transmitted through some
but not al! of the cross-se.ctional elements, AlSC-'fable D3.1. Case 2. inclicates the followiog
shall be used forali tension members except plates and HSS (hollow structural sections),
X
U = I - - ::5 0.9 (3.5.2)
L
where x = distance from centroid of elernent being connected eccentrically lo piane of

load lransfer (see Fig. 3.5.1 and also AISC Commentary Figs. C-D3.J for
added guidance to detennine x.)
L = length of connection in the direction of loading
Eguation 3.5.2 is based on the work of Munse and Chesson f3.9) and correlates within
± 10% of tests [3.IJ. A review of shear lag resean:h for both bolted and welded connec-
tions, along with design recommendations is provided by Easrerling and Girou x (3. 16]. In
addition to the reduction in strength due to shear lag, the efficiency of the fasteners is
reduced in long (in the load direction) connections, as discussed in Chapter 4, where
derailed treatment of bolted tension members occurs.
The approximate values of U (used prior to the 1993 LRFD Specification) for bolted
connections to I-shaped sections, channels. and angles, are stili considered acceptable, and
have been moved from the Commentary to AISC Table 03.1, Cases 7 and 8. Use of the
larger of the ''exact" and approximate vales is perm.itted.
For short tension members (connecting elements), such as splice and gusset plates,
wherc the elements of the cross-section lie essentially in a common piane, the effective net
arca is taken equa) to An, but may not exceed 85% of the gross area Ag (AJSC-J4. I). Te-.ts
f3. J ) have shown that when any holes are present in uch short elemems where genernl
66 • Chapler 3 Tension Members
.~--· Gussc..~1 platt:
C.G. of >nj!le
~,,L----~~
+·-
/
- - !-' -'•
(b)
(a)
Gussd pla<es
_.,.,..,.·
Figure 3.5.l
Eccentricity in joints;
determination of x for
computing V. Eq. J.5.2. (<)
yielding on the gross section cannol occur, there will be at least 15% reduction in slrength
from that obtained ba~ed on yielding of lhe gross section.
For wdded tension connections, there are three categories:
1. Load transmined by longitudinal welds, or by longitudinal welds in combination
with transverse welds (AJSC Table D3.1, Case 2)
Ae = UAn = UAg (353)
2. Load transmitted only to transverse welds:
A,= UA,, = Acon (3.5.4)
where Acon = area of directly connected elements. In this case, the shear lag effect is
approximated indirectly by using the reduced area Accm .
3. Load transmined to a plate by longitudinal welds along both sides of the plate
spaced apart such lhat e ;: : : w
(3.5.5)
Section 3.5 Effective Net Area • 67
where e= lengrh of weld

w = distance between longitudinal welds (i.e., plate width)
U = 1.00 For t 2: 2w
= 0.87 For 2w > e 2: 1.5w
= 0.75 For 1.5w > C 2: W
Welded connecticms for tension members are treated in Chapter 5 on welding.
EXAMPLE 3.5.1
Determine the reduction factor U ro be applied in compuring the effective net area for a
Wl4X82 section connected by plates at its two flanges, as shown in Fig. 3.5.2. There are
three bolts along along each connection line.
Solution:
In this case, two elements (the nanges) of the cross-section are connected but onc (the
web) is not connected. 111 accordance with Eq. 3.5.1, there is reduced efficiency of carrying
load. The reduction factor V must be computed using Eq. 3.5.2. Because each flange. con-
nection can be thoughi of as a load on the tributary portion of the W shapc, Lhe section may
be treated as two structural tees, as in Fig. 3.5. l c. Thc half W shape conesponds to a struc-
tural tee WT7X41, whose centroidal distance x is given by the AISC Ma111wl as l.39 in.
The length eof the connection is 6 in. Thus. Eq. 3.5.2 gives
1.39
U = 1- - = 0.77
6.0
According to AISC Table D3.1. Case 7. W, M , or S shapes having flaog;, wid; hs net
Iess than two-thirds of the depth, ancl s tructural rees cut from these sbapes, U = 1).90 when
there are at least three fasteners per iinc in the direction of stress. For this exampk,
bf tlange width 10. 13

--··-- = 0.71 > 0.67 OK
d section depth 14 .3]
Thus, the reduction factor U could be taken as 0 .90.
X for WT = 1.39'"
IO. I 3"'
u j.....---- Shaded ponion

_,,,...,.- , equivalent 10
---- WT7 X4\
- 14_)\'"
Figure 3.5.2
Example 3.5.l.
·- W\4 X !12
•
3 .6 BLOCK SHEAR STRENGTH
When thin plates are attached by bolts, a tearing limit state, knowu as block shear, may
contro! the strength of a tension member, or the tension region at the end connection of a
beam (see Chapter 13). Referring to Fig. 3.6. la, lhe angle 1ension mernber attached to a
gusse1 plate may have a tearing failure along the bolt holes, section a-b-c. The limit Siate is
defined by rupture along b-c piane plus either yielding or rupture along piane a-b. Tcsts
[3.12. 3.13) have shown il 10 be reasonable 10 add the strength in lension ruplure in one
piane to the shear rupture (or yielding) slrength of the perpendicular piane. Welded con-
nections could experience similar block shear failure along the periphery of the weld.
The four holes in t11e plate of Fig. 3.6.lb and e will contribute to a tear-ou1 failure if
che sum of the shear strengths along a-b and c-d plus the tensile strength along b-c is less
than eirher of the strengths in generai yielding of the member (Eq. 3.2. l ) or rupture along
e-b-c-j (Eq. 3.2.2).
Combinatìon shear and tension tearing failures are uncommon in tension members:
however. this combinat:ion mode frequently controls the design of bolled end connections
to the thìn webs of beams.
Tests on bìock shear failure in angle members [3. 15] have shown tha: b]ock shear
controls far short connections (i.e., two or fewer connectors per gage l.inc). These tests also
indicate that sh~tr lag is a factor in block shear failure of tension mcr.1bers, which is
acco unced for by che Uh, factor in the AJSC Specification. FUJ1hermo re ndd ii•g s 2/4g to the
net tensile area for block shear calculations on staggered bolrs may be. u nconservative,
depending on the direction of the stagger with respect to the failure path.
Gusset plaie
Shaded area
may tear out
(a) Failurc by learing ou!
•
'
Tension
'
Tension - - - - - ~ . / ; ;___ _ _ f
I,
',----O-rrrrr-O----
1f'-....
/ e
..,....--(1_
f l~-tShear
~ f:
6I] Shear f....l
f1
Figure 3.6.1 a d
Tearing (ailure limit state. a d
(b) Larce !enaion, small ahear
(e) Large •bear. &mali 1ens1011
Stiffness as a Design
. . n
eriteno • 69
Section 3.7
i k hear failure modes:

AISC-14.3. dcfines two b oc s . · d by yielding
b . Fig 3 6 lb) accompame
1 Rupture along tbe tensile plane ( -e in . . .
· ( band c-d in Fig. 3.6. lb). . b
along the shear P1anes a- d . F." 3 6 Ie) accomp:uued y rup-
i
2. Rupture along lhe shear Pane s (a - b a.nd e- in 1e· · ·
Iure along the tensile piane (b-c in Fig. 3.6.lc). h·t the
I the net ·irea in both modes. w , e
The tensile fai Iure is defined by rupture a ong J th' net area or yield alo.ng the
failure along lhe shear p Ianes can e1·1her be ruprure a ong e
gross area, whichever is smaHer. . . S 3 2 the "ross area is used for the
Consistent with the l11rnt States d1scussed i.n ec ... 1'· . et t 111 addition follow-
. d f tb fracture 11111! s a e. ·
yieldìng limit state and tl1c net area ts use or e h . Id ·tress - is 1aken as 0.6Fl..
. h (E
ing the energy-of-distort10n t eory q. -· , , ? 6 5) the s ear y1e s · •"
. ·
Similarly, the shear srrength 7"11 is raken as 0.6F".
The nominai strengtb T 11 in 1ension is thus given by:
I. Shear yielding-t;nsion ruprure (0.6F'°Agv < 0.6F.,A,.v)
(3.6.1)
T,. = 0.6F_,.Ag,• + F,,U b.,A11,
or
2. Shear fracture-tension rupture (0.6F,.Agv 2! 0.6F11A11v )
T,, = 0.6F,,A v + f~,Ub.,A,,, (3.6.2)

11
where A gv = gross area acted upon by shear

A.., = net area acted upon by tension
A nv = net area acted upon by shear
F,, = specified (ASTM) minimum tensile strength
F,. = specified (ASTM) minimum yield stress
When tbe tension stress is uniform, use U b.i = 1, where the tension is no n-uniform,
=~=~ Equation 3.6.1 indicates fracture ( F,,A,,,) on the net tensile are a followed by y1eld-
.
ing (0.6FyAgv) along tbe shear planes. Equation 3.6.2 ìndicates fracture (0.6F,,An,,) on
the net shear area followed by rupture ( F,,A,.,) on the net tensile area. The smaller strength
along rhe shear planes defines rhe governing mode of failure. The reduction factor U b.,· has
been included in the equation to approximate the non-uniform stress distribution on the
tensile piane. Such stress disrribution occurs when multiple rows of bolts occur in a beam
end connection .
.7 STJFFNESS AS A DESIGN CRITERION
Even though stability is not a criterion in the design of tension members, it is stili necessary
to limit their length to prevent a member from becoming too flexible both during erection and
final use ofthe structure. Tension members that are too long may sag excessively because of
their own weight. In addition, they may also vibrate when subjected to wind forces as in an
open truss or when supponing vibrating equipment such as fans or compressors.
To reduce the problems associated with excessive deflections and vibrations a stiff-
ness criterion was established. This criterion is based on the slendemess ratio L Jr of a mem-
ber where l is the length and r the least radius of gyration (, = VI/A). The preferable
maximum slendemess ratio is 300 for members whose design is based <m ten~ile force
(AISC-Dl ). l11is limilation does noi apply to rods in tension. .
In applying the stiffness criterion 10 tension mcmbers, the hi~hes~ sle ndcrness raLio
must be uscd. A symmetrical member nrny have two different rad11 of gyrat1o n. and for
nonsymmetrical members one must considcr the weakest principal axis. When a te nsion
member is built up from a number of sections, lhe radius of gyration must be computed
using the moment of inertia / and the cross-sectional area A. The value for ,. will be wi1h
rcspect 10 the same axis as that used to calculate the moment of ine rtia.
3.8 LOAD TRANSFER AT CONNECTIONS

Norm.illy the holes in tension members are those for rivcts or bolts to transfer load from
one tension me mber inlo ;,nothe r.
Alrhough t.he detailed treatmenl of fastcners and their behavior is in Chapter 4, the
basic assumption is thai each equa! size fastener transfers an equal sbare of the load when-
ever lhe fastencrs are arranged symmetrically with respect to the centroidal axis of a ten-
sion me mber. The following example is to illustrate the idea and its re lat ionship to net area
calculations.
EXAMPLE 3.8.1
Cakulate rhe goveming net area for plate A of the single lap joint in Fig . .' 3. 1 and show
free-body diagram.s of portious of plate A with sec tions taken through eac:.. lhe of holes.
Assome tha t piace B has adequale net area and does not contro! the strengd: ':.
1.!.. 4
2
I
I
I / I I 5
Il
Jts in. thick,
8
b
I
2 a'
I\ I I
g
7.
diain connectors
in standard holes
12
Io
I
II \ .~
: / 3I
II
- r
~ 2~/ i
' , I
A!SC-13.10 I.!.. - - ~ -
2 I Platc A
Figure 3.8.1
Single lap connection for
Plate 8
Example 3.8. 1.
Solution:
T. he·full ·tensile force T in plate A acts on section J- 1 of F1g. 3.g. l . E xarnrnation
· · o f other
secuons m p1ate A to the left of section 1- 1 will involve /ess rhan I 00% of T aerino since
I OO·10be
r
panm.of that . .
f force will have already been transferred from plate A to plate 8 . A l sectlon
r ·
.""' ~•-1.
·
o musi ,, now be. actmg m plate B while only 2001 ·10 of acts m plate A Smce ther<:
zero ,orce actmg on the end of plate A a sh rt d" ." ·
must
the force r must have bee
·
. °
n enttre1y trans ferred to plat B
istance to the left ot sec11011 -t-i.
h . , . .
l-1 to 4-4 Tue free bod" . f h . e over t e d1stance trom secuun.,
. ies o t e vanous segments are shown in Fig. 3.8.2.
Section 3.9 Load and Resistance Factor Design-Tension Members
• 71
o- o o oT
T L I.. Tci
10
Tci 10
oT -
o-
- - -- -
7 T
--
2 L 2-T Tci T T
io T IO
·10
oT - oT
10
OT
oT T
T T
,o To io 10
o- oT -
L
10
1
IO
oT - o T oT- o
I~
To IO io 10
4
Figure 3.8.2 (a) (b) (e) ( d)
Load dìsrribution in plate A.
Deduction in width for I hole = Diam of hole + IT, ìn.

i
= Diam of fastener + in. for standard hole
= s1 + s1 = I 111
.
·
Net area ( section 1- 1) = i( 15 - 3) = 7.50 sq in.
on which I00% of T acts (Fig. 3.8.2d).

Net area (staggered path 1- 2-3- 2- 1):
5[ (2)21
= - 15 - 5( 1) + 4----
8
.
= 7.08sqin.
4(3)j
2
s /4g
on which 100% of Talso acrs.
Net area (staggered path 1-2-2-1):
= i[1s - 4 + 2 :~;:] = 7.29sq in.

on which 0.9 of T is presumed to act. since one conneclor has already transferred 1ts share
(O.IO) of the load prior to reaching section l-2-2-1. The 7.29 sq in. with 0.9T acling
would compare with 7.29 /0.9 = 8.1 O sq in. with T acting. A comp:irison o f' 7.50. 7 .08,
and 8.10 shows that section 1-2-3-2-1 govems: then A,, = 7.08 sq in. •
3.9 LOAD ANO RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN-TENSION MEMBERS

The generai philosophy of Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) was described in
Secs. 1.8 and 1.9. Equation 1.8. l gives the structural safety requirement, as follows:
[ 1.8. 1l
where q, = resistance factor (strenglh reduction factor)

Rn = nominai strength (resistance)
R11 = factored service Ioad
"I; = overload factors (ASCE 7)
. e load wind load. earthquake loa<l)

Q; =servicc loads (such as dead load , 11v ' . , or
·ing nioment shear. ax1al Coree. and tors1onal
Ioad e ffects (sue h as bend ··
moment resulting from various loads)
th
Equation J .8.1 requires that the design strength ef>R,, equa I or exceed e summa1ion of
Jacrored /oads. or specifically for tension members, Eq. 1.8. I becomes
cf>,T,, ;,,e T,, (3.9.1)
where t/>, = resistance factor relating to tension member strengch

T
11
= nominai scrength of a cension member (see AISC-Chapter D)
cf>,T,, = design strength of a cension member
T,, = factored load on a tension member (criticai load combination as per
ASCE 7)
Since the loading is noi related to che type of member, ~uch as tens ioo member or col-
umn. the various load factor combinations given in ASCE 7-05 are the same forali members
in the scructure. However. 1he resistance factor cf> to account for the possibility thai 1he actual
strength of the membe r may be less 1han che 1heoretically computed streng1h bccause of vari-
ations in maceria! properties and dimensionai tolerances. These variations while individual(v
wìthin acc.:epted tolerance limits may combine in the actual st.Luciure to g ive a strength les's
than the computed value. Neither thc faclor <J> nor the overload factors y are inteoded io
account for careless e1Tors in design or consnuction. The reliability of design of bolted steel
tension members using LRFD has been reported by Bennett and N,~jem-C larke [3. 17].
According to AJSC-D2, the design tension member strength </J,T,, 1s lhe smaller of
that based on vie/di11g in the gross section,
{3.9.2)
or fracture in the net sectio11,

(3.9.3)
Note that the resistance factor cf>, is 0.90 for the yielding limit state and 0.7.:'i for the frac1urc
limit state.
In addition. at tbe connection. the block shear strength must be evaluated. This
involv~s evaluating the rupture strength (tension. shear, or a combination of both) along a
pocenl:!al tear-our path (see Sec. 3.6). The design strength requirements of AISC-14.3 are:
I. Shear yielding-tension fracture (O·6F..A

.' .~u ,o; O·6F.u Ant')
(3.9.4)
or
ygv > O·6F.unv

2. Shear fracture-tension fracture (0.6F.A A )
<P,T,, = c/>,(0.6F,,A.,v + F,Pb,Anr) = 0.75(0.6FuA,,v + F.11Ubs A nt ) (3.9.5)
where Agv = gross area acted upon by shear

A11, = net area acted upon by tension
A,,v = net area acted upon by shear
F,. = specified (ASTM) rrùnimum tensile strength
F>, = specified (ASTM) minimum yield stress
Note the frac1ure limit siate ,J,, of 0.75 is used in Eqs. .3.9.4 and 3.9.5.
Section 3.9 Load and Resistance Factor Design-Tension Members • 73
TABLE 3.9. 1 Tension Members-AISC Specification References
Topic Specification section
Nel are.a D3.2

Effective net area D3.3
Limiting slendemess ratio DI
Tensile strcnglh D2
Built-up members 04
Pin-connected member; eyebars D5
Threaded rods J3. I
Block shear 14.3
Connecting elements 14
Faligue B3.9
In the 2005 AISC Manu.al (Tables 9-1 and 9-2), the deduction for holes is computed
in accordance with AISC-D3. par 2. the same as the tension fracture limit state for the
member, as discussed in Sec. 3.3.
The AlSC Specification [ 1.13] sections used in Load and Resistaoce Factor Design
of tension members are summarized in Table 3.9.1 .
EXAMPLE 3.9.1
~ Determi~e ~e-service load capacity in tension for an L6 x 4X½ of A572 Grade ~O steel con-
nected wtth 8-m.-dtam bolts m standard holes as shown in F1g. 3.9.1. Use AlSC Load and
Resistance Factor Design, and assume the live load to dead load ratio is 3.0.
Solution:
The angle tension member is conoected to a gusser piate, typical of truss joint~. The gusset
plate is the plate at the intersection of membcrs to which they are co nnected.
The maximum strength will be based on e ither seclion 1-1 with o ne hok dr,.jùcted .
or on the staggercd section 1-2 through two holes. The goveming section \.\·Ì:l ha\·(' 100%
of load T acting on it.
For section 1- 1,
A,, = Ag - l hole = 4.75 - (i + i)o.50 = 4.25 sq in .

For section 1-2,
A 11 = Ag - 2 holes + (s 2 /4g)t
= 4.75 - 2(28 + ..!.)o.so

8
+ _Qf_ (0.50)
4(2.5)
3.95 sq in.
7 spa@ 2" = 1'-2" 2"
- 1..,-
0
i] N
-IN
N
Figu~ 3.9.1
Ten,ion member for Gus,ct pfate
0
Example 3.9.1. DctailA
The two design slrengths 10 be used in ac~ordance with AISC-D2 are given by!¼.
3 -9.2 based on generai yielding on the gross sect1on of the member,
(3.9.2]
t/>,Tn = ,p1FyA g
= 0.90(50)(4.75) = 214 kips
and by Eq. 3.9.3 based onfracrure at the connection,
<J>,Tn = <J>1F uA, [3.9.Jj
The angle does not have bolh Jegs connected to transfer the tensile force, so the effectivc net
area is less than rhe computed net area, accounting for rhe eccentricity at the conneccion.
The effective net area A, is
A, = UAn
where, according to AISC-D3.3 Case 2 the reduction coefficient Visto be computed frorn
Eq. 3.5.2:
x [3.5.2]
V = I
L
where the distance x from centroid of element being connected eccentrically to piane of
load transfer (see Fig. 3.5.1) is for the case of the angle 0.987 in. The leogth L of the joint
is 14 in. Equatio n 3.5.2 then gives
x 0.987
V = 1- - = 1- - - = 0.93
L 14
A, = A,iU = 3.95(0.93) = 3.67 sq in.
Thus, Eq. 3.9.3 gives
<J>,T,, ,cc ,f>,F.Ae = 0.75(65)(3.67) = 179 kips
Thus. thc co ntrolEng ef>,T,, is the smaller of the values from Eqs. 3.9.2 (2 14 kips) and 3.9.3
(l 79 k.ip5J,
cp,T,, = 179 kips
Th~ ':lvcrload f1.Cìcr,; ielate the design strength to the service loads or load effects.
!Jsin.; the gn.vi1.v lo,hi com.binati011 Eq. J .8.3 LASCE7-05], the factored load 7;, is
T~ = .L ;1;Q; = U.D + l.6L + 0.5( L, or S or R) [ 1.8.3]
·.vh:;:;ar;: i.--i thi~ exc1mpk the I ovt ioading L,. S (snow), and R (rai.n) an: nnt involved. The live
!0l!.ct (L) is f,ive n as thret: ti.me., dcad !oad (D). Thus, applying the saf,, ! )' requirement, Eq.
3.9.1; tb2t is, !etting .f;, T,, ~quai factored load T,, gives
~i,,T,, '"·' 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6.(rD

179 "'"' 6.0D
D -= 29.8
0
L = 3D = 3(29.8) = 89.4 kips

The tota! safe service load T is
T = D+ L = 29.8 + 89.4 = 119kips

Section 3.9 Load and Resistance Factor Oesign-Tension Members • 75
If thi s angle connection consisted of a very few large fasteners or if either the gusset plate
or the angle were thin elements, the block shear rupture limit state of AlSC-14.3 represented by
Eqs. 3.9.4 through 3.9.7, might give a lower strength than the !esser of Eqs. 3.9.2 and 3.9.3. •
EXAMPLE 3.9.2
Investigate the block shear failure mode on the angle L4X4x¼ att.ached with three !-in.
diarn bolts to a ~-in. gusset plate, as shown in Fig. 3.9.2. The materiai is A36 steel.
Solution:
The usual general yielding and fracrure limit states govemed by the lesser ofEqs. 3.9.2 and
3.9.3 gives
cp,Tn = <f>,FyAg = 0.90(36)1.94 = 62.9 kips
cf>,T" = </>,FuA, = </>,F,,U An

where
U = 1 x= l - 1.og = 0.82
L 6.0
Thus,
<l>,T11 = </>1 FuUAn
= 0.75(58)(0.82)(1.94 - 0.2S) = 60.3 kips
The block shear potential failure along pam a-b-c of Fig. 3.9.2 must be investigated
according to ATSC-14.3. Calculating the net areas Am, and Am ,
A,,v = (length a-b less 2.5 holes) x thickness
= 1L7.5 - 2.5 (18 + 81)] . = 2~ .

0.2::> 1. ~ sq m.
A ,,1 = (Iength b-c less 0.5 holes) X thickness
= [ l.5 _ o.s(i + D] 0.25 = 0.25 sq in.
Comp:lre O ùi.\A5 :, wilh 0.6F11 A,w,

' o.6;;-~.AQ,; = 0.6l36)1.875 = 40.SJ < [0.6F,.A,w = 0.6(58)1.25 = 43.5)
ì------
1- - ~> "' @1
'.! l..,___..~c'- '----- -7
W----~--~--- i
I
(I
A ~6 Sl<!el
3•
Figure 3.9.2 R platc
Tension member of
Example 3.9.2.
1111
which means Eq. 3.6. 1 controls

Tn(R,, as per AISC Chap. J) = 0-6 F_,.Agv + F,,UhsA,,,
Tn = 40.5 + 58( 1.0)0.25 = 55 kips fJ_6_I]
Thus. block shear strengrh is
<l>,T,, = 0 .75(55 ) = 41 .3 ldps
and block shear (41.3 k.ips) controls over yielding on gross sec tio u (62.9 kips). or fracturt
on e ffective net section (60.3 ldps). I
EXAMPLE 3.9.3
Selec1 a tension diagonal member for_a roof trus_s of A572 Grade 50 Sleel u~ing _AlSC Loaci
and Resistance Factor Design. Tue a,,c1al tens1on 1s 60 kips dcad load and 6 k1ps hve load illld
rhe me mber is 12 ft long. Assume i -ìn.-diam bolts are loc~ted 0 ~ a: mgle gage line in sian.
dard holes. Assume the preferable limit on slendemess rano L/ r 1s -40 (1101 an AlSC limitJ.
a. Select the lightesl single angle member.

b. Sd ect the lighrest double angle member having legs separated by ¼in. back-to-bact_
Sol111io11:
For tension members. the design strength require menl is
</>1T11 ~ T,.
where 1~e fa~ro red load !u

may be ~ove'."°ed by Eq. 1.8.3 in gener·!l, o r Eq. 1.8.2 when thc
prnpomon ol dead load 1s large, as m th1s case; thus.
Tu = l.2D + l.6L = 1.2(60) + 1.6(6) = 3? i.ips

or
T 11 = 1.4D = 1.4(60) = 84 kips (com.ro!s)
In this case. the factored load 10 be designed for is 84 ki ps.
The strength of the me mbers may be controlled by either
</>1T,, = cp,FyAg = 0.90(50).A.g

or
</>,T,, = </>,F.,A, = 0.75(65 )Ae
The design strength q,T" must equal the factored 1oad T.,. The area requirements becom.:
R .ed
equw Ag = 09. O84( 50) = l.87 sq in .
R . ed 84
equii, Ae = - -- = L72 sg in.
0.75(65)
Eslirnating U for either a single or doubl .
Table D3.1 Case 8, e ang1e secuon to be 0.8. in accordance with AISC
Required A,, = A~ = J.72 = 2 15 s .

U 0.8 · q tn.
The net area requirement obviously con I . .
Also, lhe preferrcd minimum r CO ~ s s1nce i_t exceeds the gross area requiremtllL
sattsfy lhe gtven limitation of L / r = 240 is
min r ""' _!:_ _ 12(12)
240 - ~ = 0.6 in.
Section 3.10 Tension Rods • 77
(a) Select single angle member. The required gross area in each case depends on
the area deducted for one hole, which in turn depends on the thickncss. The following tab-
ular procedure may be found useful in making the selection:
Standard Deduction Required Choices from

thickness for one gross AISCmanual
t hole area single angle properties
s
16 0.313 * 2.46; L5X3~X~ A = 2.56, r = 0.76
J 0.375
8 2.53 ]AX3½><¾ A= 2.67,r = 0.72
7
Ì6
0.438 2.59 L3½X3Xn; A = 2.65. r = 0.62
I 0.500 2.65
2
• (~ + ¾)0.3125 = 0.3125 sq in.

t Required A 9 = 2.15 + 0.31 = 2.46 sq in.
1 Note: Mio r = r, for single angles.
Use L5 ><3~ Xft single angle member (least area, therefore hghtest).
(b) Select double angle mem ber. For thi 5 type of section two holes must be
deducfed. Selection sbould be made from lhe double 1rngle properties given in AlSC
Manual.
Standar<i Deduction Req ui red Cho ices from

t hicl:ness for twc gross A ISC manual
t r,o!es area double ang!e properties
0.50() 2.6~ L3X3Xi A = 2.87, r = 0.93
ux2tx¼ A = 2.64. ,- = 0.94
5 0625 2.78
16
3 0.750 2.90 A = 2.93. r = 0.76
&
Use 2-L3 X2 ¼x ¼ with lùng legs back-ro-back. w ith 1.ess than 1% understrength. •
3.10 TENSION RODS
A common and simple rension me mber is the threaded rod. Such rods are usuall y sec-
ondary members where che required strength is small, such as (a) sag rods to help support
purlins in industriai buildings (Fig. 3.10.La); (b) verticaJ ties to help support girts in
industriai building walls (Fig. 3.10.1 b): (e) hangers, such as tie rods supponing a balcony
(Fig. 3.1 O. le); and (d) tie rods to resist the thrust of an arch.
Tie rods are frequently used with an initial tension as diagonal wind brac ing in
walls , roofs, and towers. The initìal tension effectively adds to the stiffness and reduees
deflectio n and vibrational motion, which tends to cause fatigue failures in the connec-
tions. S uch initial tension can be obtained by designing the member something on the
k
order of in. short fora 20-ft length or by the use of turnbuckles which can be 1ight~ned
after construction.
Roof 1russ
'--.
=
~
Q.
i"
l
l
I I Roof
Sag truSS
Sag rod
rod
I
Top vlew
( a) Roof tnJSS
Gt I yTie
rods ./·1 Girts
Tie
rods
Col. I Girt Bakony
Figure 3.10.1
- 1,_,./ L I-- Col.
Section A-A
Uses of tension rods. t b ) W,H system
EXAMPLE 3.10.1
Selec1 the diameter fora t.hreaded round md of A36 steel to c,m-y an axial t,·nsion of 6 kips
live Ioad and 3 kips dead load. Use ATSC Load and Resistance Factor Des,gn.
Solulion:
The design strength of a threaded rod is given by A1SC-J3.6 (Table 13.2) a,:
(a)
Tue factored load T., to be carried is
T,, = I.2D + l.6L = 1.2(3) + 1.6(6) = 13.2 kìps

Using the minimum tensile strength F,, for A36 steel as 58 ksi from Table 2. 1.1 (or AISC
Table 2-5). and equaring the factored load T,. to rhe design scrength <f,1T 11 • gives the
required gross area Ab from Eq. (a) as
. Required <f>,T,, 13.2

ReqmredAb = - - -- - = - - - -- - 040 ,;qin
0.75(0.75Fu) 0.75(0.75)(58) - . - .
Compure the diamerer of the threaded rod based on the required area Ab. The area
computed is the gross area Ab based on the diarneter of the unthreaded body of the roJ
(AISC-Table J3.2).
Use ¾-in.-diam rod ( 10 threads per inch)( Ab = 0.442 sq in.). 1
Section 3.10 Tension Rods • 79
EXAMPLE 3. 10.2
Design sag rods to support the purlins of the industriai building roof of Fig. 3.10.2. Sag
rods are spaced at t.he third points between roof trusses, which are spaced 24 ft apan. Use
20 psf snow load, A36 steel, and AISC LRFD Method.
Solution:
(a) Loads. Assume cold-fonned steel roofing is used. weighing 3 psf. and that the
purlins have already been designed. Their weight may be approxirnated as a 3.5 psf roof
load.
Snow load customarily is prescribed as having an intensity given in pounds per
square foot (psf) of horizontal projection. Generally, a value not less than 20 psf is
used, with 30 to 40 psf ( 1.4 co 1.9 kN/m2 ) being used in northern areas (see Sec. 1.4).
The horizontal projection of the roof area is 25 cos 2S 0 over which the snow
load acts. Because the other loads on the roof are given in terms o.f the roof area, the
snow load can be converted to a load per square foot of roof area by multiplying by
cos 2s 0 •
20(cos 2s0 ) = 18.1 psfof roof
20 psf
\
\ '--.,
ICema'-......hr,e.. o( roo; I
\ I
r-· '
22.7 ft I
I!
I
I
I
I I
I
8 ft
I
l
I
I
' .
I
I 8 ft
I
-
I
I
i
. '
I
I 8 ft
Figure 3.J0.2
Roof and sag rods for
I
I . Roof truss
Example 3.10.2.
weight is dead load. Occa.u
f The srructure ~e
(b) i
Computc tactored load on roo 8 4 will control.
there are no Jive loads other tban snow, Eq. · ·
IL 8.41
1.2D + 1.6( l, or 5 or R)
I 8 J ) == 36.8 psf
1.2(3 + 3.5) + 1·6 ( .
. d b a single rod. Because the rods ate
(e) Compure factored load to be carned . ythat load over a 4 ft strip of roof on
spaced 8 ft apart. the load carne · d b Y each
. ro. 15 F. 3. I 0.2 must carry the Ioad for the
d · d1cated m ig. · d "th · 1·
either side of 1he rod. Thc sag ro m . d Joad associate wi a me of sag
vert1cal factore
entire length (i.e., 25 ft) of roof . The
rods is (' ft)
36.8 times tributary area m sq
36.8(25)(8) /1000 = 7.4 kips
nent of ihe loa<l parallel to !he ro0f
· only that comPo ,
The top rod parallel to the roof cames
equalto
7.4(sin 250) = 7.4(0.423) = 3.1 kips
. <licular 10 the roof is carried by beam action
The component of che _vert1cal load perpen ak indicated io Fig. 3.10.2, must cany
in 1he purlins. Thc honzontal rod al the roof pe ,
3.1/ (cos 25°),
T,, = 3.l/(cos 25°) = 3.l/(0,90 6 ) = 3.4 kips
. d The strength requirement of AISC J3.6 is
(d) Select the d1ameter or ro .
<f>,T., :2. T"

<f>rT" = 0.75(0.75Fu)Ab
Obtaining Fu from Table 2.1.l (or AJSC Table 2-4), and equating the factored load r. to
rhe design strength <f>,T,,, gives the required area Ab as
T., 3
.4 = O.II sq iD.
Required Ab = 0 _75(0 _75Fu) 0.75(0.75) (58)
SelecJ a i-in. diam threaded rod having Ab = 0.1 l sq in.
Use ~-in.-diam rod (Ab= 0.110 sq in.). I
3.11 ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN-TENSION MEMBERS

The generai philosophy of Allowable Strength Design (ASD) was described in Secs. 1.8
ami 1.9. Equation 1.8.8 gìves the structural safety requirement, as follows:
[
cf,R,,
y =O
R,,] :? LQ; [1.8.8]
Section 3. 11 Allowable Strength Design-Tension Members • 81
which expresses that the nominai strength R., divided by a factor of safety fl must exceed
the sum of the factored service loads. The nominal strength divided by thc factor n is called
the "allowable slrength." In the past, this procedure was called ·'allowable stress design."
Now (2008) the equations are multiplied by the properties (arca, section modulus, etc.) so
thac stresses are converted to forces (axial force, bending moment, torsional moment, etc.).
The nominai su-ength T" for tension members may be controlled by either of Eqs. 3.2. I
or 3.2.2.
T., = FyAg [3.2.l]
T., = FuA, [3.2.2]
where Ag = gross cross-seccional area

Ae = effective net area = V A,. (see Se.:. 3.5)
U = reduction coefficient (efficiency factor)
The allowable strength in tension, according to AISC-D2, is thc smatler of that based
on yielding in the gross section,
T,, = FyA g = F_,.A g

(3. 11.1)
n n 1.67
or fraclUre in the net section.
T,, F,,A, F,,A,
- = -- = - - (3. l 1.2)
n n 2.00
or block shear stre ngth along the tear out parh.
T ,, (0. 6FyAg,• + U;,,1F 11 Anr) (0.6F).Ag,, + UbsF,,A,,,)

- - - -- - - -- - ,= - -- (3.11.3)
n n 2 00
No•e that lhe :;atcty favto, f: h 1.67 for the yielding li:nit state. 2 .00 for the fracture lim.it
state, a1•.d 2.0J for lii" block s:ic1f Ji .,,jt ~t:tle (which is µrimarìly a i'racture lirnit state).
EXAMPLE 3.11.1
Redu Ex;,mpie 3 9. J 11si;:g ,Le ;\ !SC r\Jl..w,al:}k ',rr~ngth Desjgn (ASD) Method.
Solutio11:
The conuolling r:.Uowab1e strerig,.h i~ the sroalkr vah.te of
or
(b) T.11 / f)- = F.uA e /(}
... == 65 {,..,
__:;,6"1' ,~ 00
, J/L. ,= 119 kips Governs!
The total allowable service load is then.
~Q = D + L = D + 3D = 4.0D
which means
119 = 4D
D = 29.8 kips
L = 3D = 3(29.8) = 89 kips •
EXAMPLE 3.11.2
. h M thod (ASD).
Re-do Example 3.9.2 usmg tbc Allowable Strcngt e
Solutitm:. d · the LRFD sol ut1on.

· l'he caIculated
The nominai strengths havc already bcen calcu1ate in
value of T,, was not actually given in Ex. 3.9.2.
69.8 = 36( J.94) 01(
01{
80.4 = 58(0.82)(1.94 - 0.25)
The governing allowable sttength is the smallest of the three aJlowable S[re ngths.
(a) Allowable yield strength = Tn/D = 69.8/1.67 = 41.8 kips

(b) Allowable fracture strength = T n/ O = 80.4 / 2.00 = 40.2 kips
(e) Allowable block shear strength = Tn/0 = 55/2.00 = 27.5 kips Governs!
Thus, block shear (27 .5 kips) controls over yielding on the gross section (41.8 kips) or
fracture on effective net section (40.2 kips). •
EXAMPLE 3.11.3
Re-do Example 3.9.3a using the Allowable Strength Design Method (ASD).
Solution:
The total service tension load is
~Q = D + L = 60 + 6 = 66 kips
The allowable strength of the member may be controlled by the yield strength.
Tn/fl = F}'Ag/fl = 50A8 /I.67 = 29.9Ag

or by the fracture strength on effective net area,
Tn/fl = F,.A,/!1 = 65Ae/2.00 = 32.5Ae
The allowable strength must egual or exceed the service load LQ. Thus,
. d
Requ1re Ag = 2966_9 = 2.21 sq in.
. d
Requtre Ae = 3266_5 = 2.03 sq in.
Estimating U for either the single or double angle section to be 0.85,
- d
Requ1re An = -Ae
U
2.03
= --
0.85
= 2.39 sq in·
The net area requiremenl obviously controls since it exceeds the gross area reqmrement.
.
Required Choices from

Standard Deduction
gross AISCManual
thickness for one
area single angle properties
t hole
., A = 3.07, r - 1.56*
0.313 * 2.70+ L5X5Xt,
fi,
J 0.375 2.77 L5X3X~ A = 2.86, ,- == l.02
ii
7 0.438 2.83 lAX4X~ A = 2.86, ,- = 1.23
16
0.500 2.89 u½xJ½x~ A = 2.89. r = 1.06
• (~ + ~)0.3125 = 0.3125 SQ in.

' Required A 9 = 2.39 + 0.31 = 2.70 sq in.
t M in r = r, for single angles.
Use L4X4X~ single angle member. •

SELECTED REFERENCES
3. 1. Gcoffrey L. l<ulak, fohn W. Fisher. and John H . A. Struìk. G11ide 10 Desig11 Criteriaj,,,.
Bolred and fUv·
ned Jo;nrs. 2nd ed. New Y<l rk: John Wilcy & Sons. 1987.
3.2. V. H. Cochrane. "Rule, for Rive1 Hole Dedunions in Tension Members," E11gi11eeri11g News-Rccvrd. 89,
November 16. 1922. 847-848.
3.3. W. M. Wilson. Discussion of "Tension Tem of Large Rivelcd Joints." Trm1soc1io11s. ASCE. 105 ( \ 940 ). I 268.
3.4. W. M. Wilson. W. H. Munse. and M. A. Cayci. "A Study of the Practical Elìkicncy undcr Static l..oading
of Rivered Joims Connec1ing Plates:· B111/etin 402. U. of Illinois Engineering Experimcnt S1a1io11,
Urban3. IL. 1952.
3.5. F. W. Schutz. "Effective Net Section of RiveteJ Joints." Proceeding,. Second lllinois S1ructu,·al Enf!i-
neering Conference. November. 1952.
3.6. "Here·s a Better Way 10 Design Splices," E11gi11eeri11g News-Record. 150, Part I, January S. 1953. 4 1.
3.7. P. P. Bijlaard. Discussion of"lnvestigation and Limil Analysis ofNet Area in Ten,ion." ·1,·a nsac1io11s.
ASCE. 120 (1955).1156--1163.
3.8. G. W. Brady and D. C. Drucker. "lnvesrigation and Li mir Analysis of Net Area in Tcnsion.''
Tra11sactions. ASCE, 120 ( 1955). 1133-1154.
3.9. W. H. Munse and E. Chesson. Jr. "Riveted and Bolted Joinrs: Net Secrion De,igrJ," Jo11m,,I rif t/Je S1ruc-
111i-al Divisio11, ASCE. 89, ST2 (February 1963). 107-126.
3. 10. E. Chesson and W. H. Munse. "Behavior of Rivered Connections in Truss-Typc Members." Jmmra/ oj
rhe Sm,c111ral Di,•isioi1. ASCE. 83, STI (January I957). Paper 1150. 1-61; also Tra11sac1ions. ASCE,
123 ( 1958), 1087-\ 128.
3.11. William McGuire. Stee/ S1ruc1ures. Eaglewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice-Hall. !ne.. l 968 (pp. 3 10--328).
3.12. James M. Ricles and Joseph A. Yura. "Strength of Double-Row Bolted-Web Connections:· Jo11mal of
Structural Enginening, ASCE.109, I (January 1983), 126--142.
3.13. Scevc G. Hardash and Reidar Bjochovde. "New Design Criteria for Gusset Plates in Tension."
Engineering Jnurnal, AISC, 22, 2 (2nd Quarter 1985), 77-94.
3 . 14. Geoffn:y L Kulak, and Gilbert Y. Grodin. "AISC Rules for Block Shear-A Review:· Engineering Jo1ir-
nal, AISC. 39, 4 (4th Quaner), 2001. 199-203.
3.15. Howard I. Epstcin. ·'An Experimental Study of Block Shcar Failure of Angles in Tension:· Engineering
Joumal, AISC. 29, 2 (2nd Quancr 1992), 75-84.
3. 16. W. Samuel Easterling and Lisa Gonzales Giroux. "Shcar Lag Effects in Steel Tension Members:·
Engineeri11g Jo14mal, AISC. 30, 3 (3rd Quaner), 1993. 77-89.
3.17. Richard M. Bennen and F. Shima Najem-Clarke. "Reliability of Bohed Steel Tension Members."
Journa/ ofSrructura/ E11gineering, ASCE. 113, 8 (August 1987), 1865- 1872.
PROBLEMS
AII problcms are to be done according to the AISC LRFD Method or the ASD Method. as indicaled_by the instructor.
Assume fosrener strength is adequate and does noi control. Ali holes are s1at1dnrd holes. Values ~f y1eld stress f\. a~d
tensile strenglJi F,, are available in Table 2.1.1. Forali problems where the tota! number of holes is not known, .assu111e
~~iure srrength of AISC-J4 does nor contro!. Where needed, assume distances from center of hole IO end of p1ece are
I } in. Assume ali given loads are service loads.
3.1. Compute the maximum acceptable tensile service value for service load T when A36 steel is usect, the
load that may act on a single angle L6X4x¾ thai is live load is four timei- the dead load. and the holcs
weldcd along only one leg IO a gusset plate; 1hus, are f¾ in. diameter.
rhere are no holes. The service live load is three
times the dead load. Solve for (a) A36 steel and (b) 3.5. Repeat Prob. 3.4 us ing A572 Grade 60 steel and
A572 Grade 50 steel. fì-in.-diam holes.
3.2. Compute the maximum acceptable tensile service 3.6. Select a pair of angles to snpport a tensile live load
load lhe angle in Prob. 3. 1 may carry when con- (LL) and dead load (DL) for the case assigned by
necred on both legs. The 4-in. leg contains a s in- the instructor~ Assume the a ngles are separatcd
gle gage .fine of r in.-diam bolts, and the 6-iJl. leg back-to-back i in . by a connected gussec plate, and
contains a double gage line of i-in.-diam bolts. 1hat the connection is weldcd. A sume the slender.
Assume no stagger of bolts. and thm a.li bolts par- ness ratio is desired 10 not cxcecd 300.
ticipate in carrying load.
3.3. Compute the maximum acceptable ser vìce load on DL LL Length

Case (kips) (kips) Stee! (ft)
an A36 steel plate 1cnsion memher } in. X 12 in. hav-
ing a single line of holes parallel to the direclion of I 70 20 A36 20
loading. The load is 25% dcad loact and 75% live 2 65 22 A36 30
load, and ~-in.-diam bohs are used. 3 70 20 A572 Gr 60 20
4 48 30 A 36 22
3.4. Compute the net area An forche plate (a connecting 5 50 30 A572 Gr 50 22
6 80 30 A36 20
element according to AISC-JS) shown in che 80
7 100 A572 Gr 50 28
accompanying figure. Then compute the maximum
Il - ~
8
X 10
- T
- T
Problema 3.4 and 3.5

Problems • 85
3.7. Select a single angle (for che case assigned by che Gus!--el plate
ins!Illctor) 10 ~uppor1 a tensile load. A single gage
fine of at least three bolts is to be used.
-m\
Cl'i X 33.9
Case DL LL Steel Bolt diameter Length T-"' -r

(kips) (kips) (in.) (ft)
- • I
I
15 40 A36 3/4 15
i-~ 15 40 A572 Gr 50 3/4 15 I!
.l 15 40 A36 3/4 20 2
4 15 40 A572 Gr 60 7/8 25
5 10 30 A36 7/8 20 Problem 3. 1I
6 10 30 A572 Gr 50 7/8 20
7 12 35 A36 7/8 18
12 35 A572Gr60 7/8 18 3.12. RepeaL Prob. 3.11 using a ClOX25 attached co a
8
i-in. gussel plate. Assume che 12 bolts are in 3 lines
parallel to the direction of loadìng, wirh the same 3
J.8. Select a standard threaded rod co carry a tensile in. spacing.
force Tof 4 kips dead load and 6 kips live load. Use
A572 Grade 50 steel. 3.13. Determine the tensile load (85% live !oad; 15%
deaà load) permitted by AISC for a pair of angles
J.9. Select a standard threaded rod IO carry a tensile L6X4X 8 ' attached to a gusset plate as s bown .m
force T of 2 k.ips dead load and 4 kips live lo.id. Use the accompanying figure. Use A36 ~ts'él and
A36 steel. }-ìn.-diatn bolts on standard gage Jincs whose db-
tances are given in Table 3 .4. 1. Tr,; fo; ce T is
3. J0. Design sag rods to support the purlins of an indus- tran~·nitted 10 the gusset plate by fast~li<!Vi ,m
triai building roof whose span and slope are shown lines A anò B: assume only open hole~ i,1tbe 4 -' n.
in rhe accompanying figure. Sag rods are placed at (ou!st::mding) legs.
!
points between roof trusses, which are spaced 30
ft apart. Assume roofing and purlin weight is 9 psf
of roof surface. Use standard threaded rods and
A36 steeJ. Tue snow load to be carried is 20. 30 or
40 psf of horizontal projection, whichever is appro-
priate for your locale.
Probiem 3. 13
- - - - -48'- 0 -- --...l 3.l4. Repeat Prob. 3.13 usiug a pair of L8x6x¾ angles
with staggered l-in.-diam bolts in the 8-in. leg.
Problcm 3. IO
3.15. Given the splice shown in the accompanying figure:
.J J. Detennine the maximum allowable tensile load (a) Determine the maximum capacity T (25% dead
(20% dead load, 80% live Joad) for a single load, 75% live load) based on the A36 steel
CI5X33.9 fastened to a ½-in. gusset plate as in the plates having holes arranged as shown.
accompanyinf figure. Use A36 steel and assume
holes are for 4-in.-diam bolts. Base answer on ten- (b) What value of s should be specified to provide
sion strength of the channel, and include sbear rup- the maximum capacity T as computed in part
ture strength. (a), if the final design is to have s1 = s2 == s'?
~RW1mf:=--1 -;-
T -
:,1, lr'_
( o o
g
T
d1amt,,ul1;
- 80k
Other hole< not shDwn
r- l_~__ o_._o_ o_'--1---1----J--"-----'--L.....L.

(assume a1 leasc lhre,)
Problern 3 .17
inimum value of s that could theo

Problcm 3.15 3 J8 Cornpute the m . ·
. . retically be used on the angle ~t the accompanying
t the maximum lactorc.d tensile force
figure sueh tha .
3. 16. An L5XJ½x½ angle, as shown in the accompany- T may be carried. Assume m 1s large enough so
ing figure, is to carry 20 kips dead load and 70 11
that a fal-1u~e pattern through .the open hole wilJ O"•
"'
kips live Joad using the shortest length of connec-
tion usìng two gage lines of bolts in the 5-in. \eg. govem. Incl ude considerat,on of shear rupture
What is the minimum acceptable stagger, theoret- strength.
ical and specified (½-in. multiples). using A572
Grade 50 steel? Gussel
plate
Si.ng l~ "n~l~
5
Lì X .t ·/ ·ii: , A36 steel
~ -' ~Xt
J
-- ----- L5 X 3
o - - :
- 90 l : 1-$---
~+----e--
o o
Standard h-Jlcs
\
Olhcr b<)l1s noc s.hown
One open holc
locat~d here m s
for 1-m - ,J,2.111 bolts
(as:!)ume al k:asl 3 per linel in 4" Jeg
Problem 3.16 Problems 3.18 and 3.19
3.19. Assuming that s for the angle of Prob. 3. 18 is made

3.17. An L5X3 ½X½ angle, as shown in the accompanying as large as required in Prob. 3.18, compute the min-
figure, is to carry 20 kip~ dead load and 60 kips live imum distance m required so that the open hole in
Joad. Using oae gage lìne of holes for i -in.-diam the 4-in. leg will not reduce the strength below its
bolts in each leg, what would be the minimum stag- maximum possible value. If Prob. 3.18 is not
ger s required ro accomplish this? Consider the
solved, assume s is 3.75 in.
load to be transferred by bolts in the 5-in. leg, while
lhe holes in the 3½-in. leg may be considered open 3.20. Design an eyebar to carry 24 k.ips dead Joad and 76
ones (i.e., not to transmit the tensile load). Use k.ips live load, using flame-cut A572 Grade 50 steel
A36 steel. plate. (Referto AISC-D3.)
4.1 TYPES OF BOLTS
Every slf11c1ure is an assemblage of individuai parts or members thal musi be fastened
together. usually al 1he member ends. Welding is one method and is treated in Chnpter 5.
The other rnechod is to use bolts. This chapcer i~ concemed with bolting: in panicular.
high-strength bolts. High-strength bolts have replaced rivet .., as che means of 111.1.k ing non-
welded sr.ructural connections. However. for completeness. a brief descriptìon of the other
fasteners. mcluding rive1s and unJìnished machine bolts. is given.
High-Strength Bolts
The rwo basic types of high-strength bolls are designateci as ASTM A]25 [2.5] anù
A490 [2. 7], Lhe materiai properties of which are discussed in Sec. 2.2 and summarized in
Table 4. I. I. These bolts are heavy hexagon-head bolrs. used with heavy semifinished
hexagon nuts, as ~hown in Fig. 4.1.1 b. The threaded portion is shorter than for bolts in
nonsLructural applications. and may be cui or rolled. A325 bolts are of heaHreated
medium carbon steel having an approximate yield strenglh of 81 10 92. hi (560 lo
630 MPa) depending on diameter. A490 bolts are also heat-treated but are of alloy steel
having an approximate yield strength of 115 to 130 ksi (790 to 900 MPa) <lepending on
diameter. A449 bohs are occasionally uscd when diameters over I~ in. up 10 3 in. are
needed. and also for anchor bolts and threaded rods.
!
High-strength bolts range in diameter from ~ to l in. (3 in. for A449). The most
common diameters used in building construction are~ in. and ~ in., whereas the most co111-
i
mon sizes in bridge design are in. and I in.
High-strength bolts are usually tightened to develop a specified tensile stress in d1em.
which results in a predictable clamping force on the joint. The actual transfcr of servicc
loads through a joint is, therefore, due to the friction developed in the pieces being joini.:d.
Joints containing high-strengrh bolts are designed either as .1-/ip-critirnl (fonnerly l'alleo
fric1io11-type), where high slip resistance at service load is desired: or as bearing-ty/1t'. wh~re
high slip resistance at service load is unnecessary.
87
88 • Cha pte r 4 Structu ral Bolts
TABLE 4.1.1 Properties of Bolts

8
8 Proof toad,
Proof load, Minimum
yield
length b tensile
strengthc
Bolt measurement strength,
method,
diameter method, ksi
ksi ksi
ASTM in. (MPa)
(MPa)
(MPa)
designation (mm}
60
AJ07 [ 2.41. low-carhon sleel j IO 4 (415)
Grade, A aod B (6.35 to 102)
120
A.125 12.5 I, high-s1rcng1.h steel 1to I 85 92
(635) {8'25 )
Types I. 2, and .1 (12.7 lo 25.4) (585)
81 105
Typ~s I. 2. and 3 I! LO q 74
(560) (725)
(28.6 to 38.1) (510}
92 120
A449 (2.6). queochcd an<l ~ IO 1 85 (825)
tcmpered sreel (6.35 {O 25.4) (585) (635)
105
(Note: AISC'1 perniits I~ to I i 74 81
(560) (7'.!5)
use only for bolts (28.6 to 38. I) (510)
larger !han I ¼in. ,1,03 55 58
(400)
90
(620:
~nd for t hreaZled rods (44.5 tu 76.2) (380)
and anchor bolts)
150
A490 [2.7), quenchcd and i to I ~ 120
(825)
130
(895) (1 035'
lemper~d alloy steel ( 127 Lo :18. 1)
8
Actual proof load and tensile load obtained by multiplying given stress value by the tensile_ stress area .
A5 : A s = 0.785 [ d 0 - (0.9743/n ) J2, w here A, "' stress area in square inches, di, =
nominai d1ameter oi bo<- 11
inches, and n e, number o-r threads per ìnch.
b0.5% extension under load.
'0.2% offset value.
dAISC-J3.1
Rivets
For rnany years rivets were thc accepted means of connecting members but today (2008)
they are virtually obsolete in the United States. Undriven rivet~ are formed from bar steel.
a cylindrical shaft with a head fonned on one end, as shown in Fig, 4. 1. I a. Rivet steel is a
mild carbon steel designated by ASTM as A502 Grade I (F,. = 28 ksi) ( 195 MPa) and
Grade 2 ( Fy = 38 ksi) (260 MPa), with the minimum specified yìeld strengths based on
bar stock as rolled. The forming of undriven rivets and the driving of rivets cause changes
in the mechanical properties.
Fi,ure4.I.I
'l)pao(f~nen. (b) (e)
Section 4.2 Historica! Background of High-Strength Bolts •
89
nsrnllation requires heating the rivet to a lighi cherry-red color, ins~rting it int~ a0
l ·' h'I h , t1me squeezm
hole and then applying prcssure to the prefonne<l head w I e at I e s.ime ·f h . "'
the plain end of the rivet 10 form a rounded bead. During t~is process the shan~ O \ ~ rivet
1
completely or nearly filJs the hole into which il had been mserted. Upon coolmg. _ e n~et
shrinks. thereby providing a clamping force. However. the arnount of clampmg pioduc~d
111
by the cooling of the rivet varies from rivet to rive! and therefore cannot be counted on
design calculations.
Unfinished Bolts
Bolrs of Low-carbon sceel designated ASTM A307 [2.41 are the least ex.pensive bo_lt. They
rnay not. however. produce the least ex.pensive conneclion since more are requ1red 111 a par-
ricular connection. Their primary use is in light strucrures, secondary orbracmg me_mbers.
platforrns, catwalks. purlins, gins. small trusses. and similar applicanons in which. the
loads are primarily small and static in nature. Such bolts are also used as temporary fittm g-
up fasteners in cases where high-strength bolts. rivets, or welding may be the pennanent
means of connection. Unfinished bolts are sometimes called common, machine, or rough
bolts and may come with square beads and square nuts.
Ribbed Bolts
Bolts of ordinary rivet steel having a rounded head and raised ribs parallel to the shank
were used for many years as an alternative to rivets. The actual diameter of a ribbed bolt is
slightly larger than the hole into whicb it is driven. In driving. the bolt actually cuts into the
edges around the hole. producing a relatively tight fit. The ribbed bolt was particularly use-
fui in bearing-type connections and in connections that had stress reversals.
A modem variation of lhe ribbed bolt is lhe inre1ference-body bolr shown in Fig. 4. l. lc,
which is of A325 holt steel and. instead of longitudinal ribs, has serraiions around the shank as
well as parallel to che shank. Because of the serrations around the shank through the 1ibs. this
bolt is often called an i111em1pted-rib bolt. Ribbed bolts are difficult to drive when severa! lay-
ers of plates are to he connected. The A325 interference-body bolr may also be more difficult
to ìnsert through severa! plates; however, ii is used when tigbt fit of the bolt in rhe hole is
desired. and ìt pennits tightening the nut without simulraneously holding the bolt head as may
be required with smooth Ioose-fining, ordinary A325 bolt~. These bolts are, however, rarely
used in ordinary steel structures.
~.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS

The first experiments indicating the possibility of using high-strength bolts in steel-framed
construction were reported by Batho and Bateman [4.1] in 1934. They concluded that bolts
with a nùnimum yield strength of 54 ksi (370 MPa) could be relied on to prevent slip
between lhe connected parts. Follow-up tests by Wilson and Thomas f4.2] substantiated
tbc earlier work by reporting that high-strength bolts smaller in diameter than the holes in
which they were inserted had fatigue strengths equal to that of well-driven rivets, provided
lhat the bolts were sufficiently pretensioned.
The next major step occurred in 1947 with the formation of the Research Council on
~iveted ~d Bolted Structural Joints. This organization began by using and extrapolating
mformatton from studies of riveted joints-in panicular. the extensive annotated 19-45 bib-
liography by De Jonge [4.3).
~y 1950 the concept of using high-strenglh bolts and a summary of research and
behav1or was presented [4.4) to practicing engineers and the steel-fabrication industry. The
90 • Chapter 4 Structural Bolts
._ . . . . . -ement of rivets with bolls on a onc-10-onc basii

first Spec1f1calton in 1951 pe1 m1tted replac.: h I , d wa, nccessary in all · . ·
.· l· sfer of l e oa · · Jh1n1
lt was con~ervatively assumed thai fnct1on ran . . .,· was establ i,hed . · . s
. . . Th f te1r of ,afely againsl s •P . . ili a h1g,h
und er serv1ce load cond1110ns. e ac_ · . .
110
sli under varying strcs~ or ,t .
cnough lcvcl ·so that good fatigue res1stance (1.e.,
. • P
·ded . . s1m1
in every JOllll. . . .1ar lo or· re,,
be
reversal occurring during many load cycles) was provi 1-
ter than that shown by riveted joints. . 1 d th se of fht . h
Jn 1954 a revision was made in the Specification to mc u e . e u. . ' was ers on
.. . -enches for 111s111ll mg bolts. Also th
I :20 slopino surfaces and to allow the use ot 1mpacl WI · • e
.. " . . b painted when the bolts were used · ,
1954 rev1s1on permmed the surfaces m contact to e . in a
. . . h f the connecllon was to be based on th
bearmg-typE! connecuon; 1.e., when the strcngt o ·e
bolt in bearing against rhe side of the hole.
.
I 19'56 M
" .. '.
r '5] .· d bolt behavior and concluded that bo1ts must have as
unse 4 ·- summa.11ze_ . b J to be efficienc and e
lngh an 1m11al rens10n as practtcable il h1gh-strength o ts were . conom.
ical. By 1960 the minimum bolt tension was increased. The beormg-type connecuon was
recognized a.san acceptablc subs1itute fora riveted connection, and the connecllon designe(j
on thc basis of slip resisrance, known then as a friction -type connection, ,,ould probabty
only be necessary when direct tension acts on the bolts or when siress reversals occur.
Also. in 1960 a simple installation procedure, known as the n,r'.i-of-tl:e-nu'. me1Jwd,
was introduced as an alternative to the torquc wrench n1elhod previousl) requ1red. The
economics of high-streogth bolting further improved when only o ne was_hc, llocatcd under
the element ( head or nut) being turned], instead of the previous ly rcquire<l lwo, cou]d be
used if the turn-of-the-nlll method was used.
In l 962 the requirement for washers was eliminated except in special situations
(4.6). In 1964 rhe higber strength A490 bolt was introduced.
The 1985 and 1988 Specifications of the Research Council on StJu,_:ural Connec.
tions (RCSC) [4.7. 4.8] changed the philosophy of design for bearing-f; . ~ co1rnections
and for friction-type coonections. now called slip-criticai connection~.... .l ·taiìed review
of the historical background is provided in the RCSC 2004 Commentary ;,1.9}. T he Guide
lo Design Criterio for Bolred and Rive1ed Joints by Kulak, Fisher, and Si,u:k 13.1] (here-
inafter referred to as the Guide) summarizes research and makes recomms:r,dations which
generally form the basis for current design of bolted connections.
4.3 CAUSES OF RIVET OBSOLESCENCE
Riveting is a method of connecting members at ajoint by inserting <lucrile metal pins imo
holes in the pieces being joined and forming a head at each end to prevent che JOint from
coming aparc. Typical types of rivets are shown in Fig. 4.3.1 (see also Fig. 4. I. I a).
Riveting required a crew of four or five experienced persons. On the other hand, the
c_rews requ_ired for high-strength bolt installation do not need to be highly skilled. lnspec-
uon was d1fficult, and cutting out and replacing bad rivets was an expensìve procedure.
Even the preheating immediately prior to driving is criticai in developino 0
rhe necessary
tightness after cooling.
The. principal factor that_ de_Iayed immediate acceptance of high-strength bohs
was the h1gh cost of the matenal mcluding two hardened washers. In the early 1950s
Figure 4.3.1
Typei; or rivcts.
L ffi ~Grip~
Aattened
head
ffi--~
head
Section 4.4 Details of High-Strength Bolts • 91
the reduced labor cost for installing bolts did not offset the higher bolt materiai coSl.
After the washers could be reduced 10 one or eliminated and the greater strength of a
bolt over that of a rivet could be utilized in design. high-strength bolts became eco~o_m-
ical. Now (2008) with even higher labor CO&t and connection design generaHy reqmnng
fewe1· bolts than would be required for rivets, lhe economy is clearly wnh h1gh-strength
bolts.
Welding, as l'rea1ed in Chapter 5, has played an import.ml role in reducing the use of
ali fasteners, both rivels and bolts.
4.4 DETAILS OF HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS

Both the most comrnonly u.'>ed A325 bolt and the occasionally used A490 bo!t urc hcavy
hexagon (hex) head bolls with heavy hexagon nms, identified by the A STM designation on
the top of the head as shown in Fig. 4.4. I.
Heavy hex bolts have ,horter threaded portions than other bolts; this reduces thc
probability of having threads occur where maximum strength is required across the ~hank
of the bolt. The heavy hex boli and nut are shown in Fig. 4.4.1. Requiremet1•.s for mark.i ng
bolts and nuts, including manul"acmrer's iden1ification, are gìve n in Fig. 4.4.2.
Tue A325 and A490 bolts are available as Types I, 2, or 3. The A3'.~:- Type l ì~ ;,.,:-
medium-carbon steel boli that has been available for many years and i~ thc onf: thai wou•d
be supplied if not otherwisc specifkd. Similady for A490, Type 1 is the usw.tl alh,-y ~,ecl
bolt. Type 2 for both A325 nnd A490 i:. a iow--carbon marcensite :,!eel alt(;r,~ti,•e t,-.. fy['è I
for atmospberic temperature applic .;t(on6. For elevated temperature appik.,,,0rs. 'typ-! l
must be used. Type 3 for botil A 325 and A490 i~ a weathering s teel boh h:iving 1.. 0~rcbion
resistance comparable to A588 weathering sL:el (sec Table 2.1. ! ).
Occasionally, ASTM A449 bolts a,e t;sed wherc clìarneters larger than l ~; HL ,u e
required.
Proof Load and Bolt Tension-Slip-Critical Conn.ection.s
Unti! the 1985 RCSC Specitìcation [4.8]. all high-strength bolts we,-e required to be-
installed wirh a sufficient prerension force to create as high a compressioa force as practi-
cal between the pieces being connected, such that shear forces were transmitted through
connections by friction between the connected pieces. That Specification relaxed the
pretension requirement when bolts are not subject to direct tension and slip resistance
between connected pieces is not required [4.8, Sec. 5].
When slip resistance is required, the pretensioning should be as high as possible
without chancing permanent deformation or faìlure of ,he bolt. Bolt materiai exhihits a
stress-strain ()oad-deformation) behavior that has no well-defined yield point, as shown in
Figure 4.4.1
lieavy he.x stnJcmra.l bolt and Nu1 may be çlwnfered
vy he.x nut. (From Ref. 4.9) on boch facca
Bolt/Nut Type I Typc3
ASTM
AJ2S boli
Tbroe radi ~•
, 120''l'lrl
®
artoptioul
ASTM
1'1852 boli
,n
~o.,
"2:5"'-
Tbree ndial too 120·..,.,.
®
~oprion.11
ASTM
A490 bol!
e.. ®..
@
Ala illdical<
©
fup wilh •3•
©
Gtodc_..
D
gradeC indicate gn,le
ASTM C3
A563nul
©) ~_..
(g)
Figure 4.4.2
Gndcmarlr
DH
DH3 I
Re4uired marks for I. XYZ repn!~cnL~ the manufac:wrer's jdcntification mark . .
acceplable boli and nut 2. ASTM P I 852 1wis1-off-1ype tension-controJ bolr assemblies are
assemblies. (From Rcf. 4.9) a lso pmduced wilh heavy-hex head rhat has simì lar n1a.rlcings.
70 , -- . , - - ~- ~----,------,------.--,
300
Min.
60
Pmof 250
load, A490
50
A325
~
I
tension
200
c. I ;z.
.,i 40 I _/ A32j -"'
\-i!
e:o - - -r- - (: proof e:
.~
·;;; : load)
e
~ I 150 .!!
e 30 I
I
.g
a,
al
l--- 2I rnm from sm~.
20
i 10\1
!
7 I
& di~Jn X "2 i n. to:rs
10 - - "Snug"
-8l_.m. tMe~t?
\ · 1n
- gnµ
.
Figure 4.4.3
Typ,cal load vs nut roration o~--'---'---'--~· __ _L... - ' __ _;
relarion~àip, for A325 and l l

,-2I ,_,,
A490 bolts. (f,rom Kulak, 4 2 4
F1~her, and S truik [3 I]) Tums frnm .sn,_,y
Fig. 4.4.3. lns1ead of dircctly u~ing ~ _yield stress ;, so-c:1l led proof load is used. The protf
/oad is the load obtained by multiplying the iensile stress area* by a yield stress estab-
lished by using either a 0.2% off~et strah or a 0.59'1) extcnsion under load (see Scc. 2.4~
The ASTM tabulate, 1his proof load for each di:nncter fastener using, for example. for !·•
09743)!
•Tensile stress a.rea ~ 0.785 ( J 1, -- ---~--·· wherc n :e :mmb,·r ,,t threutls per iach
Section 4.5 lnstallation Procedures • 93
TABLE 4.4.1 Minimum Bolt Pretension* for

Fully-Tightened Bolts
(AISCTable J3.)
Boft size A325 bolts A490 bolts
(in.) (mm) (kips) (kN) (kips) (kN)
1/2 12.7 12 53 15 67
5/8 15.9 19 85 24 lll7
314 19. I 28 125 35 156
7/8 22.2 39 173 49 218
l 25.4 51 227 64 285
I t/8 28.6 56 249 80 356
I l/4 31.8 71 3)6 102 454
I 3/8 34.9 85 378 12 1 538
l 112 38.1 l03 458 148 658
*Equal to 70% of minimum tensile strength of bolts, rounded off
to the nearest kip, as specified in ASTM Specifications for A325
and A490 bolts for UNC (unified standard coarse screw threads
under ANSI Bl.1; see A/SC Manual [1.15], J3.1 ).
1-in.-diam bolts a strain offset value of 92 ksi (630 MPa) and a length measurement value
of 85 ksi (590 MPa). The proof load stress is approximately a minimum of 70% and 80%
of lhe minimum tensile strengths for A325 and A490 bolts, respectively.
Since the early I 950s, the minimum required pretension equals the proof load for
A325 bolts. Using the turn-of-the-nut insta\lation method (discussed in Sec. 4.5) no diffi-
culty is encountered i Il obtaining proof load for these bolts with ¼tum of the nut from snug
position. as shown in Fig. 4.4.3. With che A490 bolt, however, th~ ½tum from snug may not
achieve the proof load. Also for long bolts, more than ½turn from snug will be required to
achieve the same tension as for short bolts.
A[SC (Tabie JJ. l) requires slip-criticai connections to be pretensioned to 70% of the
minimum tensile strength. as given in Table 4.4.l. This equals the proof load for A325
bolts and about 85 to 90% of proof load for A490 bolts.
The magnitudc of pretension that is desirable and necessary has been the subject of
considerablè srudy by researchers [3.1 ].
4.5 INSTALJ ;\l ION PROCEDURES
Connections Not Requiring Full Pretensioning

When slip-resistant connections are not required [4.9) and when the bolts are not subject to
direct tension, bolts are permitted ro be tightened "snug tight" . This is a tightness that
exists when ali pii es in a joìnt are in finn contact. which is further defined as the result of
"a few impacts of an impact wrench or the fu ll e ffort of a ìronworker using an ordinary
spud wrench".
Connections Requiring Full Precompression
There are four generai me thods for ìnsta lling high-strength bolts to obtain the pretension
indicated in Table 4.4.1 . These are the 111m-of-1he-nut 1ighteni11g, calibrated w~nch tigh1-
e11i11g, i11swl/a1ion ofaltemative design bolts, and direct tension indicato, tightening (4.91.
The tum-ofrhe-11ur method is the simplest. Developed in the 1950s and 1960s, thi
method o btains the specified pretension by a specified rotation of the nut from the "snug
20
300
6()
l'wsion by 1u m-of·1hc-t1ut
~
~
....2- 200
~
J
g 40
I
2
'§ - - - - - Min. rerision
I
~
0
Xl
20
J
I
I0.0403 in.
100 ..."'
o
:(48.6 kip.,)
I
Fig ure 4.5. J
Boh_c!ongations in a typjcal o
0 .00
'I
I~~! JOIOL (From Fishcr Ram- 0.02 0.04 0.06

seier, and Beedlc {4. 11 Ì) Boll elongo1ion, in.
tigh1'' condition, which causes a specified strain in th~ boli. ~ltho~gh snugn~s or U\Ìtial
tightness can vary due to 1he surface condition of tbe p1eces bemg Ughtened'. this Vari&lioa
does not significantly affect che clamping force_, as be seen from Ftg. 4.5.I. l\e mar
clamping force of 48.6 kips (220 kN) correspondmg to a 2 tum-of-the-nut occurs at a IQf.
fic ienùy large bolt elongation (i.e., along the horizontal portion of the curve) that IIDY Yari,.
ation in the initial snug tightness has an insignificant effect on the clamping fon:e.
Calibrated wrench righrening uses manual torque wrenches and power Wrencbea
adjusted to s tall at a specified torque. For a given torque, variations in bolt tension hat
been found [3. 1, p. 52] to range as high as ± 30% with an average variation of ± 10%. l\e
RCSC Specification [4.9] therefore requires that calibrawd wrenches be setto J>n>ducea
bolt tension at least 5% in excess of the va]ues specified in Table 4.4.2. Funhcnnore.
brated wrenches muse be calibrated at Jeast daily and a hardened washer musr be
under the elemenc (head or nul) being tighrened.
One ~ay wonder whethcr there is danger of having inadequate reserve strenglh
t~e pretens1on exceeds the proof load; i.e.. when it approaches 90% of tensile stre-
F1gure 4.5.2 shows the effect of v:irious tums of the nut with the margin of safety UMI,.
cated . If the calibrated wrench mcrhod is uscò. '1r<tngth ic, the criticai factor, with the lyP,
1cal safety margin shown in Fig. 4 .5.2. The po-sib:lity of ovenorquing the bolts Wilk
8(Jh d<\f\f \::01t. ·n11,

' i 6 7 3 8
,----.---- ~---=;__--,--- ·,--,---.......- -~-
, .! T11rn,
300
I 2
60 2
-I .---c.';.;;~:---1-....
Tum ofnu1
M,:, !~n ,le '"'-"'t:h __
I
50
LJ
I rum
-._
I
l, .:;;tc1y marein
for ,trength
1cahbr:11cd wtendl
40 ofnul
__i I ,
___ _ ____ .! _ lcn~iooing method)
. diam A325 t,,,11
~
4; .
20 Safc1y mar~,n for . :.·'"· gr,p
rum, of nut
ldefonnat,on)
IO
Figure 4.5.2
~325 boh behav,or. (Adapted
Irom Rumpf and Fi,her O'--(Ì~-~-7.:--~----'----J
0.0S O.IO O.IS 0.20 0.25
f4. l 2JJ
Bob elonaatioo, in.
Section 4.6 Nominai Strength of Individuai Fasteners • 95
TABLE 4.5.1 Nut Rotation 8 from SnugTight Condition (From Ref. 4.9,Table 8.2)
Disposition of Outer Face of B o lted Parts

One f ace no rmai t o Both faces sloped
Bolt Lengthc Both faces bolt axis, other not more than 1 :20
normai to sloped not more than from normai to bolt
bolt axis 1:20d axisd
Not more than

½turn ½wrn ~ ,um
4dn
M ore than 4,/h
but not more ½LUrn i tum i rum
than 8d1,
More than 8d1,
hut not more '
~tum ~tum 1 tum
than l 2db
• Nut rotati on is relative to bolt regardless of the element (nut or bolt} being turned. For
required nut rotations of ~ turn and less, the tolerance is plus or min us 30 degrees;
for required nut rotations of j turn and more, the tolerance is p lus o r m inus 45 degrees.
0
Applicable only to joints in which all materiai within the grip is steel.
0
When the boft fength ex ceeds 12db, the required nut rotation shall be determined by actua\
testing in a suita bi e tension calibrator that simulates t he conditions of solidly fitting steel.
d Beve/ed washer not used.
power wrenches is not considered a problem since such overtorquing usua\ly fractures the
bolts and they are replaced during installatìon. In the turn-of-the-nut method, deformation
is che critica] faccor wich the cypicàl safety margin shown in Fig. 4.S.2. For either installa-
Lion process, one can expect a minimum of 2 ¼rums from snug to fraccure. When the tum·
of-the-nut metbod is used and bolts are tensioned using ~ tum increments, frequently as
many as four tums may be obtained from snug to fracture. The turn-of-the-nut method is
the cheapest, is more reliable, and is generally preferred over the calibrated wrench
method. The approved [4.9] nut rotations are indicated in Table 4 .5.1.
The third generai category of installation technique, the installation of alternalive
design bolts, uses proprietary fasteners designed to indirectly indicate the bolt tcnsion or
automatically provide the required tension. A procedure for qualifying such bolts is pre-
scribed (4.9]. Sometimes the alternative design feature is a twist-off or yielding-type
element.
The fourth category is the direct tension indicator tighlening. Again, a procedure is
specified [4.9] to qualify such devices. Typically, a hardened washer is used containing a
number of protrusions on one face. The washer is insened between tbc elem.ent being
tumed (head or nut) and the gripped materiai with the protrusions bearing against lhe
underside of the element leaving a gap ma intained by the protrusions. Upon tightening tbc
bolt, the protrusions are flatte ned and the gap is reduced. The bolt tension is determined by
measuring (using a feeler gage) the re maining gap, which for properly tensioned bolts will
be about 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) or less [4.13].
In ali cases, installa tion must begin at the most rigid part of tbc connection and
progress systematically towanl the least rigid areas.
6 NOMINAL STRENGTH OF INDIVIDUAL FASTENERS

Loads are transferred from one member to another by means of the connection betw•
them. A few typical connections are shown in Fig. 4.6.1.
96 • Chapter 4 Structu ral Bolts
I I
- f - 1T
1---...:.t.:.1,1:_:..:.:.:.:."ji-
\. - - -
But1join1
(d<,uble shear)
L ap_joinl
(single shear)
(a> She ar conne.&tions
w section
(b) Eccenrric shear

i l
'
SIJ\IClllr&I te•
(e) Tension connectiom
connecrion
l)
Figure 4.6.1
lypical bolted connecrions. [d) Cornbined shear and tension connections
The simplest device for rransferring load from one steel piece to another is with a
(a cylindrical piece of steel) inserced in holes that are aligned in the two pieces as
Fig. 4.6.2. The cotter pins shown would prevent the pin from sliding out. Load
transferred by bearing of the shank of che pin against the side o f the hole. From the
bodies of the pin il may be noted the transfer between plate A and B is actually made'
shear on the pin (the slight rotatìon of the pin due t.o unbalanced moment would be
tively negligible). There would be negligible fr:ction between plates A and B. 1be
steel structures, particularly trusses. were acwa:!y connected by pins.
Plate ~ a
Pla1cR
-----:r=~----....J -- p
Free body pla1e A
\
p - 1-Ì_ _ _J..:::
P
rrp··...
~
$~P_I
F,ee boJy
0. ,- ,
I ·~ -
p }E: ____~)(_.,_?
.._""'=-.,_ h ~lll)d,e..:
of w .ti·1ns
Figure 4.6. 2 \ Pree body plate 8 of ;,in
rran~fer of ioa<l in pin showing shcar
<.'•innecuon, . transfer
Section 4.6 No m i nai Strength of lndivldoel FHtener• • 87
l'l,uc-,,.
___ H 1g.h-strcngth holt
r
I
I
I
Plat~ fl
-
p
J'l\.-..· b<.•dv ~
pli11cÀ lT
:_ <
~ --\--=:::;:':==:;:j~
I I ~T
T = tcnslk forcc
µ T = fri<:lìonnl rcsìs.1,,o~e- ~ -Th•..., •••oo
µ = ..:oclYkir-nt of frìclil\ll
p " /J. 7°
• T Free bocly
µ. 1. •e!::::,!j;:,:=;=l='-p-la_1\1._B_ _ ~ p
1· ! : ?-
Figu_n, .J.6 ..1 ' I
rt
Tr;ns fer of load in
prerensioned high-srreng rh
tx,lte<l .:vru1ect ion . e
When a high-strength bolt is installed 10 havc a specitìed initial tension, thcre will be an
iniri:ll precompression between the pieces bcing joincd, as shown in Fìg. 4.6.3. A transfer of
plalt' tension load~ P as showu in Fig. 4.6.3 may 1hen occur entirely via fricrion at SCIVicc-
load levels. ;md there may be no bearing of the bolt shank against the sidc of tbc hole. Untit
the friction force µ.T is overcome. the shear strength of tbe bolt and tbc bearing strcngth ofthe
platc will 1101 affect the ability to transfer load across thc shear piane between plates.
The AISC !))ecìftcation [ 1.13] rerngnizes two ge neral categoòes of performance
requirernent for high-strength bolted connections. for many years known as bearing-type
and.fi-h'tio11-t.1JJ/'. Thc 1986 LRFD and 1989 ASD Specifications renamed the friction-type
connection as a sli11-critical connection.
The strength of ali high-strength bolted connectìons in transmitting shear fon:es
~,cross a shear piane between steel elements is the same whether the connc.ction is a
beari11g-N1t' or a slip-criticai connectio n. The slip-critical connection with standard holes
or slot~ transverse to the direction of the load is to be designed for slip as a serviccability
limit state. and will be des ig ned for slip at the required strength level fora connection with
oversized holes or slots parallel to the directio n of the load.
The possible ..limit states." or fa ilure modes. that may control the sttength of a bolted
rnnnection are shown in Fig. 4.6.4.
Tensile Strength of Fasteners
In accordance w ith the fracture limit state in tensio n discussed in Sec. 3.1 and the failure
mode shown in Fig. 4 .6.4e. the nominai strength Rn (here using Rn instead of T n> of ODO
fastener in te nsion is
[3.2.2)
whcre F!;
= te nsile strength of the tx,lt materiai. Tbc net area sbould be lbe . . An
throug h thc threade<l portion of lhe bolt, known a.e; the "tensile stress arca"*. l'he radoof•
2
0.9743) .
•1t·rh1lc ,tre,, arra -= 0.785( d~ - - -- ~re ,r = nwnberofdnads per iDcb.
11
(b) Shear fai Iure or platc

( •) She.r failure of bolt
-¾-6))~- ["-Jl
( d} Bearing fsilure or platc

(e) Bc:aring failure of boh
~ '1,L~ ~-
___ _ __,l
Figure 4.6.4
(g) Tensile failure of plare
Possible motles of fai Iure of (e) Tensile failurc ( f) Bending failure of bolts
bolred conoecrions. of bohs
·
cens1le stress area to the gross area A b rangesfrom075to0.79.Thus
· ' intermsoftbe
area Ab of one bolt. Eq. 3.2.2 becornes
R,, == F7,(0.75A1,)
which can be writle1! as:
wherc Ft = tensile strcr,l:!~, of ''le bo!l i.),tteriat

Ab == gross cnY~·Stc:t:<,nai are-n <.-if ù"~ b)J!t
Fnt =- 0 0.75F ,~.1:c r!ù :1l tt>Pqlt: ~!.r..:s!< d . ,Ile b-Oi• ii.$ given in AISC Table )3.2
Shear Strength of l-a~tene,·s
In accordance wi.th the r'rne'(l!J e limii ~t,;1k 3'> Ùìe ù ,.l S!~ for f~ tener strength and tbc
mode shown in Fig. -1.6.4a. tb:: ENn1.nal uength R11 for one fastener will be the
shear stress Tu across thc g('JSS area ·"-b
of the bolt :imes the number m of shear planes;
R11 -- mAt,(0
'. .62Fu_;
b\
which c an be written as:
where F 11v is the nominai shear stress of the boh as given in AISC-Table J3.2.
Note that the ultimate (nonùnal) shear strength was found experimentally [
about 62% of ultimate tensile strength, about the same ratio as for tbe ·
between shear and Lension (see Sec. 2.6).
- ----
Section 4.7 Load and Resistance Factor Design- Bolts • 99
Plate thickne.ss I
"
Figure 4.6.5
Bearing ~u-e ngth re lated to d
2 ---j ,
l -L, - 1
I
end disrance.
Bearing Strength
The bearing limit state relates to excessive deformation around a bolt hole, as shown in Fig.
4.6.4d. A shear tcar-om failure as shown in Fig_ 4.6.4b is closely related to a bearing failure.
The bearing strength R,, is the force applied against the side of a hole to split or tear
the plate. The larger the end clear distance Le, measured from the edge of the hole to the
edge of the plate, the smallcr the possibility of having a splitling failure.
Referring to Fig. 4.6.5 , the actual tearing would occur along lines 1-1 and 2-2. As a
lower bound for strength, thc angle a could be taken as zero, and the edge distance could
be taken as the clear distance, giving the nomina! strength Rn as
Rn = 2tLc're (4.6.4)
where Tf, = shear strength of plate materiai :::::: 0.62F"
F,, = tensile strength of plate materiai
L ,. = clear dìstance along the line of force, from edge of connected pan to the
edge of the hole or the clear distance between holes.
Thus,
R,, = 2tLc(0.62 Fu) (4.6 .S)
R,, = 1.24F 1Le11 (4.6.6)
which applies for a single bolt hole or for the bolt hole nearest the edge when there are two
or more bolt holes in the line of force.
Experience and tradition recommends that the preferred m inimum center-to-center
spacing of bolts be 3 bolt-diameters [AISC-13.3). When L e = 2 .Sd ,s used in Eq. 4.6.6, the
nominai bearing strength becomes
(4.6.7)
which is the basic expression when tear-out is prevented. When a bearing stre ngth repre-
sented by Eq. 4.6.7 is achie ved, and no rupture occurs, the elongation of the hole may be
excessive. Thus, Eq. 4.6.7. should be used only when defonnation around the hole is not of
concem. Prefera bly lower strengths should be used.
7 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN-BOLTS

The gene rai philosophy of Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) was described in
Secs. 1.8. and 1.9. Equation 1.8. l gives the structural safety requirement, as follows:
tf>R11 2: ~ y;Q; {1.8.1)

where tf> = resistance factor (strength reduction factor)
R11 = nomina] resistance (strength)
1OO • Chapter 4 Structural Bolts
')'; = overload factors (ASCE 7-05)

· d · d Joad earthquake load) or load ·f~
Q· = loads (such as dead loa<l. ltve 1oa , wm • . e C<.1~
' .
(such as bendmg moment, shear. nxta
· I fòrce • and tors1ona1moment resuJting
fro111 the various loads)
· . . h ,1,.R to egual o r e)(ceed the summati
E,quauon 1.8.1 requires the de.ng11 stre11,?t 'Y II on or
facrored loads, or specifically for fasteners, Eq. 1.8.1 becomes
<f>Rn ;a: P11 (4.7.\)
where </J = resistance factor. 0.75 for fracture in teosion. shear on high-sirength bolts.
and bearing of bolt against side of hole
R,, = nominai strength of one fastener
P" = factored load on one fastener
Since the loading is not related to the type of member, such as tension membcr or
column. the various loa<l factor combinations given in ASCE 7-05 are the same forali
members in the stnicture. However. the resistance factor 4' accounts for the possibility thai
1he actual strength of thc t'astener (or member) ,:nay be Jess t.han the_ theoretica\ly computed
s trength becau~e of variations in ma1erial properties and d1mens1onal tolerances. Thesc
variutions. while individually wirhin acceptcd tolerance limits, may combine in the actuat
structure to give a srrength less than the computed valuc. Neither the 'P factor nor the ovcr.
load factors y are intended 10 account for careless errors in design or construction.
The strength of a fastener may be based on ( I) shear. (2) bearing, (3) tension, or (4) com-
bined shear and tensio n. TI1e nominai s1rengths in tension. shear, and bearing were presented in
Sec. 4.6.
Design Shear Strength-No Threacls in Shear Planes
The nominai shear strength R,, for a single t'astener, given by Eq. 4.6.2, was used by thc
1986 LRFD Specification along with a c/.> fa.:tor of 0.65 10 obtain the d esign shear strength
for connection design. Tbe 0.65 is lower than rhc e!> fac1or normally used for shear-related
behavior because of the calibration of the methuJ LO experimental results and past design
pracrice. Particularly, the strc:ig1h of long connec• in,1s. up to 50 in.• is lower than indicateci
by the sum of che strengths of individmil fasti:n·:!: . AISC indicates no explicit adjustmem
for long connections uules~ th~y cxceed Sù 111.
Since the 1993 LRFD S perifi..:arion a v,,h,l' of r/, = O. 75 has been adopted, the com-
monly used </> factor for shear. Thi!: drnngc ;equirf, ihc no minai shear strength per fastener
be re~uce<l to account for thc approxi•natcly '.1.(ll,; rduc1ion in strength of connections up
to 50 m. long (see Ref. 3.1. p. I00).
Thus, the nominai strength in ~hcar i~ t~!:.1:i·, at 0.8 of that g iven by Eq. 4.6.2,
R,, = [reJuction for connection ìength ](0.62F!)mAb

= (0.8)(0.62F(;)mA1, = (0.50Ft)m Ab (4.7.2)
where 0.50Ft defines the values of F,,v as given ir, thc Table of AISC-J3.2 when tluads
are cxcluded from the shear planes and the design strength is
<J,R11 = 0.75FniJnAt, (4.7.3)

where e/> = O.75, rhe standard </> vatue for shear
F! == tensile strength of the boli material ( 120 ksi for A325 bolts; 150 bi far
A490bolts)
Seetion 4.7 load and Resistanee Factor Design-Bolts • 101
111 = the number of shear planes panicipating [usually one (single shear) or
two (dnuble s hear) as in Fig. 4 .6. la]
Ai, = gro~s cross-sectional area across the unthreaded shank of the boli
F nv = nominai shear stress of fasteners (AISC Table J3.2)
Design Shear Strength-Threads in Shear Planes

When threads are in the shear piane, the area at the root of the threads should be used in
piace of Ab, The thread root area is approximately 70% to 75% of the gross (shank) area.
The nominai shear strength then becomes
R,, = [reduction for connection length )(0.62Ft)m(0.75Ab)

= (0.8)(0.62Ft)m(0.75Ab) = (0.37Ft)mAb (4.7.4)
Because both the 0.8 connecrion length effect and the 0.75 for area through the threads are
approximate. the 2005 A/SC Specifìcation uses
R,. = (0.40Ft)mAt, (4.7.5)
where 0.40Ft defines the value of F,.., as given in the Table of AISC-J3.2 when threads are
included and the design snength is
q,R" = 0.7SF,11;111A1, (4.7.6)
Design Tension Strength
The design strength cpRn based on rhe tension strength of 1/re fas1e11er, according to AISC-
13.6 and dcveloped as Eqs. 4 .6.1, is.
(4.7.7)
or
cpR,. = O. 75F111 Ai, (4.7 .8)
where rf, = 0.75, a value for the tensile fracture mode as discussed in Chap. 3
F7, = tensile strength o f the bolt materiai ( 120 ksi for A325 bolts: 150 ksi for
A490 bolts)
Ab = gross cross-sectional area across the unthreaded shank. of the bolt
F n, = nominai tensile stress of fasteners (AISC Table J3.2)
Note that the 0.75Ab represents the area through the threaded ponion ofthe bolt. AISC-Table
13.2 indicates that the ''Tensile Strength" is 90 ksi and 113 lesi, for A325 and A490 bolts,
respective ly; that is, 0.75Ft. As is apparent from Eq. 4.7.7, multiplying the gross area Ab by
0.75Ft gives the correct value for R11 • Using the reduced stress on the gross area gives the
same result as using the correct stress on the reduced area.
The design strengths for tension and shear on A325 and A490 bolt.,; are suQ111U1111.ed
in Table 4.7. l.
Design Bearing Strength
The hole bearing strength is controlled either by tear-out (a bolt to bolt block sbew npbllt)
or by bearing defonnation (4.9). The bearing strengtb limit state is defined bued Oll lJII
TABLE 4. 7.1 Design Strength* of A325 and A49o

- - - - - ~H~ig~h~-_::S:::t:_: -:--:::-=:----;;-;:=::=:~
re:_:n_'.:g: t:'._h'.._B=o:_:lt:s_ _ __ _
Shear stren;;--
Tension strength
(ksi) (ksi)
P.: <f> = 0.75 == 0.75
Fastener (ksil
A325 bohs. wheo thread, ,f>(0.75 Ft) cf,(0.40 F):)

are 1w1 excluded from o.75(48) = 36.o
120 0.75(90.0) = 67.5
shear planes
A325 bolts. when threads <f,(0.50 Ft)
,f>(0.75 Ft)
are excludcd frorn shear 0.75(60) = 45()
piane., 120 0.75(90.0) = 67.5
A490 bolls. when rhreads <f>(OA0 Ft)
tJ>(0.75 Ft)
are 1101 cxcluded from 0.75(60) == 45.0
shcar planes 150 0.75(113) = 84.8
A490 bolrs, when <hreads ,f>(0.50 Ft)

cf,(0.75 Ft)
are excluded frorn shear 0.75(75) == S6.3
planes 150 0.75( 113) = 84.8
' Design strength <J>Rn equals stress in table times gross bolt cross-sectional area Ab,
of hole and/or acceptability of hole ovalization. AISC-13.1 O defines the various categoncs
of nominai bearing strength as follows:
1. For a bolt in a connection with standard, oversized, and short-sloned holes, indc.
pendent of the direction of loading, or a hole with a slot parallel to the direction
of the bea.ring force:
(a) When deformation at the bolt hole at service load is a design consideration,
according to AISC Formula (B-6a)
(4.7.9)
(b) When deformation at the bolt hole at service load is not a design considera-
cion, according to AISC Fo1mula (J3-6b)
R,. = t.5L<.t F,. s: 3.0dt Fu (4.7.lO)
2. Fora bolt in a connection with long-slotted holes with the slot pe-.,:,endicular to
the direction of the force, according to AISC Fom1Ula (J3-6c)
R,, = I.OLcrF 11 5 2.0dt F 11 (4.7.11)
d= nominai diameter of bolt at unthreaded area

= thickness of part against which bolt bears
t
Fu = tensile strength of connected pmt against which bolt bears
Le = clear distance, in the direction of the force, between the edge of the hole
and the edge of the adjacent hole
The design bearing strength is tf,R" where </, = 0.75.

The design equations are based on the models presented in the Guide L3.1), wbae
have shown thai a tocai elongation equa! to dìameter d is produced when the nominai
equals 3.0d,Fu. The lower limit value of 2.4d1F11 in Eq. 4.7.9 provides a bearmc
Section 4.7 Load and Resistance Factor Design-Bolts • 103
limit state thnt is attainable at a reasonable defonnation of 1-in. When long-slotted holes are
01iented perpendicular lo the direction of load. the bending componenl of the defonnation in
the materiai between adjacent holes or between lhe hole and the edge of the plate is
increased. Hence the maximum nominai bearing strength is 2.0drFu in Eq. 4.7.ll, which
again provides a bearing strength lirnit state that is attainable at a reasonable defonnaùon.
Minimum Spacing of Bolts in Line of Transmitted Force
When the spacing of bolts in the dìrcction of the transmìtted force is at least 3 bolt-diamcters,
the defined upper limìl for ali three conditions dictates the nominai bearing strength for
each case. Expressing Eqs. 4.7.9, 4.7.10, and 4.7 .11 as:
(4.7.12)
where K = 1.2, 1.5. or I.O. Solving Eq. 4.7. I 2 for Le gives the minimum distance from the
edge of one fastener to the edge of the adjacent hole,
L > _R_n_
(4.7.13)
e - KFuf
Then, adding the radius dt,!2 of the hole to Eq. 4.7.13 gives the minimum center-to-center
spacing,
R,.
Spacing = -- + d1, (4.7 .14)
K F;,t
Becausc R,. in Eq. 4.7 .14 is the required nominai strength. wbich equals the factored
load P acting on one bolt divided by the resistance factor q,. Eq. 4.7.14 [AISC-B.10]
becomes
. p
Spacmo = --- + dh (4.7.15)
., <J,KFu1
where <f> = O. 75
P = factored Joad acting on one bolt
F,, = tensile strength of plate matt:rial
t = thickness of plate materiai
d1, = diameler of the hole
The minimum spac ing of bolts in a line is preferably [AISC-13.3) 3 bolt diameters
and shall not be less than 2} diameters.
Minimum End Distance in Direction of Transmitted Force

The edge distance is the clear dìstance plus half the diameter of the hole. Using Eq. 4.7.13,
the minimum end distance Le can be expressed as follows
L 2!l!.!!__ + dh (4.7.16)
e KFut 2
where the required nominai strength is the factored load divide.d by the rcsistance factor 4,.
Thus, Eq. 4.7.16 becomes
p d,.
L >rJ,KF,J
e -
--+- 2
(4.7.17)
1o4 • Chapter 4 Structural Bolts
where </J = 0.75

p = factored load acting on one boh
F~ = tensile strength of plate materiai
t = thickness of plate materiai
dh = diameter of che hole
K = 1.2, 1.5, or LO, according to AISC-13.10
Tue end distance actually used muse be the larger of that computed from a strcn
requirement and the minimum prescribed by Table 4.7.2 [AlSC Table 13.4}. gth
Equations 4.7.12 thr~ugh 4.7.17 are ~esign equation~ giving r~uired spacing al'l(j
end distance; AISC-J3. I O g1ves 1hose equatlons as R,, equauon~ assummg_ lhe spacing <llld
end distance is known. The designer will usually want to obtam lhe spacmg and end dis.-
tance necessary to carry the given factored loads /~
Maximum Edge Distance

In accordance with ATSC-13.5, che maximum distance from the center of a bolt 10 lhe
nearest edge is 121, where t is the thickness of the connected part, and this edge distanee
may not exceed 6 in. The purpose of this requirernent is to prevent corrosion resulri
from mois ture e n1ering the joint. The two contact s urfaccs of a joint may not be perfeci
fla1, and the clamping action will be lower when the bolts are far apart (or far from ~
edge).
TABLE 4.7.2 Minimum Edge Distances* (Center of

Standard Hole** to Edge of Connected Part)
(Adapted from AISCTable J3.4)
Minimum edge distance
Nominai At rolled edges of

rivet or bolt At sheared plates, shapes or bars,
diameter edges or gas cut edgest
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
1/2 12.7 7/8 22.2 3/4 19.1

5/8 15.9 I l/8 28.6 7/8 22.2
3/4 19.1 I 1/4 31.8 1 25.4
7/8 22.2 1 112* 38.1 1 1/8 28.6
I 25.4 I 3/4+ 44.5 I 1/4 31.8
I l/8 28.6 2 50.8 I 1/2 38.1
I 1/4 31.8 2 1/4 57.2 1 5/8 41.3
Over I 1/4 Over 31.8 13/4 x diam 11/4 X diam
• Lessar edge distances are permitted to be used provided formulas from AISC.J3.tO,a
appropriate, are satisfied.
*" When oversize or slotted holes are used, see AISC-J3.5.
I
t AII edge distances in this column may be reduced in. (3.2 mml when the hole 1s et a
point where factored load does not exceed 25% of the maximum design etrength in lhl
element.
trhese are permitted to be 1 ¾in. at the ends of beam connectlon angles and lhelrtnd
plates.
Sect.ion 4.8 Examples-Tension Member Bearing-Type Connections-LRFD • 105
Maximum Spacing of Bolts

The max.imum longitudinal spacing of bolts between elements in continuous contact when
the elements consist of a plate and a shape. or rwo plates. is given by AISC-B.5.
a. For painted members or unpainted members noi subject ro corrosion,
s ,,; 24t ,,; 12 in. (4.7.1&)
b. For unpainted members of weathering steel subject to aunospheric corrosion

s ,,; 141 ,,; 7 in. (4.7.19)
where i is the thickness of the thinner element.
4.8 EXAMPLES-TENSJON MEMBER BEARING-TYPE

CONNECTIONS-LRFD
The following examples illustrate the AISC Load and Resistance Design Method for con-
nections of tension members. The principles related Lo member strength are discussed in
Sec. 3.9 and tbose that are fastener related are in Sec. 4.7.
EXAMPJ'..E 4.8.1,
Compule the tensile service load capacity for rhe bearing-type connection of two members
in Fig. 4.8.1 if (a) the bolt rhreads are excluded from the shear plane and (b) the bolt
t.hreads are included in the shear piane. Use AISC Specificarion-LRFD Method with
~-in.-diam A325 bolts in standard holes anù A572 Grade 50 steel plates. The service live
load is three times the service dead load.
Solution:
(a) Threads excluded from shear piane. Pirst compute lhe strength of the plates as
tension members (Chapter 3):
Ag = 6(0.625) = 3.75 sq in.

An = [6 - 2G + ½) ]o.62S = 2.50 sq in.
A, = An = 2.50 sq io.
1.!. 3
2
o o
r- -r
o o
As,umc standard
siuholes
Figure 4.R. I
Example 4.8.1.
1 OG • Chapter 4 Structural Bolts
The.n. using Eqs. 3.9.2 and 3.9.3 gives

<J>T n = <f,F-'A11 = 0.90(50)(3.75) = 169 kips
c/,T,, = ,J,F.,Ae = 0.75(65)(2.50) = 122 kips (controls)
The action of rhe cntire connection is a shear transfer of load between the two plates
The piane of contaci may be thought of as the shear piane. When there is a single piane of
contaci involved in the load transfer. it is referred to as "single shear."
The design strenglh of cl1e bolts in shear and bearing must be computed using Eqs. 4.7.3
and 4.7.9.
The design strengt.h q,Rn per bolt in single shear for A325-X* is
r:pR11 = ,J,F,,vmAb (4.7.3}

= 0.75(60)(1)0.6013 = 27.1 kips/bolt
[Le= 1.5 - (½)(¾ + 1

~) = 1.031 < [2d = 1.75}
Since L .. 'j, 2d the design bearing strength for each bolt is
<J>R,, = </>( I .2Lct F.,)

= 0.75(1.2)(1.63)(0.625)(65) = 37.7 kips/bolt
Note thai for bearing strength, F., is the tensile strength of the plate materiai, i.e., 65 lesi for
A572 Grade 50. Thus, she.ar controls and the design strength per bolt is 27 . I kips. Tue total
design strength based on the bolts the n becomes
,:f>T11 = (number of fasteners )R,. = 4(27.1) = 108 kips

Because the single shear bolt design strength ( ,:f>T,, = 108 kips ) is lower than
the pi ate design strength as a tension member ( <f>T,, = 122 kips).
<f>T,, = 108 kips (for A325-X)

The 1.5 in. end distance provided sacisftes the minimum for sheared edge ( 1½ in.)
given in Table 4.7.2.
!3lock shear strength is not checkeò here (see Sec. 3.6); it is not likely to conlrol
when ~- in. thickness ofpieces is used.
To relate the design strength to the service load, Eq. 3.9. l must be useò
[3.9.l]
Setting the factored service load Tu equaJ to the design strength cf,T11 will givc the maxi-
mum acceptable service load. Using the gravity dead and live load factored load
Tu = l.2D + l.6L
Substituting into Eq. 1.8.3 the live load L as three times the dead load D, and using +r1
108 lcips in Eq. 3.9. l gives
t/,T11 = T,,
108 = 1.2D + 1.6(3D) == 6.0l>
•standard desipalion for an A325 bolt in a beariq-type COlllleClioo widl llnldl

Section 4.8 Examples-Tension Member Bearing-Type Connections-LRFD • 107
D = l8kips
L = 3D = 54 kips
Thus. the maximum totaJ service load T permìtted is
T = D + L = 18 + 54 = 72 kips (for A325-X)

(b) Threads included in shear piane. The bolt design strength in single shear is
less than computed in part (a). The design strength </>R,. per bolt in single shear for
A325-N* is
= 0.75(48)(1)0.6013 = 21.6kips/bolt
Strengrh in single shear again governs. since there are no changes in the net section tension
member strength, or in bearing strength. Since <J>R,. is 0.8 of that in part (a). the service
load capaciry T is
T = 0.8(72) = 57.6 kips (for A325-N) •

EXAMPLE 4.8.2
Determine the number of ¾-in.-diam A325 bolts required to develop the full strength of
A572 Grade 65 steel plates in Fig. 4.8.2 (a portion of a double lap splice connection) for a
bearing-type connection with rhreads excluded from the shear planes. Use AISC-LRFD
Meù1od and assume a double row ofbolts with standard size holes.
Solution:
It is determined by inspection that the cross-sectional area of the center plate is less than
rhe sum of the areas of the two outer plates. Therefore, in this case one need check only the
strength of the center plate:
A,, = [6 - 2(¾ + D]o.375 = l.59 sq in.

Max A,, = 0.85Ag = 0.85(6)0.375 = 1.91 sq in.
Ae = A11 = 1.59 sq in.
1
2
=,- -:---<-;-#----,: -
A572 Grade 65 steel
Plates{ X 6 / Plate ÌX6
1-
(ì. ofbolts
r
14 diam bo1ts
I
-~----------
1
Figure 4.8.2
r- I
_.....,_
I
I _________ _ -r
I
Example 4.8.2. I
Then using Eqs. 3.9.2 and 3.9.3 gives

</JTn = </>FyAI/ = 0.90(65)(6)0.375 = 132 kips
</>Tn = cf>FuA, = 0.75(80)1.59 = 96 kips (controls)
Thus, the design strengrh in double s hear (per bolt) is
<l>R,, = ef,FnvmAb = 0.75(60 )(2)0.4418 = 39.8 k.ips/bolt

Assume bearing scrength Eq. 4.7.9 controls, i.e._, the cl~ edge diJ1_ance or s_pacing is
equa! to or greater than 2d. Then the design strength m bearmg on the s-tn. plate 1s
</>Rn = </>(2.4Fudt) = 0.75(2.4)(80 )(0.75)0.375 = 40.5 kips/bolt

96
Number of bolts = -39.8- = 2.4
The end distance must beat Jeast 1.25 in. in accordance wilh Table 4.7.2.
Use 4 - ¾-in.-diam A325 bolts (A325-X).
!he block shear limit s tate should also be checked; however, since bearing does not contro!
m other regards, che shear rupture mode is unlikely to contro].
1
EXAMPLE 4.8.3
De~ermine the number of ¾-in.-diam A325 bolts in s~andard ~ize holes r~quired to cany
7 kips d~ad load and 43 kips live load on the plates m Ftg. 4.~.3 1f ~36 steel 1s used. Assume
the port1on of the double lap s plice is a bearing-type connecuon w1th threads exc)uded froin
t.he shear p lanes, and a double row of bolts is used. Use the AISC-LRFD Method.
Solutwn:
The factored load T n that must be carri ed is
Tn = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.3(7) + l.6(43) = 77k.ips

ln this example, the cenrer plate will control the tension strength:
A8 = 10(0.25) = 2.5 sq in.
An = [10 - 2(¾ + ~) )0.25 = 2.06 sq in.

Max An = 0.85A8 = 0.85(2.5) = 2.13 sq in .
. ·. A,. = An = 2.06 sq in
I
7
r-- -- - -- - -- --<~~ Plate, 4 x t0
2
L
2-r _ - ....._
e _ _________ / __J ==-- 1- T
fì. of bohs
r-
--r-----------
I
1
Fi,-w4.8.3 I -r
& .... ~...3. ---t----------
Section 4.8 Examples-Tension Member Bearing-Type Connectìons- LRFD • 109
c/>T,, = tj)FYAK = 0.90(36)2.50 = 81 kips (controls)

</J7;, = <l>F,,A, = 0.75(58)2.06 = 90 kips
and this exceeds the factored load on the members (i.e.• tj)T,, 2: Tu),
For shear. usìng A325-X.
c/>R,, = tj)F,,,/IIA1, = 0.75(60)(2)0.4418 = 39.8 kips/bolt

For bearing on lhe ¼-in. plate. when L,. > 2d.
q,R,, = c/>(2.4F,,dr) = 0.75(2.4)(58)( 0.75)0.25 = 19.6 kìps/bolt
Number of bolts = _]}._ = 3.9 V se 4 bolts

19.6
The block shear rupture limit state should also be checked; particu\arly here. since the
plate O-in.) is thin and heavily loaded. Referring to Fig. 4.8.4, the preliminary arrangemenl
for four bolts is to use 2 in. edge distances at the sides and end, and 3 in. longitudinal spacing.
1,..
e
_ 1_·-
T.
6"
Figure 4.8.4
Block shcar fai iurt: on pia!e
T
of Ex ampie 4.8.J.
Investigate the block shear strength of the resulting arrangement usìng AISC-J4.3.
The block shear potential fai Iure paths a-b-c and d-e-f of Fig. 4.8.4 must be investi-
gat·cd <1ccording to AISC-J4. Calculating the net areas A,.,, and A,..,
A,111 = ( length b-c and e-f !ess 1.5 holes) thickness
= 2[ 5 - 1.s(¾ + 0]0.25 = 1.84 sq in.

A,., = (length a-b and d-e less 0.5 holes) thickness
= 2[2 - o.s(¾+ !) )o.25 = 0.78 sq in.
Compare
= 0.6.F,,Anv + F,.UbsA :S. [Rn = 0.6FyAgv + FJJ1nA11,]

[R11 11, ]
Rn = 0.6FuAnv + FJlbsA 111 = 0.6(58)1.84 + 58(1.0)0.78 = 109.3 kips

Rn = 0.6FyAgv + FuUb.sA,1, = 0.6(36)(2(5)0.25] + 58( l.0)0.78 = 99.2 kips
.·. R = 99.2 kips
11
,t,R,. = 0.75(109.2) :::: 74 kips

Thus, block sbear (74 kips) does control over lenSion yieldin1 on grou secd4lll
design streogth is lesa lhan the factored load (77 kips) that must be cmm4
unsatisfactory.
11 O • Chapter 4 Structural Bolts
4.9
SLIP-CRITICAL JOINTS
When slip resistance at service load is desired, the joint is r~ferred (o as a s/ip-cri1ica/ )oi
Slip-criticai joints are normally used when joints are subJected to reversing fatigue 10 nr.
Joints that. use oversized or slotted holes para Ilei to che applied load, or Joims in Which 5~'.1·
would be detrimental to the performance of che str°.cmre. In the _1978 "';lSC Specificatio:
such connections were cerrnedfrìclion-type connectwns. Ali tensioned h.igh-strength bo) •
connections actually resist Joad by friction . Refe~ng to Fig. 4 .6.3, the prete~sion forcc ~
the b~lt ~quals the clamping force between th~ p1eces ~e1:ng Jomed. The res1stance to shear
1s a fncnonal farce µT, where µ, is the coeffic1ent of fncuon. .
The coefficient of friction or more properly the slip coefficient, depends on lhe
• . . . f sur.
fa~e- condition, wìth such items as mili scale, ml, pamt, or spec1a1 sur ace treatment, deter.
mmmg th.e value of µ,.
Slip is delined as occurring when " the friction bond ìs definitely broken and the tv.s
surfaces slip with respect to one another by a relatively _large amount" (4.14]. Tue range 0~
µ, varies from 0.2 to 0.6 depending on the surface cond1t10n (3.1 J. .
.. - .
To avoid directly usino the coefficient of friction and to permll de~ign of slip-cn't·
. .
JOrnts using the same generai approach as for beanng-type connect10ns, the fnccion force
. ~
µ,T is divided b y the bolt gross cross-sectional area Ab to obtarn a so-called "shear Stress"
on the bolt.
EXAMPLE 4.9.1
Determine the amount of force p required ro cause slip of a ~-in.-diam A325 bolt loadedas
in Fig. 4.9. l, if the slip coefficient µ. is 0.33 (a typical value for the usual "clean mili scale•
surface condition). Using the service load force P. compute the "shear stress",/v = P/Ai.
Figure 4.9.1
Example 4.9. 1.
Solution:
Using the pretension loacl from 'fahk ,L-4. l ,
Tb =- 39 kip:,
P = µ,Tb = G..B (39) = 12.9 kips
Since the overaH action of the connection is a shearing effect, the "shear stress" J,ìa
the ~-in.-diam bolt at the load causing slip to bcgin ì,;,
P 12.9 .
f,, = Ab = 0.6013 = 21.4ks1
The A/SC Specification [ 1.16] uses the slip limit state (a serviceability limit state)
the criterion for design. Adeguate slip resistance must be provided in joints wherc slip
service load cannot be tolerated. The actual failure of bolts in a joint will be as disc
Sec. 4.6; that is, a shear failure of the bolts, or bearing failure in the connected
Slip is considered criticai when it causes excessive distortion, or anywbeR
of clamping action is considered undesirable. The strength cf>Rn of the connec:tioll •
ally sufficient to resist design loads, though it must be checked.
Section 4.9 Slip-Criti cai J o ints • 111
AISC-JJ.R pcm1its high strength bohs in slip-criticai jomts to be designed IO prcvcnt

slip c:ither ,1s ,1 .~crvic-cability limit state or at thc rcquireù strcngth limit Siate. Regardles_s ~f
thc design li mìt s tare uscd. the inrent is thc prevention o f slip at servicc loads. Bo th hmH
statc•.s wcrc c;ilibratcd ro give the same rcliability and safety. AISC-J3.8 recommends that
s lip-criLical <:onnecrions wirh standard holcs or slotted holes pcrpcndicular to thc direction
of thc force be dcsigncd based on scrviccr1bili1y. Any slip rhat may occur in s uch conncc-
rions will cause minor changes in rhc gcometry and. rherefore. will nor compromise the
basic assumption used for analys is. Connections with oversi7.cd holcs or with slotted holes
parallel ro rhc load are requircd 10 be designed to preve nt s lip at thc required strength level.
In s uch cases ìr ìs presumed rhac s lip will lcaù to a s ignitìcant increasc in load on the bolts .
The requircd reliability w hen designing a slip-criticai connection is not as obvious as
thar for the cascs of weldcd and bearing-Lype connections. In rhe lattcr two cases. connec-
tion fai Iure is suddcn and nonductile. hence. the reliability index {3 value of 4.0. In slip-
criticai conne<:Lions the cxac l reliabi lity index is not crirical to a connectio ns performance.
The A /SC Specijicn1io11 for the slip-critic~1l connections is intended to achieve the same
leve) of reliability 11s o ther connectio ns. However. the bearing and shear s tre ngths o f a slip-
criticai connecrion mus i always be evaluared, because of rhe complexity o f calcu lating Lhe
reliability index ami rhe absence of a<lcquate statistica( data on slip rcsistance.
The slip resis uince o f the connection is affected by Lhrce factors:
1. Slip coeflicient of the fay ing surface which depends on the type o f s urface
between che connccted p,i.rts.
2. Thc pretensioning method. AISC recognizes fou r d iffere nt methods to precens io n
h igh s trength bolts: turn-of-the-nut. calibrateci wrench. tw ist-off type te ns ion-conlrol bolt
assemblies. and di recr tcnsion indicator asscmblics.
3. Ho le s ize and shape: oversizc ho lcs and s lou cd ho les in the di.rection of the load
make bolts more susceptiblc to slip rhan standard holes.
Design of Slip-Criticai Connections-AISC Specification-

LRFD Met hod
The design o f slip-criricaJ connccrions n·411ir.:.< fu ll consi<lerarion or the su-ength limit

srates. llle strength of the bolts in shc.ir bt'.;u·in~. and direcc tension, m, d iscusscd in Sccs.
4.6 and 4. 7 must be invcstigak'd. rn adu11im1. s lip must be resi~te<l ,1t ~ef\, ice load, rnch as
D + l , and factored ~en-icc toad. such as 1.2/ J + I.6l. n1us! no t ,·,,e-:d the d csi1m
slrcngth </>R,,. :1ccording to A ISC-B.8. -
Connections having .qandarJ holcs or s lotted ho le~ tninsverse 10 lhe d irc..:tio n of the
loa<l are required lo be desigr.ed ! ( 1 rcsi st ~lip at service load Conncctions h;1ving oversizeJ
hole~ or sloued holes parallcl lo thc dircction of the lond :•re r~q uireù to rc-,ist slip at •.he
requ,red strength R11 (i.e .. factored scrvicc load) leve!.
A ISC-J3.8 defi nes the s lip limi! ~cate (no minul rc~is1anc~) é.l!i fo llow,:
(4.9. 1)
wherc µ, = thc mea~ slip coefficicnt for Class A or Class B surfaces, as applìcahlc, or
as cstabhshed by lcsts
= 0.3S for Class A surface condition
= 0.50 for Class B surface conditìon
D,, = the rad~ of lhe mean installed bolt pretension to the specified minimum bolt
pre1cns10n = 1.13
h« • bole aize factor (reflecting lbe relative cootact area to resist slip)
112 • Chapter 4 S tructural Bolts
(a) Scand,ird holes. l.00

(b) Oversize<l ami short-slo tred ho les. 0.85
(e) Long-slotted holes, 0.70
N., = number of slip planes

T1, = minimum bo li tension as g ivcn in AISC "fobie J3. I
The desig n s lip resistance <f>R,, uses tJ> = I.O for _1he service_ab~lity limit state, <llld
,t, = 0.85 for thc re4 uircd slrength R,, (i.e.. fact~,red serv1•·e loads) hmn state.
EXAMPLE 4.9.2
Determinc rhe te nsile capac ity of the co nr1cction previo us ly investigated ìn Examptc
-U!. I as a bearing -typc. connection ( Fig. 4.~. I): ho wever. considcr it as a slip-criticai
conneetio n with the usual c lea n m ili scale (C lass A) surface ~onditio n _ Use ~-in.-diam
A325 bohs in standard holes with A572 Grade 50 plate ma te riai. Use the AISC-LRF))
Me thod.
S (J/111io11:
The re nsio n mernber (pl;1tes) design strengd1 ,f>T,, was determined in Example 4.8.1 to be
<f,T,, = 122 kips (base d o n c/>F,,A ,)

T he no mirrnl s lip resis1ance R,, i~
[4.9.\]
where µ = 0.35
D11 = 1.13
lise = 1.00
N .. = I
Ti,= 39 k.ips
R11 = µ,D,,h.,cN.,1ì, = 0.35(1.13)(1.00)(1)39 = 15.4kips
The resistance factor is talcen as I.O for the serviceability limit state with standard boles.
Thus.
t/>Rn = 1.0(15.4) = 15.4 kips
The tension member design strength (with four bolts) is
4,T,. = 15.4(4) = 61.7 kips

Thus, the slip-criticai design strength of 61.7 kips controls.
The design strength can be equated to tbe factored service load,
Section 4.9 Slip-Criticai Joints • 113
Tnis service load capacity T based on slip resistance is lower than lhe boll-rclated
strength deternùned service load T = 12 kips computed in Eump\e 4.8.1 for A325-X;
thus T = -H. I klps a
The requirements for spacing. end. and edge distances are ali identica! whethcr lhe
joint is a bearing-type connection or a slip-criticai connection. Since the factored load per
boli will be lower when slip-resistance govems the number of fasteners used. the bearing-
related equations for spacing of fasteners and end distance will pemùt smaller spacing and
end distances. Of course. the minimums are then more \ik.e\y to contro\. Generally. slip-
resistance controls in slip-criticai connections. rather than strength in shear or bearing.
EXAMPLE 4.9.3
Redesign the connection for Fig. 4.8.2 as a slip-<:ritical connection using (a) oversized
holes, and (b) standard holes and a Class A surface condition. Use }-in.-diam A325 bo\ts
in a double row and the AJSC Specijkmion LRFD Method. The live load is four timcs the
dead load.
Solurion:
The design strength ct,T" based on plate scrength in tension was computed in Exarnple 4.8.2
IO be 96 kips.
For the s\ìp-<:rìtical connection. the nominai resistance Rr. is
{4.9. 1)
For case (a) with o\·ersized hok s.

µ. = 0.35
D11 = 1.13
h,,·= 0.85
N s = '.!
Tb = 19 kips
R,, == µ.DuhscN,Tb = 0.35( 1.13)(0.85)(1 ) 19 = 11.8 kips

The resistance factor if, is taken as 0.85 for the required strength T., limit state with over-
sized holes. Thus.
t/>Rn = 0.85( 12.8) = l0.9 kips/bolt
· 96 - 88bol
r,. = --
number of bolts rcqmred ::;: - -
d,R. 10.9
- · ts
Use 9-¾-in.-diam bolts (A325-SC) .
For the case (b) with Slalldard holes for the ~ t y limil state. tbe reslSWICC
factor ,t, is taken as 1.00 for the serviccabiliry limit Sl8IC with SlanClud holes. 1bus.
4,R,. = 1.0(12.8) = 12.8 kipslbolt
numbcr of bolts required = ;;_ = 1 9:.s = 7.s bol1s

use s-¾-in.-diam bolcs (A325-SC>
~4~.l~O~A~L~L~O~W~A~B~L~E~S~T~R~E~N~G~T~H~D~E~SI~G~N::=~BO~LT~S~------------=---------
. S lh Design Method (ASD) was described i11
The generai ph1losophy of Allow~ble treng ral desi O criteria, as follows:
Secs. I .8 and 1.9. Equation 1.8.8 g1ves the structu g
[l.8.8)
where -Rn = allowable strength

~ = safetv faclor: 2.0 for fracture in tension, shear on high-Slrenglh bolts, and
bea.ring of bolts against the sides of holes
R = nominai strength of one bolt
;; = ASD load combination multiplicrs, accof<ling to ASCE 7
. · · . I ASCE 7 load combination
Ra = reqlllred strength from tbe cnt1ca
Allowable Shear Strength of Bolts

The allowable strength in shear of a high-strength bolt when rhreads are excluded from thc
shear planes is determined by dividing rhe bolt nominai shear strength R11 by the safety fac.
tor n, as follows
(4.10.1)
Allowable Bearing Strength of Bolts
As expressed in Eq. J.8.8. the allowahk bearing strength must exceed the required bearing
strength. The allowablc bea1ing sttength is obtained by dividing the nominai strength R1
by a safety factor O. Tbus
R,,_·"-' ktJFu -: kLctF!!_ (4.10.2)
n n 2.0
The ASD design criteiion becorae,
f?,, = kL<F,, = kLctF,, -j > (R = 2'.-v·Q·] (4.10.3)

[n n 2.0 J- " ·' '
where k is a coefficient 1.0, 1.2, or 1.5 depending on (a) whether there are long-slotted
holes with the slot direction perpendicular to the line of the force, (b) deformation at tbe
bolt hole at service load is a design consideration, or (e) deformation at the boh hole at scr-
vice load ìs nota design consideration, respectively.
Slip-Criticai Connections
The nominai resistance Rn for the slip limit state, as defined in Eq. 4.9.1, is also lhe blsit
for the ASD design of slip-criticai connections. The safety factor O is as follows:
l. For slip as a serviceability limit state n = 1.so
2. For slip as a required strength Ra limit state n= 1.16
Section 4.11 Examples-Tension Members Using Alloweble Strength Design • 115
Based on !he performance criterion selected for the connection, the appropriate O,
value is used in the AISC ASD Method for the slip-criticai connection, given as
(4.10.4)
The required strength R 0 is rhe criticai ASD load combination according to ASCE 7.
Minimum Spacing and Minimum End Distance of Bolts in

Line of Transmitted Force
These requiremencs are essentially the same for the AISC ASD Mechod as for the AISC
LRFD Method.
EXAMPLES-TENSION MEMBERS USING ALLOWABLE

STRENGTH DESIGN
EXAMPLE 4.11.1
Investigate the tension member connection of Example 4.8.1 (Fig 4.8.1) to carry a tota!
service load of 75 kips. The connection is a bearing-type connection, with threads
excluded from the shear planes, using i -in.-diam A325 bolts in standard holes. Tue plates
are A 572 Grade 50 steel. Use the A/SC Specification ASD Method.
Solution:
(a) Tension allowable strength Tn / Q,. The areas as computed in Example 4.8.l are
A,. = An = 2.50 sq in.

Ag = 3.75 sq in.
Using Eqs. 3. I I. I and 3.11.2,
Tn = FyA g = 50(3.75) = 112 kips] > 75 kips OK

[ n, n, 1.67
or
T. F. A 65(2.50) . ] .
_!!_ = _!!_...!. =- - - = 81 kips > 75k1ps OK
[ 01 n, 2.00
(b) Bolt strengths. The allowable strength Rn/ 0 in single shear from Eq. 4.6.2 ìs
R FnvmAb 60(1 )0.6013

2 = - - - = - - - - = 18.0 kips/bolt
n n 2.0
The allowable bearing strength, when deformation around the hole is of concem (AISC-
J3. J0). and s 2: 3d, is given by AISC Formula (J3-6a) as
Because Le = 1.03 < 2d = I. 75
Rn = I .2Lcl Fu 1.2(1.03)(0.625)65 = 25.1 kips/bolt

n 52 2
The shear strength is less than the bearing strength ( 18 < 25.1) and therefore controls:
Tn = (numberofbolts) >< Rn
n · n = 4(18.0) = 72kips
Thus, a service load of75 kips will exceed the allowable strength of72 kips by about4%
generally too high 10 accept. Note that this connection investigated by AJSC LRF!)
Method in Example 4.8.1 al so obtained a service load capacity of 72 kips, assuming thai
live load represents 75% of the tota] service load. 1
EXAMPLE 4.11.2
Investigate the acceptability of che connection of Fig. 4.8. 1 to serve as a slip-criticai con.
nection carrying a service Joad tension of 41 k.ips. The connection consists of foUt
i -in.-diam A325 bolts in standard holes connecting A572 Grade 50 steel plates having
Class A surface condition. Use che AISC ASD Method.
Solution:
(a) Tension member capaciry. The a.reas as computed in Example 4.8.l are
Ae = An = 2.50 sq in.
Ag = 3.75 sq in.
Then
Tn F,,.Ag 50(3.75)
n, = n, l.G-; ·- I 12 kips
Tn f~,Ae 65(2.50) .
- = -- = - - -- = 8 I k1ps ( controls !)
n, n, 2.00
(b) Bolts-slip-critical. Since the holes are standard, use the serviceability limit swe.
Tbe allowable strength in single shear is detennined from Eq. 4.10.5, as follows:
R,, 0.35( 1.13)( 1.00)( 1)39

-= = 10.3 kips/bolt
n 1.50
(e) Bolts-strength (i.e., check as if a bearing-type connection). The allowabe

strength R,,/fl in single shear is determined from Eq. 4.10.1. Assume threads are included
in the shear piane:
R,, Fn!JmAb 48( 1)0.6013

0
= 0
= _
2 00
= 14.4 kips/bolt
The allowable bcaring strength for Le > 2d is
1.2Lc1F,, 1.2(1.03)(0.625)65
52 = "" 25.l kips/bolt
2
Section 4.12 Eccentric Shear • 117
(d) Allow:1ble service \oad cap11city. The resuh here is the usual situation; i.e .. the
slip-criticai shear strength governs. Since the serviceability-related value of 10.3 kip~ is
less than strength-related values of 14.4 and 25.1 k.ips. the allowable load is 10.3 kips/bolt.
Thus.
T = (nnmber oi bolts) R = 4( l0.3) = 41. 2 kips
The applied load of 41 kips is essentially the allowable servìce load permitted on 1he mem-
ber with its connec1ions. •
..
(
4.12 ECCENTRIC SHEAR

When the load P is applied on a li ne of action thai does not pass through the center of grav-
ity of a bolt group. 1here will be an eccentric loading effect, such as in Fig. 4.12.1 . A load
P at an eccentricity e, as shown in Fig. 4.12.2. is statically equivalent to a moment P tìmes
e plus a concentric load P both actino on 1he connec1ion. Since both 1he moment and the
concentric load con1ribu1c shear effe~ls on the bolt group. the situa1ion is referred to as
ecce111ric shea,:
Only in the past tew years has significant experimental work (3.1. 4.17, 4.18) been
done to evaJua1e the ~trength of such joints. Essentially. two approaches are available 10 the
designer: (I) the 1raditional elastic (vector) analysis assuming no friction with the plates
rigid and the fasteners elastic: and (2) a s1rength analysis (plastic analysis) wherein it is
assumed the eccentrically loaded fastener group rotates about an instantaneous center of
rotation, and the deformation at each fastener is proportional to its distance from the center
of rotati on.
Sincc the AlSC Spec{ficmùm [ 1.13] prescribes the capacity (allowable strength in
ASD m1d design ~trength in LRFD) fora fastener but does not specify the means of analy!;is,
any raliona! approach may be L,sed by the designer. Severa! common approaches are treated
in the rcmainder of rhis ~i!ction.
p
r-,-y-~I I
1,-11_.f-_J
1 i
rr-·l
Illi ji=·--,
i.T:] !ç ,,,.\\i
•• I
I ) j ,.
I
' • 8 I il
/
I
,\:I. L·•I I' ~.
'Iiil i/t=-::.:.::l )
.,
I
~~
jj'
Figure 4.12.1
Typical eccencrìc shear
connections. (a)
••
e+e =
Fipn4.J2.2
Combiaed moment and dnct ••
shcar. (al (b) (e)
Chapter 4 Structural Bolts
Figure 4.12.3 (b) Force~ on conn&tor~

Pure moment connecl ion. (à) Connection
Tradìtional Elastic (Vector) Analysis

For many years eccentrically Joaded fastener groups . bave
. been
d analyi.ed
d" by considenng
.
the fostener group areas as an elaslic cross- secuon subJecte to uect shear and lorsio
The stresses resulting are nominai in the sense that they have stres~ umts (say, psi) and n.
vide a guide to safe1.y hut are not real stresses because the service loads are ac.tually c~o.
by friction. This elas1ic analysis method has bcen used because 11 makes . use of simptt
ed
mecbanics of materiai, concepts and has been f ound to
b e a conservative procedure.
To develop the equarions for use in thi~ procedure, consìder fast the connf(:f
ac.ted upon by the momenl M, as shown in Fig. 4. I 2._3. ~eglecting f~iction between :
plates, the moment equals the sum of the forces shown m F1g. 4. 12.3b time, their distan
to 1he cenlroid (CG) of tbe fasrener areas: CCS
(4.\2.\j
The defo:rnation in each fastener is assumed proportional to its distaoce d from

a:s~roe~ cemcr of twist. .Tf a_ll fastcn~rs are consid~red elastic a~1d of equa] cross-sectiona(
a , e" A. "~e force R on e.ach tasteuer 1s also proporl!onal to 1ts d1stance d from the centrold
of thc fa.stener group.
(4.12.2\
Rewritin:; llw fr;rces in 1er:rns of R1 and d 1,
(4.12.31
Suintituti.11g Eqs. 4. !2.3 into Eq. 4.12.1 give~
The force in fastener I is therefore

and by similar reasoning. the forces on the other fasteners are
(4.12.Sb)
or in generai.
Md
R = - (4.12.6)
2.d2
which gives the force R on rhe t'astener at the distance d from the center of rotation.
Note that if stress is desired. Eq. 4.12.6 may be divided by the holt cross-sectional
area Ab to give stress f = R/ Ab. The denominator lhen would become I.Ad 2 , whìch is thc
polar moment of intertìa J about the center of rotation for the series of bolt cross-sectional
areas. Equation 4.12.6 ìs essentially the familiar mechanìcs of materials formula for torsion
on a circular shaft, Tr/ J, which is dìscussed in Sec. 8.2. Tbe torsional moment T is M; the
radius ,- from the center of rotation to the poim at which the stress is computed would be the
distance d.
It is usually convenient to work with the horizontal and ve11ìca\ components of R. Rx
and R y, respectively, obtaìned when the horizontal and vertical components of d. x and y.
respeètively, are used in Eq. 4.12.6. From Fig. 4.12.4,
V X
Rx = dR and Rl'. = -1R
{
(4.12.7)
Substituting Eq. 4.12.7 into Eq. 4.12.6 gives
My Mx
Rx = '2:-d2 and Ry = "i.d2 (4.12.8)
Notingthatd2 - x2 +/ ,Eqs.4.12.8maybewritten
My
R,.= - ~ -- -c- (4.12.9a)
2°:x2 + Iy'
Mx
Ry = LX2 + ì:y2 (4.l2.9b)
By taking the vector sum of Rx and R_,., the tota! force R on t.he fastener becomes
R = VR; + R~ (4.12.10)
To compute the tota! force on a fastener in an eccentric shear connection such as

shown in Fig. 4 .12.2a, the direct shear force Rv is
p
R = - (4.12.11)
" N
Figure 4. I 2.4
Horizontal and vertical
components of force R.
e total resultant force R then beco
Th
where N is the number of fasteners in the group. llles
R =~ (4.12.12)
EXAMPLE 4.1 2.1

· um force R on any bolt in lhe cc
Use the elastic (vector) method to compute the maxim . cen.
trically loaded boli group of Fig. 4. L2.5a. The bolts are ali the same sue.
4" _....,__ 3·· --124 kips

+R,
-~-=+.
~R,.
R,--0
R,
3" I I
t R,.
3"
-~+-+,
I I
o
-~-+o
Figure 4.12.5 (b) Forces acting on fasteners
Example 4 .12. l. (al
Solution:
From Fig. 4.12.Sb it can be seen that che uppcr and lower right fasteners are the most
higbly stressed. Since lhese two fastencrs are equalìy stressed, only one need be investi-
gated; check upper-right fastener. The eccentricity e, as measured from the centroid
(assumed center of rotation). is
e = 3 + 2 = 5 in.
M "" 24( 5) = 120 in.-kips
,L,.,·2 ~0 6 (1 )" + 4(3 )2 = 6iJ in.~
_ My 120(:,)
t? = ~ ------·- = ----- ~- 6.0 kips -
X Ix2 + ry~ 60
i20(2)
+ <J kips !
60
. p 24 . I
R ~. N = -6 = 4 .O ktps
= -- '
~
R = V[Ry + Rv]2 + R:
R = \iI (4.0 + 4.0)-' + (6.0)2- = 10.0kips I
EXAMPLE 4.12.2
~
Use the elastic (vector) method to compute the force R on ihe top rioht bolt · th ·
cally loaded bolt group of Fio. 4 12
"' · · ·6a The bolts
· are aJl th e same s1ze. m e eccentn-
660" - ~-
6"
\
' >
.61"
P = !Dkip< R.,, i
R,,,
--*
-4" -
ili~
tR,
R.,
Figure 4.12.6 (a)

(b) Fon:es ac1ing
Example 4.12.2. on fas.tent:r!.
Solution:
e = 6.6 in.
M = I0(6.60) = 66.0 in.-kip:;
Ld 2
= 4(3.61) 2
= s2 in.2
My 66.0(3)
Rx = Ld2 = ~ = 3.81 kips->
Mx 66.0(2)
Ry = 2-d2 = ~ = 2.54kips !
P cosa 10(0.8)
Rvx = -N
- - = - -- = 2.00 kips->
4
Psina l0(0.6)
Rv)' = - N - = - -4- = 1.50 kips !
R = V[Ry + Rvy]2 + [Rx + Rvx] 2

R = V(2.54 + 1.50)2 + (3.81 + 2.00)2 = 7.08 kips •
Ultimate Strength Analysis
This method, also called plastic analysis, currently is recognized by the Guide [3.1] as the
most rational one.
The application of the load P causes both a translation and a rotation of the fastener
group. The uanslation and rotation can be reduced to a pure rotation about a point defined
as the instantaneous center of rotation (see Fig. 4.12.7).
The requirements for equilibrium are as follows:
N
~ R; sin 0; - P sin 8 =O (4.12.13)
j;l
Yo
Figure 4. I 2. 7
lnscantaneous cen1er of X
o
rotation.
N
L,Fv = O: L,R; cos 8; - P cos ò == O (4.12.14)
i=I
f R;d; -
;=1
P( e + xo cos ò + Yo sin ò) = O (4.12.15)
These rhree equations (Eqs. 4.12.13 to 4.12.15) contai~ three unknowns (P, x0, all4
Yo) and l11us exactly determine the location ( xo . .vo) of the m_S!antaneo~s center and the
magnitude of the applied force P. When either the resistance R; is proporhon~l lo the defor.
mation, or when che angle S is equal to zero or ninety degrees, the angle cr 1s equa! to the
angle. ò and Eq. 4. 12.15 reduces to
N
2,R,d, -· P(e + ro) =O (4.12.16)
l~ l
where ,-0 is the èisiance be,ween th,~ in~iantar.cou~ c,:-nler nnd thc centroid (CG) ofthecon-
nection (ro shown in Fig. 4. i 2.8).
Actually tbc concept of ia:,mn,an'"ous cent,'r is identica! to the elastic (vector)
method when the rcsi,1,mc:,· R, is as~...med p rop<_ll'lion:1i !n rlw deformation (i.e., stress is
proportional to main). For cithe1 d1e rìJs!-ic or th · sircnglb n,elhod, the deformation is pro.
porcional 10 rbe distan,:c d, from the in~tar.;!J.ner,us ~·rntl'f of ~otatìon.
For the strength ,:r,aìy~i;;, twv ::pproaches Jw,e bcen ,;sed l3.I]. Fora bearing-type
connection, slip is negkcted so !111:H the deformatic:111 oi each fastener is proponional to its
distance from thè i11st,mt:m::01;, c:e•>ter. 'fhc r.:.~is1,inc_· of e.ach t'astener is related to its
deformation according 10 ;:,; loau-ctcformarion relationsliip. An expression proposed by
Fisher [4.21] and uscd by Crawford ::.r,d Kulak f4 17! for this load R vs deformation A
response is
(4.12.17)
where Ru11 = T 11Av. Thc coefficients 10 and 0.55 werc: experimentally detennined and tllt
maximum d at failure was about 0 .34 in. [3.1 J. Note that e in Eq. 4.12.17 is the NapllÌII;
base (2. 718) and not the eccenlricity. For A325 bolts. the ultimate shear stren,da,1
approximately 70% of the te.nsile strength ( 120 ksi minimum). Actually. the ex
Section 4. 12 Eccentric Shear • 123
work directly obtained r,,At, to be 74 kìps for ¾-in.-diam A325 bolts in double shear, mak-
ing 'T 11 equa! to 0.7 of 120 ksi.
The experìmental work relating to Eq. 4.12.17 used bolts loaded symrnetrìcally (that
is, in double shear); however, the generai slrength method could use any appropriate \oad
R vs deformation A relationship, not necessarily Eq. 4. I 2.17.
EXAMPLE 4.12.3
lllustrate the generai strength method by determining the nominai strength load P n that may
be applied to the fastener group of Fig. 4.12.5. Use Eq. 4.12.17 as the load-deformation
expression, and assume that the maximum deformation Àmax at failure is 0.34 in. Assume
full shank cross-sections of the bolts resìst shear.
Solutìon:
For ~-in.-diam A325 bolts, Eq. 4.12.17 becomes
Ri =' 0.7(120)(0.6013)(1 - e-lM")°-55
= 50.5(1 - e-tO!.l)°-55
The load is applied in the y-direction; therefore 8 = O (Fig. 4.12.7). Using Y; / di far sin 0;
and xi/d; for cos 8; , Eqs. 4. I 2.13 through 4. I 2.15 become
2,Ry; = O (4.12.18)
'd;
X·
2,R,.....!. = Pn (4.12.19)
d;
2.,R,d; = Pn(e + ro) (4. l2.20)
Also, a basic defonnation assumption is
d; d; ( )
~i= - - ~max= - - O.34
dmax dmax
(a) Since an iterative process will be required to salve Eqs. (4.12.18 through
4.12.20, !et the first trial r 0 = 3 in. (see Fig. 4. 12.8).
·igure 4.12.8
S1rengch method for Example
Trial r 0 = 3 in
~.12.3.
R;X;
Àj
R; R;d;
d; d;
Fasteners X; Y;
45.9 14.53 145.3

3.162 0.184
3 32.23
0.058 32.2 32.2
2 o LO
45.9 14.53 145,3
3.162 0.184
3 -3 42.51
0.340 49.6 289.t
4 5 3 5.831
0.292 49.0 48.99 244.9
5 5 o 5.0
49.6 42.51 ~
5 5.831 0.'.140 195.30
6 -3 1145.9
Eq. 4.12.19: Pn = 195 kips

1145.9 _
143 kips
Eq. 4.12.20: P,, = ----
8
-
_ . . · requìred. One will generally find that l'
Since the values are not td~nucal, turther tna1s are value even though Eqs. 4.12.19 ,
from Eq.. 4. l 2.20 is relanvely dose to the co_rrect e of r that will give p n betwee/nd
4.12.20 give values that are not very dose. A tnal va~uwill ;ake the calculation conve~
two values but close to the vafoe from Eq. ~. 12? hown in the following table: gc
rather rapidly. Tue correct value 1s ro = 2.06 m., as s
RjX;
R; R,-d;
Fasteners Xj y; d; À;
d;
0.202 46.7 0.93 140.2

0.06 3 3.001
o 0.060 0 .004 8.6 8.55 0.5
2 0.06
3.001 0.202 46.7 0.93 140.2
3 0.06 - 3
5.048 0.340 49.6 39.87 250.3
4 4.06 3
48.7 48.68 197.6
5 4.06 o 4.060 0.273
6 4.06 - 3 5.048 0.340 49.6 39.87 ~

138.85 979.0
Eq. 4.12.9: P,, = l3Y kips

979.0
Eq. 4.1 2.20· ,V,, ~ ----·- = 139 kips
't.06
Thus, Pn = 139 kips. I
Studies [4.17, 4.l8, 4 .20, 4 .22 1 have ,ndic,,ted i.hat an ultimate strength (plastic)
analysis is the rnost rational approach te obt;,jn the sirength of eccentric shear connections.
The elastic (vector) analysis was found tu be çoMerv:irive, makìng the ratio between
strength and servicc Joaè range from 2.5 to 3.0 H0Vvever, since that elastic method does
not properly ret1ect actual behavìor. the margins of safety are variable from case to case.
though conservative.
AISC Manual Tables 7-7 to 7-14, pp. 7-32. to 7-79. provicte for eccentric shear bm
on the ultimate strength concept described in this section. Brandt [4.191 has provideda
prnctical procedure for making a generai solution to thesc problems.
Slip-Criticai Connections
The sarne strength procedure is recommended [3.11 for slip-criticai connections as for
bearing-type connections. Since slip-resistance is a serviceability requirement. not a
strength requirement, it is logica! to investigate the strength of either type connection by
the ultimate strength approach described above.
A preferred procedure for analysis of slip-criticai connections at service load is to
consider the resistance R; as constane for ali fasteners, say, at whatever is the available
shear strength. Since the bolts in a slip-criticai joint must be installed with initial tension,
there wìll be a fairly uniform clamping action between the pieces being joined.
XAM Pll..E 4.12.4
Repeat Example 4.12.3 (Fig. 4. 12.5) using R; = R.~ as for a slip-criticai connection using
the instantaneous center approach, similar to the ultimate strength method. Assume stan-
dard holes are used and design for slip-critica\ serviceability limit state with O. = 1.50.
Solution:
For R; = R, and ò = O, Eqs. 4.12.13 through 4.12. 15 become
(4.12.21)
R,'2:
,\
X; -
d;
p == o (4.12.22)
R, 2,d; - P(e + r 0) == O (4.12.23)
Try r 0 = 2 in. Referring to Fig. 4.12.8,
X;
Fastener X; Y; d;
d·
'
I o 3 3.0 o
2 o o o o
3 o -3 3.0 o
4 4 3 5.0 0.8
5 4 o 4.0 I.O
6 4 -3 -5.J! _Q,.8
20.0 2.6
From Eq. 4.12.22,

X·
P = Rs2,~ = 2.6Rs
d;
From Eq. 4.12.23,
p = Rs 'I-d; = Rs(20) = 2.86Rs
e+ r0 7
Por this assumption, fastener No.2 is at the center of rotation and t~ere~ore is not invol";d
· Eq 4 l2 23 Also fastener No. 2 is assumed to bave no contnbutton to Eq. 4.12...2.
m · · · · ' 2 · - p = 3 6R because
When r is assumed slightly larger than 2.0, Eq. 4.12.2 g,ve!i · ., , ,.,
x-/d· = 1.0 for fastener No.2. When ro is assumed slightly smaller than 2.0. ~\'-·--
0
~ 1 p -_ 1.6 Rs because x-/d.

g1ves , ,
= - I for 1he• same_ fastener.
.
Thus the value P - _,86Rs
from Eq. 4.12.23 is accepted as 1he answer (1.e., ro - 2.0 m.).
· · bolt using the serviceability limit s•~,

The shp-crnical allowable strength per "'e can be
obtained from A/SC Manual Table 7-3. p 7-24. co be
R, = ro/0~ = 10.3 kips
ancl the service load capacity would be

= 2.86(10.3) = 29.5 kips
p
•
ATSC-Load and Resìstance Factor Design Method
EXAMPLE 4.12.5
Compare the service load capacities P of the eccentric shear connection of Fig. 4.12.S
when invescigated by vaiious methods. Solve assurning the connectwn 1_s (a)_~ bearing-type
connection with rhreads excluded from the shear piane, and (b) a shp-cnucal (friction..
rype) rnnnection. Assume the live \oad is 80% and dead load is 20% of the tota!. Asslillle
the plates are thick enough that bearing on the plates does not control. Use i-in.·diani
A325 bolts and the A/SC Specijicatìo11 LRFD Method.
So/11tio11:
(a) Elastic analysis-bearing-type connection.
R = IO kips (fas1eners 4 and 6 in Ex.ampie 4.12.l}
The design strength cJ>Rn in shear on the bolt fora be.aring-type connection (A325-X) is
R,. = F,,,,mAb
= 60( I )0.6013 = 36.1 kips/bolt [4.7.2}
cpR,, = 0.75(36.1} = 27.i kips/bolt
The factored service load R" is
R0 = 1.2D + l.6l = 1.1(1) + 1.6(8) = 15.2 kips

Since the_factored load (15.2 kips) on the criticai bolt is well below the design strenglh
of 27. I kips, the load P on the eccentric connection may be increased proportionally.
Thus.
P = 24(27.1 / 15.2) = 42.8 kips
(b) Elastic analysis-slip-critical connection (using serviceability limit state). 1be

design strength l/)R" is stili 27.1 kips/bolt as computed in (a).
Take µ = 0.35, Du = 1.13, hsc = I.O, N = I, and T b = 39 kips. Then

Rn = 0.35( l.l3){ I)( l )39 = 15.4 kips/bolt
Using <J, = I.O,
tl>Rn = l.00(15.4) = 15.4 kips/bolt
which exceeds R,, of I 5.2 kips. Thus,
P = 24( 15.4/15.2) = 24.3 kips

(e) Strength- bearing-type connection. The design strength <l>Rn is stili 27 .1
kips/bolt as computed in (a), which means the maximum nominai resistance R,, per bolt is
27.1 /,p = 36.I kips. Thus, P,, from Example 4.12.3 must be reduced in the ratio 36.1 to
maximum R (i.e., 49.6 kips). Thus,
,j)P., = 0.75(139)(36.l /49.6) = 75.9 kips

The factored load on the connection is
Pu = l.2(0.2P) + 1.6(0.&P) = 1.52 P
Equating Pu to ,j)Rn gives
P = 75.9/1.52 = 49.9 kips

(d) Instantaneous center-slip-critical connection. The service load capacity from
Example 4.12.4 is
P = 29.5 k.ips
(e) A!SC Manual [1.15] Tables 7-7 to 7 - 14 (pp 7-32 to 7-79) for 8 = 0°-bearing
type connection. Since the horizontal spacing of bolts ìs 4 in., the AISC LRFD Method
tables are not directly applicable. One could interpolate between Table 7-8 for 3 in. and
Table 7-9 for s½ in.
e= 5 in. Table 7-8 Table 7-9

n = 3 bolts (p. 7-38) (p. 7-48)
Angle = 0° Angle = 0°
Coefficient, C = 2.59 2.96
lnterpolated, C = 2.59 + (2.96 - 2.59)(1/2.5) = 2.74
where Pn = Cr n = design strength for one bolt. Thus,
= R,, = 36.1 kips/bolt
r,,
P,, = Cr,, = 2.74(36.1) = 98.9kips
q,P,, = 0.75(98.9) = 74.2 k.ips
P = 74.2/1.52 = 48.8 kips
In this case, the interpola1ed design strength is less than the value computed in
Example 4.12.3; a conservative result but adeguate within the accuracy that behavior
can be predicted.
(f) A/SC Manual [1.15] Tables 7-7 to 7-14 (pp. 7-32 to 7-79}--slip-criticalconnec-
tion. The interpolated coefficient C = 2.74 from (e) is multiplied by the servìce load
capacity ( 15.4 kips) per bolt from (b). Thus,
t/>P = 2.74(15.4) = 42.2 kips

11
P = 42.2 / 1.s2 = 21 .8 kìps

(g) Summary.
S lip-criticai
Bearing-type
load P
Procedure load P
24.3 kips
Elasric (vecmr) method 42.8 kips
Strcngth analysis 49.9 kips
29.S kips
Friction analysis 27.8 lcips
AISC Man11a/-imcrpola1cd 48.8 kips
Thus, one may note the elastic (vecror) method produces the most conservative result. 1
Design Formula tor Moment on Single Une of Fasteners

AJSC Manual {1.1 5] provides Tables 7-7 to 7-14 that allow the designer to determinethc
number of connectors required fora given load and eccenuicity. In unusual cases for Which
the tables do not apply, or when they may not be readily available, it is desirable 10 have a
simple alternative me1hod to use. The following developme nt from Shedd* provides a llte-
ful simple formula.
Considera single tine of II equally spaced fasteners subjected to moment alone, 11
shown in Fig. 4.12.9. Since with uniform spacing the resistance of the fasteners is uniforna
2
from top to botrom, and according to Eq. 4.12.6, R = Md/ ("i.,d ), the force varies linearty
as shown in Fig. 4.12.9.
Assuming R is the force in the outennost fostener, and that it represents the accu11111-
lation of stress that would occur on a rectangular n:sisting section over the distance p, Olle
may designate the average load per inch ofheight at the outermost fastener as R/p.
Using similar uiangles the load per inch at the e.xtreme fiber may be determincd,
Extreme fiber vaiu.:: = -pR (i\n

--
11
- 1
)
Rcsisting sec1ion coosisrint

of connector resistance
unifonnly distribured
Figure 4.12.9
Momeot on a single line of (/) (width) = !. ~ • .!
fastcners. A p p
•Thoma1 C. Shedd. Structural ~sign in Sutl (John Wilcy & Sons. New York l9l4). P. 2l'J.
TI1e tensile force is the area of the triangle representcd by the force per inch diagram,
T = ..!..(~T_)(!i)(-11 ) =
2 2 p n - I
_Rn
2
4(11 - I)
(4.12.25)
The internal resisting moment is

M = T011p) (4.12.26)
Substìtution of Eq. 4.12.25 into Eq. 4.12.26 gives
M = R112
4(n - I) 3
(I,,,,) (4.12.27)
Solving Eq. 4.12.27 for 11~. one obtains
11 -_ \J/6M(" - l \
Rp - 11-) (4.12.28)
whìch as a tìrst approxima1ìon becomes
[6M
n = \) Rp (4.12.29)
which is suggested for design use.

Since Eq. 4.12.29 is for moment alone acting on a single row of fasteners. the numer-
ica I value for R to be used in it i-hould be adjusted to account for direct shear and for more
than one row of fasteners. It is suggested to use a retluced effective R for the direct-shear
effect and use an increased effective R for the effect of lateral spread. For lateral spread use
a multìplier on R of I .O for one line up to about 2.0 fora square array of connectors.
More complicated formulas have been developed to compute the maximum stress or
force on a fastener, but no direct solution for the number of connectors or the nurnber of
rows is possible from such equations.
Determine the required number of i-in.-diam A325 bolt~ for one vertical line of bolts A-A
in the bracket shown in Fig. 4.1 2.1 O. Assume it to be a bearing-type connection with
lhreads included in the shear planes (A325-N). Use the A/SC LRFD Method.
Solution:
(a) Factored load. Using the gravity load cquation, Eq. 1.8.3,
Pu = 1.2(7) + 1.6(41) = 74 kips
6"
7t DL, 41' LL
- -
![ .!'.'p111e
2
..--, 1111les
4
!" tbick
(b) Design strength of a bolt in a bearing-type connection. For double shear,
Rn = F,,vmAv = 48(2)0.6013 = 57.7 kips

cJ>Rn = 0.75(57.7) = 43.3 kips
For bearing assuming deformation at service load is a consideration [AISC-J 4
Case (i)] ·1O{a,,
R,, = 2.4F"d1
= 2.4(58)(0.875)0.5 = 60.9 kips
<J>R,, = 0.75(60.9) = 45.7 kips
(e) Estimate the number of bolts required, using Eq. 4.12.29.
(6M (6M': /6(74)(6 )

11
= \IRp = \J~ = \ 43.3(4) = 3·9
Tue R value (here </>R,,) has not been adjusted for the direct shear effect; try 4 fasteners.
(d) C~eck the adequacy using the ge~eral_ultimate strength anal~sis. Staning Witb
the assump11on that the instantaneous center 1s 3 m. to the left of the vert1cal hne of fasten.
ers. severa! icerations are required to obtain satisfacti~n of Eq~. 4.1~.l8 through 4.12.~
The final results are tabulated below. Il is noted tbat qmte a few 1te ra11ons may be neede(llo
get the ~alues of P,, from Eqs. 4.12.19 and 4.12.20 exactly equal; however, the iniliai
assumptton of , 0 = 3 in. gave P,, = 111 k.i.ps from Eq. 4.12.20. The authors have fOIIQ4
that even the first tria! gives a reasonable approximation of the answer.
Verify that answer is , 0 = 2.55 in. to the left of the line of fasteoers:
R;X;
Fastener X; Yi d; ~i R; R;d;
d;
2.55 6.00 6.519 0.340 49.6 19.39 323.2

2 2.55 2.00 3.241 0.169 45.2 35.S3 146.3
3 2.55 -2.00 3.241 0.169 45.2 35.53 146.3
4 2.55 -6.00 6.519 0.340 49.6 -12.l2 323.2
109.84 939.1
Eq. 4.12.19: Pn = 110 kips

Eq. 4.12.20: Pn = 110 lcips (Equal proves solution)
Note that the solution above is for single shear and has assumed that no threadsait
in the shear planes (A325-X). Also, the max._imum R;, even though logically computed
using Eq. 4.12.17, cannot exceed the AISC-Table J3.2 specified value (bascd OI
Fm; = 60ksi),
Rn = FnvAb = 60(0.6013) = 36.l kips

Then, P n must be reduced in proportion that 36.1 kips is to the maximum R; (i.e., -49.6
kips) in the table above,
P n = 110(36.1 / 49.6) = 80.l lcips
for A325-X in single shear.

Sectlon 4.12 Eccentric Shear • 131
For A325-N, this value must be multiplied by 2 for the double shear case of this
example, and multiplied by 0.8 because threads are possible in lhe shear planes (A325-N).
Compare </>P,, with Pu using the shear-relared <J, value since shear controlled the fas-
tener srrength,
[</>P,, = 0.75(80.1)2(0.8) = 96kips] > [P. = 74kips] OK
The above shows that 4 fasteners in a line are more than adeguate. lnvestigation (not
showo) for 3 fasteners indicate s that 3 fasteners are not adeguate.
(e) Check the adeguacy using the elastic (vector) method. The direct shear compo-
nent Rus from Eg. 4 .12.11 is
P. 74 . 1
Ru, = N =4 = 18.Skips ,1,
The moment componenl Rux from Eg. 4.12.9a (noting that M equals Pu times e) is
P.ey
R = - ---''--'--- [4.12.9a]
ux LX2 + Iy2
°2:,x2 + °2:,y2 = 2[(2)2 + (6)2] = 80in.2
74(6)6 .
Rux = ~ = 33.3 ktps-+
Then, using Eq. 4.12.12, the resultant is obtained,
Ru = V(l8.5) 2 + (33.3)2 = 38.1 kips < [<f>Rn = 43.3kips]
Thus, the fac.:tored load Ru on the most heavìly loaded bolt does not exceed the design
so-engh </>R,, = 43.3 kips for A325-N. Thus, 4 fasteners are acceptable.
It must be noted that the clear edge distance Le measured in the direction of the
resultant force must satisfy Eq. 4.7.13 (AISC-13.10) requiring that Le ;;;;:: Ru/(</>KFut).
Note that the factored torce Ru on the most heavily loaded bolt is used as P in the originai
equation.
Use 4-R-in.-diam A325-N bolts @ 4-in. pitch.
•
AMPLE ,U 2.7
Determine the required number of !-in. diam A325 bolts i.n standard holes for the
bracket plate of Fig. 4. I 2.11, assuming 4 vertical rows. Use a slip-criticai connection
with clean mili scale (Class A) surface condition, and use the A/SC Specificatio11
LRFD Method.
Solutìon:
(a) Factored load. Since one-half the load is carri.ed by each plate in a single shear
situati.on, use one-half the tota! Joad in ali calculations for one plate. Using the gravity load
equation, Eq. 1.8.3,
Pu = 1.2(5) + 1.6(55) = 94 kips (or47 kips/plate)
(b) Design strength </>Rn of a boli in a slip-criùcal connection. Por strength, values
are as for bearing-type connections. Assume no threads are to be in the shear planes
(A325-X). For single shear,
-r--------i-- • • (pl ••
M ql
e e ,,
I I e e
e • ,,
t I • e A36 ste:cl
.-, • • 11 ••
~ --+- • . :: • • l .
- -in.
2
plate. o n
e.ach flange
Wl4 X 127
Figure 4.12.11
Eccemric shear connection of Standard
Exmnple 4.12.7. gagc
R,, = F.vmA 0
= 60(1)0.4418 = 26.5 kips ( nominai shear strength-single shear)
<f>R,, = 0.75(26.5) = 19.9 kips
For bearing assuming deformation al service load is a consideration (AISC-J4.IO(a)
Case (i)] '
Rn = 2.4F d1 11
( nominai bearing strength)
= 2.4(58) (0.75)0.5 = 52.2 kips

</>Rn = 0.75(52.2) = 39.2 k.ips
For slip resistance, the limit state of slip is
Rn = µ.Duh ,cN.,Tb = 0.35(l.13)(1.0)(1)28 = 11.1 kips

q,R,, = I.O( I I.I) = 11.l kips ( serviccability limit state with standard holes)
R,, 11.l
R = -n = -1.5 = 7.4 kips
(e) Estimate the number of bolts required, using Eq. 4.12.29. It is assumed thai
slip resistance at service load is the controlling Iimit stare; strength will later be checked.
n=fi;= 6(30/4)(16)
- - - --=5.7
7.4(3)
In the above equation, the service load per plate is 30 kips, and the load perline of fasten-
ers is 30/4, which must be used since Eq. 4.12.29 applies to one Iine of fasteners. No
adjustment in R was made either for direct shear or for severa! lines of fasteners. Try 5
bolts per row.
(d) Check the adequacy using the generai ultimate strength analysis. Referril&
to Fig. 4.12.12, and using the same method illustrated in Example 4.12.6. the valucaf
r 0 is found to be 3.03 in. 10 the left of the centroid of the fastener group:
I
= 3.03"
ro,__....__....... ___ _ _ 16" e=
I• .6 11 • • 16
12 • • 17
I
--3•-(•8-l---13•--• 1 8 --
IC
4. • 19
s. .10 15. • 20
R;X;
Fastener X; Yi d; Il; R; R;d;
d;
-1.T!. 6.00 6.588 0.211 34.6 - 14.27 227.6

2 - 2.ì1 3.00 4.049 0.129 31.l - 20.90 126 .0
6 0.28 6.00 6.007 0.192 34.0 1.59 204.3
7 0.28 3.00 3.013 0.096 28.5 2.65 85.8
1ì 5.78 6.00 8.331 0.266 35.7 24.74 297.1
12 5.78 3.00 6.512 0.208 34.5 30.61 224.6
16 8.78 6.00 10.634 0.340 36.4 30.07 387.3
l7 8.78 3.00 9.278 0.297 36.0 34.11 334.S
2'. = 88.60 1887.2
Multiply the above cimes 2 for symmecry = 177.20 3774.4
3 -2.72 0.00 2.720 0.087 27.5 - 27.53 74.9

8 0.28 0.00 0.280 0.009 9.6 9.60 2.7
13 5.78 0.00 5.780 0.185 33.8 33.77 195.2
18 8.78 0.00 8.780 0.281 35.9 35.86 __JJ_ti
~ "' 228.90 4362.1
Eq. 4.12.18: Pn = 228.9 kips

Eq. 4.12.19: Pn = 4362.1/(16 + 3.03) = 229.2 kips
Note that che solution above is for single shear and has assumed that no threads are
in the shear planes (A325-X). In addition, consider that LRFD Iimits the maximum
strength of a bolt in shear to
Rn = F nvAb = 60(0.4418) = 26.5 kips

Reducing Pn from the strength analysis,
Pn = 229(26.5/36.4) == 167 kips

[4,P,, = 0.75(167) = 125kips] > (P,, = 47kips] OK
134 • Chapter 4 Struccural Bolts
Strength is more than adequate : it was not cxpected that strength would _govern for tbi~
sljp-resistant connection having standard holes an<l Class A surface coo<l,uon. Only When
using a surface condition having a very high slip coefficienl 15 there a real probability or
strength controlling.
(e) Using the strength analysis approach but red~cing ~e capacity_in p_roponion that
che allowable capacity (7.4 kjps from part (b)J of a shp-cnt1cal conn_ecu?n 1s lo the foree
(36.4 kjps) on the most heavily toaded fastener in the strength analysis 0 1 the bearing-typc
connection. Thus, the service load capacity is
P = 229(7.4/36.4) = 46.6 kips > [Required 30 kips]
This procedure is always conservative. An altemacive is to do an analysis as il\ustrated in

Ex ampie 4. I 2.4 where the resiscance of each (astener is rhe same.
(O Check using AJSC Ma11uo1 Table 7-14 (p. 7-74 ) for eccentrically loaded
holt groups. Thc horizontal spacing of fasceners is not exactly t he same as in Table
7-14; howe ver, whe n the e xternal dimensions of the anay are about the same, and
che vertical spacing of bolts agrees with the tables, the coefficienc will be found to
be about the same . lf 1he AISC table is assumed applicable as the authors believe it
is for this c ase. enter the rable with the number ( n = 5) of fasteners in a vcnica\
line . and the eccentriciry (e : 16 in.) of tbe load from the center of gravity of the
group o f fa&teners.
Find coefficient C = 6.15

ipP,, = CipR,, = 6.15( I 9.9) = 122 kips
which compares wirh <J>P,, = 125 kips for a bearing-type connection from the analysis
in (d).
For rhe slip-critica! connection o f this example,
P = CR = 6.15(7.4) = 46 kips
which compares with P = 46.6 kips computed in (e).

(g) Investigate the connection using the elastic (vector) method. Since the slip-criticai
service load condirion has alrcady been shown to govern, the illustration of che use of the elas-
tic (vector) method is performed for the service load (30 kips on one plate).
Check 5 bolls per row by elastic method:
P 30
Rs = - = - = l.50kips !
n 20
~x2 + ~y2 e: 10((2.75) 2 + (5.75)2) + 8[(3) 2 + (6)2] = 766in.2
R = My 30(16)6 _
:i 2-X2 + 2,y2 = 766 = 3.76 kips-+
R = __M_ x_ _ 30(16)5.75 _ ki !
Y Lx2 + 2-l = 766 - 360
· ps
Actual R = V(J.50 + 3.60) 2 + (3.76)2 = 6.34 kips < 7.5 01'
Use 5-¾-diam A325 bolts per row. The fasteners (3, 8, 13, and 18) located on the .r-axia
could have been omitted; however, the regular pattern of Fig. 4.12.11 is preferred. •
Sect.ion 4.13 Fasteners Acting in AxialTension • 135
FASTENERS ACTING IN AXIAL TENSION

Axial tension occurring without simultaneous shear exìsts in fasteners for tension mem-
bers sucb as hangers (see Fig. 4.6. le) or other members whuse line of action is pe:rpendic-
ular to the member Lo which it is fastened. When such Lension membe:rs are not
perpendicula.r \o their connecting members, lhe fas!eners are subjec!ed to both axial ten-
sion and shear. The latter, more Lypical case-, is discussed in Sec. 4.14.
Section 4.6. l discusse, the nominai strength Rn for fasteners subject Lo axial tension:
Eq. 4.6.J gi.ves tbe sLrength as
(4.6.lJ
When Eg. 4.6.1 is used in Load and Resistance Pactor Design (AISC-Table 13.2), the
design strength q,Rn using tbe resistance factor cf> of O. 75 is
(4 .13.1)
Vah1es of rj)F,11 have been giveo in Table 4.7.1.

When Eq. 4.6.1 is used in Allowable Streng1h Design, the allowable slrengLh is the
nom inai strength R., divided by the faclor of safety of 2. Thus.
Rn/!1 = R,,/2 = O.SOFnrAb (4.13.2)
aod
where T0 is ihe required tensile strength per bolt R,,/0. must ex.ceed the Ta caused by fac-
tored loads.
Fast.eners subjec t to ax.ial te-nsion must be pretensioned according to Table 4.4.1
whether the de sign i~ fora bearing-type connection or a slip-criticai connect.ion l4.9).
Prestress Effect of High-Strength Bolts Under External

Tension
To understand the effect of an externally apphed load on a prete nsioned high-strength

bolt, consider a single bolt and the tributary portion of the connected plate s as shown in
Fig. 4. 13. la. The pieces being joined are of thickness I and the area of contact between
the pieces is Ap. Prior to applying ex.ternai load, the situation is as shown in Fig. 4.13. lb,
where the bolt has been installed to have a preteosion force T b (values as in Table 4.4. l ).
The pieces beingjoined are initiaUy compressed an arnount C;. For equilibrium,
C; = Tb (4.13.3)
e,
Figure 4.13. I Prestress

! Tb = preiension
from
installa1ion
effecl on bohed joint. (al (hl
'.he external .load p is then applied an<l che forces acting are shown in Fig. 4.13. tc.1\i
time equ1hbnum requires '
P + CI == TI (4 13.41
where che subscriptfrefers lo final conditions after application of the load P.

The force p acting on che system lengthens the bolt an amounl ob between the u
side of the bolt head and the surface of contact betwcen the two connected plat.es, ll<ler.
TI - Th
8b == AhEb (4.13.Sj
where E1, = modulus of elasticity of the bolc

T f = final force in the bolt after exlemal load is applied.
At the same time, the compressi on between the plates ùecreases and the platc thicl;.
ness increases an amounc o,,,
(4.13.6)
where EP = modulus of elasticity of the platc materiai

C f = final compressi on farce becween che pieces being joined, after external
load is applicd
If contaci is maintaine<l, compatibility of deformation requires òh = òP; thus, Eq. 4.l1l
equated lo Eq. 4.13.6 gives
(4.13.)
Next, substitution of Eq. 4. l 3.3 for C; and Eq. 4.13.4 for Cr into Eq. 4. 13.7 give1
Tr - Ti, Tb - T J + P
(4.13.&!
The moduli of elasticity Eh for the boh and E P for the plate are essentially the same 300
may be eliminated. Then solving for Ti gives
AP
(T1 - Tb) - = Tb - Tt + P (4.13.91
A1,
T.r( I + ~:) = T1,( l + ;: ) + P

p
(4.13.10)
Tl = Tb + I + A p /A I,
EXAMPLE 4.13.1
Assume ~-in.-diam A325 bolts are used in a direct tension situation such as in Fig.4.13l
With bolts spaced 3 in. apart and having I !-in. edge distances, the tributary areaofCOIIIIII
may reasonably be about 9 sq in. If the maximum extemal tensile load permittcd by Aft
Load and Resistance Factor Design is applied, how much does the bolt tension iDclllllf:
Assume the service load is 20% dead load and 80% live load.
Section 4.13 Fasteners Acting in AxialTension • 137
Sliflened
aogks Il
Il
11
Il
A _j
T T
Scctinn A-A
Solution:
(a) Design strength <f>Rn. Using Eq. 4.13.1 ,
<f,R,, = 0.75F,,,Ab = 0.75(90)0.6013 = 40.6 kips

(h) Permissible service load R per bolt. Equating the design strength <f>Rn to the fac-
tored load R., gives
R,. = 1.2(0.2R) + l.6(0.8R) = 1.52R
I .52R= 40.6 kips

R = 26.7 kips
(e) lnitial tensile force in ~-in.-diam A325 bolt. From Table 4.4.1,
Tb = 39 kips
(d) Determine final tensile force in bolt. The ratio of plate contact areato bolt area is
Ap 9
- = - - = 15
0.6013
This neglects subtracting the boli area from the tota) tributary area, but little difference
results. Using Eq. 4.13. IO with the load P per fastener egual to its maximum value R gives
26.7
T1 = 39 + - - = 39 + 1.7 = 40.7kips
I + 15
The increase in tension is 4.3%. The variation in actual pretension from installation may be
expected to exceed this amount, so that this increase is not of concem. Furthennore the trib-
utary area used for the example (9 :,q in.) is probably the minimum one might encounter in
practice, since less than a 3-in. pitch or gage is rarely used.
The important conclusion from this example is that no signijìcant increase in
bolt tension arises unti/ the external /oad equals or exceeds the prete,asion force, in
which case the pieces do not remain in contact and the applied force equals tbc bolt
tension.
th
If the connection can distort and give rise to "prying forces" ese musi also be e
sidered. (See AISC-J3.6 and the treacment in the ..Split-Be_am iee Connections" Pannn.
Sec. I 3.6.) In the situation of Example 4.13.l, the approx1mate factor of safery agai:
overcoming initial compression between pieces is 'Il
FS = Tpb = ~
26.7
"" J.5
In generai, for A325 bolts under AISC-J3, the margin of safet~ against service lo
exceeding the proof load is approximate\y 1.5 for diameters up to I m. and approximai:
1.3 for diameters over I in.
'
y
EXAMPLE 4.13.2
De termine the required number of ¾-in.-diam A490 bolts for the connection show .
Fig. 4 . 13 ..",. Assume that the pieces making up the- connecuon
· are a d equate, and vn IQ
s~iff such that prying forces (see Sec. \ 3.6) can be disregarded, aod that the nominal::
s1le stresses on the bolts govern. Assume the toad is I 0% dead load and 90% live load.
Use the A/SC-LRFD Method. .
Solution:
(a} Design strength <f,R,, perbolt. Using Eq. 4. ) 3.1,
</>R,. = 0.75F ,At, = 0.75( 113)0.4418 = 37.4 kips

11
(b) Calculate the factored tension force T,, .
T,, = 1.2(0.1 )( 140) + L.6(0.9)(140) = 2l8kips
F==========iA 7
A ..-J
140 kip,
Figure 4.13.3 140 lc.ips
Example 4.13.2. Sectìoo A - A
(e) Determine the number n of bolts required.
Tu 218
say 6
n = <f>Rn = 37.4 = 5·8,
Use 6-¾-in.-diam A490 bolts. I
Section 4.14 Combined Shear andTension • 139
COMBINED SHEAR AND TENSION

In a large number of commonly used connections. both shear and tension occur and must
be considered in design. Figure 4.14.1 shows a few typical connections in which the con-
nectors are simultaneously subjected to both shear and tension. Tue connection shown in
Fig. 4.14.1 a is a common one where two angles join the beam web to the column flange.
From the moment force indicated in Lhe figure, the upper fasteners are subjected to tension
in proportion 10 the magnitude of the applied moment. However, one may recali from
structural analysis that only a small amount of end roration on a beam is necessary to
change from a ftxed end Lo a hinged end condition. ln addition, the web carries only a
small part of the bending moment. Thus, one may intuitively sense that the moment shown
will be relieved before a significant tension force can be developed in the fasteners. Such
connections are used when litùe end moment is desired to be transmitted. An exception to
tlùs occurs in the case of a very deep beam such as a plate girder.
Referring next 10 Fig. 4 . 14.1 b in the which the applied moment is transmitted through
the flanges of the beam, the situation is differenc. In this case a large applied moment is
intended to he transmitted so the connection is made at the flanges, the elements carrying
most of the moment. Chapter I 3 1reats this type of connection. Figure 4 .14. l c and 4. 14. ld
typify the two types of fastener loading in combined shear and tension which are developed
in the following parts of this section.
Bearing-Type Connections-AISC LRFD Method
In earlier sections. the nominal srrengths of bolts loaded separately in shear and tension
were treated. When the full strength in tension is required, the full strength in shear is not
l) I
(a)
L_-----
' (b)
Struc1ural
lee
2 angles
Figure 4.14.1
1) pica! combined shear and
ten~ion connec1ions. (C) (d)
. ·tuùies [4.23, 3.1 I, thc slrcnglh intcr·

simultanconsly available. Based on experimenta 1 ~. ·b"ip ijc,
b . cular re1a11ons
tion equa1ion may be represented( ~'a)c:r + 2 =
1
'(i.E-) ( . · )
4 14 1
F,,, F,111
t: ·tored servicc loads
where f, = requireù tensile stress due to ac · .
f red serv1ce loads
;;, = required shear stress due to ac IO • , •
.b l terial (AISC-TableJJ.2)
F = nominai tensile strength o t O I ma
"' • I terial (AISC-TableJ3.2)
F,,.. = nominai shear strenglh of bo t ma
. . .. r · 1 · teraction relationship of Eq. 4. 14.1 into
AI~C Specifica'.100 hav~ s1mphfie~ the el ipt1ca m st severe Joading cases. T he straigh1 li a
sU,Hght lme wh1ch requ1red reducuon only m the mo ne
expression is
For LRFD Method

..il.... + ~ = constant = 1.3 (4.14.2a)
</>1'~,, <J>F,,,,
Fùr ASD Method

n.1; + !1fv = constant = 1.3 (4. 14.2b)
F,,, F,,v
·
For the LRFD case, the avmlable red uced tensJ-·1e·st1·e1'gtb
' ( F'"' ) in .the presence of aspe
· ·
cific level of shear stress can be determincd. by multiplying: bo!b sides of Eq. 4 . l4.2a by
F,,1 and solving for .1;/ I. r 111 'F,il
F 1-virl <
-
,i-.p
'I' ,,, (4. \4.4)
Ab <·, rrt•
where R111 = the factored tension load on thc: boll. k ips
Ab = gross cross-sectional bolt area. ~q. in.
,J> = 0.75
For A325 bolts, the value of }~,, / r~,v is equ.:11 lo l .9 and l .5 for including and excluding
threads in the shear planes, respectively. Substituting for l-~11 / F,rv in Eq. 4.14.4
</JF;,, = ef>( 1.3(90) - 1.9f11] = <,b[ I I7 - 1.9f 1,] :5 <pF,11 for A325-N (4.14.5)
and
ct,F;,, = <f>[ 117 - 1.5.fiJ :s; (j)F,,, for A325-X (4.14.6)

Equations 4.14.5 and 4.14.6 are shown in Figure 4.14.3 with <J, = 0.75 included. The
equations for q,F~, are summarized for A325 and A490 bolts in Table 4.14.1.
Slip-Critica! Connections-AISC LRFD Method
The presence of tension in a slip-criticai connection reduces the clamping force and hence.
the frictional resistance. Accordingly, the available slip resistance per bolt musi be reduced.
AJSC-J3.9 provides a reduction factor k_. to be applied to the slip-resistance limit state com-
puted according to AISC-13.8. The factor k, is as follows:
k = I- T,. (4.14.7)
., DuNbTb
where D,, = 1.13

N b = number of bolts carrying the applied tension
Tu = factored tension load due to LRFD combinations in ASCE 7
T,, = minimum pretension for bolt given in AISC-Table 13.1
Nb = number of bolls carrying the applied tension
0.3</>F..,
-..:;
A
cJ>F.,
--- - ('·)2(J·)l
-- - + -- - t
g .... ' , ,/
' ',,
t/>F,u <J:iF111·
1"'e:: !;.
~ ~
+
•
-;
ft~
- 1.3 -------
'
~ ''
-,:,
~
ATSC Design ' \
·5
if
~
Figure 4.14.2
Nondimcnsional shear- o
re nsion strength interaction o B
curve: bearing-type
Requìred Shear Stress.f,
Factorcd shear s1ress f.,, MPa

50 100 150 200 250 300 350
9 0 r - - - , - -- - ,--- - , - -- - , , -- - - , -- - ,- - - , -- - - ,
0.3,t,F., = I3.Sksi
600
80
550
0.3,J,F., = 10.8 ksi t/>F~, = t/>{117- 1.5/,) ::s cJ>F.,
70 = 88-1.13/. s 68 hi 500
A325-X
450
.,."' 60
i,_"
<J,F., = 61.5 ksi ,t,F:., = cf,(117-l.9/-,) s t/>F.,
-e. = 88-1.43/, s 68 ksi
50 A325-N
]
.,~
300 "'
~
~ 40 .;
e::
-~ 250 -~
=
,:
"'
E-
30 fi
200 l-"
20 150
100
10
Figure 4.14.3 so
lnreraction relarionship for
combined shear and tension 36 45
j11 A325-X ami A325-N IO 20 30 40 so
bearina-rype connecrions. Factored shcar stress f.,, k,i
TABLE 4. 14.1 DesignTension Stress* Umit ,t,F~r in !he Presence

of Factored Shear Stress fv (for Bearing-Type
Connections) (based on Eq. 4.14.41
(ksi)
(MPa)
Fastener
cf>(59 - J.9/uv) S c/>( 45) <f>( 407 - 1.9/uu) S ,f:,(3I())
A307 bolts
A325-N bolts cf>( LI7 - J.9fuv) S cf>(90) 4>(807 - l.9f,. 0 ) S ,f:,(62I)
(threads nor excluded)
A325-X bolts t/>(117 - I.Sfuv) S cf>(90) c/>(807 - L.5fuv) :s; ,f:,(62!)
(threads excluded)
A490-N bolts cf>(l47 - 1.9/.,u) S </>(113) </>( 1010 - l.9fuu) $ ,f:,(779)
(threads nor excluded)
A490-X bolts c/>(147 - 1.51,,v) S <f>( Jl3) cf>( l0I0 - 1.Sfuv) S ,f:,(779)
(!hreads excluded)
* Note that cf> = 0.75.
1 Nominai stress due to factored load acring on gross bolt cross-sectional area, f, = Rur!Ab
_ To demonstrate the variation of the reduction fa~tor as a functio~ of the ratio T ./T••
cons,der a four- bolt connection and a six-bolt connect10n. Tue reducuon factors will be
Tu
= I - 1.13(4)Tb
Tu = I - 0.22l(T")
Tb
far a 4-bolt connection
= I_ Tu _
l.13(6)Tb - l - 0.148 Tb
(Tu) for a 6-bolt connection
The equations are shown in Fig. 4.14.4.
I.O
...15- 0.75
u
.:::
e
·g o.so
..,:,
~
0.25
Figure 4.14.4
Rcduction factor for tbc
slip resistance limi1 stare in
lhe presence of 1ension
(AISC-13.9).
Using Load and Resistance Factor Design. determine the adequacy of the fasteners in
Fig. 4.14.5 when i-in.-diam A325 bolts are used in (a) a bearing-type connection (A325-X)
with threads eXcluded from the shear planes, and (b) a slip-criticai connection (A325-SC)
with Class A surface condition and standard holes. Assume Lhe strength of the column
flange and lhe ST section do not govem the answer. Neglect prying action (see Sec. 13.6).
The gravity loading is 10% dead and 90% live load.
P, P;75kips
Solution:
(a) Check connection as a bearing-type connection (A325-X). Obtaining the tension

and shear components of the factored applied force,
Pu = l.2{0.1)(75) + 1.6(0.9)(75) = 117 kips

Tension component = Pux = 0.8( 117) = 93.6 kips
Shear component = P,,y = 0.6(11 7) = 70.2kips
The factored loads T,, and V,, per bolt are
Tension T,, = 93.6/6 = 15.6 kips/bolt

Shear V 11 = 70.2/6 = 11.7 kips/bolt
The factored load shear stress is
[fv = Vu = _I!2__ = 19.Sksi] > [0.2q,Fnv = 0.2(0.75)60 = 9ksi]

Ab 0.6013
Therefore, the shear-tension interaction must be considered. From AISC-J3.7, the avail-
able stress in tension F~, per bolt is
F,nr = I ·3Fm - ~,1,.F f v :S [Fnr = 90 ksi]

'I' nv
90
= 1.3(90) - ( 19.5) = 78 ksi
0.75(60)
</>Rm = <f>F~1Ab
= 0.75(78)0.6013 = 35.2 kips > [r.. = 15.6 kips/bolt] OK
Tue connection is very conservatively designed as a bearing-type conncction.
144 • Chapter 4 Struetural Bolts
. ·· I nection (A325-SC). For strengih a 1.

(b) Check connectjon as a shp-cnllca con . . . , s 'P.
··
cntlcal · must sall.,fy
conneclwn · h
t. e same s
tren""th-related
e
cnlena
.
of a beanng-type
. con.
· . - d · (a)· beanng strengtb was g1ven ·
nec1100. The shear slrength was mvesugale m • in lhe
problem statement as not controlling.
For serviceability, the adequacy of slip resistance mLJSl be_checked. Si~ce standard
holes are used, design for the serviceability limit state. The reductJon factor k, is calculated
as follows:
Tu
k, = I - - --
DuNbTb
93 6
- - · = 0.646
- I l.l 3( 6)39
and 1he reduced design slip resistance is
rf,R nv = ,f>k_. µ.Duh «N,Tb

= 1.0(0.646)0.35(113)(1.0) ( 1)39
= 9.96 kips/boh < [Vu = ll.7 k.ips/bolt) NG
Since the reduced q,R11v is Jess than the fac.:tored shear Vu the bolts are noi salisfactory as a
slip-criticai coonection. 1
EXAM PLE 4.14.2
Determine the maximum value of the load P in Example 4 .14.1 as suming (a) a slip-critica)
connection, and (b) a bear i.n g-ty pe connecti-:in (A325-N) w i1 h th.reads possible in the shear
planes. Use ATSC Specificaiion LRFD Method ;:od assume C lass A surface condition wilh
standard holes.
Solution:
(a) Slip-critica] connectjon . T lìe factored service ioad force Pu is
P,, = 1.2( 0.l.)P + 1..6(0.9 )P = l.56P

P,,x = te nsion componer.t = 0.8? ,, = l .25P
P,,Y = shear cornponcnt = O.GP11 = 0.94P
Tue factored load per bolt in shear is
Vu = 0.94P /6 = 0.156/> per bolt

The factored load per boli in tension is
Tu = 1.25P / 6 = 0.208P per bo lt

The design srrength in shear rpRnv is
</>Rnv = </Jk., µDuh ,cN,Tb

= I o(i _1.13(39)6
·
1.248P )
(0.35)(1.13)(1.0) (1 )39
= 15.43 - 0.0728P
Equating the factored shear V u to the design strength <f>Rnv gives
0.L560P = 15.43 - 0.0728P

P = 61.4 kips
The strength in shear, tension, and bearing must also be checked as ìf this were a bearing-type
connection. For some very -~lip-resistant surface conditions the strength as a bearing-type con-
neclion may contro! instead of slip resistance; a relatively unusual situation.
(b) Bearing-type connection (A325-N) witb threads possible in the shear planes.
The factored loads are
Pu = 1.2(0.l)P + 1.6(0.9)P = 1.56P

Pux = tension component = 0.8Pu = 1.25P
Puy = shear component = 0.6Pu = 0.94P
The factored load per boll in shear is
Vu = 0.94P / 6 = 0.156P per bolt

The factored load per bolt in tension is
T,, = 1.25P /6 = 0.208P per bolt

from AISC-J3.7. the available stress in Lension F;,, perboll is
'
F,,, = 1.3Fn, - Fn,
--;:-fv $
[ Fnt::::
. 90 k SI. ]
'l'Fnv -
. = Vu = 0.156P =
0 _26p
O
f Ab 0.6013
9
' - ( ) - 0 (O 26P)
F nr - 1.3 90 0.75( 48) .
= 117 - 0.65P
Tue design strength <f>Rnr in lension ìs
<f>Rn, = </>F~,Ab = 0.75( 117 - 0.65P)0.6013 = 52.8 - 0.293P
Eguale Tu to cf>Rn,, and solve for P
0.208P = 52.8 - 0.293P

P = 105 kips
Check maximum nominai tensile strength
F~, = 117 - 0.65( P)

= 117 - 0.65(105) = 48.7 ksi < 90 ksi OK
Thus, the maximu~ value of the service load_ P is 67 kips as a slip-criticai connection an:
105 kips as a beanng-type (A325-N) connectlon.
146 • Chapier 4 Structural Bohs
EXAMPLE 4.14.3
Detennine the number of ¾-in.-diam A325 bolts requ_ired to carry a s~ear force con~isting
of 14 kips dead load and 56 kips Jive Joad, and a tens1on force of 24 bps dead load and 96
kips live load. The connection is 10 be designed such t.hat the resultan~ force acts lhrou&h
the centroid of the connection. Use Load and Resistance Fact~r DeSign: (a) design as a
bearing-type (A325-X) connection, and (b) design as a slip-cntical (A 32 S-SC) connection
having Class A surface condition and standard holes.
Solution:
Tn t.his design il seems apparent that si ne.e both the tension and the shear force-s are of com.
parable magnitude, il is likely that neither the maximum shear strength nor. the maximum
tension strength of the fasieners may be used, as may be observed ~rom F1g. 4. l 4.3. Tue
following approach [4.24] may be used when design aids are not ava1Jable.
(a) Be.aring-type connection. According to AJSC-J3.7, and using F;,, = 87.8 - L5j1, e;; 67.5 ksi (A325-X)
Sirn.ilarly, the maximum nominai shear stress is
<!>F;w = </>( l.3F,,,, - ;;~/,) ~ ,pF,,v

60 l
= 0.75[ 1.3(60) - 0,75(90/' j
= 58.5 - 0.6 7fr s: 45 ksi (A325-X)
The lìaear interaction equations for cj>F;11 rnay, in genera] , be expressed as
rf>F;11 = C1 - Cdv :S: rf>F,,, (a)
where C I and C 2 are consrnnts.

Convert Eq. (a) into a force equation by multiplying by the bolt area Ab,
(b)
or, if LAb represents the tota) area of ali bolts, rf>F;., '2,Ab = LTu and f vLA1, = IV.,
giving
(e)
where ~Tu and ~ V u are the tot.al factored lension and shear forces. respectively, applied to
the connection. Solving Eq. (e) for LAb gives
(d)
Altematìvely, a similar equation for the required tota! area based on the maximum
nominai stress in shear can be used, as follows:
(el
Section 4.14 Combìned Shear andTension • 147
which are the basic design equations for bearing-type connections. The values of C 1 are
87.7 and 58.5 for Eqs. (d) and (e), respectively. The values of C 2 are 1.5 and 0.67 for Eqs.
(d) and (e). respectively.
For A325-X connection, Eq. (d) becomes
LT,, + l.5LV,,
LAb=-- -- - (f)
87.8
and Eq. (e) becomes
LV,, + 0.67Y.T,,
LAb = - ....C....-- - - - - " - (g)
58.5
For lhis exarnple, the factored service loads are
Y.T,. = 1.2(24) + 1.6(96) = 182 kips

2.V,, = l.2(14) + l.6(56) = 106 kips
and using Eq. (f} whìch is expected to govern gives
'J:.TII + 1.52.V,, 182 + 1.5( 106)

Required 2.Ab = - -- - -- - - - - -- = 3.9 sq in.
87.8 87.8
Alternatively, Eq. (g) can be used to gìve the same result,
2.V11 + 0.6TX.T,, 106 + 0.67 ( 182)

Required °LA& = - - -- - - = - - - -- - = 3.9 sq in.
58.5 58.5
Check maximum nominai stresses,
<J>F;,, = </>l{ l.3F,, 1 - F,,,

</>F,,v
j~.]< </>F,,,
= 0.75[ 1.3(90) - 90
( ) X -106] = 41.0 ksi < 0.75(90) s 67.5 ksi OK
0.75 60 3.9
</JF,,111 = <f>[ l .3F,,v - - Fn -!,

v ] s; <f>F,w
</>F,,,
60 180]
= 0.75[ 1.3(60) - ( ) X-
0.75 90 3.9
= 27.7 ksi < <f>Fnv = 0.75(60) = 45 ks1, OK
As expected, the tension force limitation based on lhe linear interaction equatìon con-
trolled. The number 11 of bolts required is
. 3.9
Reqmred n = _ = 8.8 bolts
0 4418
Use 9-¾-in. diam A325-X bolts fora bearing-type connection.

(b) Slip-criticai connectìon. Ali strength requirements as checked in (a) fora bearing-
type connection apply to the slip-criticai connection.
Estimate the nurnber of bolts to be 12 and use the reduction factor, Eq. 4.14.7 (AISC-J3.8).
<f,R11v = <f>k., µD,,h ,cN,Th

= I.0(0.52) (0.35)(1.13)1.0(1)28 = 5.76kip~fbolt
106
Required nu111ber of bolts 11 = 5_76 = 18 +
Recompute the reduction facror using 19 bolts.
T11 182 = 0.7

k,.
· = l - --
D11 N 0 Tb =I - 1.13(19)28
and the revised </,R,,v becornes
,,__R = (!J2)s.76 = 7.75 kips/bolt

o/ "" 0.52
106
Required number of bolts 11 = _ = 13 +
7 75
Try 16 bolts.
T 11 182 = O.M
k, = I - -D N1>Tb
11
- =I - 1.13(16)28
0 64
-~R
o/ IIV
= ( 0.52
· )5.76 = 7.09 kips/bolt
106
Required number of bolts 11 = 7_0 9 = 15
Use 16-¾-in. diam A325 bolts.
4.15 SHEAR AND TENSION FROM ECCENTRIC LOADING
Jn a bracket connection such as in Fig. 4. l 4. 1a and d. the eccentric load produces both
shear and tension in the upper fasteners. A~ in most other connections, the manner in
which lhe pieces behave is complex. However, nominai forces carried by the fasteners are
usually determined by using one of two approaches: (I) that of neglecting any initial ten-
sion in the fasteners or (2) that of considering the initial pretension forces in the fasreners.
When fasteners such as A307 bolts are usecl, the amount of ioitial tensioo present is usually
small and of an indererminable amount. Tberefore, in this case, the neglect of any initial
tension is reasonable and gives conservative results. On the other hand, when high-strenglh
bolts are used the initial pretension forces exist and should be recognized.
If initial tension does not exist to any appreciable degree, the application of mornent Pr
(Fig. 4. L4. Id) will produce a tension that is maximum at the top bolts. Near the bottomoftbe
connection, compression would exist between tbe pieces being joined with litlle etfo:t
directly on the bolts. The direct shear would be carried nearly entirely by the bolts since link
friction would exist from bolt installation. The use of A307 bolts having little initial tcnsìoo
is rare in important connections having shear in combination with moment-induced 11:IISÌOD:
thus no further treatment is given to the analysis neglecting initial 1ension.
Veillette and DeWolf [4.241 have conducted tests on tee connections with bollS 1oadl4
in shear and tension.
Section 4.15 Shear andTension From Eccentric Loeding • 149
I I
I I
•• •
••
••• •••
•• •
(a) (b)
Figure 4. 15.1
Stresses on contaci surface of lnitial compressive Stress on contaci Final ,1rcss on
moment-resisting connection, stress on comact area area due lo applied load contaci area
considering iniria] cension in
che bolts. (e) (d) (e)
Tension from Bending Moment Considering Initial Tension

Consider the service load moment M applied to the bracket of Fig. 4.15. l to cause tension on
the upper bolts (maximum in the top one of each row of bolts shown as black dots). High-
sttength bolts used as such fasteners are required to be installed with a prescribed initial ten-
sion in them whether the joint is considered a bearing-lype or a slip-critical connectìon (RCSC
[4.7), Sec. 8). This tension in each bolt will precompress the plates or sections beìng joined.
For the situation of Fig. 4.15. l, the neutral a.xis under the action of moment M will occur at the
ceotroid (C G ) of the contact area; tbat is, at d/2 for the rectangular contact area shown.
The initial bearing pressure fb; as shown in Fig. 4. 15. lc is assumed to be uniform
over the contac c area bd and is equal to
'iTb
fb; = bd (4.15. l)
where 2, T b = the pretension load cimes the number of bolts. The tensile stress f,h at the
top due to the applied moment ìs
_ __ Md/2 _ 6M
J rh - I - bd2 (4.15.2)
and should not exceed f bi if compressi on between the pieces is to remain at the top.
The load Ton the top bolt is equal to the product of the bolt tributary area (width b
rimes boli spacing p) times f rb · Thus,
(4.15.3)
.. . h~~~~~H
u st1tuttng Eq. 4.15.2 into Eq. 4. 15.3 g1ves t e
Sb
6M 6MP
T = --bfl = - -2-
bd1 d
· . . fr th 1op 1he value of T can be modifi d
Assummg the top bolt 1s approx1mately p/2 om e · e to be
d - p)
T modified T( = -d
=~('!...::)!_)
d2 d
(4.\S.51
There was logie for using this procedure in AUowable Stress Design where service \Oild
were directly. The au1hors consider thls method acceptable far use m Load and Resistanc!
Factor Design.
EXAMPLE 4.15.1
Determine the servicc load capacity p for the connection of Fig. 4.15.2 iJ the fasteners
¾-in.-diam A325-X bohs subject to shear and tension in a bearing-type connection withare
threads in che shear piane. Use AISC LRFD Method, assuming the load is 20% dead le:
and 80% gravily live Joad.
Solution:
(a) Compute factored load P,,.
P,. = l.2(0.2P) + J.6(0.8P) = 1.52P
(b) Compute rbe factore<l shear and tension on the bolts using the assumptìon th
applied loads do not overcome initial compressi on between the pieces being joined. Rcf al
. . ~
nng to F1g. 4.15.2, the neutral axis for f\e xure is at mid-depth of the contact area. Equatio
4. 15.5, using the factored moment M 11 and the maximum factored load T., per bolt for ~
and_ T modified• respecrively, and noting the moment M 11 equals the load Pu times the eccen.
tnc1ty e of 3 in., gives
T
"
= 6M,.p1d
d2 l - p]- 6(1.52P)(3)3f
d 2 (12)1 -
12 - 31 _
l l2 - 0.214P
Figure.; 4. J5.2
Shear and rncm1cnt-induced
lcn,ion connection for
Example 4.1 5.1 . (al (h)
Section 4. 16 Shear and Tension From Eccentric Loading • 151
Note thar since there are two vcrtical lines of fasteners, there is a 2 in the denominator of
the above equation.
The shcar component talcen equally by ali bolts is
P., 1.52 P
V,, = ~
,c,n
= -8- = 0.190P
(e) Design strengths ,f>R,. of bolts in shear and tension. In tension. the design
strength <f,R,., is
where
Multiply by Ab and substitute F ,., = 90 ksi and F,,v = 60 ksi,
t/>F~,Ab = 0.75[ l.3(90)Ab - _;

07 6
o/vAb1
= 87.8Ab - I.SV11 :;; 61.5Ab
= 87.8(0.4418) - 1.5V s II 67.5(0.4418)
Max T 11 = </>F~,Ab = 38.8 - l.SV 11 s 29.8 kips
Equa1ing T 11 = 0.21 4P to Max T 11 and then substitute V 11 = 0.190P gives
0.214P = 38.8 - 1.5(Q.l90P)

P = 78 kips
Then also check limìts on V,, = 19.9 kips/bolt and T = 29.8 k.ips/bolt.
11
[V,, = 0.190P = 0.190( 78) = 14.8 kips/bolt] s 19.9 kips/bolt OK

[T,, = 0.214P = 0.214( 78) = 16.6 kips/bolt) s 29.8 kips/bolt OK
Therefore. che service load capacity P is 78 kips. •
Considering Inìtial Tension-Simplified Procedure
As long as the initial compression between plates resulting from initial tension in installoo
bolrs is not totaBy counteracted by external load, one may compute tensile stress in a bolt
by the flexure formula f = My / I as if only the bolt cross-seccional areas comprise the
resisting section:
My My
(4.15.6)
f, = - /- = ì.:Aby2
When ali fasteners are rhe same size (as is usual), A1, may be combine<! with f I to obtain
the tensile force T in a bolt. Thus,
(4.15.7)
152 • Chapter 4 Structura! Bolts
. Eq 4 15 5 Jet the depth d of the co

To show tbat Eq. 4. I 5. 7 is identtcal to . · · . · ·. E . 5 then b ntact arca
equa! np. where II is the number of fasteners in one line. q. 4 · 15·· ecomes
T =---
6Mp(11p - P) -_ ~(p(II - l))
112p2 Il{)
3 2 -,
,,. p -
(4.15.8J
Note that p(n - I )/2 is the distance from mid-depth 10 ibe outermost fastener and corre-
sponds to y of' Eq. 4.15.6. Further, a single line of fasteners sp?ced at P apart i:nay be trea,Cd
as a r:ctangular resisting section of width A4> and depl.h np. 1 he moment of mertia of such
a secuon wou/d be
I = -l
12
(A)
-
p
(np) 3
(4.15.())
which corresponds approximately 10 th_e moment of inertìa of the_ bolt are~s. !A.by'
Thus, Eqs. 4.15.7 and 4.15.8 are essenually the same. Based on th,s reasoning, desi ·
Eq. 4.12.28 may also be used lO estimate required nun~ber of fasteners when fasten:°
are subject to moment causing teosion or shear and tensmn. rs
EXAMPLE 4.15.2
f~r th~ connec~on of the ~racket of Fig._ 4.15.3 to the colu~n, determine the nurnber of
s~m.-d1am A32.) bolts requtred to transmll the shear and t~ns10~ forces. Use 3-ìn. Veftic
ptlch. (a) Use beanng-1ype connec1ion (A325-X) connec11on wtth threads excluded ~ al
the shear piane, and (b) use slip-criticai (A325-SC) connection. Use AISC LRFD Met:'n
assunung the load is 52 kips gravily Jive load and 8 k.ips dead lond. od.
Solution:
(a) Beariug-type (A325-X) connection. The factored load P,, is
P11 = 1.2(8) + 1.6(52) = 93 kips

The design shear strength </JR,. for bolts subject to shear alone is
= 0.75(60)0.6013 == 27. 1 kips/bolt
--T,
l~:_
--,--1~
~r--·
'a.
;:., I
I
'
I
l
/
'I
J_ . :/ /
~ LJ/
1 lt'l!T' 4. J <: _
L ' Ili;:+• 4 ! 5.2 I.>c\:gn for
il
r!· r •'Id l<.:n51vn _,....I_,1 I .
iÌ 01:..mc1er l'd:''i ho!rs
Section 4.15 Shear andTenslon From Eccentric Loadìng • 153
The design tension streagth </JR., for bolts subject to tension alone is
(j>R.,, = ,f,F.,,Ab
= 0.75(90)0.6013 = 40.6 kips/bolt
Noting that M for Eq. 4.12.29 is 92.8(8)/2 = 371 ìn.-kips per vertical line of bolts, the
oumber n of bolts per line ìs approximately
n=f#;= required for M alone
P 92.8
= 2R = 2(27.I) = l.7 required for sbear V alone
11
Try IO bol!s (5 perline):
ry2 = 4(3) 2 + 4(6) 2 = 180 in. 2

M,,y 92.8(8)6
R.,, = Ly2 = 180
= 24.7 kips/bolt < 40.6 kips/bolt OK
P,, 92.8
Ruv = -I.n = -10- = 9.3 kips/bolt < 27.1 kips/boll
Next check tbe interaction between shear and tension. According to AISC-J3.7, the nomi-
nai tensile stress modified in the presence of shear is
I _ 3 F,,r <
F ,,, - I . Fn1 - --fv - F,., AISC Formula (J3-3a)
</>F,,v
F~1 Ab = l.3(90)0.6013 - _ :~ 0) (9.3)

07 6
OK
= 51.8 kips < [ F, A b = 90(0.6013) = 54.J kips)

11
tf,F~,Ab = 0.75(51.8) = 38.9kips < [R,,, = 24.7kips) OK
One could check 4 bolts per line,
ly1 = 4(1.5) 2 + (4.5) 2 = 90in.2

MuY 92.8(8)4.5 . • . ]
R.,, = - - ? = = 37.1 k1ps < l<t>R/U = 38.9 k.1ps OK
Ly- 9O
Clearly, 4 bolts per lioe is acceptable.

Use 8-~-in.-diam A325 bolts, 4 per row.
(b) Slip-criticai connection. Tue number of bolts rcquired for slìp-critical connec-
tions is typicaUy higher than for bearing-type connections. So the 10-bolt arrangement
could be satisfactory. When the slip-criticai connection is subjected to tension, the avail-
able slip-resistaoce per bolt is reduced. The slip-resistance as determined by AISC-J3.8 is
multiplied by the factor ks given in AISC-13.9,
24.7 = 0.94
1.13( 10)39
where N b is the number of bolts subject to tensìon.
The reduced design strengtb lheo 1>ecomes
<f>Rnv = </>k, µDuh,cN,Tb

= 1.0(0.94 )(0.35)( l.13)( l.00)( I )39
= J4.5 kips > [Ruv = 9,3 kips] 01{
Th us, 5 bolts per I.me ,s

- more lhan ade,,uate
... 10 meet the slip-resistance requirctnent ior
combined shear and tension.
Use IO-~-in.-diam A325 bolts. 5 per row. 1
SELECTED REFERENCES
-==-=:::..:..:=-='....::::::.:.:::~----------~-
°"
------ - -
4. I. C Balbo and E H. Bateman. /m•e.srigurion.s Bolts arui Bolted Join/.1, s«oo
d Report of lhe Srecl
S~ctures Rese'arch Commiuee. Londoo; His Majesty's Stacionery Office. 1934,
4.2. W. M. Wilson and F. P. Thomas. ··Fatigue Tescs on Ri,-cled Joint.s." Bu//etin 302. Urbana. lL: Uni\·~
of Illinois. Engìneering Experimcnt Scation, 1938. . .
4.3. A. E. R. De Jonge. Rivetcd Joints: A Cri1ù:ol Revi~"' ofthe Utera/uft! Covermg Their De,•elopmrm.
New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 1945.
4.4. AISC. "Symposium on High-Streogth Bolts," Procudings ofAISC Nariona/ Engineering Co1iftrr11;:1 _
New York: A1nerican lnstitutc of Steel Constnu:iion. I 950, 22-43.
4.5. William H. Munse. "Re,earch on Bolted Connections," Tronsactions. ASCE. 121 (l 956\, 1255-12.66.
4.6. "Rivets and High-S1reng1h Bolts, A Symposium." Transacrim,s. ASCE. 126, ~ II ( 196!). 693~20.
4.7. Rescarch Council on Structural Connection~. Load anJ ResisUJnu Faclor Durgn Spec~fit a1io11 for
Srruclura/ Joir11s Usì11g A.STM A315 or A490 80/ts. Chicago. IL: American lnsritu!e of S1eel CO(ll;IJuc_
lion, 1988.
4.8. Research Council on Structurnl Co11nc.:1ions. Allow11ble Srrttss Dt.1ig11 Specification for Strucrural JOÌll/r
Usi11g A!:,TM A325 or A490 Bolrs. Chicago, IL; Amcrican ln,1i1u1e of Stc:c:I Coo~tructior.. No\'~mbcr 13.
1985.
4.9. Research Council on S1ruc1ural Connections. Spuificorion fui' S1nu:nm1/ Joinls Usi11g ASTM ,U25 -0,
A490 Bolts. Chicago IL: American lns1itute of Steel Consuu.:rion. 2004.
4.10. John W. Fishcr. ThcodMe V. Galambos, Gcoffrey L. Kulak. and Mayasandra K. Ravindra. ''Lood ,md
Rcsistance F.'\Ctor Des.ign Criteria for Conncx-tor.;." Jmmwl of1he S1r11ctural Dfoision. ASCE. 16', ST9
(Sep1eruber 1978). l427-144ì.
4.11. J. W. Fisher. P. O. Ram.seier. and L. S. Bccdl~. "Suength of A440 St.:el Joints Fas1encd with A325
Bolts," P11blicarions. IABSE, 23 ( 1963).
4. 12. John L. Rumpf ;md John W. Fisher. "C:tlibrarion of A325 Bolt.s." Jounwl of1l1e Stnu:hlr,i/ Difilion,
ASCE. 89, ST6 (Dcccniber 1963). 215- 234.
4 . .13. John H. ,\. Scruil:. Abayomi O. Oydcdun, :md John W. Fishcr. "Boli Ten<ion Contro] wilh a Dìrtct Tce-
sion Jndicator." Engil1eerù1g Joumal. AISC. IO, l l First Quaner 1973 l. 1-5.
4.14, Des i D. Vasarhclyi :md Kah Ching Chiang. ·•coefficicnt ofFri<'lio n in foìn1s ofVarious Stcels," Jounttl/
of1h,, Strucful'a{ Oi1•i~io11. ASCE. 93, ST4 {Augu,1 1967). 227- 243.
4.15. Joseph A. Yura and Karl H. f-rank. '1'csting Mclhod 10 Dc1em1i11e thc Slip Coefficieat for Coatings u~
in Boli.ed Joint~.-- Engineering Jnunw l, AISC. 22, 3 (3rd Quarte.r 1985). 151-155.
4.16. Theodorc V. Ga.lamb1is. T. A. Reinh<,ld, and Bruce Ellingwood. "Scrvkeabilìr;y Linùt S1a1es: Coonectiot
Slip," Jmm111/ ofthe Srrw.·wrol Dìr~Ìt!n. ASCE. 108, STl2 (Dcccmbcr 1982), 2668-2680.
4.17. Sherwùod F. CrJw(ord ami Gcof(rey L. Kuhl. "&x.-entr.ically Loaded Bolted Connections." }OlmtOJ ti
the Stn1L·tura/ Divi~i,m. ASCE, 97, ST3 ( March I 971). 765- 783.
4.18. Geoffrey L. Kull\k. "Eccentric~tl!y Loaded Slip-Re5ista111 Con!K'ction~:· Engineering Jo11rnal. AISC. u,
2 (2nd Quancr 1975), 52- 55. ·
4.19. ~- ~mald Brandi. "Rapid Dcterminnuon of Ultimate S!renglh of Eccenlrically Loaded Boli 01011p$,"
E11,~me,mng Jflun111l, AISC, 19, 2 (2nd Quaner 1982), 94-100. Disc. by Cedric Marsh. EngiMtriltg
Joumaf, 19, 4 (4th Quarter 1982). 2 14-2 15: Ntstor lwanldw, Enginterintt Journul. lO, I (1st Quarta
1983), 46; 2 (211d Quaner 19113). 88.
4.20. Avigdor Rutenberg. "Nonlinear Anal) ~is o ( F.c«ntric Bolred Conncttions." Engi11uring loflmal. .\DC,
21, 4 (4th Quancr 1984). 227-236.
4.21. J. W. Fisher. "Bchavior of Fasteners lllld l'lates wilh Holes," Journa/ o/ tl1t' S1ruc:111ro/ Di,•isÌOII, ASCE
91, STb (Deccmber 1965), 265- 286.
4.22. Cari _I,. S~nner. "Plasl.ic Behavior of Eccenlrically-1.oodcd Conncction~," F,11giMt'ri11ç JQIUJIA MSC.
Il, 2 lApnl 1971), 48- 51.
Problems • 155
4 .23. Eugene Che.--son. Jr. , Notbeno L. Faustino. and William H. M,m,-e. ··High-Strength Bnlls Subjcc1cd lo
Tension and Shear:· Joumal of the Srmctura/ Di,•i.<io,,. ASCE. 91, ST5 (Oclobcr 1965). l ~S-lkO.
4.24. fohn R. Veillene and John T. DeWolf. "&-centrically Loaded High Strength Bollcd Connections:·
Journal of Str11c/llral Engit1uring. ASCE. 111, 5 (May 191!.5). I00'.\---101 S.
PROBLEMS
ALI problems are to be done according 10 the AISC LRFD Method or AISC ASD Method. as indìcated by the instructor.
Ali given loads are service loads unless otherwise indicated. A\1 holes are standard holes and surface condìtion is clean
mili scale (Class A) unless otherwise indicated. When an ultimate slrength analysis ìs requested in an Allowablc Strength
Design problem, use a factor of safety of 2.5 lo obtain the allowable value. Wnere neede.d, assume dislance from ccnier
of hole to nearest edge (edge or end distance) is I½ in. unless otherwise given.
Values of yield stress F v and tensile strength F,. for mernber steels are available in Table 2.1. I . Fl)f A325 bolts,
F b = 120 ksi minimum for b~lts ½-to 1-in. dìameter, and 105 ksi minimum for I ~-to I ½-in. diame1er. For A490 bohs.
"
FI>u = 150 ksi minimum for i·to 1 ½-in. diameter.
4, I. Determine the service load tension capacity of the threads include<l (N) in the shcar planes, or as a
connection of the accompanying figure for the slip-criticai (SC) conncction, as indica1ed under
case assigned by the instructor. Investigate as the heading "Type Connection:· Specify the minj-
bearing-type connection with threads excluded mum dirnensions A and B appropriate for thc con-
(X) from the shear planes, bearing-type with nection.
Bolt
%Dead o/olive Plate diameter Type
Case load load steel (in.) connection
IO 90 A36 3/4 A325-X
2 15 85 A36 3/4 A.315-SC
3 15 85 A572Gr 50 3/4 A325-N
4 20 80 A572 Gr 50 3/4 A325-SC
5 20 80 AS72 Gr 60 7/S A325-X

6 40 60 A.572 Gr60 7/8 A.325-SC
7 15 85 A5ì2 Gr65 7/R A490-X

Ilo 8 15 85 A572 Gr6S 718 A4QO-SC
llllr
I[~ , lt¾ X 10 lf_ ;~ X l(l
~.
1111
~,
-1·
,. o o
,;.,
•' T- o o
....
-r
Il I
o o N
!I
l
Problem 4.1
1-A - 8 A--l
dead load. Assume a slip-crilical connection (A32S.

4.2. For any of the cases solved in Prob. 4. I, detennine
SC) is 10 be u~ed. Design th~ shortest fe~si~le ovtr-
the factor of safety against slip at service load. Do
lap of pieces for the conneclmn, and deta,l tl.
you expect slip to occur at service load" If bolt
strength had controlJe.d would slip have been
4 _6 _ Solve Prob. \5 as a bearing-type (A490-X) con-
expected at service load? nection using g-in.-diam A490 bo1ts.
4.3. Determine the service load capacicy 7' for the butt
splice of Prob. 3.15 when s 1 = s2 = 2 io. and A325
bolts are used witb no threads in the sbear plane.,;.
Specify the end distances required and evaluaie .---+--- - - - , ----r
whether or not the given stagger of 2 in. is sufficient. r- S"
lf the 2 in. is not adcquate, specify the V'ù.lue IO be c =t=============::j --L
used. Use (a) a bearing-type connection (A325-X),
aod (b) a slip-criticai (A325-SC) connection. l"
2 gusset plate
4 .4. For the case assigned by the inscructor, determine
Problems 4.5 iìnd 4.6
the nurnber of bolts require<l to develop the full
capacity ofthe double angle tensioo member sbown
in the accompanying figure. Use a double row of 4. 7. For the single angle tension member of A36 stee)
bolts without stagger. Detail the coonection. in :he accompanying figure. detennine the num-
ber of ~-in.-diam A325 bolts required in a bear-
% % Bolt ing-type connec tion ( A325-N) where threads
Dead Live Angle diame- Type may exist in the shear piane. The load is 7 kips
Case load load steel ter (in.) connection
dead load and 70 kips live load. Assume there art
IO 90 A572 Gr 50 3/4 A325-X
rhree f~-in.-diam emp,y holes in the outstanding .·
2 15 85 A572Gr 50 3/4 A325-SC Ieg ihat are noi a part of the connection. The bolts
3 30 70 A572 Gr 50 7/8 A325-N carrying the load Tare to be in a single line wilb
40 the tìrst bolt locaced a distance s ahead of the first
4 60 A572 Gr 50 7/8 A325-SC
cmpty hole. Detail the connection.
5" 4.8. Desi,!?JI and detail the double lap splìce shown, to
~
8 gusset pl:uc develop maximum tension capacity assuming the ·
2 - L8 X 6XJ.
load is 20% dead load ancl 80% live load. The steel
~
2
I
is A36 and f-ìn.-diam A325 bolts are lo be used in
r - ---,----- - r --
- -
--
---
J,,
I
a bearing-typ.! connection (A325-X) with no
_j_ threads in the shear phrnes. What is the resulting
service load capacity of the joint?
4.9. Dctem1ìne the service Ioad capacity of 2-CIOX20

Problem 4.4
channels as a truss membcr attached to a i-in. gus-
set plate as shown in the accompanying figure. Thc
4.5. For the single angle tension member of A572 Grade stoel is A572 Grade 65, and the i-in.-diam A32S
50 steel in the accompanying figure, how many bolts are in a bearing-type connection (A325-X)
¾-in.-diam A325 bolts are requìred for the connec- with no threads in the shear planes. The load is 251
tion? The load T is 80 kips live load and 20 k.ips de.ad load and 75% live load.
A36 steel
~~
r- ---0-------
Problcm 4.7 plate

Problems • 157
il
Il
Il
Il
Il
Il
Il
5"
Problem 4.8 8
7•
8
3
o o o o o
o o o o o I
4
3
- T
'½ =lì ClO X 20
Problem 4.9
4. 10. Cotnpute the maximum service load P causing 4.11. For the A36 steel bracket plate of the accompanying
eccentric shear on the connection of the accompa- figure, calculate the maximum service load P (15%
nying figure. The loading is 2.5% dead load and dead load and 85% live load) when ~-in.-diam A325
75% live load. The bolts are t-in.-diam A325 bolts bolts are used in a bearing-type conneclion (A325-N)
in a bearing-type connection (A325-X) with with threads included in the shear pla11es.
threads excluded from the shear piane. Assume the
(a) U se the elastic (vector) method.
bracket plate has adequate strength.
(b) Use the ultimate strength method.
(a) Use the elastic (vector) method.
(e) Use A/SC Manual Tables 7- 7 10 7-L4.
(b) Use the strength metbod with rotation about
the instantaneous center. 4.12. Repeat Prob. 4.11 , except use only 6 bolls instead of
8; that is. 2 at 3 in. vertìcally instead of 3 at 3 in.
(e) Use A/SC Manua/ Table.~ 7-7 Lo 7- 14, with
interpolati on. 6"
p
~ 6"-1•• 5 "lP
I
.,1 I
1
I
1- ~ - -;-Q O I
6''
JI _ _ 3•
Problcm 4.1O Problern 4.1 1

4 13. Repcat Prob. 4.11 as a slip-criticai (A325-SC) (b) Use ultimate strength analysis.
connection instead of a bearing-type connecrion. (e) Use AISC Manual Tables 7-7 to Tablc 7_ 14_
4.14. Selcct the proper diameter A490 bolrs fora bear-
ing-type connecrion (A490-X) if rhe loading is 4.16. For rhe connection of the accompanyi~g figure
10% dead load and 90% live load. containing 1-in.-diam A325 bo!ts m a shp..crjticai
connection, derennine_rhe ~erv,ce load caPacity P
(a) Use the elastic (vector) merhod.
( I So/o dead Joad and 8:,% ltvc load) by the fon~..
(b) Use ultimate suength analysis. . mc thods · and compare thc results:
mg
(e) Use AISC Manua/ Tables 7-7 to Table 7-14. (a) Use the elasric (vector) method.
4.15. Assuming the fa~teners concrol the capacity, deter- (b) Use rhe instanraneous c~nrcr:-:-constant slip
mine the bolt size required for thc coonecùon shown resistance method for shp-cnttcal connecti 001
wben the load is 10% dead load and 9()% Uve load. (see Example 4.12.4).
The connection is a bearing-type (A325-X) con-
{e) Use AISC Mmrual Tables 7-7 10 Table 7_ _
tain.ing A325 bolts. 14
(a) Use rhe elastic (vector) method.
Anglo
r·2 platc
V
J
Assume plate has o
f-
J_ _
adcquare strengrh
Problem 4. 14 Problem 4. 15
'
P=12kips
p
s·
!_I C"t
o
h
o
h
o
h
o 3•
s IL !.~L W8 X 31
,., ,1 = 0.435
Prohlem 4. l 6
Problems • 159
4.17 _ For the eccentric shear loading of the accompany-
ing ligure, two venicaJ lines of l-in.-diam A325 kips live load. Determine thc numbcr of bolts
bolts are used having a 3-in. spacing. Select the requìred. What thiclmess of pieces is required to
proper number ofbolts fora bearing-type (A325-X) avoìd having bearing contro! and stili use nùni-
connection. The load ìs 40% dead load and 60% mum edge distances (see LRFD-Table J3.4).
live load.
(a) Use the elastic (vector) mechod.
(a) Use the elastic (vector) method. (b) Use the ultimale strengch method.
(b) u~e the ultimate strength method. (e) Use A/SC Manua/ Tables 7-7 10 Table 7-14.
(e) Use AISC Ma11ull!Tables 7-7 to Table 7-14.
Column
n~ngc
501. C'ontai:t ----

surf:acc for
Prob. 4 .22 1-r-
I.
Fas1ener Ime for Prob. 4.20
Problem 4.17 2-:;
Probkms 4.20 and 4.22

4.18. Repeat Prob. 4.17 usìng 1-in.-diam A490 bolts.
4. 19. For the ect-enlric shear loading of the accompanying 4.21. For the connection of the accornpanying figure, sub-
figure, i-in.-diam A325 bolts are used ìn two vertical ject to direct tension and shear. two angles.
bnes ìn a bearing-type (A325-X) co,mection. The l4X3!x~. are used 10 cany their maximum capac-
loading is 10 kips dead load and 30 kips live load. ity as a tension rnember of A36 steel. Assume the
connection of the angles to thc strucrural tee (WT)
(a) Determ.ine the adequacy of che design using web will be along a single g~ge_ line f. sho~vn.
basic principles of the elastic (vector) method. Detennine the number and posmonmg of 8-m.-d1am
(b) Compute the servìce load capacity of the con- A325 bolls to anach the WT to lhe flange of a W
nection using ultimate strength analysis. section. Tbe flanges of the WT ami the \V shape are
both ~-in. thick and A36 steel is used.
(e) Use A/SC Manual Tables 7-7 IO Table 7-14.
(a) Use a bearing-type (A325-X) connection.
12··
(b) Use a slip-criticai (A325-SC) connection
40k (20% DL: 80% LL).
o 111111 o /
w
~
o 111 I o
~ 1I
@) o ,,11,, o
,--,
,1 ,I ,- '.,6 Sl~d { diam A325
o
Problem .i_ 19
3 ..
4.20. For the eccennic shear loading of the accompany- -4
ino 11 ,,ure. 1-in.-diam A325 bolts are used in a sin-
T
gl; ,~rtic;l line in a bearin~-type (A325-X]
: onnt·.:tiou. Th. 1t,3ding is 7 k1ps dead load 3_,
160 • Chapter 4 Structural Bolls
4.22. For lhe eccentric connection of 1he accompanying

wu~a bearing-type (A325-X) connection.
·p-critical (A325-SC) conncctin..
(b) Use a s l • ~...
ligure, causing shear and tension on 1he fasteners
connecting the angle.~ to lhe column flange; deter-
mine lhe number and spacing of ij·Ìn.-diam bolts 7 d'1am A 325
required 10 make the connection to the ¾-in. col-
70!< 8
umn flange. TI1e lo11d is 5 kips dead load and 35
kips live load.
(a) Use a bearing-type (A325-X) connection.
(b) Use a slip-criticai (A325-SC) connection.
4.23. For the eccemric connection of the accompanying WT
figure. causing shear and lension on t.he fasteners

connecting the structural tee (WT) 10 the column
flange, detcrmine the number of i-in.-diam bolls
spaced vertically al 3 in. required 10 rnake the Problem 4.23
connection IO the ~-in. column tlange. Thc load is
IO kips dcad load and 60 kips live load.
Welding
5.1 INTRODUCTION ANO HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
The process of welding denotes the joining of metal picces hy healing 10 a plastic or fluid
state, with or without pressure. In its simplest form, "welding.. has been known and u:-ed
for severa) lhousand years. Historians bave speculateci that the early Egyptians may have
first used prcssure welding about 5500 B.c. in making copper pipes from sheets by ovcr-
lapping the cdges and hammering. Winterton {5.11 has reported that Egyptian art objects
dating about 3000 B.c. have been found on which gold foil has bcen hammered and fuscd
onto the base copper. This type of wel<ling. called fori:,,e we/di11g. was man ·s first process
to join pìeces of metal togethcr. A wcll-known carly examplc of forge welding i ~ thc
Damascus sword which was made by forging layers o f ìron with differenl prnpertie,.
Intcrestingly, forge welding wa$ sufficiently well developcd an<l important enough to the
early Romans thai they name<l one of their gods Vulcan (the god or firc and metalw(irk-
ing) lo represent that an. In rccent times, tbc word vulcaniz,ing has been used in referencc
to treating rubher w ith sulfur but originally was used to rnean "lo harden." Today. forge
welding is practically a forgottcn art in which the village black smith was the last major
practitione r.
Littlc progress in welding technology had been made unti! 1877. prior 10 which time
most of the then known processes such as forge welding and braz ing had been used for al
least 3000 years. The origin of resistance weldmg began around 1877 when Professor Elihu
l11ompson begai1 a set of experiments [5.21 reversing the polarity uf transfonncr coils. He
receive<l his first patcnt [5 .31 in 1885 and the lirst resistance hutt welding machinc wa$
demonstrated at the Arnerican lnstitule Fa ir in 1887 . [n 1889 Charles Coffin [.'.i.2) was
issue<l a patent for flash-butt welding anù this bec;unc lme of the imporunt butt joinin~
processes.
Zcrner, in 1885. ìntrod11ced the carbonare wclding process. making use of two i.:<u·bon
eleclrodes. and N. G. S lavianoff [5 S J in 1888 in Russia was the lirst to use lhe metal are
process using uncoatcd. bare clectrodes . C offin. wurking inde pcnJently also ìnvestigatcd
the metal are process and was ìssuc<l a U.S. Patent in 1892. In 1889. A. P. Strohmeycr{5.2l
introduccd the concepl of coatcd metal e lcc trodes lo e lirnioa te many or the problems as~ll-
or
ci~1ted with the use bare electxock~-
161
162 • Chapter 5 Weldiog
Welded lruss as part of roof spaee rruss system. (Photo by C. G. Salmon)
Thomas Fletcher f5. I J in 1887 used a hlowpipc, burning hydrogen and oxyge11 a.nd
showed that he could successfully cut or meh meial. ln I 90 I-I 903 Fouche and Picard
developed torches thai could be used with acctylene ,md, rhus. the era of oxyacetylene
welding and cutt.ing began.
The period between 1903 and 1918 sav., the use of welding primarily as a lllethod of
repai r. the greacest imperus occurring during World War I ( 191 4- 1918). \Ve ldiug tech.
niques proved to be especially adapted w re pairing ships that had been damaged.
After World War I (1918), there was continued e~perimenlation with e lectrodes 3.nd
various gases 10 s hield rhe are and the weld area. rcsulnng m tbc development of gas !lino.
sten are welding and gas metal are welding (sce Sec. 5.2). During tl~e peri_od 1930 to 1950
many improvemcnts occmTed. including in 1932 [5.5] the in1roduct1<m ot the use of gran.
ular flux to prote ct the we ld, which w he n coupled 10 the use of a continuously fed elec.
trodc rcsulted in rhe development of submerged are welding (see Sec . 5.2 ). where the are is
buried under the granular flux. This c()lnmon method was patented ìn 1935. ··
Now (2008) automation has become a ., ignificant factor in we lding technology a.od
cxtensive use of wclding rnbotics is occurring.
, There are many welding processcs available to join vari'.)US metals and their alloys.
n10se of particular ìnteresr ìn welding stmctural steel. :md ot 1nterest to structural en~i-
neers in generai, are discussed in Sec. 5.2. ~
5.2 BASIC PROCESSES
Wclding is the process of joining materials (usually metals) by heating rhem to suitable
temperatures s uch thai the mnterials coalesce inlO one materiai. There m a y or may not be
press~re, and there may or may 1101 be filler materiai applicd. Are ive/di11g ìs the genera]
tenn tor rhe many processes that use electrical energy in the form of an èlectric are 10 oe .
0
erate rhe heat necessary for weldi ng. n
Section 5.2 Basic Processes • 163
This section treats those processes used in are welding carbon and low-alloy steel for
buildings and bridges. For some si1ua1ions involving light-gage steel. resistance welding
may also be important. More extensive descriptions than 1hose thai follow are available in
the We/din,: Handbook [2.21. 5.1 O].
Sh.ielded Metal Are Welding (SMAW)
Shielded metal are welding is one of 1he oldest, sirnplest. and perhaps most versatile types
for welding scructural steel. The SMAW process is often referred co a~ the numual stick
electrode process. Heating is accomplished by means of an eleccric are between a coated
electrode and the materials beingjoined. The welding circuii is shown in Fìg. 5.2.la.
The coated electrode is consumed as the metal is transferred from the electrode to
the base materiai during the welding process. The electrode wire becomes filler materiai
and che coating is converted partly into a shielding gas, partly into slag, and some part is
absorbed by che weld metal. The coating is a day-like mixture of silicate binders and pow-
dered materials, such as fluorides. carbonates, oxides, metal alloys, and cellulose. The
mixture is extruded and baked to produce a dry, hard, concencric coating.
The transfer of metal from electrode to the work being welded is induced by molec-
ular atlraction and surface tension, without application of pressure. The shielding of lhe are
prevents atrnospheric contamination of the molten metal in the are stream and iD the are
pool. It prevents nitrogen and oxygen from being picked up and forming nitrides and
oxides which may cause embriulement.
The electrode coating may perfonn che following functions:
1. Produces a gaseous shield to exclude air and stabilize the are.
2. Introduces other materials, such as deoxidizers, 10 refme the grain structure of the
weld metal.
3. Produces a blanket of slag over the molten pool and the solidified weld to protect
it from oxygen and nitrogen in the air, and also retards cooling.
The electrode materia) is specified under various American Welding Society specifications
that are listed in AWS [2.23] Table 3.1, and is summarized in text Table 2.3.1. The desig-
nations such as E60XX or E70XX indicate 60 ksi and 70 ksi. respectively. for tensile
strength. Tue X's refer to factors such as the suitable welding positions. recommended
power supply, type of coating, and type of are characteristics. Morgan [5.61 has provided
an excellent guide to classification and use of mild steel coated electrodes. Table 5.13.1
indicates which coated electrodes should be used with eacb particular structural steel.
For welding high-carbon or low-alloy steels. low-hydrogen electrodes are
required by AWS [2.23] to be used with SMAW for ali steels having yield stresses
Coalingon
Welding machinc
\ Me1al being welded
Mollcn electr\ode t Electrodewik
are pool
\ / L-/,--- G aseous ~111 -

//
A, _,,.
, , . , ,J!I'
Are •;:::'\ ~ , \ A« """m
Wcl<l ~,'..,~
! ~ Base rnètal
gurc 52.t \
Ground Electrode cable

1ielded metal are wel<ling
MAW). (a) Are welding circuii ( b) Shieldcd a.re wcldtrl):
164 • Chapter 5 Welding
. . . . . . ivdro en elect.rode is a rod with a carbo11a1c

l11gher than 36 ks1 (248 MPa). 1 he low-l, _g a different technique from that . of
soda. or ..lime," coating. Thi~ electrode requires d nd globular-type . 1 llsing
. . usi be ma e a , rat 1er th
thc conventional ele ctrode m th.,t a short arc_m .. ·rable in design because the as-w an
15
a spray-tvpe. dcposition of metal occ urs. 1t desi . pe·u·es obca,· ,ied .· elded
.' b ·upenor to pro I us1ng 0 h
rnechamcal properties have been fou nd IO e s 1 cr
types of electrode coatings.
Submerged Are Welding (SAW)

. . . it is covercd by a blankct of or
In the SAW process che are is noi v1s1ble because · . .,,.anufar
· TI b metal c fectrode 1s co11s uma ble in th . ·
tusible materiai, as shown in Fig. 5.2.2. 1e are • . 1 1. at 11 is
de posited as filler material. The end of the efectrode is ke p~ cononuous Y s uehj~d by thc
. f
molten tlux over which is depos11ed a laycr o ut u.
u
scd /lux iJl 11s granular c ondition
· .
,,. Electrode
Slag Ait //
Are
Flux
Figure 5.2.2
Weld
Submergcd are welding
(SAW). .
The granular tlux, whic h is a special featme of this merllod. _is usually laid autorn.at-
ica lly along the seam ahead of the advancing e)ectrode. ~nd prov,des_ a co,,er thai allO\vs
the weld to be made without spatter, sparks. or stnoke. Th1s flux matenal_pro tects the Weld
pool against the atmosphcre, serves m clean the ,.,,·eld metal. and modtfies the cheniical
composition of the weld metal r2.2J, Voi. 2).
Welds made by the submerged are process have uniform high qua lity; exhibiti
good duc tility, high impact strength, high de11sj1y. and good corrosion resistance. Mecha:~
ical propertjes of the weld are consistently as good as the base matenal.
The combinatio ns of bare-rod e lectrodes and granular flu x are classified unde
A~S A5. I 7 or A5.23. They are desig nated FXX~-EXX X: where the first X following th;
F 1s the firsl digit of the tensile strength (i.e., 7 for 70 ks1), the seco11 d X 1s a letter indi.
cating the condition of heat treatment (i.e .. A for as-welded _and_ P for postweld heat
trented). and the third X indicates the lowest temperatur~ at w ~1c h .11npac1 strength of the
weld metal mcets or exceeds 20 ft-lb (27 J). Whe n the thtrd X ts 6. for e xample. it means
the C harpy V-notch impacl stre ngth is at leasl 20 ft-lb (27 J) at -60 "F (-51°C ). The three
Xs followmg the letter E indicate prope1ties of the electro de .
. ~ are method is comlllonly used in shop-fabricated steel 0J)era
. The submerged · ·11-ons
us111g automauc or semia uto matic e quip rnent.
Gas Metal Are Welding (GMAW)
fn ~\~ GMAW process the electrod~ is a continu_ous _wire that is fed ~'ro1~ a coil through the
e le<:t~ od e ho lde r, a ~un-shaped devic~ as shown 111_F~g. 5._2.~- The shteldmg is e ntirely from
an ex_ternally supph~d gas or gas mixture. The d1stmgrn.sh111g feature s of this method are
the h1gh rates at wh1ch filler metal can be transferred, and the gaseous shield that ·. .
f . I · ts un1-
01_~1 Y prov1ded around the molten weld. Special uses o f this m ethod are dcscribed hl'
Cra1g l5.7J. Lyttle [5 .8], and D1llenbeck and Castagno [5.9J. ·
Section 5.2 Basic Processes • 165
Elc<.: lrode
Shiclding
gas
Figure 5.2.3
Gas mela) are weldìng
[GMAW).
Originally, this me<hod was used only wi1h inen gas shielding. hence. the name
MIG (metal inert gas) has been used. Reactive gases alone are generally not practical: the
excep<ion is CO2 (carbon dioxide). The use of CO2 has become extensive for welding of
steels, ei1her alone or in a mixture with incrt gases.
Argon as a shielding gas works for welding virtually ali metals; however, il is not
recommended for steels because of i1s expense and thc fact that 01her shielding gases and
gas mixtures are acceptable . For welding carbon steel and some low-alloy steels, recem
research [5.9] indicates the best overall performance is obrnined using 80% CO2 and 20%
helium. Traditionally, it has been recommended [5. IO] to use either a mixture of 75%
argon and 25% CO2, or I 00% CO2 • For low-alloy steels where toughness is imponant, 1he
recommendation [5. 10] is 10 use a mixture of 60 10 70% helium, 25 10 30% argon, and 4 rn
5%CO2 .
The shielding gas serves the following functions in addition to protecting the mollen
metal from the atmosphere.
I. Controls the are and metal-transfer characteristics.
2. Affects pe netTation, width of fusion, and shape of the weld region.
3. Affects the speed of welding.
4. Controls undercutting.
By mixing an inert gas with a reactive gas the are may be made more stable and the
spatter during metal transfer may be reduced. The use of CO2 alone for welding steel is the
least ex.pensive procedure because of ils lower cost for shielding gas. higher welding
speed, better joint penetration, and sound deposits with good mechanical properties. The
only disadvantage is that it gives harsh and excessive spatter.
The electrode materiai for welding carbon steels is an uncoated mild steel. deoxi-
dized carbon manganese steel covered under AWS AS.18 and listed in Tabie 5.13. l (see
also Table 2.3.1 ). For welding low-alloy stee) a deoxidize<l low-alloy materiai is necessary.
The GMAW process using CO2 shielding is good for the lowe.r carbon and low-alloy
steels usually used in buildings and bridges.
Flux Cored Are Welding (FCAW)
The FCAW process, developed in 1958. is sirnilar io GMAW. except that the continuously
fed filler metal electrode is tubular and contains the flux materiai within its core. The core
materiai provides the same functions as does the coating in SMAW or the granular flux in
SAW. Fora continuously fed wire, an outsìde coating would not remain bonded to tbe
wire. Gas shjeìding is provided by the flux core (self-shielded) but additional shielding is
frequently provided by C02 gas. Flux cored are welding has become a useful procedure for
·· [5 J I J as wcll as to speed up high-ri

lield welding in severe cold weacher cond1uons · · '>e <:on.
struclion 15. I 2]. · · ·
- · Id metal havmg mm11num specifiA,, .
The electrodes used for obtam1ng we "" Y•eld
. , d under AWS A5.20, andare de··1
strengths of 60 ks1 (415 MPa) or lessare covere . . . • gnalc<l
.
E6XT or E7XT for tensile strenoths of 6 or
O 70 k s·i • respecuvely.
. When
_ Il 1s des· b
· tra le 10
' . . "' , d' n" 60 ks1 (4 I 5 MPa). the electr0 d
produce weld metal hav111g y1eld strength excee 1 ., e~ are
I
covered under AWS A5.29. andare designated E8XT, E!OXT, and. El XT, having tensile
. . . . d 760 MPa) respecuvely.
s trengths ol 80, 100. and 110 ks1 (550. 6 90, an ·
Electrogas Welding (EGW)
The EGW process 1s - a machme- process used pn·maril)' for vertic al. position .welding· shown
in Fig. 5.2.4. Either tlux cored or sol id electrodes may be used. This meibod is used to obtain
·
a single · ma
pass weld such as for the sphce , y column. section. Weld metal is
· , I1eav · deposued
.
into a cavìty created by the separaced plare edges on t wo s1des and wat.er-cooled"
• shOes'' or
guides ro keep the mollen metal in irs proper Jocation on che 01hcr tw? stdes. The gas shield-
ing is provìded either by the flux cored electrode, by extemally supphed gas, or both.
Flux corcd elecJrode Wire guide

and conrac1 rube
Base plate I
Gas
shiclding (òptional)
Wa1er
Weld mera! _ __ circularion
Water
connecrions
Figure 5.2.4
~
Electrogas welding with a
tlux core<l electro<le. (From Base plate 2
Welding Handbook [2.231) Complered wcld
Electroslag Welding (ESW)
The ESW process, shown in Fig. 5.2.5, is similar to elecn·ogas w e lding. except that th
welding is actually done by the heat produced through the resistance of the slag to the fl01~
of current. The molten eonductive slag proteets the weld and melts tbe filler metal and the
plate edges. Sinee solid slag is not conductive, an are is required to start the process b
. V
1~1e Itmg the s lag and heating the plates. Since resistance heating is used forali but this ini~
trai s tage, the E SW is really not an are welding process. The s ide guides. or "shoes". mav
be nnncons umable as in Fig. 5.2 .5, or they may be consumable. The e le ctroslag proces~
Section 5.3 Weldability of Structural Steel • 167
CurvcJ clt.., lrotk

gu,<k '"""
Moh:~n
,lag bath
We lJ p,,,11
\\!a.ter-c<."\c)led
)ioh1,e
t'omple.1ed
wcld
/gtn-e 5.2.5
fonconsumable guide - - - Rase plàle
aethod of elecrroslag weld-
tg (three eJe(.1rodes). (From
'(elding Handbook (2.21))
allows welding nearly any tl1ickness of materiai in one pass; both clcctrogas and clec-
lroslag wclding become economica! as the thickness nf wcld required becomes la.rgc.
Because of the slow weld trave! speed used in this process. a wcld with relalively coan;e
grain structure and low notch toughness is the re~ult.
An excellent review of e lectroslag welding llas heen provided by Ramali [5.14].
Schìlling and Klippstein [5.15] have reportcd rcscarch on e)ectroslag wclding for bridgcs.
and Pense, Wood, and Fisher \S.161 reported cxperiencc with electroslag wclding on
we\ded bridges.
Stud Welding
11te mosl comrnonly used process of welding a metal stud to a base materiai i~ lmown a.s
are stud welding. an essentially automatic process but similar in characteri~tics lo the
SM AW process. The stud serves as the electrode and au ekcnic are i.s c.reated frnm the end
of the stud to the plate. The stud is contained in a gun which l'.Ontrols the timing during the
process. Shielding is accomplished by placing a ceramic fen-ule arou.nd the e nd of thc stud
in lhe gun. 111e gun is placed in pos.i tion and the are is t-reated. during whicb tim.- 1he
ceramic fetrule contains the molrcn metal. After a short instant of time. the guu drive~ the
stud into the molten pool and the weld is completed lea\'ing a small flllct aniund the i-tud,
Full penetration across the shank of the stud i~ obtained and the weld is compkted usually
in less than one second.
WELDABIUTY OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
Most of the ASTM-specificatiou constrnction steels can be weldcd wilhout special precau-
tions or special procedures. Section 5.13 discusses thc need 10 sel~t the proper elcctrode
to join a particular grade of steel aud a smnmary of thc "matching'· electrodcs and the base
steel is given in Tahle 5.13. l.
The weldability of a steel is a measure of the ease of producing a crack-free and
sound strnctural joint. Some of the readily available structurnl steels are more suited to
welding I.han others. and a.re discossed in Chapter 2. \\ielding procedures should be based
on a steel's chemist1y instead of the publishe.d maximum alloy rnntcnt. since nwst mili
rnns are usually below the maximum alk)y limits set by its spec ificati(,n. 1';1ble S.3.1 slum s
TABLE 5.3.1 Preferred Analysis of c~,rtybon Steel

{5.17] for Good Weldab1 ,
Percent requiring
Normai special care
Element range(%)
0.35
0.06-0.25 1.40
Carbon
Manganese 0.35--0.80 0.30
Silicon O. JO m:,x 0.050
Sulfur 0.035 max 0.040
Phosphorus
-
().030 ,n;JX
the ideai chemical analysis of the carbon steels. MoSI mild :teels fall_ well Within th·1
range, while higher-strength steels may exceed thc i~eal analys,s shown m Ta~Ie 5.3. I. ~
r
When a mili produces a run of steel, ir ma1n11un_s a comple te reco cl of_ns chemica(
contenr which follows ali shapes made from the parr_icular mgoL ff rlle designer is con.
cerned about the chemistry of a particular grade ot ste~I, ~ M•!1
TeSI R:pon rnay be
requested. Any variation in chemical conteni above the ideai ~alues. . may be <0Valuated ' aOd
d
special welding procedures be set up to insure a properly wel ed JOIIIL
5.4 TYPES OF JOINTS

The type of joint depends on factors such as the size and shape of the members comino ·
rhe joint, the type of loading, the amount of joint area ~vailable for weldin_g._ anct the\~~~
t1ve costs for various 1ypes of welds. There are five basic types of welded JOmts. althouoh
many variations and combination~ are found in practice. The five basic types are the bu~
lap, tee, corner, and edge joints, as shown in Fig. 5.4. I. ·
Buttjoints
The butt joint is used mainly 10 join the ends of llat plates of the same or nearly Ùle s
h. k . . . . 1· . arne
t _re nesses.
. The
. principal
. . advantaae
o
of. this. type of JOlllt
.
1s to e unmate
. _ .
the . eccenrr·ICI!\'
.
d eveloped m smgle Jap Jomts as shown m F1g. 5.4. 1b. When used m conJuncl!on with f 1
penetration _groove we!ds, butt jo~nts min_imize t.he si7:e of a c?nnec tion and are usua~ '.
more esthet1cally pleasrng than bu1lt-up JOmts. Their prmcrpal d1sadvamage ~ lres Ìll th~~ t·ac1)
that the edges 10 be connected muse usually be specially prepared (be vekd, or grounct fl·
and very carefully aligned prior to welding. Little adjustment is possible and lhc i at)
rnust be carefully detailed and fabricated. As a result. most buttjoints are made in th: :es
where the welding process can be more accurately contro lled. ' op
(a) Bui! joinl ( b) Lap joinl
·igur~ 5.4. f
:,:hic.: lype~ of wclJcd j oints. {e) Tee joini (d) Corner joinr
Section 5.4 Types of Join1s • 169
Lap Joints
The lap joint, shown in Fig. 5.4.2. is thc most common rype. Il ha, two principal ad,an1.agc,:
I. Ease offi11i11g. Pieces beingjoined do noi requirc 1hc prcd,ene,, in fabrkaling ~
do the other types of joints. The pieces c:m be slightly shifted to accommodate minor
en-ors in fablication or 10 make adjustmenB in kngth.
2. Ease of joi11ing. The edges of the picccs being joincd do noi need i.peci al prepa-
ration and are usually sheared or tlarne cui. Lap joints utiliz.e fillct weld~ and are thcrefore
equally well suited lo shop or field welding. The pieces beingjoincd are in most caset- sim-
ply clamped logethcr without the use of special jigs. Occasionally the piece s are posiòoned
by a small number of ercction bolts which rnay be either lcft in piace or removed after ù,c
welding is completed.
A fu11her advantage of the lap joint is thc case in which plates of different thick.nc,s
can be joined, such as in the double lap joint in Fig. 5.4.2e. The reader sho uld especiall)
note the truss connection shown in Fig. S.4.2c and c.onsider the. ditliculty in making such a
connection by any other type of joint.
Tee Joints
This lype of joint is used to fabricate built-up sections such as tecs. l-shapes. plate girders.
bearing stìffeners, hangers, brackets. and in genera], pieces framing in at right angl.e~ as
shown in Fig. 5.4.1 c. Thìs type of joint is especially usefui in that it permit.s sections to be
buìlt up of flat plates that can he joined by eilher fillet or groove welds.
(a} (bi
(e)
~·~---.:::= : : :=n=.,......
: _?e-
Figure 5.4.2
Examples of lap joints. (d) (e)
Corner Joints
Corner joints are used princii>ally 10 forni buih-up re~tangular box sections such as u
for columns and for beams required IO resist high tonaonal forces. ~
EdgeJoints
Edge joints ~ gcnerally noi strnc!llral but are most frequently used ro keep lwo or 1110
plates ma g1ven piane orto maintain ini1ial al1g11meut. re
As the reader can ìnfer from rhe prcvious discussions. the varia1ìons and comb·
. . 5· th . lOa
uons of 1he five basic 1ype~ o( joints are vittually iofimte. m~e · ~re 1s us~ally more 1h ·
one
ç
way to connect one structural member to ano1heJ·. the designer
. .
1s left
.
w11h tbc dee·~.ari
,or selec1ing the besi joint (or combination joints) in each g1ven s,tuarion.
5.5 TYPES OF WELDS
Tiie four types of welds are the groove, fillct, slot, and plug wclds as. shown in Fìg. 5.5. I. E.a
typc of weld has specific advantages thar detem1ine the exrcnt of 11s use. Roughly. the t cli
types reprcsent the followiug percentages of welded constn.1ction: groovc ~velds. 159c: n~
welds, 80%; the rernaining 5% are made up of the slot. plug. and other special welds. ct
Groove Welds
The principal use of groove welds i/, co connect structural members that are aligoed i
sarne piane. Since groove welds are usually intended 10 mmsmil the full Ioa.d of the n tht
be th . . h h . . . lllCIIJ.
rs . ey JOm, the weld should have the same strengt as l e p1eces ~o.med. Such a gmovc
weld 1s known as a complete joint penetration groo,·e weld. When JOmts are des igned
that groove welds do not extend completely through the 1hic kness o f the piece~ bei~
t~l--.lt It
I ......_____ _,""?
(a) Oroovc weld
Ends shall be (b) Fillet " ·elds
semirir.:ula.r
or havc comers
rounded to
/ a raJiu~ noi
A Ics, than 1hickness
__J
•
of part con1aining slo1
I
hgurc 5.5. l
Typc~ or "'Cl<k -
~----....J(
(e) Slot weld
S«1ion A-A
-
(d) Plug weld
I
Sec1ion A·A
,,.
Section 5.5 Types ofWelds • 171
-c]_-_C3
(a) Square
(b) Single-V (e) Doublc-V
(d) Single bevcl

(t) Doublc bevel (f) Single-U
figure 5.5.2
Types of groove welds. (g) Doublt-U (h) Single-I (i) Double-J
figure 5.5.3
Use of groove welds in tee
joincs.
joined, such welds are referred to as partial joinl penetration groove welds. For these, spe-
cial design requirements apply.
There are many variations of groove welds and each is classified according to its par-
ticular shape. Most groove welds require a specific edge preparation and are narned
accordingly. Figure 5.5.2 shows severa) types of groove welds and indicates thc groove
preparations required for each. The selection of the proper groove weld is dependent on the
welding process used, lhe cost of edge preparations, and che cost of rnaking the weld.
Groove welds rnay also be used in tee connections as shown in Fig. 5.5.3.
Fillet Welds
Fillet welds owing to their overall economy, ease of fabricating. and adaptability are the
most widely used. A few uses of fillet welds are shown in Fig. 5.5.4. They generally
require less precision in the "fitting up" because of the overlapping of pieces. whereas the
groove weld requires careful alignmenl with specified gap (root opening) between pieces.
The fillet weld is particularly advantageous to welding in the field or in realigoing mem-
bers or connections that were fabricated within accepted tolerances but which may not fit
as accurately as desired. In addition, the edges of pieces being joined seldorn need special
preparation such as beveling or squaring since the edge conditions resulling from tlame
cutting or from shear cutting procedures are generally adequate.
Slot and Plug Welds
Slot and plug welds may be used exclusively in a connection a& shown in Figs. 5.5. lc and
d, or they may be used in combination with fillet welds as shown in Fig. 5.5.S. A principal
use for plug or slot welds is to transmit shear in a lap joint when the size of the connection
limits the length available for fillet or other edge welds. Slot and plug welds are also use-
fui in preventing overlapping parts from buckling.
172 • Chapter 5 Wefding
(e) Slott,·d connecuon

(b) Sll!Ch pJ,)ICS
Jl {e) Br~cket,
i
(O Bca!I\ bearing
plate<
(i ) Beam brack<l<
(g) Column base plates (h) Pipe conne.,,·lim1
Figure 5.5.4
Typical uses of tillet welds.
II (j) Buìlt-up soc1ions
-
Ends curvcd as
/ p,,r LRFD and ASD-J~.J.b
r-------
Figure 5.5.5
Slot and plug welds in
--
--- ••
••
combinalion with fillet welds.
5.6 WELDING SYMBOLS
Bcfore a connection or joint is. welded. the designer must in some way be able 10 instruct
th_e stecl detailer and the fabricacor as to the type and ~ize of we!d r~qui~ed. The basic types
ot wdd, and some of their variations are di~cussed rn Sec. 5 ..). It tnd1v1dual and detaill'\I
inslructions wcre needed each time a connection wns made. the rnsk o f providing dirl\".
tions /'or making the joint would indeed be fonnidable.
Section 5.6 Welding Symbols • 173
Ciro(,1e o, Rutt
Plu~
F,llet '"
Slo, L1
,r 1r \
SupplClllènUI)' Wcld Symoo!s
Ctmmur F<W~ba>t md
Weld Ali 1----------- ,ul'f'lemem~.
Spa..--e,- Around F1dd \\ eld Flush C.•n< e~ "'eld rmbol<, -
r-----t--.;_--+-..::.:..::.:.:....-1__:.:.::_::_:.:_:::::..._.i-_:_.:::::__...j...._:::_:::::;::_-l AWS .- .: 4
o
Standard Location .:,f El<mcn\s .:,f s Weldi~ Symbol
Finish symbol ~ - -- Groove .an1-l~ <,r mdud.c.d

angle '-"'f .;,nt,m\en..mk
Con1our symool - - - - - - - , for plu~ " 'd,h
ROOl opening, deplh

of filling for plu.g
1
Pitch <~.'" e >11acm11,)
~;~t : ; t : : a t ~ of ,,:e\ds ln iorhcs
Dcpth of prcparation ~
or s1ze m mches Field wc.Id S)Tilbol
::::::i:~~proccss~ iii}
or othcr refcrence ---......._
"-
S(E ~ Ov
.,.,._,_ L
ArTO"- conoec1~ rt.fen:.m.:c hnc 10 a.rro" ~1Jc-

Elcments in this of .i<'in1. Use breal a.s ~t A or B to , ~mf,
Ba.sic weld symbol _ _ _ __,.., ~ area remain as ~ thal am:,w "1)<11n1ing l<l th<' p·oo,·e,l
or detail referencc shown when tail member in b<,,•cl or l · P '-"'"e.l JOIRts.
and arrow
are rcversed.
Note:
Sizc. weld symbol. lcngth of weld, and <pacing musi read in thai order. from kft 10 ri.~ht. aJ.-,np lhc n:fcrct><'<'
line. Ncithcr oricntation ofrcferc1\ce nor loc&tion of thc a1Tow alle.-,; this rulc
The pcrpcndicular leg of ~ , V. 1-'. lr , " 'cld symbols ffiU\ I 1)(- 31 lt>ft.
Arrow and other sidc welds are or 1hc same size unlcss othcrwisc sho" n Oim<'1N.-.11s of IÌlkl "c!Js 11111,1 "'-'
shown on both the arrow sidc and rhc other sidc symtx,\.
Tue point of thc field wcld symbol musi p0int toward the tail.
ire 5.6.1
1dard welding symbols. Symbols apply between abrupr ehange, in dirc.:tion of wt>lding unk,~ t.{Wm\Cd by thc ··ali aroun,1.. >)lnN>I or
otherwise dimcns ioncd.
m A/SC Manual [ 1. 15.
-35)). Additional weldir\g Thesc. symbols do not exphcilly providc for 1hr ca<e that frcquently o-·,urs 111 ~,m,Hlr,11 "Ml. whn,· ct11rl1ra1<·
bol infonnation is materiai (such as stiffencrs) occurs on thc far sidc, <•f :1 web or gt1sse1 plt11c Thc fot>11-'i\l111~ indu,11)' hJ,
adopted lhis .::on\/Cntion: rhat when thc billing of th,· del a.il mMeri.11 ,lisclo,rs lht> ~~1s1cncc .:-f n m..-n,t,er l'n thc
lable from AWS-A2.4 far sidc as wcll a~ on the ncar sidc., the wcld1t)!! show11 for the nenr s i,lc shall \,e durhcnt~ òll tilt' lar st,lr
1).
1l1e need fora sirnple and yet accurate mcthod for commmlica1ing tx·twcen the dc:-ignt'r
and fabricator gave rise to the use of shorth:md symhol.<: 1ha1 charaCll'rizc the type and sii'l' 1)f
weld. As a result, lhe American Welding Socìc1y st:md:m.l symbol.. shown ìn Fig. :i.6. l. indi-
cate the type, sizt~. length. and location of wcld. as well as any S\X'cial instructillllS.
174 • Chepter 5 Weldir,g
Filld welds Groovc welds
/
k-
Frac1ion indica1ing leg
~
Squaf<' groovc
wc lckd from bolh
s:idcs.
shown nnly on o.ne weld
when both sides are thè
same. ~
~
vf.-<Back I
45•
gouge
/"2-4
LJ ~ I
Sitlglc bevel wi1h i in.
root opening. 45' bevel
<ei D ?-
on uppcr picee. and a
b:icking weld used.
lndicates 2-in. long

wclds are inrcnnittent
& Slaggered on 4-in. cen1ers
I
as-
Figure 5.6.2
~
Wel<l oli ;,round
~ \ I
S ingle-V wcldcd from

one side having l in.
Common uses of welding ,001 opcning an<I830• angIe
symbols. w ithin 1he V.
Most of che commonly made connectioos do not req.u ire special inst~uctions aod élt
typic ally spec ilìed as shown in Fig. 5.6 .2. For a.more de~a1led use o f weldmg. symboJs th;
reader 1s referred to Standard S),mbols
. fior We/d111g. Bra:.111g nnd No11des1r11cr11·e Eta,, .
• u11a.
tion, A2.4 [5.42).
The rcader may feel thai the number of symbols is burdensomc. Howevcr. the svst
of designating we lds is broken down into a few basic types that are built up Lo give a·c ern
. . d. 00}.
p Iete set o f instruc tions . Whe never a panicular conncctJon 1s use 111 many pans of a st
ture, it rnay o nly be necessary 10 show a typical detail as shown in Fig. 5.6.3a. When:c-
spe~ial connecrions are used, they sho uld be derailed sufficie nrly to leave no do ubt as to
des1gner's intentions, as shown in Fig. 5.6.3b.
;r
1
e
In Fig. 5 .6.3b che designer specified that the plug weld be m ade in the shop
ground flush while the double beve) w eld coonecting thc g usset pla te 10 the column~
made in Lhe field. S ince the designer did 1101 specify whelher the fillet welds auachino th
angle 10 the g usset plale were 10 be made in the shop o r in the fi eld. the slee l fabri~a e
would be free to make the decis ion. However. in this partic ular detail, it would be bettertor
make the fill et welds in the shop since the plug weld might be overstressed duri no the lì ltod
. ~ w
erect1o n_process. In generaJ, as many welds as feasible w ill be m ade in the sho p because f
econo mie considerations. Therefore it is important thai the designer specify those we]~
that are to be fteld welded. s
~"''-"un :,. , t-actors Affecting the Quality of Welded Conncetlons • 17
:e (à)
{ ·1n Gusse1 ij_
E-70
5 (Typ)
Figure 5.6.3 3 10
16
[)etails showing use of
welding symbols.
(b)
5.7 FACTORS AFFECTING THE QUALJTY OF WELDED CONNECTIONS
Obtaining a satisfactory welded connection requires the combination of many indi,·idual

skills, beginning with the actual design of the weld and ending witb the welding operation.
The structural engineer needs to be aware of the. factors that affect the quality of a weld and
design the connections accordingly.
Proper Electrodes, Welding Apparatus, and Procedures
After the proper electrode materiai is specified to match the strength of the steel in the
pieces beingjoined (see Sec. 5.13), the diameter of the welding e.Jectrnde must be selectl:'d.
The particular size of the electrode selected is based on the size of the weld 10 be made a.nd
on the electrical current output of the welding apparatus. Since mo~t welding. maehines
have controls fur reducing the current o utput electrodes ~maller than the maximum capa-
bility can easily be accommoclated and should be used.
Since the we ld me tal in are we lding is de.posited by the clectromag.nctic tìe lcl and not
by gravity, the welder is not limited to thc flat or horizontal welding positions. Tbe follr
basic welding posit.ions are shown in Fig. 5.7,J. The designer sbould avoid wht'n1:~ wr pos-
sible lhe overhead position. since il is the most clifficult f'IIC. Joints wcldt'<l in the shop an:
usually positionecl in the tlat or ho ri z.ontal position~ but fidd welds may rc4uire ::my wdu-
ing position depending 011 the orientation of 1J1c connection. 'll1e wclclirig po$Ìtion for iìt'ld
welds should be carefull y conside red by thc desig111:.'.r.
_, _
_, - ··~ - - - . - .. - . . .,.. _.. _ __ .. ._
_..._ ....
- -
<•> Flat
Fig ure 5.7. J

Welding posirions. (e) Venical (d> Ove rl1ead
Proper Edge Preparation

"fypical edge preparations provided for groove welds are shown in Fig. 5 .7.2. lòe
openìng R is the separation of the picces being joined and is provided for elcctrode :l"lot
sibility to the base of a joinr. Tue smaller che root opening the greater must be the a ~ es.
thc bevel. The feathcred edge as
shown in Fig. 5. 7 .2a
is subject to bum-through u:f e
of
11
backup plate is provìded as shown in Fig. 5.7.2b. Backup strips are commonty USC(! ~
thc weldin_g is to be done from one side only. The problem of bum-through is Je.~se~~
the bevel ,s provided a land as shown in Fig. 5.7.2c. The welder should 110 1 Pl'O\'i tf
backup platc when a land is providcd. since therc would be a good possihilicy that de a
pocket _wo~ld be fonned , preventing a fu ll penetration wel~- Occasionally a spac:rga_s
shown m F1g. 5.7 .2d, is provided to prevent bum-through but 1s gou ged out before the · as
ond side is welded. Scc.
1r
+..--~
R
DI
__j I-- Root opening R
+
(a) 8 evcl wilh fca1hered edge (b) Bevel wilh backup plate
Sracer
( Removed tierorc
Figure 5. 7.2
Typical edgc preparations for
+ 1I--1--t+
R .....J Land (rooc (ace )
~ )
groove wclds. ( C) Beve! with a land (b) Double bevel wilh a spacer
Section 5.7 Factors Affecting the Ouality ofWelded Connections • 177
Contro! of Distortion
':-no lher fac1or affecting weld quality is shrinkage. lf a single bead is put down in a con-
trnuous manner on a plate, il will cause the plate to distort as shown in Fig. 5.7.3. Such
distortions will occur unless care h exerci~ed in both 1he design of the joint and the
welding procedure. Figure 5.7.4 shows 1he result of using unsymmetrical wcld~ as com-
pared to symmetrical welds. Allhough there are many techniques available for minimiz-
ing distonion, the most common one is thai of staggering intermiue m welds as shown in
Fig. 5.7.5a, and 1he n returniog to fili in the spaces as shown in Fig. 5.7.5b, a typical
sequence being shown. For many structurcs, such as plate girders, shon ~egmentS of
weld (though nm usually regular intermi1tent welds) may be used at strategie locations 10
give e no ugh Mreng1h lo ho ld ali pieccs in p iace; 1hen the continuous lines of wcld are
placcd.
To min imize shrinkage and to insure adequate ductility. the AWS Code (Tablc 3.2
o f Ref. 5.25) has established minimum preheat and inte rpass temperatures. Fo r welds
requiring more than one progression (pass) of a welding operalion along a joint. the
in1erpass temperature is the temperature of thc dcposited weld whe n the ncxt pass is
begun.
Wdd
~alt
figure 5.7.3
Oistonion of plate. t:::::---~
Figure 5.7 .4
Effect of weld placement.
I (a )
Poor design
I (b)
Good design
7 9
4
i::;:;; ;·
IO
or or
Figure 5.7.5 .
Sequences for interm1ttent
2
3
}~« 7
·rvw
g
(a) lni1ial (b l Final

welds.
--
178 • Chaprer 5 Welding
. . summanzes
The tollow1ng . ways of mi·ni·mizing
· · distortion:
I. Reduce the shrinkage forces by

· mm1mum
a. Usmg · · we Id nletaf·. for grooves use no greater root opening tha~·• llec.
essary; do nor overweld.
b. U~ing as few passes as possible.
c. Using proper edge preparation and fit-up. .
•
d U .
.smg . .
mternmten t weId . at least for preliminary connec11on.
e. Using backstepping; deposicing weld seg~en1s toWard the_previousl~ cornpleted
weld; i.e.. deposit.ing in Lhe direction oppostte to the progress of weldmg the ioin1.
2. Allow for the shrinkage w occur by
a. Tipping rhe plates so afcer shrinkage occurs thcy will be correctly aligned.
b. Using prebending of pieces.
3. Balance shrinkage forces by
a. Using symmetry in welding; fillets on each side of a piece contribute counter.
acring effccts.
b. Using scattered weld segments.
c. Using peening; stretching the metal by series of blows.
d. Using clamps,jigs, etc.; chis forces weld metal IO strecch as ic cools.
Blodgen [5.18] has provided a more extensive treatment of ways to m.inimize distonion.
5.8 POSSIBLE DEFECTS IN WELDS

Unless good welding techniques and procedures are used. a number of possible dcfe
.h ~
may resulc relaring r.o discontiriuiiies within the weld. Som~ 0 t I e more ~ommon de.fects
are: incomplete fusion, inadequate j o int penetrauon, ~oro_s1ty. undercun111g. ioclusion of
slag. and cracks. Examples of rhese defect.s are stiown m F1g. 5.8. 1.
Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion is Lhe failure of the base metal and the adj acent weld metal 10 fu
·
together completely. TI1is may occur if 1he surtaces to b e JOtne se
· · d I1ave not been properlv
cleaned and are coatcd with mili scale, slag. ox!dcs. ur other fore1gn materials. Anorh;r
cause of this defect is the use of weldilJg equipment of 1nsuffic1ent current. so that base
metal does rn>t reach melting point. Too rapid a rate of welding will also have the same
effect.
Inadequate Join t Penetration
Inadequare joint penetration means che weld extends a shallower distance through th
depth o f the groove than specified. as shown in Fig. 5.8.1 , where complete penetration w e
specified. Partial joint penetration is acceptable only when it is so specified. as
This _defect, relaring primarily to groove welds, _occurs from use of an unsuitable
groove design for the selected weld1ng process, excess1vely large electrodes, insufficie
1
welding current. or excessive weldìng rates. Joint designs prequalifie.d by AWS [5 _ ~
2
Sec. 3.9 thrnugh Sec. 3.13] should always be used. ·
Section 5.8 Possible Defects in Welds • 179
L>ck of
r ·on lncompl~rc
fuMon ........__
,,
4 a) Incomplete fusion Prnvidcd Spe<..·ificd
( b J Jnadequa1e Juint penetration
Scauered
Gas pockec Undcn.:ul
/ I
:sk:+
Backup piace
~
(e) Pornsity
( d) Undercuttlni
I
r
l..ongi,udinal crack
A
lnclusion
of slag
Sec-tion A-A !
figure 5.8. 1
I
Transverse cracks
Possible weld defects . (e) Slag inclusions
(f) Cracks
Porosity
Porosity occurs when voids or a number of small gas pockets are trapped durìng the cooling
process. This defecl results from using excessively high cu.rrent or too long an are length.
Porosity may occur uniformly dispersed through the weld, or il may be a large pocket con-
centrated at the root of a fillet weld or at the root adjacent to a backup plate in a groove
weld. The latter is caused by poor weldìng procedures and careless use of backup plates.
Vndercutting
Undercutting means a groove melted into the base materiai adjacent to the toe of a weld
and left unfilled by weld metal. The use of excessive current or an excessively loog are
may burn or dig away a portion of the base metal. This defect is easily delected visually
and can be corrected by depositing additional weld materiai.
Slag Inclusion
Slag is formed during the welding process as a result of chem.ical reactions of the melted
electrode coating and cons ists of metal oxides and other compounds. Having a lower den-
sity than the molten weld metal, the slag normally floats to the surface, whereupon cool-
ing, it is easily removed by the welder. However, too rapid a cooling of the joint may trap
h ad weld<; as shown in Fig. 5.7.\d

ihe slag before il can rise 10 the surface. Over e efull inspectcd. When severa! are e,IJt_
c1ally subiecl 10 sia<> inclusion and musi be car . s 1ag between Passes ,.
, "' . lderYrnust remove e h -.e
necessary 10 obtain the desired weld s1ze. che wef slae _ .
mclus1on. ac Pas\.
Fai Iure io properly do so is a common cause O -
Cracks
- h I "itudinal or 1ransverse to the linc 0 f
Cracks are breaks in rhe weld metal. e1t er on.,, . . Id . We)d
1-o extend !rom thc we me1al into th .
that re~uh from internal stress. Cracks may a s . . . f h Id C e ba,,
J • che v1c1111ty o t e we . racks ar '"
meta.I or may be enLirely in the base meta Hl . _ · e !)erha
che mosc harmful of weld defeccs; however, ciny cracks called nucrojìssu,·e.i· may noi ha~!
any delrimental effect. · . - r lify aeneraIly cause, . I b" b ·
Some cracks fonn as the weld begtns to so il • 0
_ _ _, ntt!c co
· · · -· li · le1nen1s forrnm alon<>0
0 1he
0
ra1n bo n.
slltuents, c11her hrmle staies of ,ron or a oymg
· e
More nniform heating and slower cooling w1II prevcnt e
th , ..hot' cncks from lo · Undan
• • , "'
' -
"', ·
nn111g.
e,
• • re p·1rallel to bui under the weld 1· h
Cracks may also torm at room tempera1u ' _ _ n t e ti~
• · ·
materiai. These cracks anse rn Jow-alloy stee s rom
J • t· the combmcd effects 0· f h
_ .
,e
Y<lrog~n .
· - - · t shrink-we and chstorl!on u. ·•
brntle martens11e m1croscrucmre, and restralll I O • ' 0 _ · _ · . se of 1011,_
d h
hydrogen cle.ctrodes along wich proper preheating au poSl eacmg will rnrnimi.zc such
'·coJd"' cracking.
5.9 INSPECTION ANO CONTROL

The enormous s uccess and growth in recent years in the arca of Sln_ictural welding of bui)d.
0
ings and bridges could not have occurred without some means ~ ms_pec uon and contro\_
Thc welding industry bas led in the development of gu1dehnes which. tf foll.owed, vinualh
insure a sound weld. The ins pection and contro! procedure_should hegrn be tore the first ar~
is s truck, continue throughout the welding procedure , an~ rf necessary, a pretest of the ioini
s hould be made ro assure its satishctory
' ' performance.
. Smce
. Such close supervision
. . 1·s. not
possible on every weld made, tbe followiog suggest10ns w1ll serve as a gmdelme 10 achìe,-e
good structural welds: .,
I. Establish good welding procedures.
2. Use only prequalìfied welders.
3. Use qualified inspec tors and have them present.
4. Use special inspecrion tec hniques when necessary.
Good welding procedures can be developed from recomrne ndations from the AWS
AISC and the manufacturers of welding supplies and equipment. The procedure to be fol:
lowed will depend on the chemical and physical properties of the m aterials, the types anrl
s1zes oi weld. and the parcicular equipment used.
Ali welders should be required to have passed an Arnerican Welding Society Qua\i.
fication Test before being permitted to make a structural conneclion. A lthough this is usu-
al!y conside red aclequate. it doesn 't prove the ability of the welder to make welds at th
aclual job s ite, particularly if the welds are unusual or difficult and were not specìfied
rJ1e Qualitication Test. Happily. mos t welding contrac tors e xercise control over their
i:
wcldcrs in s uc h situations.
. T~e use o f qualified welding inspectors at a job site generally has the effect of ('aus-
111g :"e lc~rs 1? perform their best work, feeling that rhe inspector i~ a ble to recognize th~
q ua!ny_ot thell' we lds. The welding inspector should be a compete nt welder and be ableri
recogmze possìble defects. Any poor or suspicious welds should bé c ut out a nd replace~.
Section 5 10 E .
· conom,cs ofWelded Built-up Members and Connections • 181
Tolcr;\nc~
Wclding
gr.gc
figure 5.9. l
Chedcing size of fillel welds. (a)
(b)
The simplest and lea,t ex.pensive method of inspection is vis11a/ but it is dependent
on lhe compelence of the observer and weld appearance may be deceiving [5.20}. ln some
cases_ a poor weld may be overlooked. A weldi.ng gage ~u..:h as shown in Fig. 5.9.1 a offers
a rap1d means of checking the size of fillet welds.
On more imponant structures. for welds where fatigue is an impor1a111 considcralion.
or welds whose failure could be calastrophic. more rigid inspcction technique~ {S.201
s_hould be used. Some of the useful ones are the ullrasnnic, radiographic. and magnetic par-
ticle inethods. Tue ultmsonic method (5.2 1-5.23) passes ultra-high-frequency ~ound
waves through the weldmenl. Defccts in a parlicula.r weld will refle.cl 1he sound waves
~hile a weld withoul defects will noi impede passage of the waves. Radiographic mcthods
include the use of both X-rays and gamma rays. ln this 01e1hod the radiating source is
placed on one side of the weld and a photographic plate on the 01her. This method i~
expensive and requires special precautions be 1aken becarn;e of thc hazards of radia1ion.
However, lhe method is reliable and fumishes a pennaoent record. TI1e mag11etic par1ic/e
testing method rs.24) uses iron powder which is spread around the welded area and polar-
ized by passing an electric currcnt through the weld. Small locai poles will be fonned at
the edgcs of any defects. and thi s may be interpretcd by an experienced observer.
AWS DI . I, Chap. 6 [5.25] provides an ex tensive discussion of the many nondestruc-
tive testing methods.
5.10 ECONOMICS OF WELDED BUILT-UP MEMBERS AND CONNECTIONS

Overall economy in welded connections is difficult to evaluate. Some 1>f the foctors 10 be
considered such as the amounl of electrode materiai used can easily be computed whilc
other factors such as 1he value 10 be placed on csthetics may be in1angi.ble. The actual
economy of welded connections musi be viewed from a broad aspect and include the over-
all design of the struc1ural sys1em.
Welded connections are us ually nea1er in appearance. providing a less cluttered
effect in contrast to bohed connections. Fig. 5. 10.1 shows a comparison between a section
of a bolted pl.itc girder and a sec1ion of a welded plate girder. Besides the neater appear-
ance of 1he welded joint. welded conneclions offer ù1e designer more freedoin to be inno-
vative in the entire design concept. The designer i~ not bound to ~tandard sec1ions but ir1ay
build up any cross-section dee.mcd 10 be most advantageous. Similarly. the besi configura-
tion to transmit the Ioads from one member to ane1her can be used.
Welded connections generally e liminale the need for holes in members except possi-
bly for erection purposes. Since it i~ usually the hole.s at rhe end~ thai govern the design of
a bolted lensio n member. a welded connection will generally resull in a rnember with a
smaller cross-seclion.
Welded connections can sometime reduce field conslruc\ion costs by the fac1 th.it
members may be shifted slightly 10 accommodate minor errors in fahrìcation or erection.
T (11, Bohed girder çcc1ion
Figure 5.1 O l
Comparisnn between plate
girders. (b) Wclde<l girdersccrinn
Also, member!i may be shonened by cutting and rej~ined by suitable welding, as WelJ ,
lengthened by splicing a piece of the same cros~-secuon. . a,
In addition. severa! direct factors influence the ~oSI of weldmg. ~e.neral_ly, Weldio
pe~ormed in the shop is Jess expensi~e than lieM weldmg. Some reasons for th1s are ava}
abrhty rn the shop of automatic weldmg_ i:nachmes, 3 _ mo'.e pleasant ~n~ less hos11[e envj.
ronment (the we ather), and the availabihty of special J1gs for holdm" the p1ece, 10
welded in a more favorable position. Also, work can be scheduled _fora continuous O be
lion, whereas field welding must 0(1en wait for ~ranes and special ~rection_equip:n:
Other operations such as the proper preheaung of p1e~es to be welded can be dtfficu)t if n ·
impossible to perform in the field. Other factors that mfluence weldmg costs are: ot
1. Cost of preparing ihe edges to be welded.

2. The amount of weld materiai required.
3. The ratio of the actual are time lo overall welding time.
4. The amount of handbng required.
5. Gene.ml overhead costs.
. The factors li.,;ted above are generally unknown to the de,,;igner because the fabricai
1s usually not selected unti.I after the design has been completed. However, the desioner or
. . . e mug
stili make decisions-should shon length Jaroe s1ze fillet welds or longer length sma(l .
~ o . ~~
welds be used? Should large size fùlet welds or groove welds be used? lf the deòsion ·
. . . m~
use groove welds tben the proper and mosr econo1rucaJ type must be sele.cted.
In r_nosl' instan~es the des igner is nol as concemed wit~ the specific CO$[ of a Weld
Lype as w1th the relative cost. Donnelly [5.26] has developed tactors relatmg the co,t of fi
. . I
Ier an d groove welds of common s1zes to the cost o f a smg I • r.
e-pass 4-m. ,.1.llet weld.
11.
, . Curre ntly _(2008), welded connecti_on_s are used for the ~ast majority of shop con.
nectwns and a s1zable, through nota maJonty of field connect1ons. More extensive ti
1
ment of welding cosi is available in the Welding Handbook, Vol. l [2.21] and (;• •
0
Blodgett [5.27]. m
5. l 1 SIZE ANO LENGTH LIMITATIONS FOR FILLET WELDS
Si.nce ali welding involves the heating of the mecal pieces, prevenr.i on of too rapida rate .
01
coohng 1s of fuodamental importance to achieving a good weld. Coosider the two extre
thicknesses of plates in Fig. 5.11.1. each of which bas received a bead of fillet weld. M:
Sectìon 5. 11 Size and Length limitations for Fillet Welds • 183
I\__
~ - -·-
Temperature
distribu1ion
Figure 5.11. l
Effect of 1hickness on
cooling rate. (a) Thick plate
(b) Thin plalc
heat energy given off during the welding process is absorbed by plates bcing joined. TI1e
thicker plate dissipatcs the heat vertically as well as horizomally whereas thc thinner plate
is essentially limited to a horizontal dissipation. In other words, the rhicker the plate, rhe
faster heat is removed from the welding area, thereby lowering the temperature in the
region of the weld. Since a minimum temperature is required to cause the base metal to
become molten, it is therefore necessary to provide as a minimum, a weld of sufticient size
(and heat content) to prevent the plate from removing the beat at a faster rate than it is
being supplied. Unlcss a proper temperature is maintained in lhe area being welded a Jack
of fusion will result.
Minimum Weld Size
To help insure fusion and minimize diston.ion the AWS [5.25} and AlSC Specifo:ation
11.3] provide for a minimum size weld based on the thicker of the pieces being joined.
The requirements for fillet weld based on the leg dimension a of the fillet and for partial-
joint-penetration groove weld based on the e ffective throat (see Sec. 5.12) are given in
Tables 5.11.1 and 5.11.2.
Maximum Fillet Weld Size Along Edges
The maximum size of .tìllet weld used a/ong the edges of pieces being joined is limited
(ATSC-J2.2b) in order to prevcnt che rnelling of the base materiai at the location where the
TABLE 5.11.1 Minimum Size* of Fillet Welds (Adapted From

AISC-Table J2.4)
Materiai thickness of thicker part joined Minimum size** of fillet weld***
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
To l/4 inclusive To 6.4 inclusive 1/8 3
Over 1/4 to l/2 Over 6.4 10 12. 7 J/16 5
Over 1/2 to 3/4 Over 12.7 to 19.0 1/4 6
Ovcr 3/4 Over 19.0 5/16 8
* See AISC-J2.2b for maximum size of fillet welds.

** Leg dimension; single pass weld.
**" According to AWS-2.3, wetd size need not exceed the chickness of the thinner
part joined.
. Thickness of Partial-Joint-Penetrar10
TABLE 5.11.2 Minimum EffectiveThroat AISCTable J2.3) n
Groove Welds (Adapted From
Minimum effe cti11e t h r o a t ~
Materiai thickness of thicker part joined (in.I (rnn,) ness•
(in.) (mml
1 <
,.. (6.4 mm) a,.,, :
4 1
t . ... ; __l
a (n;i., ;:;: no spcc ific
hmit
(a) ,, (~ ffectivene.ss may
be limited: see
l" l" Sec.5.14 )
I 2:
4- (6.4 rnm ) ""'" = ,-
j
16 (1.6mm) •
Figure 5.J 1.2
Maximum weld size.
t (b)
( e)
fillet would meet the corner of the plate if the fillet were made th e full pi ate thitkness. ìhe
maximum permirted is (see Fig. 5.11.2):
1. Alo ng edges of materiai /ess than ¼-in. (6.4-mm) thick, the maximum sìzc is
equal to the thickness of the materiai.
2. Along edges of materia] ¾in. (6.4 mm) ?r more in thick.ness'. rhe max.irnum size
ft
shall be in. (1.6 mm) less than the r_h1ckness of the macenal. unless the weld
is especially designated on the draw1ngs to be bu1lt out to obtain full throai
thickness.
Minimum Effective Length of Fillet Welds
Whe n plac_ing a fillet we ld, the w~lder builds up the wel~ lo its full di'.nension as near
lhe begmnrng of the weld as pracucable. However, th_e re 1s always a slight tapering o(f
111 the region where the weld is started and where It ends . There fore . the inìnim
effe~tive le n~th of a fille t weld is four times the nomin~l size (AISC-12.2.b). If ,~:
requ1re ment 1s not met, the size of the weld shall be cons1de re d to be o ne-fourth ofthe
effe ctive leng th.
A TSC-12.2.b recommends the use of end re tums, whenever practicable. as shown .
10
Fig. 5.11.3. For other limitations the reader is referred to the AISC Spec iiìc ation [ l. I J].
Section 5.12 Effective Areas of Welds • 185
figure 5.11 .3
U,~ l•f end rcllJJ'llS.
5.12 EFFECTIVE AREAS OF WELDS
The strcngths of the various types of we\ds discussed in Sec. S.5 are based on effective
areas. The effeciive area of a groovc or fi\le! weld is the produci of the tif'ec1ivt• tlmmt
dimension ,, times thc length of tbc wcld.
The effective throat dimcnsion depends on the nominai size and the shape of 1he
we\d, and may be thought of as thc minimum width of the expected failure piane.
Groove Welds
The effective throat dimension of a full penelralion groove weld is the thickness of the
thinner part joined, as shown in Figs. 5.12.la and b. Fora partial joint penetration
groovc weld, the effective throat may be less than thc òepth of the chamfcr. For exam-
ple, when beve!- or V-joim grooves have an included angle at the root of the groove less
than 60° but not less than 45° when SMAW or SAW processes are used. or when the
GMAW or FCAW processes are used in vertical or overhead positions. the effec1ive
throat is the depth of the chamfer less ~ in. When the included angle is 60° or more. the
effeetive throa1 is thc full depth of chamfer for all four processes mentioned. Effective
throat requireinents for the groove situatìons mentioned, as well as others, are given in
AISC-J2. Ja. and Tabie J2. l.
t ,. = T 1 I,= T
{ ~I
~
T, < T,
T,
t { ; 8 T
f
(UI (b)
I"
t,= D --8 (3.2 lllm)
45° s a < 60° (OMA W and FCAW
vertical and ovcrhead 1, = D
posi Iioo")
D$n
o 2: 60'
Figure 5. 12. 1 . .
Effective throa! d1mens1ons
for groove welds (AISC-
f
No g:ip
12.1 a) made by SMAW.
SAW. GMAW. and FCAW. ( r) 13cvel - or \I -jo in1 ( d) Devel- or V- j oinL
- - --
-· . . --- - - - - . ........ ··----·--- ..- • ---

<1"~Ns., ~ / 0.707a
Face
l__ ~ ,,,,,- l.eg'-ii.è
Rout . /L.,.,%
Figure 5.12.2
_ _ ..,
Effective rhroat dimensim1s 11
for fillet welds. {H)

t bl
Fillet Welds
· · rhroat d1mens1011
The eflecttve · · ot· a fiI Ilet we Id is· - 1,ominaJlv
· '
thc shorcest distance frOlf\ th
· · F. 5 12 '
root to thc face of the weld, as shown 111 1g. - · ·-· · · ..) Assuming the fillct
_ weld
. to.hav
' e equa]e
Icgs o I. normnal
· · a. the e.f',ect1vc
srze · thrua11 ,. 1·s· O·707a· It tbe .fillet. wcld 1~ des1gnect
· to be
unsymmctrirnl (a rare situation) with unequal legs. as shown 111 _Fig. _5 · 12 -2 b, thc Value of
- .
,, muse be con1puted from the chagrammauc · --h·
s ,1pe of che weld. 1_he eftcct1ve throat ct·1111c11.
sions for fillet welds made by thc submerged are (SAW) process produces some penetra.
lion at the root of che weld which increases tbc strcngth of rhe weld. Prevrous AISC
· ·
prov1S1ons '
allowed for an increascd e ffecuve
· th10 · at · The current Specificat'
· 1011 2005
requires that the increased penetration must be validateci by teSling bcfore using ari
increased effective thro,11.
Plug and Slot Welds
The effective shearing area of plug or slor welds is th~ir nominai area (S?metimes caHed
fayì11g surface) in the shearing piane. The resistance ot plug or slot welds 1s the produc:t or
the nominai cross-section tjmes the ~tress on thai area.
5.13 NOMINAL STRENGTH OF WELDS
Since wclds must cransmit the cntire load fro111 one member to ~nother. welds must be
sizcd accordingly and be formed from the correct electrode maten al. For des ign purpose
fillet welds are assumed 10 1rnnsmit loads chrough shear stress on the effcctive area no niat~
ter how t.he fillets are orieotcd on 1he structnral connection. Groove wclds trnnsmit load~
exactly as in the pieces tbey join.
The electrode materiai used in welds should have properties of the base materiai
When properties are comparable. the weld metal is refened to as ..matching" weld metai'
Table 5. J3. I gives "matching·· weld metal for many ASTM structural steels used in build:
ings and bridges.
Strength of Groove Welds
Complete joint penetration (CJP) groove welds are cons idered to have thc same strength On
the ejfecrive area as the pieces beingjoined. ll1ereforc, AISC-12.4 requires no computation of
the strcngth of the CIP groove weld. Welds subject to tension norma! to the weld axis must be
made with "rnatching.. weld metal, where the propenies of the weld metal are comparahle 10
those of the base metal. In compression, where stability of the c.ompression member is usuallv
the major factor. the weld metal strengù1 is permitted to beone classilìcmion (10 ksi) low;r
~han the '·matching" base metal requirement. The authors recommend. however. that rnakh-
mg efectrodes be used when ù1e member may possibly be used in tension in the future.
Section 5.13 Nominai Strength of Welds • 187
TABLE 5.13.1 s ummary of Matching Filler Metal Requirement as Specified

b Y AWS D1.1 for the Most CommonTypes of Structural Steel
(from AWS D1. 1 Table 3.1, also User Note, AISC. J2.6) [2.23]
Base Metal
Matching Filler Metal
A36 :a; ¾ in. thick 60 & 70 ksi Electrodes
A36 >¾ in. A572 (Gr. 50 & 55) SMAW: E7015. E7016, E70l8. E7028
A9 13 (Gr. 50)
A588*
A992 Othcr processes: 70 ksì elecrrodes
AIO!!
AIOIR
A913 (Gr. 60 & 65)
80 ksi e lectrodes
* For corrosion resistance and color similar to the base see AWS D1.1, Sect. 3.7.3
Notes: 1- Electrodes shall rneet the requirements of AWS A5.1, A5.5, A5 .17, AS.18, A5.20, AS.23,
A5.28 and A5.29.
2. In joints with base rnetals of different strengths use either a filler m etal that m atches
the higher strength base metal or a filler metal that matches the lower strength and pro-
duces a low hydrogen deposit.
When "matching" electrode materi.il is used, the wel<l materiai is sornewhat stronger
t~an the base materiai: thus the strength of the welded joint i~ controlled by the base mate-
nal propenies.
When the groove weldedjoint is subject to shear, the weld metal is permitted (AWS-
Table 2.3 [2.23)) to be of lower strength than the base metal; i.e .. less than "rnatching"
weld metal, in which case the strength FEXX of the weld materiai must be used instead of
Fy in computing R,,w .
Strength of Fillet Welds
The Strength R.,w of a fillet weld per inch of lenglh is based on a.ssumption thai failure of such
a wel<l is by shear on the effective area whether the shear transfer is parallel to or perpcndicu-
lar to the axis of the line of fillet weld. In fact, the strengm is greater for shear transfer perpen-
dicular lo the weld axis: however. for simplicity the situations are treated the same. Thus. fillet
weld strength may he controlled by the weld electrode strength or by the hase materiai shear
strength. The nominai strength R,,w per inch of weld \ength may be e xpressed,
a. For the weld me tal,
R,, = FwAw = 0.60FExxtA l in.) = 0.60teFExx (5. l3.l)

b. For the base metal,
Rn = FsMA BM = 0.6F"t(l in.) = 0.6,F,. yielding (5. l3.2)

R,, = rÌJMABM = 0.6F,,t(I in.) e: 0.6tF,, rupture (5.13.3)
The stre ss distribution in welded joints is complex and nonuniform. Figure 5.13. l
shows the typical stress distribution at service load for Iongitudinal fillet welds in a lap
joint. The actual variation of shear stress in the weld from points A to 8 depends on the
length of the weld as well as the ratio of the widths of the plates be ingjoined. Figure 5.1 3.2
shows the typical shear variation for fillet w e lds loaded transverse Lo the weld axis.
The load-defonnation relationship of a fillec weld has been scudie<l by Bucler, PaL and
Kulak [5.29], Kulak and Tirnmler [5.30], Swannell [5.3 1. 5.321. and Neis [5.33 ]. ami is
shown in Fig. 5.13.3, where the reader may observe that the strength is related to thc angle O
Tensile sucss
alOflj; baT
Figure 5. 13. J
Typical stress distribution in A B / Distriburion of shear
a lap joint wirh longitudinal ~ / stresses in wcld
fillet welds.
-
A A
i
ll
Figure 5.13.2 Il
Il
Typical stress distriburion in ll
li
a lap joint with trans verse
fillet welds. 8 8
1.4
8values
45•
1.2
O'
15'
0.6 8 = angle be1wcen

force and a.xis
of fillc.J weld
0 ,4 R, = Eq. 5.17.2
0.2
Figure 5.1 J.3

~..oa~-defor111ation relationship 0.025 0.05 0 .075 O. I 0.125 O.lS
lor t11ler welds.
à;/[weld size a]
Section 5. 14 Load and Resistance Factor Design-Welds • 189
lo the weld axis at which the weld is loaded. The longitudinal welds in Fig. 5.13.1 are loaded
at 0° (parallel to the weld axis); Fig. 5.13.3 shows considerable ductility (large clefonnation
capability) for such welds. Figure 5. I 3.2 shows 1ransverse welds loaded at 90° (perpendicu-
lar lo the weld axis); Fig. 5.13.3 shows greater strength but considerably less deformation
capability for su.eh welds.
Forali AISC Specifications, both ASD and LRFD, prior to the 1993 LRFD Speci-
fication, the additional strength of fillet welds loaded at angles O greater than 0° was not
utilized. The shear strength of che weld segment per unit length, taken at ti0.60FEXx)
(i.e., Eq. 5.13.1), wa.~ the upper limit, regardless of the angle O. The 2005 ATSC-J2.4a
permits using increased fillet weld strength for weld segments within a group loaded in-
plane, through the grm1p center of gravity, at an angle () measured from the weld axis. This
alternate approach is used in the strength merhod 1reatment of eccentric shear connections
in Se.e. 5.17.
Figure 5. 13.3 shows that a fillet weld shows maximum deforrnation A,/a capabilily
before failure from abour 0.06 for O = 90° to more than 0.15 when () = 0°. Thus, be.cause
of this ductility, lines of weld loaded either parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the weld
are assumed for de.,ign purpose.~ to resist equally anywhere along their length. Even
though the elastic distribution of Joad along the length of weld is not uniform, pla<\tic
deformation will permit this simplified designed treatment.
5.14 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN-WELDS

The generai philosophy of Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) was described in
Secs. l .8 and 1.9. Equation 1.8. J gives the structural safety requirement, as fo\lows:
[ 1.8.1 l
where t/> = resistance factor (strength reduction facror), values of which for welds are
given in Table 5.14.J
Rn = nominai resistance (strength) = Rmo for welds
Y; = overload factors (ASCE 7-05)
Q; = service loads (see Secs. l .8 and 1.9)
Equation 1.8.1 requires the design strength <f>Rn to equa\ or exceed the summation of
factored loads, or specifically for welds, Eq. l.8.1 becomes
(5.14.1)
where <f> = resistance factor (for welds the <f> factor is the same as for the materiai it
connects; that is, 0.90 for the yielding limit state and 0.75 for the fracture
1imit state)
R,rw = the nominai s trength per unit leogth of weld, but not to exceed the
nominai strength per unii length of adjacent base materiai
R11 = factored load per uni t k ngth of weld
Groove Welds
The design s trength of complete per.etnuion groove welds, whether loaded in shear. tension
or compression, is govemed by thc strength of the base metal and no compulation of the
strength of such groove welds is requ ired. For tension no1mal to ihe weld, the joints are
intended to provide strength equivalent to the base metal. He nce, matching strength filler
metal is required.
----------·- - -
TABLE 5.14.1 Design Strength ofWelds (From AISC Spec1·t·teat·on

1
11 13), AISC-Table J2.5)
Required
Load Type and Nominai
Effective
Area (AeM 0 r
Filler
Metal I
Direction Strength Strength
Relative to Aw)
Pertinent (Fom or Fw) Levella. bJ
in.2 (mm2)
WeldAxis Metal tf, and n kips (N)
Tension
. · Groove Welds
Complete Jomt-Pcneu.u,on
Strength of 1he joim is controllcd
-----
Matching filler metal sh a ~
be usc<l. For T an<l corner
normai to wel<l axis by the base metal joinls with backing left in
piace, notch tough fillcr
metal is require<l. Sce
Section 12.6.
Filler metal wi1h a stren ~
Compression Strength of the joint is con1rolle<l levcl equal Lo or one
normai 10 weld axis by the base mernl strenglh levcl less than
matching filler metal is
penn itte.d .
Tension or Fillcr metal with a strength--..

Tension or compression in pans joined parallel
compression leve! equal to or less thao
10 a wel<l nee<l not be considered in design of rnatching fìller metal is
parallel to weld axis welds joining the parK permjued.
Shear Matching filler meta) shaJI

Strength of the joint is con1rolled be used.lc!
by the base metal
~
Parcial-Joint-Pene1ra1ion Groove Welds lncludmg . Flare Vee Groove and Flare Beve] Groove Weld,
Tension normai to
Base e/,
n-
= 0.90
t.67
F,.
See
J4
---
weld axis See
Weld = 0.80 0.60/'i;xx
n 1.88 J2.la
Compressi on
column to base plate
Compressive stress nced not be considcred in
and column
design of welds joining che pa11s.
spllces designed
per Jl.4(a)
Compression
<f, = 0.90 See
connections of Base
n= 1.67
F;, J4
membcrs dcsigned
to bear other Filler metal with a strcnoth
!han columns as = 0.80 Sce leve) equa! to or less th:0
Wdd 0.60FEXX 12.la
described in Jl.4(b) [! = 1.88 mmching filler metal is
permined.
Compression ,/, = 0.90 See
Base Fr
connections not fl = 1.67 J4
finished-Lo-bear
Weld 4, = 0.80 0.90Fr;xx
See
n = 1.&8 .12.la
Tension or Tension or compression in pans joined para Ilei

compression w a weld nced not be considered in design of
parnllel to weld axis we lds joining che pans.
Base Governed by 14
Shear
We\d rf, = 0.75 See
n = 2.00 0.60FExx 12.la
Section 5.14 Load and Resistance Factor Design-Welds • 191
TABLE 5.14.1 (Continued)
Fillet Welds lncluding Fillets in Holes and Slots and Skewcd T-.loinl~
FShrn Base
Weld cf, = 0.75

Govemed by 14
Tcnsion or
fl = 2.00
I 0.60FEj{J
I
Tension or compression in pans joined parallel
See
J2.2a
Filler metal with a slrcngth leve)
equal lo or Jess than nrntching fillcr
metal i s permit1ed.
compressi on to a weld nceu not be considered in design uf
I
parallel 10 wcld axis welds joining the pans.

-
Plug and Slot Welds
Shcar Base Governed by 14 Fillcr metal with a strength
parallel to faying leve I equaI 10 or lcss \han
surface on lhe
effcctivc arca
Weld
n
</> = 0.75
= 2.00
!•l For matching weld metal see AWS Dl 1, Section 3.3.
I 0.60Fexx
l J2.3a malchin!_! filler metal is
permittcd.
[b) Filler metal with a strength leve! one strength level greater than matching is permitted.
!c.] Filler metals with a strength level less !han matching may be used for groove welds between the webs and flanges ol
built-up sections transferring shear loads, or in applications where high restraint is a concem. In these applica tions, the
weld joint shall be detailed and the weld shall be designed using the 1hickness of the materiai as the ettective throat.
cJ, '"' 0.80, n
= 1.88 and 0.60 Fexx as the nominai s1rength.
[dJ Alternatively, the provisions ol J2.4(a) are permitted provided the deformation compatibility of the various weld elements
is considered. Alternatively, Sections J2.4(b) and (e) are special applications of J2.4(a) that provide lor deformation com-
patibility.
For partial penetratio n groove welds, thc weld design strength per unil length (Tablc
5.14. l and AISC-J4) depends on the type of applied stress:
1. Tension and cornpression normai to the effeclive area*:
<f,R,,w = 0.80(r~)(0.60FExx) = 0.48tJi,xx weld metal (5.14.2)
2. Shear on effective ,nea*:
r/JR,,w = 0.75(te)(0.60FExx) = 0.45teFexx weld metal (5.14.3)
The strength of the base mat.erials should also be checked for loads applied par:illcl to tbe.
weld axis, according lo A(SC-J4 .2.
Fillet Welds
The design strength (AISC-J2.4.) per unit length of a fillet weld is ba~ed on the shear resis-
tance through the throat of the weld, us folluws:
qiR,,w = 0.751,.(0.60 FEXX) (5. 14.4)
* See Sec 5.12 for definition of effective arca.

but not greater than the shear yield or shear rupture screngl h s (AISC-J_4 -2 l of thc a<ljac~nt
base ma1erials. The base materiai design strength 1s the Jower value of.
yield strength
t/>Rn = 1.0(0.6Fv)A 8 M = 0.61F, (5.14_5)
rupture strength
</>R,, = 0.75(0.6Fu)AnM = 0.451F11 (5.14.6)
where re = effective 1hroa1 dimension (see Sec. 5.12)

F Exx = tensile strengih of electrode materiai
I = thickness of base materiai along which weld is placed
F., = tensile streng1h of base metal
The goveming base materiai strength will depend on the values of the tensile strcngth and
y1eld strength for the steel under consideration.
Note that the Jimit state for fillet welds is fracture through the t_hroat of the fillct ; thus
the </> factor is 0.75. Values of <f>R,,w based on Eq. 5.14.4 for vanous electrodc Strenoth ·
are giveri in Table 5.14.2 for shie lded metal are welding (SMAW) a nd submerge/ar;
welding (SAW).
When a fillet we ld is loaded through its center of gravity but at an ang)e (} niea.
sured from the weld axis. or weld segrncnts within a weld group are loaded in-piane. th
strength of each weld segment i s permitted io be moditied from thar given by Eq. 5.1 4_6e
in accordance with rhe provisions of AISC-J2.4. This alt~rnat~ approach is used in lh;
s trength mer.hod treatment of cccentric s hear connect10ns 111 Sec. 5.17. Kenned .
Miazga, and Lesik 15.37, 5.38. 5.39] bave presenied the laccst information on fille t we}d
shear sirength.
ATSC Table 12.5 containing the design strengths of we lds is presented as Table 5.1 4J_
TABLE 5.14.2 Design Shear Strength <f>Rnwof FilletWeld, (kips/ìn.)

(Shielded Metal ArcWelding and Submerged ArcWelding)
Nominai Effective Minimum tensile strength of weld (ksi)

size throat
(in.) (in.) 60 70 80 90 100 110
1/8 0.088" 2.38" 2.77 3.1 7 3.56 3.96 4.36
3/16 0.1 33 -~.58 4.18 4.77 5.37 5.97 656
J/4 0.177 4.77 5.57 6.36 7.16 7.95 8.75
5/l6 0.22 1 5.97 6.96 7.95 8.95 9 94 10.94
3/8 0.265 7.16 8.35 9.54 l0.74 11.93 13.12
7/16 0309 8.35 9.74 11.14 12 53 13.92 1S..l!
1/2 0.354 9.54 11. 14 ]2.73 14.32 15.91 17.50
9/16 0.398 10.74 12.53 14.32 16.11 17.90 1969
5/8 0.442 11.93 IJ.92 15.91 17.90 19.88 21.87
11/1 6 0.486 13.1 2 15.31 17.50 19.69 21.87 24.06
3/4 0.530 14.32 16.70 19.09 ~l .48 23.86 26.25
" te ···· 0.707 times leg size a = 0.707(118) = 0.088 in.
1
''ple(O .o''O r,-Exx) = 0.75(0.707a)(0.60 times tensile strength )
= 0.75(0.707)( 1/8)(0.60)(60) = 2.38 kips/in.
Section 5.14 Load and Resistance Factor Design-Welds • 193
TAB ·. .
LE 5 -14.3 Oes_1gn Shear Strength of Fillet Welds, <t>Rnw (N/mm)
(Shtelded Metal ArcWelding)
Nominai Effective Minimum tensile strength of weld (MPa)
size throat
(mm) (mm) 415 485 550 620 690 760
3 39ob 463 S2S 592 6S9 72S
4 S28 617 700 789 878 967
5 660 772 875 986 1098 1209
6 792 926 1050 1 )84 1317 1451
li 1056 1234 1400 1578 17S6 1934
10 1320 1543 1750 1973 2195 2418
12 151i4 1852 2100 2367 2634 2902
14 1848 2160 2450 2762 3073 3385
16 211 3 2469 2800 31S6 3512 3869
18 2377 2777 3150 3551 3951 4352
20 2641 3086 3500 3945 4390 4836
a te = 0.707 times leg size a = 0.707(3) = 2.12 mm.
b <Me(0.60FExx) = 0.75(0.707a)(0.60 times tensile strength)
= 0.75(0.707)(2.12)(0.60)415 = 396 N/mm.
:XAMPLE 5.14.1
Determine the effectivc throat dimension of a -tc;-in. fillet weld made by (a) shielde<l metal
are wel<ling (SMAW), and (b) submerge<l are welding (SAW), in accordance with the
AISC Specification [1.13].
Solutìon:
(a) re = 0.707a = 0.707(0.4375) "' 0.309 in.

(b) Since eonsistent penetraùon beyond the root of the weld has not been demon-
strated by test, l e is egual to 0.309 in. [same as in part (a)1
These va\ues are in agreement with those g.iven in Table 5.14.2 for SMAW.
•
XAMPLE 5.14.2
Delermine the design shear s1rength <f>R,,w of a i-in. fillet weld produced by (a) shie\ded
metal are welding, and (b) submerged are welding. Assu:me E70 electrodes having mini-
mum tensile strenglh F EXX of 70 ksi are used, aecording to the AISC Specification.
Soluti.on:
(a) SMAW proeess. te= 0.707a = 0.707(0.375) = 0.26S in. According_ to Eq. S.14.4.
cpR,,w = </Jte(0.60FExx) = 0.75(0.265)(0.60)70 = 8.3S kips/in.

(b) SAW proeess. Same as in pari (a)
These agree with those in Tablc 5.14. 2. •
:AMPLE 5.14.3
Determine the de.sign she ar strength </>R,, for a ¾-in.-diam plug wekl using Eì0 electrode
materiai. Use the AISC Specitication.
Solution:
Assuming
. . the weld diarneter D ~a1isfies dli! .limiuitions
d of AISC-J2.3b relating !() ...
d 1mens1on ofthe piece in which thi! plog weld 1s rna e, ~>e
2
<t,Rn = 0.75(area of faying surface. 1TD /4 )(0.60FExx}
= 0.75(0.4418)(0.60)70 = 13.9kips
•
Maximum Effective Fillet Weld Size
In Sec. 5.1 l che limj1a1ions on maximum and minimum filler weld size and Jength
10 p~ctical design considera1ioos were given. Those rcquirements relate lo the size ~j~g
tha~ 1s aclu~ly placed. Regarding strength, however. no_welds of whatever size rnaveld
designed usmg a sue.ngth grearer rha11 available on rhe adpcenl base materiai. · be
Consider the 1wo lines of filler wi!ld crM1smjt1i.ng the shear V across sectio
Fig. 5.14.~a. The design strengrh <f,Rnw of che ~llet weld is given by Eq.
screngrh ot lhe base metal could be aovemed by e1ther rhe rupture or rhe yield li . · lbe
5.l::-a
Oi
E . . . "' . mn state
quatmg the capacuy per inch ot rhe weld metal to the shear capac11y per inch in th · ·
· I · ~ e b- -
marena g1ves ,or shielded metal are welding. "'>e
4>Rn,,.-(weld) = <f,R.(base metal) (5.14.ìj

1. For the base mera! strength governed by yielding.
0.75(2a)(0.707)0.60FEXX = I.0(0.6Fy)t1
0.6Fv r1 Fv t 1
llmaxcff = · = 0.943- · - (5. l4.8)
0.75(2)(0.707)0.60FEXX F EXX
2. For the base meta.I strengrh governed by rupmre,
0.75(2u)(0.707)0.60FExX = 0.75(0.6F,,)t 1
0.6F,,t 1
- - -~.:._..-- = O 707-F,,1-
1
(5.J.i.9J
(2 )(0.707)0.60FEXx . FExx.
L
8
L
j ll a
_j
a
I,
,,
f
Figure 5.14.1
,
Critkal se.:1ions for po$sìblc Section .4-A Section 8 -8
,wer~rre~.\ing of base
m31erial. (hl
Section 5.14 Load and Resistance Factor Oesign-Welds • 195
where '1 = thickness of base materiai

Fy = yield strength of base materiai
F,, = tensile strength of base materiai
F EXX = tensile strength of electrode materiai (70 ksi for E70 electrodes)
Sections h-b and e-e will not be criticai since two lines of weld transfcr load across
thnse sections,
l. For yield strength,
0 .75a(0.707)0.60FExx = J.00(0.6Fy)1 2
F,.12
a max eff = 1.89 -:-'-- -· (5.14.10)
FExx
2. For rupture strength,
0.75a(0.707)0.60FExx = 0.75(0.6F,,)1 2
F,,t2
Gmax eif = l.41-.-- (5 14.11)
f EXX
Considering the four fillct welds of Fig. 5.14. l b. sections d-d and e-e are the same as
scction a-a; therefore, Eq. 5.14.9 applies. On sectionsf-f and g-g four fillet welds transfcr
load across two sections. Thus,
0.75(4a)(0.707)(0.60fExx) = l.0(2)(0.6Fy}r1 (5.14, 12)
0.75(4a)(0.707)(0.60FExx) = 0.75(2)(0.6F,,)11 (5.14.13)
and again Eqs. 5.14.8 and 5 .14.9 are the results.

Even when fillet welds connect rnembers that are in tension, the transfer of load by
means of the weld is a shear transfer to the base pieces when the fillet welds are parallel to the
dim:tion of the load. For such cases, the maximum cffective weld size concept stil\ applies.
EXAMPLE 5.14.4
Detcrmine the design shear slrength </JRnw lo be used for tlle flange lo web connection in
Fig. 5.14.2. The plates are A36 steel and electrodes having FExX = 70 ksi are to be uscd
with shielded metal are welding (SMAW).
Solution:
Mi1ùmum welcl size = Clmin = ti; in. (AISC-Table J2.4).
Equation 5.14.9 applies,
F11l w 58tw .
Gmax eff = 0.707-_- - = 0.707- = 0.59110
FExX 70
= 0.59(5/16) = 0.183 in.
<J>R,,w = 0.75(0.183)(0.707)(0.60)(70) = 4.08 kip~/in.
- ~ - - - - -- - - , · --'-
- 1
1.!.:'
2
f igure 5.14.2
IEx~rnple 5.14.4.
or, for two fillets, the design strength is 2 ( 4.08) = 8.16 kips/in. Thus, even though a iin
fillet weld _must be placed, its srrength in design may not exceed th e Slrength assurnin~
a = 0.183 IO. •
5.15 ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN-WELDS

The generai philosophy of Allowable Strengch Desig~ (ASD) wa.s described in Sccs. l.g
and 1.9. Equation 1.8.8 gives the structural safety requ1rement, as follows :
nR,, .e: R o [1.8.8]
where fl is the safety factor.

n
Table 5.14.1 provides the values of 1ha1 correspond to both groove _and fillet weJds
~nder differenl loading conditions. Thc welded jomt allowable streng1_h ts based on the
Jomt nominai streng th as defined in Scc. 5. 13. The nommal stre ngths tor the base meta.I
~nd the weld are computed using the values in Table 5. 14.1 and AISC-J4. TI1e servìce load
1s defined in the AISC ASD Method as rhe required strength. From _E q. 1.8.8, the allowable
strength must equal or exceed the required weld strength Ra· Typically, the design of th
weld involves the determination of the required weld length for a predefined weld siz:
Ho wever, in cases o f geometrie restrictions the reqmred weld s1ze co uld be detennined t
a specified weld length. To determine thc required weld le ngth w resis t a given force, t:
nomfoal strength R,,.11, = FwA w of the we ld is used in Eq. 1.8.8, g1vmg
R11 _ F,,;A-,,,, = Fwt, Lw

n - n n (S. l5, l)
The required weld le ngrh satisfying required scrength can then be exprcssed,
fl~Q -
L > - - -' (S. 15.2)
w - F Wf
i
The limitatìons on maximum and minimum weld size were discussed in Sec. S. ll
and the e ffective areas were discussed in Sec . 5.1 2. ·
. The generai summary of AISC Allowable Strength Desig n (AS D) M ethod provi-
s10ns relating to we lds is in Table 5.14.1.
EXAMPLE 5.15.1
Deterrnine the allowable shear resistance of a ~--in. fillet_ \\'eld pro~uc ed by shielded metal
are process. Assume use of E70 electrodes havmg rn1111mum te nsile Strength F EXX of70
ksi. ami use AISC ASD Method.
Solution:
S MAW process. For fille t welds, the s afety factor given in Table 5.14.1 is 2.0.
= 0.707a = 0.707(0.375) = 0.265 in.

1,.
R,,w = 0.60FExxle = 0.60(70 )0.265 = I I.I k ips/in.

Section 5.16 Welds Connecting Members Subject to Oirect Axial Load • 197
TABLE 5.15.1 Allowable Resistance Rw of Fìllet Wetds, (kips/in.)
Nominai Minimum tensile strength of weld (ksi)

size Effective throat
(in.) (in.) 100 ,10
60 70 80 90
1/8 2.65 2.92
0.088 1.59 1.86 2. 12 2.39
3/16 3.97 4.37
0. 132 2.38 2.78 3.18 3.58
l/4 0. 177 5.30 5.83
3. 18 3.71 4.24 4.77
5/16 6.63 7.30
0.221 3.98 4.64 5.30 5.%
3/8 7.95 8.75
0.265 4.77 5.57 6 .36 7. 16
7/16 9 .28 10.21
0.309 5.57 6.49 7.42 8. .35
l/2 10.60 11 .66
0.353 6.36 7.42 8.48 9.54
9/16 0.398 11.9'.' 13.12
7.16 8.35 9.54 10.74
5/8 13.26 14.58
0.442 7.95 9.28 10.61 11.93
l l/J 6 0.486 14.58 16.04
8.75 10.21 11 .67 13.12
3/4 0.530 15.9 1 17.50
9.54 I 1.13 12.72 14.31
and the allowable stre ngth is
R,,w
- FwAw
- = - - = -11.l = •S..57 k·1ps
' 1·1n.
n 2.0 2.0
TI1e value may be chccked by referring to Table 15.15.1 . •
Thus, the nominai strength Rnw used in LRFD is twice the allowable load R,t· used in ASD.
Typically. the allowable service load is obt.ained by dividìng the su·ength by n dcsired fac-
tor; for connections 2.0 has traditionally been used.
WELDS CONNECTING MEMBERS SUBJECT TO DIRECT AXIAL

s.~16~:_=__----------=-=-=.::=..-=~-=-==-=--=--=-=-=-::____ _LOAD
_ _ __
fn the design of welds connecting tension or compression members. the welds should be_ at
least as strong as the members they connect and the connection should not introduce s •g-
nificant eccentricity of loading.
Groove Welds
1n the case of full joiJ11 penetration groove welds as shown in Fig. 5.5.2. the full strength of
the cross-section may be developed by seJectìng the proper e lec trode materiai correspond-
ing to the base materiai as indicnted in 'làble 5.13. 1. and specifying au AWS prequalified
joint.
r MPLE 5.16.1
For the plate tension member (Fig. 5.16.1) carrying axial service loads of 60 kips lìve load
and 12 kips dead load. select the required thickness of the plates (A572 Grnde 50 steel). the
198 • Chapter 5 Wefding
Figure 5. 16.!
Example 5. 16. 1.
~~~~ t------~llIJ :it
proper electrode materiai. and specify a proper AWS prequalified groove joim. Use. Alsc
LRFD Method.
So/utio1t:
(a) Compme 1he factored load co be carried.
T 11 = 1.2( 12) + t.6(60) = ! IO kips
(b) Compute 1he thickness required forche plaies.
</>T11 = </>F,.Ag = 0.90(50)Ag (yielding Iimil State)
Tn = <J>F Ae = 0.75(65)A,

11
( fracture Iimit state)
Since there are no holes and no eccentriciry of loading. the effective net area A e equa}s lhe
gross area A Thus from the above two equauons Il 1s noted h
,:· ' I at
O.90( 50) < O. 75( 65); therefore,
. T,, I IO ? _ .
RequJTed Ag = _ 0(SO) =
09 45 = __ 4:, sq 111.
2 5
Rcquired 1 = .4 = 0.41 in. Use TI; X 6 plates.
6
(e) Selec1 electrode and an AWS prequalified joint. Fr~m Table 5.1 3.1 , use F7X;.;.
EXXX (FExx = 70 ksi) t1ux electrode combination. Refemng toA ISC Manual (1.15] s _
tion "Prequalified Welded Joints" (Table 8-2) or AWS [2.231 Figs. 2.4 and 2.5. selec~
prequalified single-V-groove weld desìgnated B-L2a-S. The designation B refers 10 ab a
. . L d . h' .., . Ult
101111'. refers to lirnited thiclmess ofmaterial for this wel (m t 1s case L 111. maximum). and
S reters to submerged are welding. The weld requires that a bacl..,..up plate be used. The
deLails aJJd welding symbol are shown in Fig. 5.16.2.
~ ~F7XX
Figure 5.16.2 72k ,:---'-l_ _ _ .,./___
;0_ 0
72k _"7
Design sketch for Example
5.16.J. -s i y <-
I
EXAMPLE 5.16.2
Re peat Example 5.16. l. except use A572 Grade 65 plates. a square-groove weld. and sub-
merged are welding (SAW).
Solutùm:
(a) Determine the required plate thickness.
R . 110
equrred A8 = -0 _- -T"(-:,--) _ _ = 1.89 sq in.
90 6 8
)c.)
l.89
Required , = - - = 0.31 in. Use 16
5
X 6 plates.
6
• 199
Section 5.16 Welds Connecting Members Subject to Direct Axial Load
s
/..----ilr;--..(1( F8XX
16
~ sr;::::;~::::J1é::::::::::3:< ~
(b) S e Iccl eleclTOde and specify che proper prequahfied . . · F Table 5.13.1.
JOIDL rom [? ,
31
use F8XX-EXXX flux electrode combination. From AISC Manual [l.15] or AWS_
Table 2.9.J. select the square-groove weld designated B-LI-S (AISC Manual P· 8 37·)
·a1
as
· di cated ·m F.tg. 5. J 6.3. This weld has z.ero root opening and is prequa 11·fied
m 1 for maten no
). •
thik
e erth an 8 m.
. . l Il ExampIes 5.16.1 and 5. J 6.2 it was noi nece~sary 10 .,nclu d e I he w eld size
Nore. . h orf the
the
0
length of the welds since they are to b.:: made full joior pene t.ration and che full widt
pla1es unless otherwise specified.
fXAMPLE 5.16.3
. the scrv1ce
De termme . load capacity,
. assuming the Joad 1s . 8 O% 1·1ve load , of the tee connec·
W
tion shown in Figure 5. J6.4 and de tail the proper double-bevel-groovc wcld for rhe s_M~
h
process. Assume the flange of rhe tee does not contro) design. Use Al SC LRFD Mec ·
Solutian:
(a) Derermine the strength of the ¾ x 8 plate.
c/>Tn = c/>FyAg = 0.90(0.75)8 = 194 kips

Tu = l.2To + 1.6TL = I.2(0.2T) + J.6(0.8T) = 1.52T
c/>Tn = Tu
194
T = -1.52 = l28kips
The maximum scrvice load tension force penu.ined by AlSC is 128 kips.
(b) Select the electrode materiai and select a proper prequaLified AWS joint. fro~i
Tabie 5. I 3. I. use E60 electrodes. From the AJSC Manual [1.15. p. 8-45] or AWS [2. 2-> l
Fig. 2.4, select the double-bevel-groove joint designated TC-U5a.
Note: On the basis of strength only. a single ¾-in. beve! (TC-U4b) could bave been used
instead of the double-bevel-groove weld specified. However, welding the st~1~1 o~ the tee
from one side only may cause excessive warping and introduces eccenmciry mto th e
connection.
fr t 128kip$
~-è~ E60
(A36~teel) 1
4
45°
J6.,
Jf Jf 164 k i64 kips
S.16.3. (a) Probfem
(b) Solution
•
Fillet Welds
th
The design for lillet welds is based on rhe nominai shear Slress on e effective area of
fili et weld as discussed in Sec. 5.12. The selection ~f the size of the fillet_ wcld is basedt:e
the thickness of che pieces being joined and the av~lable length over which the fillet WeJ~
can be made. Other factors such as the 1ype of welding equ,pment used, _whether the weJd
1s
·are 10 be made in the field or in che shop, and the size of other · weJds
I bemg
di made wil! a~
mfluence the size of tillet specified. Large tillet welds reqmre arger ameter electrO(J
which in tum require Jarger and bullcier welding equipment, nor necessarily convenìent ~s,
field use. The 5
most economica! sizei
of fillet weld is usually
·t the one
. 5 .thatO fcan
fi I be made in one
or
~ass; _about in. for SMAW and in. for SAW. Also, _1 _a cer~m ,ze I Jet weld is used
2
m adJacent 16 areas 10 the particular joinc in qucs11on, 1t rs adv1sable to use the same .
.
smce lhen the same electrodes and welding equ1pment . couldbe used, and the Weld - '
:,vould not have to alter his procedure to accommodate a larger or smaI le.r weld. ln additioer
mspection of the welds is funher simplified. n,
EXAMPLE 5.16.4
Detennine rhe size and length of che fillet weld for the lap joinl shown in Fig. 5.16.S Usin
the submerged are (SAW) process if the plates are A36 steel. Use AISC LRFD Methol
Solution:
Referring to Sec. 5.11, AISC-J2.2b gives the following limits:
. . 5 1 9 ·
Maximum s1ze = ii - 16 = f6 m.
Minimum size = ¼in.
use 21--m. fillet weld, since that is about the maximum size that can be made in one pa b
the SAW process. ss Y
For this SAW weld, since verification of consistent penetration beyond the ro01
the weld by test has not beeo confirmed. the effective tlu·oat dimension re is taken as of
r, = 0.707a = 0.707(0.50) = 0.354 in.
From Table 5.13.1 , use F7XX-EXXX flux electrode combination.
The design strength of ½-in. fillet weld per inch of length, according 10 Eq. 5_ 14•4, lS
.
</>R,,w = </>t,(0.6DFExx) = 0.75(0.354)42 = 11.2 kips/in.
Since the weld capacity may not exceed the plate shear rupture strenoth acco ct·1
Eq. 5.14.7, "' ' r ng to
Max <J>R,,,v = ,J>t(0.60F,,) = 0.75(0.625)(0.60)58 = 16.3 kips/in.

or
Max </>Rnw = t(0.6f~-) = l.0(0.625)(0.6)36 = 13.5 kips/in.
The weld strength controls.
, r
il, - ~X7
8
,--..:~-< F?XX
.! 7
2
@ --
Gussctll,
~ 95k
70k DL
25k LL .___ _ _..,; --
70k LL
25k DL
Figure 5.16.5 m 95k
Example 5.16.4. (a) Problem (b) Solurion
Section 5.16 Welds Connecting Members Subject to D irect Axial Load • 201
Thc factorcd tensile load 10 be carried is
Tu = 1.2(25) + 1.6(70) = 142kips

The lotal length Lw of fillet weld required is
L
w
=~
l l.2
= 12.7in.
n
,.., o satJs
· fY th e strength requircment, only 6.5 in. of weld are needed on eac.h side
· · How-
'd . S
ever, to avo1 excess,ve nonuniformity of Joading ( i.e., shear lag, ec. · 3 5) in the plates,
. f
0
A ISC-J2.2b requires " lf longi1udinal fillet welds are used alone in end connecuons
tlat-bar tension members, the length of each fillel weld shall be not less than ~he
dicular distance between them" In fact the transverse distance between longitudmal f
I
~rp~~:
· ' · . ed
Iet we lds may not exceed one-half the length of 1he weld wllhout r ucmg · che strength o
the c onnection in accordance with AISC-D3.3.
16
In this example, use ½-in. filiet weld 7 in. on each side as shown in Fig. 5 · .5b.
. • . . ·t-ed
1 d they are
Note that retums are shown m the figure· however no dimens1on 1s spec1 an
not included in the strength computarion'. Retums ·of this rype should be made in
rd 1
er ~ °
ensure the full weld strength at the ends of lines of weld.
fXAMPLc 5.16.5
Rework Example 5 . 16.4 using ¼-in. fillet welds. Consistent fillet weld penetration bey~o<l
the rool was observed and was found to provide an effective throat equa! IO the weld size
(see AJSC-Commentary. J2.2a).
Solution:
The effective we ld size is given to be egual to the weld full leg dimension.
<f>R,,w = <f,tt(0.60FExx ) = 0.75(0.25)42 == 7.87 kips/in.
which is well below the plate shear yield strength of 13.5 kips/in. The tota! lengLh L.,. of
fillet weld required is
142 .
L,,, = - - = 18.0m.
7.87
TWo possible solutions are shown in Fig. 5. 16.6 . both of which provide 18 in. of ¼-in. fi]let
welds. The solution in Fig. 5. 16.6b is preferred since it is more compact and reduces th e
overall le ngth of the connection, g iving better s tress distribution.
F7XX F7XX
I 9
,l
-95k
- 95k
--
95k
F7X X
.!. 7
4
Fìgurt 5.16.6
Sc,IUIÌOIIS IO Eumple 5.16.5. (3 ) fb) •
- - --
Figure 5.16.7
Balancing the welds on a
lension member connection.
Balanced Connection
In a number of cases, members subjected to direct ~ial ~tress are themselves unsymme .
and cause eccentricities in welded connccrions. Th1s d1scuss10n relate-s 10 largely 1. tricaJ
forces such as those within a truss. Consider tbe angle tension member shown in Fi
welded as inùicated. The force Tapplied at some distance from che connecrion wiU; · .7
~tane
16
the centroid of the member as shown. The force Twill be resisced by the forces F I, cFt 2along
<llJd
F3 developed by the weld lines. The forces F 1 and F.i are assumed to act at thc edges ~f
angle rather than more correctly at the center of 1he effective throat. The force F 2 will the
the cemroid of thc weld length which is Jocated at d/2. Taking moments abou1 point A I acr ai
on the bottom edge of che member and considering clockwise momems positive, OCated
(5.16.!)
or
(5.16.2)
The farce F2 is egual to the resiscance Rw of the weld per inch times the lenoth L
weld: "' w of the
(5.16.31
Horizontal farce equilibrium gìves
_LFH = T - F1 - F2 - F3 = O (5.16.4)
Solving Eqs. 5.16. 1 and 5. 16.4 simultaneously gives
( dv)
F3 = T l - -=--- -
F,
....;
2 (5.16.5)
Designìng the connection s hown in Fig. 5.16. 7 to eliminate eccentricitv

the unsymmetrical weld is called balancing rhe welds. Tue procedure for b' 1ca~sed by
wekls may be summarized as follows: a ancmg lhe
1. After selecting the proper weld size and elecrrode, compute the force .
the end weld F 2 (if any) using Eq. 5.16.3. res1sted by
2. Compute F 1 using Eq. 5.16.2.
3. Compute F 3 using Eq. 5.16.5, or
F3 =T - F, - F2 (5.16.6)
4. Compute the lengths. Lwi a nd Lw3 , on rhe basis of
(S.16.7al
Section 5.16 w8 Ids eonnect1ng
.
Members Subject to Direct Axial Load • 203
and
Fl
L,,,, = -- (5.16.7b)
·' Rw
An alternative to the above is lo compute the tota! lenorh L . of weld required 10
carry the load, Subtrac1 the length on the end, and then anoiate th~ remaining requiTC<l
lenglh IO F dF . . . . .
I an 3 m mverse propon10n to the distances from the center ot gravity.
th
Note ai approximately balanced welds are "desirable"; however. AISC-Jl.? does
n_OT ~equire il for "· · · end connections of statically-loaded single angle, double angle a nd
s_nmlar members." Tempie and Sakla [5.43] havc discussed the effects of balanced connec-
L1ons on angle compression members.
The foregoing discussion of balanced welds is valid for bolh Load and Resi stance
Factor Design and Allowable Streng1h Design. Tue service load T uscd in ASD would
become factored load Tu used in LRFD: allowable resistance R,,, in ASD would become
design stre ngth </JRn,v in LRFD. -
EXAMPLE 5.16.6
Design the fillet welds lo deve\op the full strength of the angle shown in Fig. 5.16.8 mini~
mizing the effect of eccentricity. Assume the gussct plate does not govem and the SMAW
process is used. Use AISC LRFD Method,
Solution:
(a) Compute the strength of the member. A[SC-D3.3 requires ali welded and bolted
connections to be classificd according to Table D 3. 1. Si.nce the connection is to be ma~e to
one leg, case 2 in Table D3.1 is applicable. Accordingly, the U fac10r is to be detenruned
from ( I - x / e). The weld leng1h is not known and a U value of 0.90 is assumed.
The design strength of the angle member is the smaller of the fol\owing:
</JTn = 0 .90FyAg = 0.90(50)3.61 = 162 kips

</>T,, = 0.75F;,A, = 0.75FuUA
8
= 0.75(65)(0.90)3.61 = 158 kips (contro\s )

(b) Select weld sìze and compute strength.
Min size fillet weld = fi; in. (Table 5. ti. I)

Max size lillet weld =!- t6 = ft in. (Eg. 5.11.2)
Use ~-in. fille t weld with E70 electrodes. ll1e design strength <f>R111c is
q,R11 w == cj,te(0.60FExx) = 0.75(~)(0.707)42 = 4.18 k.ips/in.
L6 X 4 X _3_ (A572-0R50)
-V~V I/ A " 3.6~ in_l
,,~-~Tll
' - -~ -i--'<--~ y:\.94in.
--\-_.J
ht-r, I I
figure 5.16.8 L------· \-..·-17--

faample 5.16.6. v
Figure 5.16.9
Balancing the welds for
Example 5. 16.6.
which cannot exceed 1he shear rupture strength of rhe base metal.
Max tf>R,,w = <f>r(0.60F,,) = 0.75(0.375)(0.60)65 = I I .O kips/in.
The weld controls.

(e) Determine the length of weld 10 be used for the connection. Referring 10 p·tg.
5.16.9,
F2 = 4>R111uL1., = 4.18(6) = 25.1 kips
From moment equilibrium about the back of the angle (at F 3),
158(1.94) - 25.1(3) = ~s
_, .5 k.1ps_
6
Surnination of forces gives

F3 = T,, - F1 - F2 = 158 - 38.5 - 25.l = 94.4 kips
F1 38.5 . Use 10 in.
Lw1 = -- = - - = 9.2tn.
c/>R,. 10 4.18
F3 94.4 . Use 23 in.
L 103 = - - = - - = 22.6 m.
</>R,,w 4.18
Check the eccentricity reduction factor V using an average evalue.
e= t2 = 10 + 23 = 165 in.
e3 2
U = I - ~=I -
0 933
· = 0.94
e 16.s
Clearly within design accuracy, the use of U = 0.85 or 0.90 woulT,, = <f,F A, = 0.75(65)(0.94)3.61 =

11
165 k.ips
Now yielding controls with 4,T,, = 162 kips. The required lengths can he recalculated
F1 = 39.8 kips = Lw1 = 9.5 in. Use IO in. '
Fi = 97.1 kips= 1-w.1 = 23.2 in.

Couìd recheck the lJ value,
x 0.933
U =1 e
I - --::::: 095
17 . - OK
Section 5· 16 Welds Connecting Members Subject to Direct Axial Load • 20S
10
~5 16.10 24 E70 (Typ.)

fig11 ••• r Exrunple 5.16.6.
s,,1uuon ro
Use welds as shown in Fig. 5 .16. 10, though for beuer economy che largest we_lds
th31 can be placed in one pass are preferrc<l and this woul<l also reduce the comiecuon
length. •
EXAMPLE 5.16.7
Rework Example 5.16.6 ìf the weld at the end of rhe angle is omilled. and th e SA:V
process is used instead of SMAW. The fillet weld penetration was observed to be consis-
tent beyond the roor of the weld, and was found 10 provide an effecrive throat equa! 10 cbe
weld size.
Solution:
This time try ~ in. as more economica! and which can strn be placed in one pass. Using th e
forces in Fig. 5.16.11.
Lt\X4X2
~ I 8
~ jT
~ 1.94 .
Figure 5. I6.1 I
forces acring for Exarnplc
5.J6.7.
- F,
158( l.94)
F1 = = 51.1 kips
6
F3 =T 11 - F 1 == 158 - 51.1 = 106.9 kips
</>R,,w = cp1e(0.60l-Èxx) = 0.75(f6)42 = 9.84 kips/i11 .
which is Iess thau the s hear rupture stre ngth (II .O kips/in.) of the angle: therefore the weld
controls.
F1 51.l .
Lwi = - - = -- = 5.2 111.
</)R,,111 9 .84
F1 106.9
L 11 ,3 = - -·- = - - = 10.9 in.
(PRm,· 9.84
Check value of V using avcrage f .
x 0.933
V = I - - = I - -- = 0.88
e s.os
<f,T11 = </>F,,UAg = 0.7.5(65)(0.88)-"t61 = 155 kjps < [T,, = 158 kips) Say OK
U5!._ L 11, 1 _
= 6 in. and L10~ = 11 in.
r---c---~-< F7XX (ryp.J

6
f'igure 5.16. J 2
Il
Solmion for Example 5. 16.7.
~he wel<l design is summarized in Fig. 5. J6.12. Not~ that small retums at the ends of Weld
hnes are made to ensure full strcngth of the spec1fied weld lengths. Unless the ret
length is specified, the retums would noi be included in che strength computation.
•
UI!)
Slot and Plug Welds

Slot and plug welds have their strength based on lhe ~re~ in the s_hc_aring pl~ne betweeu the
plates being joined. As indicaced in Sec. 5.5, their pnnc1pal use 1s m lap Jmnts. Plug weJd
are also occasionally used to fili up holes in connections. such as beam-to-column an 1'
. h b ·
where temporary erec1ion bolts had been placed 10 •al 1gn I e mem ers pnor to weJd·
g e,
· · h d · mg.
T be strength of such welds may or may not be mcluded rn t e_ es1gn strength of a joint. As
a rule, plug and slot welds are designed 10 work together w1th other welds, usually fili
we Ids, ·lll Iap JOmts
· · as shown in Fig. 5.5.5. et
EXAMPLE 5.16.8
Detennine the service Joad T permitted on the connection in Fig. 5.16. I 3 if tbe load is 80"'
live load and 20% dead Joad. The steel is AJ6 and the NSC LRFD Method is lo be u~
See commem regarding returns at end of Ex. 5. I 6.7. ·
Solution:
The design strength <f>R,,w per inch supplied by the ½-in. fillet welds is
</>R,,w = <f.,t,(0.60FExx)
= 0.75(0.5(0.707))42 = Il.I kips/in.
but. not ro exceed the shear rupture or yield strengths of 1he plate,
Max </JR,,= </J0.6F_,Ag = 1.0(0.6)(36)0.625 = 13.5 kips/in. govems

or
Max <pR,, = </J0.6F,,A,, 11 = 0.75(0.6)(58)0.625 = 16.3 kips/in .
.5 GJUSSCI fj_
S
- T
Figure 5.J 6. 1:1

.P.xample 5. 16.8.
Welds Connecting Members Subject to Direct Axial Load • 207
The strength provided by the fillet welds is
Ti= Lw(<PRm,,) = lO(ll.l) = lii kips

The design strenirth "'R · 1
b .., n prov1ded by the I 2-in. diam plug weld is
- '1T( 1.5)2
Ti - </>R,. = 0.75- - (0.60)70 = 56 kips
4
The design strength based on the weld ìs
<PTn = T1 + T2 = 111 + 56 = 167 kips (controls)

Check the tensile capacity of the plate:
<t,T,, = 0 .901-~Ag = 0.90(36)(9)0 .625 = 182 kips
<f>Tn = 0.15FuA, = 0.15FuUAg = 0.75(58)(1.0)(9)0.625 = 245 kips

The weld controls, which malces the service load capacity T
167 = l.2(0.2T) + 1.6(0.8T) = 1.52T

T = 110 kips •
EXAMPLE 5.16.9
Compute the service load capacity of the connection shown in Fig. 5.16.14 when A57_3
Grade 50 steel and welding by the SMAW processare used. Assume che service load 15
83% live load and 17% dead load. Use AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design. See
cornment regarding weld retum~ at end of Ex. 5.16.7.
- T
- T
Figure 5. 16.14 l.
Example 5.16.9. 16
Solution:
From Table 5.14.2, a k-in. E70 fillet weld provides if,R,,w = 4 .18 kips/ìn. Tue resistance
T 1 provided by the fillet welds is
Ti = L w(</>R,,lt') = 2(5) ( 4.18) = 41.8 kips

The resistance T 2 provided by the ¾-in. wide slot weld is
Faying area= r.(

3
t) 2
+ ~.25(¾) = l.91 sq in.
T, = <bR = 0.75( L91 )( 0.60 )70 = 60.1 kips

11
<f,T,, = T 1 + r 2 = 4 1.8 + 60.1 = 101.9 kips (controls)

4
Note that slot has a semicircular end (AISC-J2.3b. par. )-
Check the tensile capacity of the plate:
</>Tn = 0.901\Ai: = 0.90(50)(8)0.375 = 135 kips
<bT,, = 0.75F11A,. = 0.75(65)(8)0.375 = 146 kips
T hus, the service load capacity T is

101.9 = J.2 (0.177) + 1.6(0.'83T) = 1.53T
T = 67 kips
•
EXAMPLE 5.16.10
Design an end connection to develop the full tensile strength of a C8X 13.75 in a lap len 1h
of 5 in. as shown in Fig. 5.16.15. The channel of A572 Grade 50 steel is connected 1 3 !
i-in. gusset plate, and rhe fillet welds are to be made by the SMAW process and mav• not
exceed 3 -in. Use Load and Resistance Facmr Design.
8
Solution:
(a) Compute the design strength of the channe\. The joint lcngth is taken as 5 i e
which is the maximum overlap between rhe connec red elements. The U factor can be co;:
puted as follows:
u = 1- x/e = 1 - o.554/5 = o.89
,JJT11 = 0.90FyA~ = 0.90(50)4.04 = 182 kips
,J>Tn = 0.75F,.Ar = 0.75(65) (0.89)4.04 = 175 kips
(h) Sele<.:t tillet weld size a and compute length requìred.
Mina = ~ in. (Table 5.11.1)

Max a = 0.303 - 1r; = 0.24 in., say ¼in. (Fig. 5.11 .2)
While ¼-in. weld must be used on onc end along the channel web. i-in. weld could
be used along the tlanges. Il is better not to mix the tillct size~, so try { in.ali around.
(/>R"w = </>t,(0.60Fr:.xx) = 0.75(¼)(0.707)42 = 5.57 kips/in.
C8 X 1.1,75
fEt= ==== l
(1;~":
_=1=11=::t=
i r
J-
Fig:.re5.1 6.l.'i
Sclutio:i t, ,r E-"~t:,:,:c L-- 5' r,1ax .
5.•r, w.
.r - - - ...,,.,.. . _. - - - - -· . .. I , -.
Section 5.17 Eccentric Shear Connections- Strength Analysis • 209
which cannot exc d th .

ce e Shear y1eld strength or rupture strength of the base metal.
Max <M,, = tf,0.6FyA8 = 1.0(0.6)(50)0.375 = 11.3 kips/in
or
Max </>R,. = tf,0.6F,_,A,
"" 0.75(0.6)( 65)0.375 = 11.0 kips/in

The weld controls.
.
Requ1red T,, 175
Lw = - - = -- = 31.4 in.
tf,Rnw 5.57
Since th e length ali around is only 26 in .. additional capaciLy frorn fillet weld in a slot. slot
welds, or plug welds, is necessary.
(e) Slot weld. Try a slot weld in accordancc with AISC-J2.3b.
Minwidthofslot = (, + ~) (roundedtonextoddii;in.)
= 0.303 + 0.3125 = 0.6155, say H; in.
Max width ofslot = 2¼(weld thickness) = 2 !; (0.303) = 0.68 in.

Load T,, to be carried by slot weld,
Required T,, = 175 ·- (26 - 0.68)5.57 = 34 k.ips

11 ·
Try u;-m. ·ah
Wi t of slot and estimate the slot area as rec1angular even though the end must
he rounded:
34
Length required = - - - - - - - I 57 1·n
0.75(11/16)42 - .. .
Maxlengthofslot = LO(weldthickness ) = 10(0.303 ) = 3.03ìn.

Use a slot weld ~ X 2. The final design is shown in Fig. 5.16.15. Note Ùlat the interior
end of the slot must be semicircular or have c.omer~ rounded to a radius not less than the
thickness of lhe part containing slot (AISC-J2.3b). •
5.17 ECCENTRIC SHEAR CONNECTIONS-STRENGTH ANALYSIS

There are many situations where the loading of fili et welds is neither parallel to nor transverse
to the axis of the tillet welds, as shown in Fig. 5.17. I. Analysis of such eccentric loadi.n g cases
is complicated by the fact that, as shown in Fig. 5.13.3. the load-defonnation behavior is a
function of the angle e between the direction of ù1e resistance and the a,xis of the fillet weld.
In a manner simiJar to that used for eccem1ic loading on bolted connections (see Sec.
4.12). the strength of an eccenuically loaded fillet weld configuration can be detenuined by
locating the instantaneous cencer of rotation, using the load-defonnation relationship of a fil-
let weld. The resistance R; of a weld segment at any distance from the instantaneous center is
proportional to such distance and acts in a direction perpendicular to the radial disiance to the
segmenc. Unlike bolts. however. where the load-deformation relationship is independem of
the direction the shear force acts on the circular bolt cross-sectlon. the fillet weld strength
depends on the angle between the applied force and the axis of the weld resisting it.
------
210 • Chapter 5 Weldìng
(a) Shear an<l 1orsion (b) Pure ,or5ion
Figure5.17.l
Types of eccemric loading. (e) Shcar and bendin$
Unti I the availability of calculawrs that could ~eadily obtain the values t:rorn comp]j.
cated formulas, a tria! and error procedure to determ111e the. stren~t~ of ecce ntncally loaded
connec1ions. either bohed or welded. was not foasible. Thus. trad'.uonally lhe elastic vecior
analysìs similar to thai discussed for bolts wa!i used for eccenincally loaded welds, as ii
explained in the next section (Sec. 5.18).
Though the AISC Specification [ 1.13) has in the pasr noi described the method 01
analysis 10 be used for tille1 welds ecce.ntrically loaded in shear. the most ralional proce.
dure is one using s1reng1h analysis. The work of Butler. Pal. a nd Kulak [5.28, 5.29] formed
the basis for the 1978 ASD Mcmual tables. Tide [5.34, 5.35) and Brandi [5.36] have pre-
sented detailed treatment of the ASD Manual approach. Brandt 15.36] has also developed a
compu1er program. The 1986 LRFD Maiwal was based on later work by Kulak and Tinim.
ler [5.30]. The equalions were revised in 1993 10 reflec t the work of Miazga, Lesik, and
Kenoedy [5.37. 5.38. 5.39].
A more complicated situation of eccentric shear parallel to one of t.h e axes of the
weld configura!ion combined with a force ac1ing at 90° to the shear force ha& been 1reated
by Loon\is. Thornton. and Kane [5.40]. Their design aids are primarily for beam connec.
tion angle welds. including C-shaped. L-shaped. and lines. where the beam is subject 10
axial tension or compression.
The generai strength analysis procedure is unchanged; however. the strength
(kips/in.) of a given segmeot is noi limited 10 a maximum value of 0.6FEXX' r as was used
previously in developìng the tables in the AISC Manuals . lns tead, the theoretical strength
curve can be used.
The design scrength of a weld segment per unii length is given by AISC-J2.4 altema-
ùve method as
</>R,,,,, = q,0.60FEX.X( I.O + 0.50 sinl.5(/ìt e (5.17.1)
where 4> = 0.75

() = angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis. degrees
TI1is strenglh as a function of 0 is used in lie u ofthe constant strength discussed in Sec. 5.14
_ \-Vhe n the weld segment is part of a configuration subject to &centric shear, Joad~
m-plane. using an instantaneous center of rotation procedure whìch !>arisfies compatibility
Section 5.17 Eccentric Shear Connections-Strength Analysis • 211
of deformation along with nonuniform load-deformacion behavior. the strength as gi11en by

Eq. 5.17.1 is modified by AISC-12.4 as follows:
R; [ ~- (
= 0.60FExx1,(l.O + 0.50 sinu 0) ~: 1.9 - 0.9 ~ : ~-)]0.3 (5.17.2)
where
R; = nominai strength of weld segmenl i, kips/in.
0 = angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis. degrees
A
,...; -- de f orma11on
. of element 1. = r ;;Ìu
--
r crir
re,;, = distancefrom instantaneous center of rotation to weld element
having mjnimum ratio ~u/r,
~ m = 0.209(0 + 2)- 032a
= deformation of element at maximum strength, in.
ò. 11 = 1.087(0 + 6)--0.6Sa s 0. l 7a
deformation of element when fracrure is imminem. usually in
element farthest from instantaneous center of rotati on
a = leg size of fillet weld. in.
The procedure is as follows:
l. Divide the weld configuration into segments, say 1-in.-long segments.

2. Select a tria] locati on for the instantaneous cemer of rotation (see Fig. 5.17 .2).
3. Assume the resisting force R; or R1 at any weld segmcnt acts in a direction
perpendicular to the radiai line from the instantaneous center to the centroid
of the weld scgmenL
4. Compute the angle a (in degrees) between the directìon of the resìsting force R;
or R1 and the axi~ of the weld.
5. Compute the deformations ~"' and ~" which can occur at that particular 0 of the
weld segment.
Elcment
elemenls
P,,
~.~ -- - - L
/ Ccnter of
gravi1y
Ins1an1aneous
center
Figure5.l7.2 al
Resistance R of a fillet weld
segment.
· [O vary linearly with th .

6. Deformauons on weld segmcnts are assumed · e distan
from the instantaneous center to che centroid of the weld s~gment. Thus, ihe Cfit' Ce
· f · · A to its radial d1s1ance r-1 15
· th lCaJ
segment is the one where the rauo o ICS u" ·
d
e s111-011es1
7. Compatible deformations A; are then computed at each wel segment. ·
8. Compute the nominai strength R; of each weld segment usmg Eq. 5.17.2.
9. Using statics, compute 1he load Pn that re~resents_ th e _nominai strength of llJc
connection wben the load is applied at the given eccentncl!y e. For Pn appliect.1
rhe y-direction as shown in Fig. 5.17.2. the statics equations are ~
P,,(e + ro) = }:,R;r; + }:,RjrJ (5.J7.:ì)

"i-R,-r; + "i-R/i
P,, = (S. 17.4)
e+ ro
LF_,, = O; Pn = 2,(R;)y + 2,(RJ)y (5.17.5)
pn = 2,R;cos 8; + }:, Ri s in Bj (5.17.6)
10. Compare 1he values of P,, from Eqs. 5.17 ._4 and 5. P.6.
lf they are egual lhe so[u.
tion is corree!. 1f they are not equal. rev1se the mal value of ro and repeat th
process unti! fa.JS. 5.17.4 and 5. 17.6 give the same result. e
For cases where P,, is noc applied perpedicular to an axis of symmetry of the ive(d
configuration, the rhree equations of equilibrium must be solved snnultaneously for the x
and y location of the instantaneous cenrer and rhe load P,,.
EXAMPLE: s. 17.1
D_etermine the nominai strenglh Pn of rhe_ C-shaped fillel wel~ configuration shown in
F1g. 5.17.3. The horizontal Jengths are 3 1n. each and the vert1cal length 1s 14 in. Th
eccentric load is applied at 3.5 in. from 1he 14-in. length. The weld_size is in. and EJ~ i
electrodes are used in the SMAW process. Assume the base materiai streng1h does no,
govern.
Solution:
(a) Divide the weld configuration into segments I - in. long. The resisting force wiU
be_a~sumed to act at tbe center of a segmenL The instantaneous cemer wiU be used as the
ongm. as shown in Fig. 5.17.3.
(b) Select a tria! location for the insrantaneous center (IC) of rocation. Assume sa,
ro = 6 in. Then compute the coordinares of the ce ntroids of the segmenrs and the angles i
and 01 for the vertical and horizontal segments. respectively. as sbown in Table 5.17. 1'
Note thar IC will generaUy be on the opposite side of the vertical weld line from the poin;
of nct1on of t.he load. *
(e) Compute the maximum dcformations A,,, and .6. 11 which can occur at each 8
vaìue for the segments. Illustrate for segment I , where 0 = 50.5° and a = weld leg
= 0.25 in ..
.l,,, = 0.209( 0 + 2 )-032a
= 0.209(50.5 + 2)-0·32 (0.25) = 0.014 7
*Tl,e u~e cf " , ~readshee1 program will allow a rapid solution of 1h.is probk111 by trial and error.
Section 5.17 Eccentric Shear Connecticms-Strength Analysis • 213
~u = l.087(8 + 6)-065a :s: 0.l7a

= l.087(50.5 + 6)-0 ·65 (0.25) = 0.0217
= 0.01973 < [0.17(0.25) = 0.0425] OK
(~) Compute the ratio ~ •./r; for each segment, determine tbe minimum value for
that ratto. In this ca8e, segment I has the minimum value (0.00179). The resuhs. are in
Table 5.17.2.
3in.
r
2
7
4
~
Segment
numbers a1 5 Typical
cemToid of J in. segment
s:cgment
t;
.5
r-
7
Jnstantaneous 9
JJ -~
center Sytn
/ 10 -
Figure 5.17.3 + ~ --'=----.L-
~ ----
Weld segments for Example
5.17.l ~ - - T_ria_l~ro,_=__ . _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _e_ ~
- _il'i_
6._0 _-_3._S_in_
, ----- -"1
1
TABLE 5.17.1 Geometry ForTrial 1 ( r0 = 6 in.) of Example 5.17. 1
Horizontal LengtH X y r; (/- (jì

./
segments (in.) (in.) (fn.) (in.) (radians) (degrees}
1 8.50 7.00 1101 l 0.882 50.5
2 7.50 7.00 10.259 0.820 47.0
3 6.50 7.00 9.552 0.748 42.9
Vertical Length X y r; 0; 8;
segments (in.) (ih.) lin.) (in.) (radiahS) (degrees)
4 6.00 6. 50 8.846 0.825 47.3
5 6.00 5.50 8.1 39 0 .742 42 .S
6 6.00 4.50 7.500 0.644 36.9
7 6.00 3 .50 6.946 0.528 '.\0.3
8 6.00 2.50 6.500 0.395 22.6
9 6.00 l.50 6.ì85 0.245 14.0
IO 6.00 05 0 6.02 l 0.083 4.8
TABLE 5.17.2 Resistance at Each Segment-Trial 1 ( ro = 6.0 in.)

t:,.u/r; LÌ; /:,.;/ t:,.m R-
Segment Am Au
0.01973 1.34165
;;---..'._
0.01471 0.01973 0.00179 9 72
0.00201 0.01839 1.22229 ·
2 0.01504 0.02058 9 68
0.00227 0.01712 I. I0673 ·
3 0.01547 0.02169 1.05609 9.s1
0.00232 0.01585
4 0.01501 O.D2050 9 7
0.00268 0.01459 0.94053 .?
5 0.01551 0.02180 9-46
0.0031 5 0.01344 0.82987
6 0.01620 0.02362 9 03
0,02634 0.00379 0.01245 0.72407 ·
7 0.017]9 8 9
0.00473 0.01165 0.62144 -4
8 0.01874 0.03071 7 87
0.01108 0.51549
9 0.02150 0.03872 0.00626 7· 19
0.00963 0.01079 0.38070 ·
10 0 .02834 0.05800 6.42
. . (e) Compute à;. Take the distance r; to segment 1 as 'cri, bccause segment 1 hasthe
mm1mum àu/r; of0.00179. Compuce A ; as folJows:
Au
à ; = deformationofelementi = r; - = r,(0.00179)
rcrii
Resulcs are in Table 5. 17.2.

(O Compute Il;/ àm and R; using Eq. 5.17.2,
R; = 0.60FExxt,(1.0 + 0.50sinl.5 0) [
Il · (
-!- 1.9 -
.Ì ·
0.9~
)]0.3
1,.>.m m
Jn this example, E70 electrodes and 1/4-in. tillet weld are used, makìng F EXX = 70 ksi and
r, = 0.25(0.707) in.
(g) Compute check of statics co de-termine corrcctness of crial value of r U .
Eqs. 5.17.4 and 5.17.6, the results are in Table 5.17.3. O· sing
Frorn Eq. 5.17.4, rotational equilibrium gives
Pn = 2(721.94)/(6.0 + 3.5) = 152.0 kips

Frorn Eq. 5.17.6, force equilibrium in the y-direction gives
P,, = 2(69.78) = 139.6 kìps
TABLE 5.17.3 Check of Statics forTrial 1 (ro = 6.0 in.)

Segrnent R; r; X y (R;)x (R;)y R;r;
l 9.72 Il.O! 8.5 7 6.18 7 .51 107.07
2 9.68 10.26 7.5 7 6.60 7 .08 9929
3 9.51 9.55 6 .5 7 6.97 6.47 90.83
4 9.77 8.85 6 6.5 7.18 6.63 86.4~
5 9.46 814 6 5.5 6.39 6.97 76.99
6 9.03 7.50 6 4.5 5.42 7.22 67.71
,,
I 8.49 6.95 6 3.5 4.28 7.33 58.97
8 7.87 6.50 6 2.5 3.03 7.26 51.13
9 7.19 6.18 6 1.5 1.74 6.97 ~--16
10 6.42 6.02 6 0.5 0.53 6.40 38.6ì
48.32 69 .84 rn.>1
--- ·--··----
Section 5.17 Eccentric Shear Connections-Strength Analysis • 215
~ince th e values of P., from the statics equations are not equa!, the assumed location of the
tnS!antaneous center is not con-ect. Try a new value of ro and rcpeat the analysis umil the
v~lues from Eqs. 5.17.4 and 5.17.6 and identica!. Since the applied loud P,, is in the )'·
dtrection for lhis example, the summation of forces in the x-directio n is automatically sat-
bfied; 48.84 kips acting in one direcricm from thc scgmems on one side of the axis of
sy'.nm~try, and the same force acring at 180° frorn the segmems on rhe other side of the
ax1s ot symmetry.
(h) After severa) trials the solution for r 0 is detemiined to be 8.30 iu . Tablc 5.17.4
shows the final solution.
TABLE 5.15.4 Solution For Example 5.17.1 (,0 = 8.30 in.)
Segment 8; ( R;) y R;r;

IÌu j. u Jr; !i; R;
I 57.l 0.0184 0.00143 0.0184 10.12 8.49 130.29
2 54.5 0 .0189 0.00157 0.0172 IO.IO 8.22 121.70
3 51.5 0.0195 0.00173 0.0161 10.00 7.83 I 12.45
4 38.l 0.0232 0.00220 0.0151 9.19 7.24 96.95
5 33.5 0.0249 0.00250 0.0142 8.85 7.38 88.19
6 28.5 0.0272 0.00288 0.0l.35 8.46 7.43 79.87
7 22.9 0.0306 0.00339 0.0129 8.01 7.38 72.21
8 16.8 0.0357 0.00411 0.0124 7.54 7.22 65.36
9 10.2 0.0444 0.00526 0.0121 7.03 6.92 59.35
IO 3.40 0.0631 0.00759 O.O\ 19 6.43 6.42 53.51
39. 10 74.54 879.88
From Eq. 5.17.4, rotational equilibrium gives
Pn = 2(879.88)/(8.30 + 3.5) = 149.08 kips

From Eq. 5.17.6. force equilibrium in the y-direc1ion gives
I~, = 2(74.54) = 149.08 kips
Thus, the nominai strength P,, is 149 kip~. •

EXAMPLE 5.17.2
Determine the maximum service load P 1ha1 the eccentnc shear connection of Fig. 5. 17.4
may be pernùtted to carry using strength analysis and the AISC LRFD Method. The live
load is three times the dead load. The weld is ¼in. and E70 electrodes are used in the
SMAW process. Assume the base malerial strength does not govem.
Selutif!n:
(a) Strength analysis using basic concepts. The nominai strength of this connection
as determined in Example 5. L7.1 is
P,, = l49kips
(b) Use AJSC Manual Ll.15] tables. p. 8-90. For ¼-i n. weld using E70 electrodes.
a = (e - xL)/L = (3.5 - 0.45)/ 14 = 0.218

k = kl/L == 3.0/14 = 0.214
--
- • •••• - • - w-•- - - ·- ••• • • ----- -- - - -- - o, ..--
216 • Chapter 5 Weldlng
j
I
-{'"'
I•
2
14
.
lp
I
I
I
Figure 5 .17.4
Loaùing for Ex<1mpte 5.17.2. V
k = 0.2 0.214 0.3

3.11
a= 0.200 2.6~
2.58 e = 0.2 3.os e= 2.<>s
0.218
2.36 2.79
0.300
Tablevalue = <f,R" = <f,CC1DL = 0.75(2.65)(1.0)(4)14 == 111 kips

where C 1= coefficient for electrode = (Electrode used) / 70
D = number of ft s of an inch in weld size
L = length of vertical weld (in.)
(e) Summary. Compare the values of 1he design streng1h <J,P,,.
1. Screnglh analysis P11 after completing analysis:
<f,P11 = 0.75(149) = I 12 kips
2. A/SC Ma,wal tables: <f,P,, = 111 kips

(d) Compute the safe service load P u~ing the basic factored gravity load combina.
tion, For the given 75% live load and 25% dead load,
P,, = 1.2D + l.6L

</>P,, = P,. = 1.2(0.25P) + i.6(0.75P) = 1.5P
</>P,, 112 •.
P = -- = - = 7, k1ps I
1.5 1.5
5.18 ECCENTRIC SHEAR CONNECTIONS-ELASTIC (VECTOR) ANALYSlS
Tiie rradicional clasric vector analysis is easier than rhe scrength method to carry out when the
computer is noc available. or when che AJSC Manrial tables are not available. The elastic
vec1or rnethod ii; conservative, sometimes excess.ively so.
- =--1-. .. ~··· ..
Section 5.18 Eccentric Shear Connections-Elastic (Vector) Analysìs • 217
The elastic method has the following assumptions:

1. Each segment of wcld, ìf of the same size. resists a concentrically applied load with
an equal force. This concept was used for welds on tension members in Sec. 5.16.
2. The rotation caused by torsional moment is assumcd to occur about the centroid
of thc weld contiguration.
3. The load on a weld segment caused by 1he torsional moment is assumed to be
proportional lo the distance from the centroid of the weld configuration.
4. The dircction of the force on a weld segment caused by torsion is assumed to be
perpcndicular ro the radiai distance from the centroid of the weld configuration.
S. The components of the forces caused hy direct load and by torsion are combined
vectorially to obtain a re~nltant force.
1t will be convenicnt to think of this analysis using thc principles of mechanics on a
homogeneous materiai, combining direct shear with torsion. Beginning with the stresses
on a homogeneous scction,
.l' = ~
A = stress due 10 <lirect shear (5. I 8. 1)
,, Tr .
f = - - = stress due to tors1onal moment (5.18.2)
Il'
where r = radiai distance from the cenlroi<l to point of stress

IP = polar momcnt of inertia
For computing nominai stresses or forces on weld segments the /ocations of the lines of
weld are defincd by ed gcs along which the fillets are pl aced , rather than io the center of
the effective throat. T his makes little difference. since the throat dimension is u su ally
small.
For thc genera] case s hown in Fig. 5.18.1. the components of stress cause<l by dircct
shear are
(5.18.3a)
!'.. = :·
P_,.
(5.18 .3b)
A
The x- and y-components of f II resulting from torsio n are
Ty ( P xf!_v + Pyex)Y
f"
. l
(5. I 8.4a)
IP 1/J
Tx ( Pxey + p vex)x
f"_,. = - = (5.18.4b)
IP 1,,
whe re
,, "C'A-?
IP = I .,+ ly = ~ l xx+ ~Ay2 + "'
~ /Y> + ~ .r (5.18.5)
In Eq. 5.18.5, x and y referto distances frorn the center o f gravity of the weld group ~o the
center of gravity of t.he individuai we1d segmen1s. l xx and I ,.,. refer to the moments lll iner·
tia of the individua! segments wiih respec! to their own centrmdal axes.
2 18 • Chapter 5 Welding
,J p
I
(a) Conneclion
Figure 5.18. 1
Eccentric brocker connectinn. (b) Effeclive cross ~eclion
Thus, for the situation of Fig. 5. I8.2, Eq. 5.18.5 becomes
1,, = i[ l111l~,.)3] + 2[ L.,.(1,)(y)2] + {'•·(~~o)J]

= ~ [L".(t,) 2 + 12l",(y)2 + Lti, ] (5.18.6)
For practical situations. the firsl terrn of Eq. 5.18.6 is neglected because. wi1h r, srn.all, ~
1
lerm is not significane compared to the olhcr 1e1ms. Hence e
11, ;::, te (l2L ,(-Y )2 + L-'

~t<' J
6 11 (5.1 8.7)
Note that / P equals the throa1 thick.ness t,. times ù1e propeny of lines: i.e.. an elenie
having l_ength but having a width of unity. Actua11y: tbc area_A i}1 Eqs. 5.18.3 equals the thic~~
ness te t1111es the total lengtl1 of thc weld configura11011; and m Eq. 5. I 8.5 the potar monte
. . f. . f tJ ntof
111e11rn equals the thickness t e times lhe polar momeul o mema ~ 1e couJiguration as liirt
When the stressf is multiplied by t,.. it becomes a force R per umi length, say. kipslin. s.
Figure 5. J 8.2 d
Treatme nt of weld
contiguration as lines l
having unii lhickness.
• _., - - - - .... ""'- -~ -. I __

_,__,._.,.. ~ - •- . ~
' .... ~ - ----,,- - -
'
.l .. '
- -
•
• 219
Section 5.18 Eccentric Shea r e onnect1ons-Elastic
. (Vector) Anatysis
.
(1.e., Treating
as the welds
in deriving Eq mak· . cross-section in Fig. 5.18.2 as \ine welds
' mg_ up the effecuve
in Fig. 5.18.2 Eq 1
· 5 ·b8·7 Wtlh 1,· = I) and using the generai tenns band d. as shown
' · 5 · 18·7 ecomes
IP ~ i[12b(%Y + b 3] == ~[3d2 + b
2
) (5.18.8)
rations.
Table 5. 18.1 gives I " values treated as properties of lines for other common weld configu·
TABLE 5.18.1 p roperties ofWeldsTreated as Lines

Polar moment ot inertia. lp
Section Section modulus at>out center ol gravity
b = width; d"' depth ,.; y
d'
I. IJ d'
s = -6 I= -
' 12
I-b-I d(3b 1 + d')
2. I ,-~ _t
d'
s = -3 1. = 6
1-"-1_ b()d 2 + b 2)
I = _:....---
3. t s = bd r 6
d
-_j
i -·1 1-:r dl
y:;=fi 7 y=---
2(b + d)
(b + d)' - 6b 2d 2
4. 4bd + d' Ip =
S= \2(b + d)
1_,,_J b' 6
x= - - -
2(b + d)
5.
7 rx b' d' ,,, =
Sb' + 6bd 2 + d'
-- b'
2b + d
L[
~b-l
x=--
2b + d
S = bd+-
6
12
6. j_
1-"-1 d'
y==-- S=
2bd + d' Ip =
b' + 6b 2d + Sd'
12
-- d'
2d + b
YTI· t
j
b + 2b 3
d
7
1- h--1 .
s == bd + -
d' r
p
=6-
(b + df
7. 3
10
8.
_.!-,r:-
, 1-,,-1
y -.- • - ·-
____!
:1. )' =
d'
b+2d
S=--
3
-
2bd + d'
p
b) + 8d 1
J = - -- - -
\2
d'
b + 2d
i- /,- 1 + 3bd1 + d'

r-·][ I • d' b'
S=bd+- I,,= 6
9. 3
d .
i__. .
s = '[f,.2
EXAMPLE 5.18.1
Compuie the maximum load (kips/in.) on thc weld configuration shown for the b .
Fig. 5. 18.3 using the elastic (vector) method. Assume the pi ate thickness does nr:;~et i~
the result. afftei_
Solution:
(a) Locate the cencroid of the configurarion. The maximum forcc R wil)
points A ami B. The properties of lines will be used. Taking moments about the°:c_ur a,
weld. en1c._1
2(6)3 .
""f = - - - = 1.8 ID-
. 2(6) + 8
(b) Compute the area (length) and the polar momcnt of ine1tia about the e
the conftguration. entroid of
L = 2(6) + 8 = 20 in.
3 2
IP = (~; + 2(6(4) 2 ] + 2 [ (~{] + 2[6(J.2)2] + 8(1.8) == 314 in.'
I,
I,.
(e) Compute the components of force on 1hc weld at points A and B. From th .
shcar, e dtrect
P
R., - L -
15 . . /'
- 0.75 klps m.
!
20
From the torsion T about the centroid of the configuration,
Tv 15(12.2)4
R, = -t = --- - - = 2.33 kips/ìn. -
3 14
I'
Tx 15( 12.2 )4.2

= 2.45 kìps/ìn. 1
Ry= -
,,, =
314
a~E70
l
8'"
j
vectors.
y
a1 A
Figure 5.18.3
Example 5. l 8 I.
Section 5.18 Ec . .
centric Shear Connections-Elastic (Vector) Analys,s • 221
Tbc vector surn gives the resultant farce R.
N = 2
V(2.33) + (2.45 + 0.75) 2 = 3.96 kips/in. •
~pl.f 5,1s.2
Deterrnine the weld size r · . · I . d p is
15 k. (SO% . · ' equired for the bracket o f Fig. 5.18.3 when the serv1ce oa ·
·~~ nd
ltvc load a 20% dead load). Compare the rcsults using (a) claSlic (vecto r)
a na Iys1s from Exarnple 5 18 I O . 5 17 b 1h with
AISC LRFD th · · an (b) streng1h analysis as described m Sec. . . . o
Me od. Assume the plate thickness does not affect the result (s11ffened seats
and brac ket pla tes are treated in Secs. 13.4 and 13.5.)
Solution:
(a) ElaSlic (vector) rne thod. The basic gravity fac tored load is cornputcd.
P,, = 1.2D + l.6L = 1.2(0.2) 15 + 1.6(0 .8)15 = 22.8 kips
The maximum load (kips/in .) on the weld due 10 the facwred p will be (using the result
from Example 5. 18. J for p = 15 kips ).
= 3.96(22.8/ 15) = 6.02 kips/in.

Ru
Weld resistance </>R,,w = 0.75a ( 0.707)(0.60 FF.xx)
= 0.75a (0.707) (0.60) 70 = 22.3u

T he we ld size required is obtained by cquélting the design strength and the factored load.
</JRnw = Ru
22.3a = 6.02; a = 0.27, say 16 in.

5 •
Use ~-in. E70 fillct welds.

(b) Stre ngth analysis. Divide the horizonta l 6 -in. we ld into six parts and the verti~al
8-in. le ngth into 16 segments of 1/2-in. each, though it is considered adequate lo use 1-m.
segme nts. Using Eg. 5. l 7.2 and solving by tria! in the manner used for Ex ampie 5. 1?. I , th e
insta ntaneous cente r is found to be located -0.11 34 in. from the vcrtical weld linc . Nega-
tive means the center is on the same siùe of che vcrtical weld line as the applied loé!d P. T he
solution de tails are in Tables 5.1 8.2 and 5. 18.3.
From Eq. 5 . 17.4, and multiplying by 2 because of symmctry. g ives
2- R;r; 2(354.35) .
P,, =- - - =- - - - - ::: 5 1.03 k1ps
e + ro 14.0 - 0. 11 34
P11 = L (R;) 1, = 2(25.52) == 5 1.04 kips
T he no m inai streng th P., = 5 1 kips. This is the s1rength using i -in. weld with E70 elec -
trodes and the SMAW process. The des ig n stre ng th </>P,, is 0.75(51) = 38.3 kips. The wc ld
size required is
li
P,, = 22.8 kips = <J,P,, = 38.3 0.ZS
22.8(0.25)
Requircd wcld sizc " = - - - - = 0.1 5 in.
38.3
2 22 • Chapter 5 welding
TABLE 5.18.2 Geometry and Partial Results, Ex ample 5.18.2
Seg.
No.
Length
(in.)
J.O
X
(in.)
0.387 4.00
y
(in.)
r;
(in.)
4.02
4.23
()
(deg)
5.5
19.1
a,,
(in.)
0.0555 ~
0.0334
------
°-
0ns1
a,;,;
I.O 1.387 4.00 0.0261 °-0079o

2 4.66 30.8
3 !.O 2.387 4.00 0.022s D.OOS()(J
5.24 40.3 . 0004
4 I.O 3.387 4.00 0.0204 · 29
5.94 47.6 0
I.O 4 .387 4.00 O.O19 I -00344
5 6.71 53.4
6 I.O 5.387
-0.113
4.00
3.75 3.75 88.3 0.0142
0 00
0· 285
03
,.,11
7 0.5 3.25 88.0 0.0142 / 7ì /
0.5 -0.)13 3.25 0.0142 -00436
8 2.75 87.6
0.5 -0.113 2.75 0.0143 ~-OOS\6
9 2.25 87.1
IO 0.5 -0.11 3 2.25
o.o 143
006
0· 33
J.75 86.3
li 0.5 -0.113 I.75
1.26 84.8 o 0145 ri"OOs1a
12 0.5 -0.113 1.25 O.OI 49 -0J l55
0.76 8 1.4 0 019
13 0.5 - 0.11 3 0.75
0.27 65.6 0.0169 · 60
14 0.5 -0.113 0.25 0.()(,165
TABLE 5.18.3
Solution tor Example 5.18.2 (ro = - 0.1134 in.)
R; (R;)y R;r;
Segment l::.m 11;
0.01 14 6.58 0.63 26.4,1
0.0274
0.0121 7.67 2.51 32.46
2 0.0197
0.0133 8.60 4.41 40.07
3 0.0171
0.0149 9.33 6.03 48.89
4 0.0158
0.0169 9.78 7 .22 58.03
5 0.0150
0.0191 9.91 7.95 6646
6 0.0145
0.0107 5.52 - 0.17 20.69
7 0.0124
0.0093 5.42 - 0. 19 17.64
8 0 .0124
0.0078 5.28 - 0.22 14.54
9 0.0124
0.0064 5.09 - 0.26 11.46
IO 0.0124
0.0050 4.81 - 0.31 8.44
11 0.0125
0.0036 4.43 - 0.40 5.56
12 0 .01 25
0.0022 3.85 - 0.58 2.92
13 0.0127
0.0008 2.72 - 1.12 0.75
14 0.0136
25.S2 354.35
(e) Use AISC Manual [ 1.15] tables. p. 8-90. Fori-in. weld usinoo E70 eleelrodes,
a= (e - x L) /l = (14.0 - 1.80) /8 = 1.525
k = kL/ L = 6.0/ 8 = 0.75
k = 0.7 075 0 .8
a = 1.4 1.61 1.82
1.525 1.50 l.59 1.69 e = J.59
1.6 1.43 1.61
Table value = </>R" = <f>CC1DL = 0.75( 1.59)( I .O)( 4 )8 = 38.2 kips

As may be noted, the AISC tables give essentially the same result as obtain ed ·m pan (b!
Section 5.19 Loads Applied Eccentric to the Piane of W elds • 223
(d) Sum
T
process is mary. he weld size " requtred using E70 clectrodes a nd the SMAW
Elastic (vector) method. requircd" = i65 •m.

Strenglh analysis. required a = 163 •m.
As will always be the case, the clastic vector method is conservative.

•
~
OADS APPLIED ECCENTRIC TO THE PLANE OF WELDS
When an apphed . load 1s . eccentric to the piane of the weld configurau·on. a..s ioFig. Id ·s5.rigid.
19 -1
the strength method of analysis may stili be used as long as thc Pane I of a plate;
O f the we s t
. i.e ..
The weld piane is rigid in Fig. 5.19.1 because the welds are on each Sld~ be bending
there 1s
· suffi1c1en1
· ng1duy
· · · between the two lines of weld sueh that there w1ll no
of the materiai
d being welded in the piane of the welds. the ano le 8;
.
As 1scussed . Sec. 5.17, the strength of a segment o f weId dependshon R actse al an
in
of the res1sung
. . ,orce
,. R; to the axis of the weld. lt makes no d'f'1
,' erence whet er f , the welds
angle to the piane o f the welds (Fig. 5. 19 . l) or whether II ac
. IS in the piane o
(eccentric shear as in Secs. 5.17 and 5.18). b d. g which is
.
The s1tuauon . m . F1g.
. 5. 19. t 1s
. commonly referred 10_ as shear andP. en •
The111welds must
actually the stress condition on the bracket plate supponmg the load · them The
carry the loads m . the same manner that the members being · con nected carry ·
stresses are shown in Fig. 5. 19.2. . realiz.e that the
For loading of the weld configuration in shear and tenSion, o~e muSl gth analvsis is
b
weld segments su ~ect . to compress1.o n are not f ree to ro tate·, thus ' ifa. stren s distribuùon
•
made, the compress1on . reg1on. should be assumed to have a coinpressive stres
-•.-!p p
Plate thicknessMi
'l 1-,
1
[ H--
re 5 19.I d'
f1gu . · bear and ben mg. (a )
Welds ID s ( b)
¾(2,;.} V p
-, r
Mc M
21,7
r A = 21,l. T =s
n
I
L,
~
fi gure 5·19.2 · I lines of (a) Weld group (b) Acrual shear (e) Assumed
Stresses on vert1ca d (d) Bencting
from Fig. 5.!9.1 s1ress
weld acting in shear an nominai stress
distriburion shear s1ress distriburion
bending. distribu1ion
berween thc pieces being wclded. Dawe and Kul_ak [5.41 J reponed that relative!
agreement wich rests was ob<ained using any of a mangular, parabolic, or rectang I Y g~
d'1stn·1 mtion
. on the compression side of che neutraI axts.. u ar ·SI•ei
1
The AISC Manuol [ J. J5 J docs not contain cables far the case of shear anct b, .
The tables for cccenlric shear are suogesred f J.15] to be used for al! cases whcrc .. end1n~
. "' b d. th.e , .
nec11on materiai berween rhc welds is solid and does noc en m che piane of th Con.
Alternatively. rhe elastic (vector) mcthod is conservative :md relarively ea:v"-'eld,:·
10
for loading in shear and tension. · U~t
Thus. there are four methods ( Nos. 2 and 3 are really identica!) suggested
. . for u
I. Suength analysis d ividing the weld on thc termon s1dc of the neutra! . ~è
segmenrs t11e res,stance of each dc:::pen ing on t 1e ang e . ie resrstance rn k · .1ntQ
· d. I · l 11 · · ax.,~
the weld axis· usin"., the formulas io Sec. 5.17. Thc weld o n the coinpress· a es ll>ith
of the neutra/ axis is assumed to havc o nly a resistance parallel to the w •on lide
d
The comprcssion force from bending is assumed IO be caJTied by direcr el axi1.
sion of thc pieces being welded using a triangular disrribution with colllPres.
. lhc ·
stress at the extreme cornpression fibcr. The mstantaneous center is the Y•eld
by tria! in a manner similar to that illusrrated for cccentric shcar. Deta~~ocated
procedure are d escribcd by Dawe and Kulak [5.41 J. · of lh~
2. Streng th analysis cxactly as for eccentric shear. In this procedure ali
. "I 1· h We(d S
ments, bo th o n the rcnsion and compresswn SH es o t e ne utra] ax.is a · eg.
to have resista nce. This procedure will gìvc che values in che AISC Ma,:~
a;surnt;J
3. A!SC Manual tables. a lab)c,.
4. Elastic (vector) analysis.
EXAMPLE 5.19.1
Compute the sì;r.e of E70 fillet weld required for the shear and tensìon co _ .
F 5 I · nr1ec110
,g. · 9.3a using the SMAW proccss. Assume the colurnn a nd the bracket 1 n in
~ontro l (stiffened seats and bracket plates are treace d in s_ ccs. 13.4 and 13 Sp)ace do not
15
80,.,, 1·
10 rvc load and 20% dead load and thc AJSC LRFO Method 1·s to b
- . .. Th I
' · · · e used e Oad
Solutio11: ·
(a ) Compute the factore<l load Pu .
P,, = 1.2(0.2)10 + I.6(0.8)10 = 15.2 kips

. , . (b)_ U~e r~e traditi~nal_ e lascic (vecto~) merhod. The weld segrnents are tre
hnes havrng a th1ckness o t unrty (I.O). The direet shear component is assu rned I0 b atcd as
equally hy each segment of weld, e Caffied
(Rn)v = ~ = 2 ( l~ Lw == 2 ;;5)~0 = 0. 76 kips/in.
7 10"
l_J
Figure 5. J 9.3 o
Ex.ampie 5 . J 9. J. (a) Bracker (b)Assumed weld
cross secrion
Section 5.19 L d .
ca s Apphed Eccentric t e the Piane of Welds • 225
The tension component (h ..

onzontal) due to 1he moment Pe is
( R,.), -_ -M c 15.2(6)5
= -166.7
- - = 2. 74 kips/in .
I
where / = T2[2( I)( 10)3) = 166.7 i.n.4

The resuhant force is
Required </,R,, = Y(0.76) 2 + (2.74) 2 = 2.84 kips/in.

The design strength of E70 electro<le fille1 weld is
</>R,,,,,. =-= </,t,.(0.60PExx) = 0.75(0.707)a(0.60)70 = 22.3a

and the fillet weld size a required is
. d 2.84
R equire a"= - -
22.3 = O. 13- in ., say f6 in.
(e) Use A ISC Mamw/ [ 1.15) tables, p. 8-66. For weld using E70 elcctrodes.
e/L(Tablesymbol a) = 6/10 = 0.60

k =o
Find C = 2.00
Table value = tf>Rn = d>CC,DL = 0.75(2.00)(1.0)( D )IO = 15.0Dkips
Requi red D = 15.2/ 15.0 = I.O
Required weld size a = L0/16 == 0.06 in., say i in.
The e laSlic (vector) method is as ex.pected more conservative than the strength met~od _rcp-
resented by the AISC Manual tables. The minimum desirable size to be used for 1h15 situa-
t1.on 1s
. probab ly i.6
) in.
Use ~ -in. E70 fillet welds. •
Design for Lines o f Weld Subject to Bending Moment

th
Even when there are moderate retums at the top o f lines of fille t weld, an eS!irnate_of c
th
le ngth required may be obtained by using the same approach as used to d~tenmne e.
number of bolts in a line in Sec. 4.12. ln Fig. 4. 12.9. R/p has units kips/in . wluch becom es
c/>Rnw, the design strength at the top of the lines of we ld.
For moment alone on one line of weld,
(5. 19 .1 )
R - -) k'1ps1·m.
= -M = - M
S (l6 L2w
Since 1he maximum value of R is cJ> R,,w
6M
c/>Rnw = - 2
1~w
(5. 19.2)
Equation 5. 19.2 for welds corresponds 10 Eq. 4. 12.2~ for boli~- Sioce Ìl is correct On\y f
momenl alone, Rnw should be entered as a reduced value to account tor direct shear. ()J
EXAMPLE 5.19.2
Determine
. . the length L req· uire<l to carry the Joad indicatcd. in
<l Fig. . E .when
. J. 5.19.4, - 750;,o of th
load 1s hve load and 25% ìs dead Joad. The we ld lO be use is 16-m. 70 tillet wc\<) e
AISC LRFD Method . U1t
40k
~"-1 1-- -·1 r-1

~ _ _ y (to 1~_nsion cdg.c)
L t
_! - L.___LJL___ .
Figure 5.19.4 ~
Example 5. 19.2. 10
Solution:
(a) Compute factored load Pu:
Pu = 1.2(0.25)40 + 1.6(0.75)40 = 60 kips
(b) Estimate length L ofweld required by using Eq. 5.19.2:
<f>RmJJ = 0.75(a)(0.707)(0.60) 70 = 22.3a kips/in.

= 22.3(5/16) = 6.96 kips/in.
Mu =60( 4 ) = 240 in.-kips per 2 lines of weld
~~
6
Required L = ~~:::.~) = 11 in.
A reduced
1
value of <f>Rnw has been used to account for the direct shear effeCi.
Since the 2-in. retums al the top add something. try L = I O in.
When the returns have a specified dimension as is the case here. the weld is to be placed
provide full strength over the specifi~d dimension. The returns resist the moment pne b~~
probably do not do not much to res1st P n as a shear force. For these small returns 1-1 .18
optional with the designer whether or not to include them in the strengch computatio~_
(e) lf the returns are neglected, che A!SC Manual [l. l5] tables, p. 8-66, can be used
to obtain an approximate result, as follows:
e/ L (Table symbol a) == 4 / LO = 0.40

k == o
Find C = 2.66
= <f>R = </>CC 1DL = 0.75(2.66 ) ( 1.0)( D ) lO =
T able value 11
20.0D kips
Required D = 60 / 20 = 3.0
. d . 3.0
R equire weld s1ze a = = Ri3 in.
16
Sel ected References • 227
For l. = 8 in.,
Find C = 2 .,9 . 1 •
·- , requ1red a = 0.22 in., say-, m.
(d) Eiastic (vecior) h 1.
which rnake lh me, od. The actual weld co nfiguration has the 2-m. retums
e center o f · I h
mid-depth ass d . gravny of the we ld configuration Jie closer to the top t ian I e
Weld Gro up · .~me . m pan (e). AISC Tabies 8-4, ·'Coe fficien1 s C for Eccentrically Loaded
s, are 1nd1cated
This is acceptable for tw
O
'? b e used also when load is not in the piane of weld _g roup.
lo ad applied O
f vemcal lines. Howcver. for o ther we ld c onfiguratìons havmg the
out piane, it is prudent to use a conservative elastic (vector) analysis.
Loca te rhe center of . .
gravity o f the c onfiguration,
- _ 2(10)5 100
y - 2(10+ 0.5) = 21 = 4.76 in.
The direc r s he ar comp (R ) . · -· d
b y the re turns, onent n ., 1s compute<l assuming that none of the sbear 1s can ,e
··
( R" ) v -- p
2L = -2 (-60 - =
10)
O . 1·
3.0 kips tn.
The tensio n compone t (R ) d

n " , ue to the rnoment Pe is
2L-'
I, = l2 + 2L (5 - 4.67) 2 + 2(0.5)(4.76 ) 2
(10)3
=- 6
- + 20(0.24 ) 2 + (4.76) 2 = 190.5 in.3
60(4)4.76
( R,,), = 6.00 kips/in.
190.5
The resultant forcc is
Required t/>R,, = Y (3.00) 2 + (6.00 )2 = 6.7 1 kips/in.

The design s trength of E70 electrode ~ - in . fille t weld is
</>Rnw = <f>te(0.60F Exx)

= 0.75(0.707)(t;)(0.60)70 = 6.97 kips/in.
lbe design strength t/>R,,w exceeds che 6.71 kips/in. required; chus. L "" LO in . is adeguate.
Use L = 10 in. •
Additional lreatment of eccentric load on welds is to be found in Chapter 13 on connections.
,LECTED REFERENCES
5. l. K. Winterton. '"A Brief Hist0ry of Welding Technology," Welding and M era/ Fabricarion, Nove mber
1962; Dccember 1962.
5.2 . "lOO Ycars of Metalworking- Welding, Brazing and Joining," Tlte Jron Age. June 1955.
5.3. H. Carpmael. Efecrric Wefding and We!ding Appliances. London: D. Van Nostrand Company. I 920.
5.4. Preston M. Hall...77 Years of Resistancc Wclding:· The \Ve/dùig Ellgine,•r. February 1'>54. 54--55.
March 1954. 36-37: Aprii 1954. 62---63. ·
5.5. W. L. Miskoe...The Centennry ofModcm Wcldiog. 1885-1985-A Commcmoration," W, 1,1;,,U
65, Aprii 1986. 19-24. . """'•J
5.6. D. W. Morgan...Classification and Use of Mild Steel Covered ElcctTOd e<·" Welding Jo11,-,,a1. Ss [)
ber 1976. 1035- 1038. ' '<t~,
5.7. E. Craig. "A Unique Mode of GMAW Transfer:· Weldinx Jo11rnal. 66, Scptcmber l9R7, 5 l- 55_
62
5.8. K. A. Lyule. "GMAW-A Versatile Pr,xcss on ù1e M~vc.·· We/Jing Joum~I, , March 1983. 15_
23
5.9. V. R. Dillenbeck and L. Castagno. 'Thc EtYecis of Vanous Shtclding Gases aod Assoctatcd Mixtur .
GMA Weld ing of Mild S1ee1:· Weldi11g Journal. 66. Scptcmber 1987· 45 --4?.
(See als? letter froll\: 1n
Larson. Chairman. ConHniuees C50 aod A55. Amencan Welding Soc1cty. and author, rcply, 67 ,1,
1988. 6.) '~1aict,
5.JO. AWS. Welding Handbook. Rev 8th ed .. Vols. 2 and 3. Mi~!· l'L: A':'e.rican Wcl~ing Socicty. 20(),i_
5 . 11. - -- "Office Buildin2 Colun\JlS Ficld Spliced with Self-Sluclded Weldmg Wtre. Wdding Jo11
October 1986. 53- 54.- '11-0./, 6S,
5.12. - -- "Self-Shie lùed FCAW Specds High-Risc Constructioo." Welding Jounrnl. 63, Aprii 19g4 4
5.13. - -. "Self-Shielded FCA Welding is a Bre.ez.e in thc Windy C ity:· Wdding Jormwl. 67, M~rch, 1J-4~
47-48. 988,
5.14. A. Raman. "Elcctroslag Weld;: Prohlems and Cures." Welding Jmmw/. 60. Deccmher 1981, 17-21
5.15. C. G. Schilling and K. H. Klippsteirl. ·Te$t< of Elecu-oslag-Weldcd Bndgc Gìrdcrs." IVddin11 lorm,~1
60, Decembcr 1981. 23- 30. ·
5.16. A. W. Pcnse. J_D. Wond, and J. w. Fisher. "Reccot EJ<periencc.< with Electroslag Welded Bridge.,:· ·''
Wc/d/11g Jo urnui. 60, Dcccmber 198 l. 33-42.
l
5.17. Omcr w. Blodgctt, " Distortion __ . How 10 M,ìnimize it with S_ound Design Prac~_ic es and Controllod
Wclding Proccdurcs Plus Provcn Mcrhods for Siraightemng Drs1orted Members. B11//e1i11 G26J. Cl
lanJ. OH: The Linco ln EIC<:tric Company. (No date) e,,.
5.18. Omer W, Blodgcn. ' ·Shrinkagc Contro] in Wcld ing:· Civi/ Fniineering. Ncwc mber 1960. 5(>--{;J _
5.19. E. R. Holby. '·Weld Appearances May 8e Deceiving:· We lding Joumnl. 63, May 1984. 33-36,
5.20. J. E. Jones. " lnspec ting for Fatigue," •Ne/ding Jm,ma/. 62, May 1983. 21-24.
5.2 1. R. Fenn. "Ultrasonic Monitoring and Contro! During Are Wdding.'' IVeldinfi Jo umal. 64, Septeoibe,
I 9R5, 18-22.
5.22. Paul D. Watson. ·'Design for Wdding Examì}lation:· Welding Joumal. 61, February 1982, 32- 3S.
5.23. C. M. Fonunko and R. E. Schr:imm. --ui1rasonic Nondcmuctivc Evaluacìon, of Bu11 Welds Usin l'.
1romagnetic-Acous1ic Transduccrs.'' Wei,ling Jnumal. 61, February 1982, 39-46. · g I<(.
~~,.
5.24. Ronald Selner. "Dye. Pcnc tranl and Magnetic Paniclc lnspection," We/ding Jo1mwl. 61, Februan.
19~ -,
5 .25. AWS Strucrural Welding Code-Sree/ (AWS D 1. 1/01.1 M:2004 ), 19th edi1ion. Mi ami. FL: Americ<!J
Wclding Society, 2004 lsamc as 213].
5.26. 1. A. Donnelly. "Oetermìning the Cust of Welded Joims:· E11gi11l'ering lounwl. AISC. 5 , 4 (Octobe
1968). 146-147. r
5.27. Omer_W. ~lodgetl. '·How to Detern1ìne rhe Cost of Welding." 8ulle1i11 G610. Cleveland. OH: Thc Lin.
coln Ele.clnc· Company. ( No date)
5.28. L. J. Bmler anJ G. L. Kulak. "Strength of Fillet Wclds a., a F uncrion of Dìrecti<m of Load:' IVeltl;,,
Journnl (Wclding Rcscarth Suppkment). 36, May 19 7 1. 23 1s-234 s. g
5.29. Lorne J_ Burler, Shubendu Pal, and Geoffrcy L. Kulak . .. Ecccntrically Loaded Welde d Connectio •
01
Joumal ofrlte Strurmro/ Divisio11. ASCE, 98, ST5 (May 1972). 989- 1005. •
5.30. G. L. Kulak and P. A. Timmler. 'Tesrs on Ec·cenuically Loaded Filler Wclds.'· Strucmrat Enginee .
Repon No. 124. Dcpartment of Civil Engineering, Lln iversity of Albe rta, Edmontcin. Alberta. ·o;ng
1984 (23 pp). en1htr.
5.3 l. Petcr Swanne l. ''Rational Design of Fillct Weld Groups," ./oumol uj t/11• S1mcr11ra/ Divisio11• ASCE
ST5 (May 1981 ). 789-802. Disc. 108, ST5 (May 1982). 1197- 1198. · IOl,
5.32. Peter Swanncl. "Weld Group Behavior:· .Joumal of tbc Strrrourol Dil'is/011, ASCE. 107, STS (May
1981 ), 803-815,
5.33. Vemon V. Neis. "New Constilutive Law for F.qual Leg Fillct Welds." Jo11nwl ofStmctura/ Enginee .
I 11, 8, Augus1 1985, 1747-1 759. nng.
5.34. R,,ymond H. R . Tide. ·'&centrically Loaded WclJ Groups -AISC D~sii n Tables." Engineering 1
A ISC. 17, 4 (4th Quarler 1980). 90-95. o«rna!.
5.35. Raymond H. R. Tide. Disc . of ..Rational Des ign of Fili et Weld Groups." Jouma/ of 1he Strncwra/ D· .
111
.<ion, ASCE, 108, ST5 (May 1982), J 197-1198. •
5.36. G . Donald Brandi. "A Generai Solution for Eccentric Loads on Weld Gronps... Engineering Jounu,/
AISC. 19, 3 (3rd Quarter 1982), 150--159. ·
Problems • 229
5.37.
G. S . Miazga and D. J. L. Kenncdy. "'Behavior of Fillet Wdds as a Function of the Angle <>f Loading."
Canad,an fouma/ of Civil E11,;inuring. 16, 1989. 583-599.
5.38.
D. F. l..esik a nd D. J. L. Kcnnedy. "'Ultimate Strength of Fille, Welded Conneciions Loadcd in Piane."
Canaù,an lol4rria/ o/Civil Engineering, 17, 1990, 55-67.
5.39.
D. J. L. Kcnnedy, G. S. Miazga , and D. F. Lesik. " Discussion of Fillet Weld Shear Strengt.h." W,lding
Jm,rnal. 55, May 1990, 44-46.
5.40.
Kenneth M. Loom.i.s, WiJliam A . Thomron, and Thomas Kane . 'A Design Aid for Connection Angle
Welds Subjected 10 Combined Shear and A>.ial Loads," Engin,ering Journal, AISC. 22, 4 (4 th Quaner
l985J, 178- 196.
5.41. John L. Dawe and Geoffrey L. Ku!ak. "Welded Connectinns under Combincd Shcar and Moment,"
fou m al of rhe Strucrural Di,•i.rion, ASCE. 100, ST4 (Aprii 1974), 727- 741.
5.42. AWS . Symbols fer Welding, Brnzfog tmd No11destrucrive Examinarion (A2 .4-98). Miarni, FL: American
Welding Society, 1998.
5.43. Murray E. Templc and Sherie.f S. S. Sakla. " Balanced and Unbalanced Welds for Angle Comprcssion
Members," Ca1wdian Jouma/ ofCi vii Engineering. li, 1994 , 396-403.
PROBLEMS
Ali problems are to be done according to the AISC LRFD Method or ASD Method , as indicated by the instructor. Ali
given loads are service loads unless otherwise indicated. Whenever possible. show ali answers on a design sketch (drawn
10 scale) using appropriate we lding symbols.
5.1. Specific ally identify the AWS DI.I Joint Desig- Table 8- 32 "Prequalified Welded Joints''. The
nation for each of the following "prequalified" given joints are (a) Square-groove we\d, com-
butt joincs made by the submerged are process plete penetration; (b) Single-V-groove weld,
(SAW). Specify the proper thickness for each of complete penetration; (e) Single-V-groove we\d.
the plates, as well as the groove angle, root complete penetration; and (d) Double-V-groove
opening , and other requirements for the welds. weld, complete penetration.
Draw the cross-section for each weld. The given
loads are 85% live load and 15% dead load. 5.2. Specifically identify the AWS D1.1 Joint Desig-
Referto AWS Dl.l (5.25], AJSC Manual [l.l5J nation for each of the following ' 'prequalified"
I ~-,,
~ <·~·
~
"~+ t ~ A572 Grade 65
(a)
I !Ok 60k
A36
ì
!
12"
(b)
60k
Back
gougc
Back
gouge.
200k 200k I ! Ok 6" l !Ok

!
A36
A36
(e) (d)
Problem 5.1
- - -
'
~Ok
200k
i 15"
200k
I
I 2"
J\Jò
(h)
J()"
10"
1 = J"
1 .::: l,} t\5 71 Gradc 50 A:I(,
(d)
(e)
Problem 5.2
load. Spcc ify the proper flux -elecirode rnate .
butr joinl~ made by thc shiclded metal are process using the submerged are process. riat
(SMAW). Spccify the proper thickness for each of
lhe plates, or dererrnjnc the servicc Joad capacity
assuming the load is 85% live load ami 15% dead t - 18 X 10
load. Indicate any thickness-re)arcd limitations and

draw the cross-scction for each wcld. Refer Lo AWS
\
DI.I [5.25), AJSC Manual [1.15) Table 8-32 "Pre-
qualificd Wclded Joinls." The given joinls are (a)
Squarc-groove wdd. complete penetrntion; (b) Dou-
ble-bevel-groove wefd. complete penetration: (e)
- T
-
r
Double-bevel-groove weld. pania) pcnetrarion; and

(d) Single-V-groovc weld, pa11ial penetration.
5.3. Determù1e the service load capacity Tofthe connec- Problem 5.4
tion shown when the submerged are proccss (SAW)
is used. The load is 85% live load and 15% dead 5.5. Spccify the _p!atc tlùckness and w?ld sìzc to be
load. Use (a) A36 steel, and (b) A572 Grade 65 used for the _1omts lii the accompany1ng lìgure.11i,
steel. Assume appropriate cleetrode materiai is used.
• .
lo·ids are 70% bve load and 30 % dead loa<l S
.
weld matenal to be used for the sluelded metal are
.. . •r
IO process (S~AW). C~mparc A~6 and A572 Grade
50 stecls tor e~~h JOll1t. lnd1cate tbe preferred
de sign for cach JOU1t.
r - r 5.6. For the ~oints in the ac~ompanyin~ figure, salì,fy
t.he requrrements staled m Pro b. S.:i.
5.7. Design the re inforced lap joinl shown in th

" ·- I X 8 accmnpanying figure. The plate s are 7 in. wide 0~-
~- 2
A36 steel and the SMAW proce ss is uscd. Referto
Problem 53 AWS Joint Designatio n BTC-P4 (ATSC Mwiua/
8-35). The givcn load is 25'?'o de ad load and 7,~ ·
5.4. Specif y the fillet welds required 10 develop the ~> I(
live load.
strenglh of the conncctio n shown . State the
max imum se.rvice lo ad T permitte d to be car- 5.8. Select a pair of channel~ and design the fille1Wekk
riecl. Th<.! load i .\ 90% live load and I 0 % dead using the SMAW proccss. The lo ading is 851ìr liw
.. ' - - - --.-- ' ..•.,............---J..,....._.........._._ - ' ... ' - \ -· . 11. •

Problems • 231
(a)
(b)
Problcm 5.5
- 60k
65k
(a) (h\
Problcm 5.6
V7
- 100k
+
V7
)
Problem 5.7
Joad and 15% dead load. Compare for (a) A36 (e) Use A572 Grade 42 steel. with fillel welds
steel and (b) A572 Grade 60 steel.
instead of groove weld.
(d) Use A572 Grade 65 steel, with fille1 welds ins1ead
of groove weld.
- 200k
W scc1ion
I
2-Channels
Problem 5.8
5.9. Design the tension plate atcached to the wide-

flange (W) section as well as the welds, assuming
the SMAW process is used. The load is 70% li ve
Joad and 30% dead load. t80\c
(a) Use A572 Grade 42 steel.
(b) Use A572 Grade 65 steel. Problem 5.9
- 232 • Chapter 5 Welding
mc a 9-in.-wide plate used in a lap joini

5.10. A 5X3½xl angle of A572 Grade 50 steel is con- 5. 13. A ssu
30 kips dead load and 11 .S k"tps hve
· loadl'Jlq,l
·
nected by its long leg to a ~ -in. gusset plare. Carl)' . "d .ar, ·
sibility cx1sts of some acc1 ental ttcenlri _IQ
Develop lhe max.imum service load capacity (25% a~ S . . %
cannot be computed. To msure a L1ghier . . .
1h a l . Jo1nl
dead load; 75% live load} of the angle and use a a 1¼-in.-diarn plug weld 1s to be used. Detennin
balanced fillet welded connection with the SMAW the thickness of the plate, the arnount of lap t
process. State the service load capacity. Use the · · A ssume lhe g• •nd
weld size for the b.est J0mt.
t he . usse
following arrangements: late to which the 9-m. platc 1s welded doe 1
p d . U A-
control any of the es1gn. se '::>72 Gra.cJ.e
s no,
(a) t-in. weld on toe and back, with none on end. 50
sccel and the SMAW process.
(b) 4I -m.
•
weId on toe and 8J -m.
.
we ld on back, and
no ne on end.
5"
t-
16
\ 1
----
T - r
9"
Problcm 5.13
Problem 5. 10
5.14. Derermine the m.inimum le ngth of slot in 0rderio
5.11. Design a balanced connection for two 7X4X~ deve Iop the full strength of a C 12 X20.7 welded
angles connected by their long legs to a ~-in. gus- a t in plate. Use the same siz.e fillet weld over lhl~
8 . . b '
set plate. Develop the maximum servicc Joad e nrire tength. and assume 11 1~ to e pl_aced by lhe
capacity (20% dead Joad; 80% live )oad) and state SMAW process. Assume serv1ce load 1s 35% deaii
its value. Use A572 Grade 60 sreel and the SMAW load and 65% live load.
process . Detail che joint lO balance the loads using
the sho rtest possible o verlap.
5. l 2. Design the welds indica ted to develop the full
streng th of the angles and minimizc eccentricity. 4.!.-. ,-
2 •
C l2 X 20.7
Assume service load is 20% dead load ancl 80%

live load. Use the SAW welding process.
.l-l- r
1-
.-
(a) Use A36 steel. 42_! - 1--=~=~==1
A572 Grade 50
(b) Use A572 Grade 50 steel.
(e) Use A572 Grade 65 steel.
(d) Use A36 steel, but omit we ld o n the end o( Problem 5.14
ang les.
5.1 5. Forthe connec tion show n in t.he accompanyìng fi~-
(e) Use A5 72 Grade 65 ste el, but 0111ir weld on lhe
ure . what is the maximum require d design strengfu
ends o f ;mgies.
<f>Rn 11.'? The load is 90% live load and LO% dead
I 5
load. What weld size is indicated if E70 electrode~
~ ·:=;
2 - L6 X 3-;· X 16 are used with the SMAW process?
// -
I ~ (a) Use strength analysis (i.e., locate the instanta-
r ~ : ,_( _
; I
~--
i - ---t-·
\ _ _;
neous center by tria!).
(b) Use AISC Mtmual Table 8-4, "CoefficientsC

- - '--v-- for Eccentrically Loaded Weld Groups."
Prn:,km 5.12 (e) Use elastic (\·ector) metho d.
I i\ , I l·, •
Problems • 233
s··
---7
(1 30 mr,1)
6k (26kN)
' 2 PL - 9"
Ìt,
1'-6" A36 s,cel
A36 SICel 1 ~ ~c+--< E?O

1
18
2
Problem 5.15
Problem 5.17
for the connection in the accompany· li (h) UseA/SC Munua/ Table 8- 8. "Coefficient C
5- 16· . mg igure
· satisfy the reqwremenls of Prob. 5.15. for Eccentrically Loaded We ld Groups."
(e) Use elastic (vector) method.
5.19. Repeat Prob. 5.18, except use i-in. fillet weld on

the side and ¼-in. on the end. The steel is A572
Grade 50.
l
6
4
(150mm) A36 steel
Problem 5. l 6 I ì
4
A36 stccl
S. l 7. Forche bracket sh~wn in the accompanying figure, v - 16-5"

calculate the serv1ce load capacity p (90% live I
Joad and J0% dead load) based on Lhe weld. 4
NegJect the returns al e nds and assume the SMAw
process is to be used. Problems 5.18 and 5.19
(a) Use strength analysis (i.e.. locate the instama-
neous center by tria)). 5.20. Compute the service load capacity P for the
(b) Use AISC Manual Table 8-4, "Coefficiente welcled bracket of the accompanying figure. The
for Eccentrically Loaded WeJd Groups." load is 70% live \oad and 30% de ad load . Neglect
the returns at the outer ends of Lhe C-shaped we ld
(e) Use elastic (vector) method .
configuration. The we\d size is ~ in. and E70
e lectrodes are used in the shie lded metal are
5.18. Compute the maximum acceptable service Joad p process.
for the connection of the accompanying figure.
The load is 85 % live load and 15% dead load. (a) Use strength analysis (i.e., locate the instanta-
/gnore the ejfect of retums at the lower end of the neous center by tria\).
connee1ion.
(b) Use A!SC Manual Table 8-8, "Coe fficient C
(a) Use strength analysis (i .e., ìocace the instanta- for Eccentrically Loa<led We\d Groups.''
neous center by !rial). (e) Use elastic (vector) methocl.
. Prob. 5.23 if the vertical dimensio .

5.24. Repea1 .. n 1, 1
Il in. instead of i6 in. ì
Il
Il
Repeal Prob. 5.23 if the venie al dimensioni& &.
5.25.
,
1 J--
:1: --
instead of 16 in. •~.
Il
t Prob. 5.23 if the hori?.Ontal di1nensio .
8" : : 5.26. Repea, . .. ' n 114
in. instead ot 16 m.
Ll Il
11
Il
_ __..._
l''
-,_
5.27.
Use the elastic (vector) ~1ethod to derive a gcner
exp re
ssion for the required weld size on th ili
. .
angle of che accompanymg figure m terrn, of ~\
e ,e
~ - - l w l_ - ' \ -2 factored load p", the leg length L, and the ecc é
· , · y e of thc applied load. Assume E70 <~-
Probleni 5.20 mc11 . .. e~1
trodes with the S~A~ p1occss are used. lJ&e lht
following assumpttons.
(a) Ignore the returns at the top; :.~
5.21. Repeat Prob. 5.20 if the vertical dimension of the
(b) Use an average retum of L/12; and
weld configuration is 12 in. instead of 8 in.
(e) U se a return equal to twice the weld size.
5.22. Repeal Prob. 5.20 if the venical dimension of the
weld configuration is 4 in. instead of 8 in.
lf e "" 2 ¾ in. and L = 6 in. , detcrnline Ih
5.23. Compute the theoretical weld s ize required for the weld size necded to carry P = 38 kips (80% liv:
bracket of the accompanying figure when the load and 20'7c dead load). •
For the we]d .
. S11.e
SMAW process is used. Tue load is 60% live load selccted, check the capac1ty ~ usmg ali lhree
and 40% dead load. Neglect che returns at the assumptions, and ~lso cornpar~,with the resnlt Usin,
outer cnds of the C-shaped weld configurati on. theAISC Manual ra~lc 1?,-6, All-Welded Unstiff.
ened Scated Connect1ons .
(a) Use strength analysis (i.e., locate lhe insianta-
neous center by tria!).
(b) Use AISC Manual Tables 8- 8, "Eccenlric Re1um
Loads on Weld Groups."
(e) Use elastic (vector) method.

rL
::-- 6"- ·. ·--6··. ··i 84k

L
Il Problem 5.27
rI A36 stcel
J'-4" 5.28. For the bracket of the accompanying fig~re, deter-

I mine the lcngth L required when using 1~-in. fillet
j "" 2t_s weld with 1he SMAW process. The load is 7~
(one on each flange)
L11----r- live Joad and 30% dead load. Verify your result
Il
Il
using the following procedures:
~ -~1~1----'\_r---"
(a) Strength analysis (i.e., locate the instantaneous
Problcm 5.23 center by tria!).
--
Problems • 235
.I
16
t.- -]"'
2
i
16
1.
16
Problem 5.28
Problem 5.30
(b) AISC Manual Table 8-4.
5.30. For the bracket of the accompanying figure, sat-
(e) Elastic (vector) method.
isfy the requirements of Prob. 5.28. Note that
S.29. Repcat Prob. 5.28 if the service load is 40 kips. A572 Grade SO steel ìs used instead of A36.
Compression
Members
PART I: COLUMNS
6.1 GENERAL
In this chapter, members subjec1ed lo axial compression forces are 10 be 1rea1ed. Referred
to by various 1erms, such as column, stanchion, post, and strut, these rnembers are rare],
ever actually carrying only axial compression. However, whenever 1he loading } if
10
· is
arranged that either the end ro1a1ional restramt · neghg1
' "bie or Ihe Ioad'mg· 1s
· symrnetric· iO
applied from membcrs frarn.ing in at the column ends, and bending may be considered aJJi
ligibk compared 10 the dìrect compression, rhe member can safely be designed
cen1ncally loaded column.
a.sa;~~:
lt is wel\ known from basic mechanics of materials that only very shon columns
be loaded to their yield stress; the usual situation is thai buck.ling, or sudden bendino;¾
result of instability. occurs prior to developing the full_ i_n at~rial strength of tbe nie7n~:
Thus. a sound knowledge of compression member stab1hty 1s necessary for those. de~· ·
. ' - ~~
mg m structural steel.
6.2 EULER ELASTIC BUCKLING ANO HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Column ? uckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler_ in 1744 [6.1 l- An i1litially straighi
conce111ncally loaded member. rn wh1ch ali fibers remam elast1c unttl bucklin" nccu .
. • D ~R
s hghtly bent as shown in Fig. 6.2. I. Although Euler dealt wnh a member built-in atone
. Iy supponed at 1he other. the same Iog1c
an d sm1p . app 1·1e d I1ere lo the pin-end colunend
. 1s
which having zero end rotational reslraint is 1he member having least buckling stren"th in,
__ At any location z. the bending moment M,. on the member bent slightly aboir thex
pnnc1pal ax,s 1s
(6.2 ])
and since
M,.
El
236
Section 6.2 Euler Elastic Buckting and Historical Background • 237
:-~ _--
Steel framework, showing panicularly the cxteriùr columns. Southeast Recreation

Facility, Universi1y ofWisconsin-Madison Campus. (Photo by C. G. Salmon)
rhe differential equarion becomes
d2 v P
- -2 +-v = O (6.2.3)
dz Er
2
After letting k = P /El , the solurio11 of this secon<l-order lìncar differential equation may
be expressed
y = A sin kz + Beo~ kz (6.2.4)
Applying boundary conditions, (a) y = O at z = O; and (b) y = O at;: = L one obtains

for condition {a), B = O; and for condition {b),
O=AsinkL (6.2.5)
Satisfaction of Eq. 6.2.5 may be accomplished in three possiblc ways; (a) constant A = O.
i.e., no deflection; (b) kl = O, i.e., no applied load: and (e) kl = N7T , the requiremenl for
buckling to occur. Tbus
p
El
P= (6.2.6)
p p
- c::;:c==========~ -- - --- :
-----,-------:3
_ .. : _
-- x ;md i•are
princ ipal axes
Figure 6.2.1
Eule-r column.
f
)'
--- - - --- L - - -------""- Slightly bc111 position
. - -
- -
238 • Chapter 6 Compression Members
The fondamenta! buckling mode, a single-curvature deflection ( Y = A sin 7rz/ L f

Eq. 6.2.4.), will occur when N = J; 1hus the Euler criticai load fora column Wiih ~Orti
0
ends pinned is th
2
'ft' El
Per= 7 (6.2.?)
2
or in terms of average compressive stress, using I = A gY
Euler's approach was generally ignored for design because test results did not
. . . . . agree
w1th 11· columns of ordmary length used m design were not as strong as i:~. 6 2 7
. . ' ~ . . Wou(d
mdtcate.
Considère and Engesser (6.2. 6.3] in I 889 independently realized that ponions
usual length columns become inelasric prior 10 buckling and lhal a value of E shou]d of
used that could account for some of rhc compressed fibers being strained beyond the be
0
portional limi!. Il was thus consciously recognize_d that in fact ordinary le11g1h columnt;. ;
by inelastic buckling ratber than by elastic bucklmg. iil
Complete understanding of the behavior of concentrica!Iy loaded columns. howev
was not achieved unti! I 946 when Shanley (6.4, 6.51 offered the explanation that er.
0
seems obvious. He reasoned that it w.:is actually possible for a column to bend and : .°"'
. . axial compression, but th at 11
h ave 111creasmg . to bend upon reac h'mg whar is e ·liii
. begms
monly referred to as the buckling load, which includes inelastic effects on some 0 ~rn-
fibe ·
1 rs of the cross-secuon. · · euects
These melasllc "" are d 1sc.:usse
· · · d eta1·1m
d rn · Sec. 6.4.
· ali
An extensive historical review of che dcvelopment of column theory is given b.
B. G. Johnston [6.6]. y
6.3 BASIC COLUMN STRENGTH
To detem1ine a basic column strength, certain conditions may be assumed for the ideai e _
01
umn [6. 7]. With regard to materiai, it may be assumed (I) lhere are the sa.me compre,
stress-strain properties Lhroughout the section; (2) no initial internal stresses exist suc~tve
those due to cooling after rolling and those due to welding. Regarding shape and end e as
ditions, it may be assumed (3) the column is perl'ectly maight and prismatic; (4) the ,i~
resultant acts thr?~gh the centroidal a~is of the member u_ntil tb~ member begins to ben~;
(5) the end cond1t1ons must be determrnate so thai a definite equ1valent pinned Jength .
be established. Further assumptions regarding buckling may be made, as (6) the small de;a)
tion theory of ordinary bending is apphcable and shear may be neglected; and (7) twistinoec-
0
distortion of the cross-section does not occur during bending. or
Once rhe foregoing assurnptions have been made, it is now agreed [6.8) that the
strength of ,t column may be expressed by
1T2E1
P-cr= A - FA
(Kl/r)2 /: - cr g (6.3.1)
where E, = tangent modulus of elasticity ar stress Pc,/A g

Ag == gross cross-sectional area of member
K L/ r == effective ( or equivalent pinned-end) slenderness ratio
K = effective length factor (treated in Sec. 6.9)
- Section 6.4 lnelastic Buckling • 239
N
_,,,,.,.,.... Range of test results
figure 6.3. I
Typica! range of column .
sirengch vs slendemess rano.
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - kUr
L = length of me mber
r = radius of gyration = \/J/Ag
I = moment of inenia
It is well known that long compression members fai! by elastic buckling and that
short S!ubby compression members may be Joaded unti! the materiai yields or perhaps even
mto the strain-hardening range. However. in the vast majority of usual situations, failure
occurs by buckling after a portion of the cross-section has yielded. This is known as
inelastic buckling.
_ ACLually, buckling under axial Joad occurs only when the aforernentìoned assump-
ttons (1) through (7) apply. Colurnns are usually an integrai pan of a structure and as such
cannot behave entirely independently. l11e practical use of the term buckling is thai it is Lhc
boundary between stable and unstable dellectìons of a compression rnernber, rather than
the instantaneous condition that occurs in the isolated slcnder clastic rod.
As previously mentjoned, for many years theoretical determinations of column
strength did not agree with test results. Test results ìncluded effects of initial crookedness
of the member, accidental eccentJ·icity of load, end restraint, locai or lateral buckling. and
residua] stress. A typìcal curve of observed strengths was as shovm in Fig. 6.3.1. Design
formulas, therefore, were based on such empirica\ results. Various straight-line and para-
bolic formulas have been used, as well as other more complex expressions. in order IO tit
the curve of test results in a reasonably accurate, yet practical manner.
In summary, Euler elastic buckling governs the strength for large slendemess ratios.
yield strength ~" = FyAg controls for short columns, and a transition curve must be used
for inelastic buckling.
6.4* INELASTIC BUCKLING
Since ordinary length columns buckle when some of their fibers are inelastic. having a
modulus of elasticity less than their initial elastic value, the logie of Engesser. Considère,
and Shanley is explained in this section, generally fol\owing Blcich [6.9, pp. 8- 20].
Basic Tangent Modulus Theory
Euler's theory penained only to s ituations where compressive stress below the elastic limit
acts uniformly over the cross-section when unstable equilibrium occurs. Engesser [6.3}
*Sections so markcd may be omiued without loss of conti1111ìty.

240 • Chap1er 6 Compression Members
L 's\
I r
\
I
_
\
I
I
r
_j
A
• F
"
=5,
(KLld'
p f f
Figure 6.4. I E,
Engesser originai rangeru
modulus thcory, 1889. Load-deflection
and Considère f6.2] were che first to utilize che possibility of a vari:_1blc modulus of ehtqic.
ity. In Engesser's tangent modulus theory ihe column remams straight up to the instam or
fai Iure and the modulus of elasticity at fai Iure is the tangent H) the stress-strain curve. The
rclationships are shown in Fig. 6.4.l. Thc the.ory prescnbed that at a certain stress
F,r = Pc,/ A K, the member could acquire an unstable defiecced shape and that the dcfor:
matfon at Fc, is governed by E, = df/ df . Thus Engesser modified Euler's equation 10
become
P, 1T2 E,
Fcr = Ag = (KL/r)2 (6.4.11
where P, is the tangent modulus load, and E, is the wngent rnodulus of clasticiiv ai
stress F.:r·
This theory, however, stili did not agree with test result~. giving compmed load,
lower than rneasured ultimate capacities. The principal a~sumption that cansed this tangènt
moclulus theory LO be considcrecl erroneous is that as the member changcs from u snai~h,
to bent fonn, no strain reversal takes piace. In 1895 Engesser changed bis theory, rea~~n.
ing that during bending some fibers undergo increased srrain (lowereù tangent nioduiu,)
mid some fibers are unloaded (higher moclulus at the reduced strain): thcrefore a combined
value should be used for 1he modulus.
Double Modulus Theory
To cxamine the process of column bending at stresses beyond the el:islic limit. consider thi:
section of Fig. 6.4.2 from which Engesser's double modulus. or .. rccluce(f' tn()dulus. i,
developed. This concept had logie to il which wa$ genernlly acL·epted but gavc rornputl\l
Section 6.4 lnelastic Buckling • 241
Symmctrical
in piane of bending
Axis of zero su,,n due 10

fle,i.urc, in an .1rbitrary
dc.nec,ed posihon u_nder
unstable equilibrium
Figure 6.4.2
Stress distribution in
condition of unstable
r
/,(max)
equilibrium (double
111odulus thcory). l
strengths higher than test values. Not unti! Shanley's explanation was the inconsistency
resolved.
At unstable equilibrium, the stress at the neutra! axis (sectioo 1-1 of Fig. 6.4.2)
remains as it was prior to the deflection o occurring. On the loading fibers where strain is
increasing, the stress increase is proportional to E, = d.f/ dE , whereas on the unloadi.ng
fibers the decrease in strain relieves the elastic part of lhe strain; thus the stress decrease is
proportional to the elastic modulus E.
As shown in Fig. 6.4.3, the strain on the cross-section wil\ be linear. At tbc extreme
unloaded fiber, applying Hooke's Law the stress becomes
Adz
h(max) = {unit strain)E = dzE (6.4.2)
and at the loaded fiber,
Adzd1 E,
ft(max) = --;;;- dz (6.4.3)
(6.4.4)
Thus
(6.4.5)
h(max)
L_
r dit-d·7 / Loaded fibe1
Unloaded
fiber
%J, I -.
Figure 6.4.3 .
An element dz along che ax1s L L_-+--------r------'---"i-~
of the column in 1he unstable
equilibriurn position 1---d---'
F()r srnall curvature. 2

M d8 d y
- - - - -- = -Eri = dz
rad i us of curvai ure
= clz2 (64_6j
where E, = Engcsser's double modulus. d. . f F "0 6 4 2 g·

" t hes tress
The internal resisting momem ,or · con 111011 o 1.,. . . 1vcs
M =- Py = 1"' U1)(Y1 - o) dAi +

{"'
lo -(h HY2 + S) dA2 (6.4.7)
and from linear stress discribution and Eq. 6.4.5,

2
VJ d y Yl
i = 1·l(max).::._
.I
d1 -
- Edi - -
r d z2 d1
(6A.8)
Y2 • '
d-y )'2
- f 2 (rllftX):__
.f 2 - d2
= Ed2 -d z -, -d 2
T hus Eq. 6.4.7 becomes
Force equilibrium requires
(6.4 IO)
whkh. using Eqs. 6.4.8, gives
d2yidi
E,, dz2 o )'1
dA
i
= Ed2y-' 1di
,., dA ,
c/z.2 o . - - (6.4.) l)
Using Eq . 6.4. ,11. it is seen the terms involving 8 canee) each other in Eq. 6.4.9. thus giviog
-Pv = E->
•
1
c/2 '
df o
jd' d 2r
Yf dA1 + E·-é,
dr o
1''1' Y'i dA2
.·. (t-~- [ E,
dr
1d1 y fdA
o
1 +E 1d~ ]
o
vidA 1 + Py == 0 (6.4. l'2)
Equation 6.4 . 12 is obviously of che same forrn as the elnstic buckling equation.
Eq. 6.2.3. Thus forche double modulus theory,
Per= ; : [ E, 1'\r dA, + E_[\ ,~ d A2] (6Al3)
Shanley Concept-True Column Behavior
To undcrstand the actual behavior of a column as explained by Shanley [6.4] in 1946. con-
sider the rectangular seccion of Fig. 6.4.4 subjected to axial compression. For loads below
the tnngent modulus load P,. the ideai column remains perfecily straight with zero det1ec-
tion (poin1 A of Fig. 6.4.4a). The load P, at point A may most correctly be defined as fol-
lows f6. IOJ: "The tangent modulus load is the smallest value of a.xìal load at which
Section 6.5 Residuai Stress • 243
,, il.li
~
I
- _., - --1- , ~
dC:. d1 ..... 1/1-'
''!_ , N1 dT 1~
' ,1/ , "1 1),/,

', I= IA', --,
1- _ I
: L,..,..,'r'rr'.n-lrt-,~M-f7"n--rT.,...,..rr'.H
I
I '
figure 6.4 ,4
Shanlcy ,'.<)IICC_Pl··--trne
-~ ------ ,, Cohunn
coJurnn bclrnv1or. <al lh) ICI
hifurcatìon of the e ·1·1 · .. .

. · qu, I. Jnum pos,uous can occur rcgardless of whel.her or nut thc 1rans1-
hon
. lo
. the bcnt tJns,·1·1) ·
{ n rcqu1res ·
an mcreasc nf· ax1al
· load."
· ·
C(1n,;1der thai al on~ct o f b cmI-
tng_ (mtìnitcsimal curvature) Lhere will he an Jnfmitesimal inaca~e in axial ~train ,md si.re~,
t:i.J, · By thc time the curvaLUrc hecome~ finite, i.e .. thc point N movcs lo N 1. some str:tin
reversal must occur ,·r thc e I . . <l I . . .
.. .. . o um.11 cross-secunn 1s to eve op a re~1~11ng mo menl 10 mam-
laiu eqmhbnum with thc rnomcnl due to the e~temal. loa<l P6. For s mall bul finite v:tlue~ of
curvature. thc incrcn1cnt of loacl represented bv stress on the arca of incre a~ing strain
cxceeds the incrcment of load reµrcsente<l bv str~ss on the area of decreasing strain: thu5 P
11
·~ :crcasc_d bJ an amount dP {poinl 8 of Fig. 6.4.4a). As each i1Kre111ent or curvatme takes
Pace P wi)I tunhcr increase as long as d C > dT. The incrc a~ed corn.pres~ive f{,rce dC is
computed us ing the tange nt modulus E, while in lhe region 0f ~train re\·ers al thc cla,tic
mo<l~lus E is used to compute dT The double 1nodulus thcory. wb_ich ~imilarly treated
1
'.)admg and unloading fibers. did not accept c/C > dT. but rather only conrsidercd equilib-
num positions near lhe pe1fectly straight one.
For practical purposes , thc increase of capacity fro m P, Hl P, (Fig. 6.4.4a) can be
ncglected for des ign use . Therefore. the tangc nt modulus load may be tre ateù a" the criticai
load, i.e., the load at whìch bending begins.
6.5 RESIDUAL STRESS
Residua! stresses are stresses that remain in a 1.nember aflc r il has be,en formcd illlo a fin-
ished produci. Such stresses resull from plastic defonnations. which in structural Sll'el may
result from severa[ SOl11·ces: ( I) uncven cooling whic h o ccurs after hot rolling slructurnl or
s hapes; (2) col<l bending or cambering during fabricati1,11; (3) punching of lwles and cut-
ting operatìons during fabrication; and (4) wddìug. Undcr o rdinary conditi011~ those resid-
uai stresses resulting fro m uneven coo ling and welding are thc most impormnt. Actually
lhe importa nt residuai stresses due to welcling are really the resu\t of uneven c o oling.
The mechanism of residuai stress due 10 une ven coo ling is treated i.n the Wddi11g
Handbook [2 .21, Volume l J and the e ffcct lJf residuai stress o n compression stnictural mem-
bers appears in the. Guide to Stabìlity Design Criteria Jor J\111!1of Stn1cr11res 16.8. pp. 30-42].
prep~u-ed by the Structural Stability Research Counc il. This lane r public atìon wi\1 be exten-
sively referred to as the SSRC Guide.
In wì<le-flange or H-shaped sections. af1e r bot rolling . the flangcs . being the thickt·r
parts, cool more slowly than the web regio n. Furthennore . the flange tip~ having grc ate r
exposure lo the air cool more rapidly than the re gion at the junction of flan ge to weh. Cnn-
sequently, c ompressive residuai stress ex is t - at flange tips and at mid-de pth of the web (thc
regions that cool fastest). while tensile residuai stress e xists in the flange and the we b at lhc
Mv:imum compttsi ivt

- stress, ~•r
12 ksi avera1,e
<~3 MP•l
c,,n,preu,on (-)
t- ~~ i
Tcnsion (+)
'----I-- '/1i,,
:
Figure 6.5. l ~,.,

lypical residuai srress pauem
on rolled shapcs.
regions wbere they join. Figure 6.5.J shows typical residuai stress_ distribution on ro(I
beams. Cons,derable· · · can be expec ted ·• · the true pattern wr Il be a fur1c11on
vanattou ù~
· of lhed
dirnensions of rhe section. e
At this point one might wonder whether the generai colunm stren~tli equation (Eq. 6 3
1
<liscussed in the preceding secrion stili is applicable. 111e theory 1s apphc:1ble, but ali fibe. :. l
the cross-section ca11not be considered as stressed to rhe same leve! under the action frs •n
· I o the
compressive service load. The 1angent modulus E, on one fibe.r ,s not t ie same as thai
an adjacent fibcr. on
fn a rolled sceel shape the intluence of residuai scress on the strcss-strain curv .
.~h~wn in Fig. 6_.5.2. using _averag~ su·ess ~n rl:e gros~ arc:1 as_l!1e ordinare. rt is noted ~ ts
l"es1dual stress 111 an clast1c-plaM1c matenal such a~ steel gl\ es the same effect . at
oblained fora materiai such as aluminurn. wh1c · I1 rs
· not 1·mearIY e Iastrc · when it cont as. thai
. od
resi ual stress. Tirns. assum1ng the !angent m u us conu:pl app 1es, co lunm strenotJ
'd I - • • . 1· . a111s no
1
be sa, to ·d be b · I · b
ased on me asnc uc mg k.l. bec ti ·a ·u ·
ause 1e avei ge s -css-srra111 curve ,·s llla,,,
· "'
. . llOnJj 0
ear when maximum column strength 1s reached. •
Whereas it was once believed rhc nonlinear po11ion of the average stress-stra i •
' axia
,or . Ily loaded compression members was due enrire . Iy to 11111,al
. . . curvature and n CUr\'e .
tal eccentricity. Huber and Beedle [6.11 J ha,·e verified that residuai stress is tlie ac~iden.
c~use, and the other factors have a relath'.ely minor effect. Residuai stresse., at
ot. rolled
.
shapes have been measured as h1gh as 20 ks1 ( 138 MPa). a hi~h l)erce iit· g llps
~ .
tla~: 111
age of th
~ ·
·
1111111111um specified yield stress for ~reels such as A.ì6. Residuai stres~e are
. . . . · ·• • ' essent"aJ
e
I
rndependent of y1eld stress. dependmg mstead on cross-secllonal dimensions and ly
· · • COofi
raflon s111ce tho.,e factors govem cooling rates r6.
I 2j. gu.
Welding of built-up shapes is an even greal'er contributor to residuai stres 1
· f I . • . s t 1an e001
mg o 1or-rolled H-shapes (6.13) . fhe plates themselves generally have littl . ·
e resrduaJ
ldc!al coupon containing

no residuai slrcss
F, ,-- _/_ -----,--

3 Muimum
'- 1--<:! residuai
compressive
i F,
Sm:3S
..
~
hgure 6.5.2
lnlluen.:c o( re~idual stre.1.s on
<
f
Avenl8e comp1C$Sìve srrain E

XI 2 3
Shaded ponion indicat(~
~\ e,:,gc Mrc~~-.'1rain cu,-vc. arca which has ach1e,"tJ .,
scress F,
Section 6.6
Development of Column Strength Curves lncluding Residuai Stress • 245
say 12 hi (84 MPa) say 20 lesi (]40 MPa)

/
-<J1TJAJlh d'.llJF-IlJb
!IV ~20k,i
[IDY 'lti]sa)'' 40 l.:s.\
(l4{0M:•I ~~~~~) ii=======:n(280MPa)
figure 6.5.3
Typical ~·esi~ual stress
distribuuon in welded shapes.
H WcJ<l<d H
...
.
\
tension
say 20 ksi
(l40MPa)
COJnp!'CS,,.\ÌOn
Wclde<i box
st
ress i_nitially because of relatìvely unifom1 cooling after rolling. However. after the heat
15
a~phed 10 make the welds, the subsequent nonunifom1 cooling and resrraint against dis-
tortton cause high residua] stresses. Figure 6.5.3 shows typical residuai stress patterns on
welded H and box built-up shapes.
One should note that compressive residuai stresses typically occuning at flange t.ips
are higher in welded than in rolled H-shaped sections. Thus the column strength of such
welded shapes will be lowcr than co1Tesponding rolled shape.s. On the other hand. the
welded-box shape, having tensile residuai stress in the corner regions that conu·ìbute most
to the stiffness as a colurnn, will be stronger than a rolled shape having 1.he same slender-
ness ratio. Shennan [6.14, 6.15] has studied residua! stresses on rolled tubular m.embers.
Having accepted that residuai stresses exisL such information rnust be used to obtain
a column strength curve (average stress vs slendemess ratio) that can fonn the basis for
design. Unti\ the early l950s, còlumn design was based on many formulas, ali of which
tried lò empirically accoum for column behavior exhibited by tcsts. By clearly ìndìcacing
that the tangent modulus was che proper criterìon for strength and by identifying the ro\e of
residuai stress, the Colurnn Research CounciJ (now Structural Stability Research Council
[6.8) has made a signiticant contribution.
6.6* DEVELOPMENT OF COLUMN STRENGTH CURVES INCLUDING

RESIDUAL STRESS
The following analytical approach, patterned after Huber and Beedle [6.11} and Beed\e
and Tall L6. 16), is intended to show the logie to obtain a column strength equation. Column
strength can be obtained by two generai methods. One method is to use the residuai stress
distribution, either the actua) variation from measurements or a mathernatical model, along
with the stress-strain relationship for the materiai (say a small test specimen of the steel).
The other method is to detennine experimentally an average stress-strain relation-
ship by testing short lengths of rolled sbapes containing residua) stre.ss. Column strength
can then be detennined from the r.e st results usìng the tangent modulus of the experimental
curve in combination with the appropriate slenderness ratio. Knowledge of the residua]
stress pattern is not used in this second approach.
Yu and Tali [6.17) have discussed these approaches in detail. Johnston [6.18] and
Bauennan and Johnston [6.19) have treated the tangent rnodulus appbcation 10 inelastic
buckling of columns.
The following development is made with the objectìve of obraining a relationship
between average externally applied stress and ihe. slenderness ratio. Thus, the capacity of
------ ~"~~·7-~~l-~~-\ I \
Euler
Column siub 1
---~~s_d
_~ I _ _ _
ElasU<"
Figure 6.6.1 E
._--'------- ~ E, ........_ _ _ _ _ _ __
Comparison of coupon //J.)
::"•th
H-_shaped rolled sccrioo Slnin
,onr;uruog residuai stress. tal (b)
a member can be obtained by a simple multiplication of safe stress times gross

ou~ regard to wbat tbe actual stress is ar any point in tbe cross-section or What
residua! stress pauem.
11
ilh.
the 1lllc
:ca.
As a scarting point consider steel which as a materia! is perfectly elastic u .
tain srrain E, is achieved and tben is plastic (i.e., constant stress with increas· ntiJ actr.
A coupon c~t from che web of a rolled shape exhibits sucb behavior, as sh~ng S!taiq)_
don~d line~ in Fig. 6.6.l. The solid lines indicate the behavior of an H-shaped :~leby dit
uon mcludmg residuai stress. d ~-
To account for tbe effects of early yielding because of residuai stress. co .
?be~ at a discance x from the a.x.is of zero sn:wn caused by ~nding (Fig. 6.6.2). ;;:~r OQc
mg ts taken as an infinitesima] amount cons1stent w1th eqwhbnum ar lhe tanoeni benci.
load. The bending moment contribution from stress on lhe one fiber is " ltlodu1~
dM = (stress)(area)(momenc arm) = (0E,x)(dA)(x)

(6.6.1 ,
wruch for the eotìre cross-section becomes
M = {8E1x 2 dA = 0 { E1x~ dA
}.4 }A
From elementary bending theory. the radius of curvature is
l
R=-
8
l M M
0 = - = - -- - =
R equivalent El E' I (6.6JJ
Thus
E ' I == -M
0
= 1·' A
E1x- d A
E'= _!.1E
f
·c2dA
A t· (6.6.4)
, - - - -- .r
I
- --j__.. ----- (assumed
Axis of zero st,:ain due '.o bending
to coincide w,th center of
8 1
gravity for infinitesimal bending)
Figure 6.6.2
~tress on fiber at di.stance x 8 "' ,a,in ang.l e
Irom ax1s of zero strain due
to bending.
- - --~ · --------
-- - ___,, ___ -- _-~-
Seclion 6 -6 Development of Column Strength Curves lncluding Residuai Stress • 247
"."hich nmy be called lhe effective mndulus and used in Fg. 6.4.1 as an equivalcnl valuc
lor E,.
lf the idealized elastic-plastic J-e curve of Fig. 6.6. 1a (dotted) is used (for
f < F>' ' E, = E and for f = F,., E, = O) the bcnding stiffness of yielded parts be.comes
zer_o; howevcr, the buckling stre~gth will be thc same as a column whose tnomenl of inertia
1 1
~ s the moment of inertia of the portion remaining elastic. Equation 6.6.4 then becomcs
E' = -
I
El X 2 dA =
i\ ( elastìc part only)
(6.6.5)
Thc stress at which thc column may begin to bend, from Eq. 6.3.1. ìs
(6.6.6)
(6.6.7)
In order for Eq. 6.6.7 to be useful, the relationship betwecn Fcr and I, musi be established.
Case A. Buckling about Weak Axis
A reasonable assumplion will be that the flanges become fully plastic before the web
yields (see Fig. 6.6.3).
Let k = proportion of the flange remaining elastic = 2xo/ h = Ae/Ar. Tben Eq.
6.6.5 becomes
(6.6.8)
if thc web is neglccted in computing /. Applying the tangent modulus delìnition,
E = nominai incrementai stress dP/ A ACE

1 = - - - = -- (6.6.9)
incrementai elastic strain dP/ A, A
E
E,A = A. E= (Aw + 2kA1)E (6.6.10)
where Aw = web area

AI == gross area of one nange
A = total gross area of section
.l'
'
Figure 6.6.3
Ponion of section that has ,_ _; ~ ~
yielded. Yicldcd n ange 1ips
~~~
8 · Eq 6 6.7 gives
Solving Eq. 6.6.10 for k and using Eq. 6.6 · in · ·
E1 A Aw
k = 2EA1 - 2AJ
-rr2Ek3 -rr2E [ AE, _ Aw] 3
Fa= (KL/r)2 = (KL/r)2 2A 1 E 2A1
uc 1 with respecc !o the Weak ax:1s (y..Y).

r b k)"ng
which includes the elaslic web effect. ,or
Case B. Buckling about Strong Axis
Again, assurning the web 1s. elasuc,

· but neglecting its contribution toward the lllomen of
1
inertia gives approximately
(6.6.]3)
If the elastic web is included,
(6.6.]4)
(6.6.tsi
Using tangeot rnodulus definition and Eq. 6.6. IO.

E,A
2kAJ =E - Aw
which, upon elirninating the 2kA I term from Eq. 6.6.15. gives
I, [E,A/ E - 2A,,,/3]
E - = - - ----:-::- E
I 2A1 + Aw/3 (6.6.16)
Thus
rr 2 Ek
Fc, = (KL/r) 2 (6.6.17)
is the approxirna1e equation using Eq. 6.6.11 for k, or more exactly using Eq. 6.6_ in
16
Eq. 6.6.7 gives
17 2E [E,A/E - 2Aw/3]
Fc, = (KL/ r)2 2AJ + A w/3 (6.6.18)
for buckling with respect to the strong ax.is (x- x).

From the ~oregoing developmenl il is appare~t that two equations are necessary
10
properly detenrune column strength of 1-shaped sectl~ns: o~e for s1rong-ax1s buckling and
one for weak-axis buckling. Although the value le/ I 1s not 1tself a function of the residuai
stress distribution provided that it satisfies che general geometrie requirement as shown.
Fig. 6.6.3; nevertheless, the criticai stress Fcr, compute<I as the buckling Ioad divided b:
the gross area, has a relationship with KL/r that does depend on residuai stress. '
Note that if the stress-strain curve for the materia] is not elastic-plastic. i.e., if f, is ne~
ther E nor zero. then che more general equation, Eq. 6.6.4. must be used instead of Eq. 6. .5
6
Section 6.6 Devel 0 . .
Pment of Column Strength Curves lncluding Residuai Stress • 249
EXAMPLE 6.6.1
Est~blish the column strength curve (Fc, vs KUr) for weak axis buckling of an H-shaped
secuon
st of steel having a yield stress of 100 ksi (690 MPa) exhibiting perfect elastic-plastic
rength in a coupon test (Fig. 6.6.4b), and having the very simplified residua) stress pat-
tern shown in Fig. 6.6.4a. Neglect the comribution of the web.
e ::J
"
Il
:: __..-- Neglect
1 r-- effect
11 of web
Il
Il
Ideai c lastic-ptastic
E= 29.ooo k.si
(200,000 MPa)
Figure 6.6.4
Data for Example 6.6.1. (a) Residuai-stress paueni
(b) Coupon s1re-ss-straln diagra.m
Solution:
For any external load the strain on every fiber is the same. Unti! a fiber reaches the strain
~Y at first yield, the applied load is
P= ffdA=fA
./A
After a ponion has become plastic, the applìed load is
P = (A - A,)F,. + f f dA
JA,
In this problem for Fc, = P/A s 2F_v/3 the enti.re section remains clastic. E,= E. in
whìch case E' is El,/ I and I, I; lhus, =
2Fy '1T2E
F =- = - ---,-
e, 3 (KL/r)2
2
KL '77 (29,000)
,. ( 2 / 3 )(IOO) = 65.S (point I, Fig. 6.6.S)
When Fc, = P/ A > 2FJ3, the flange tips have yielded, making /,, less than /; thus
I, (b/2)3 I
/=~=8
2F,. 1T1 E(/,/ /) rr2 E
F __ . - -- - -
cr - J - (KL/ r)2 8(K L/r)2
K L = 23.2 ( point 2. Fig. 6.6.S)

r
'-/se~ FyL---3- - - -----~,4

I '
~ 2F, 1 '
i 3
<
f
Figure 6.6.5 18.9 2.3.2 53.S 65.5
Column strengrh curve for Slenderneu ratio. 5f-
Examplc 6.6.1. r
· · Il y greate r than 2F>"/ ·3• When Fcr

' average stress mfimtes1ma
,or · = P/ A = F_, ,
1T2E
Fcr = F_, = 8(KL/r) 2
KL ,,,, 18.9 (point 3, Fig. 6.6.5)

r
when the tota! load p = F,.A. The results are shown in Fig. 6.6.5. lf there had be.e
. n no
residuai stress at Fc, = F.,;,
KL = 53.5 (point 4, Fig. 6.6.5)
T •
EXAMPLE 6.6.2
Establish the column strength curve fo:

che mo_re realistic linear distri~ution of residua) 5~
sbown in fig. 6.6.6. Consider wea1<-ax1s buckltng of an H-shaped secuon of steel for borli (a
F,. = 36 ksi (250 MPa) and (b) Fy = 100 ksi (690 MPa). Neglect the eftect of the web. l
A ..umenog[
residuai stress
in the web 1
I
Ideai elas1ic-plas1ic
V.E=
I
29.000ksi
I
ffb. &9i
'¼V'F,
I
E,
Figure 6.6.6 3
Data for Example 6.6.2 (a) Residuai-stress pallem (b) Coupon sucss-srrain diagram
Solution:
For an avenige superimposed stress f = P/ A :S 2F)3. the enti re section remains elastic
(Fig. 6.6.7a); therefore E, = E, and
2F,. r.2E
F. =-· = ----2
cr 3 (KL/ r)
For an average s tress due to applied load greater than 2}~/ 3, pan of the cross-section ·
plastic and part elastic. as in Fig. 6.6.7b. During this stage, the change in stress is not 1~
same on allfibers, because the modulus of elasticity is not the sa m e o n ali fibers.
Sectìon 6.6 Development of Column Strength Curves lncluding Residuai Stress • 251
2F,
f- T - - F., -
F,
,-H
2F,
T T
f = .!_
,-;; ,:t
A
0
(I x )
2F,
=igure 6.6.7 (b) Elasto-plastic case. f > ---'-
3
;r.ress distrìbution with linear
1:sidua! stress. f = superìmposed Slrc.s on elastic (ibers
rr 2 Ele/ l
Fc, = (KL/r )2
!!._ = 2(1/l2)(2x0 )3r

I 2(1/ 12)b3 r
neglecting the etfect of the web,

8rr2 E(xo/h)3 (a)
F.= - - --2-
e, (KL/r)
which gives Fa as a function oftwo variables, xo/b and KU,: An additìonal relatiooship i~
required. The total load during the elasto-plastic stage can be expressed
Pa = [
2 .fbt - 2 (2I)(.f - 32F,·)(l2 - bXo) bt ] (b)
which ìs the shaded area of the st1ess diagram in Fig. 6.6. 7b. From simi lar triangles on the
dotted triangle of Fig. 6.6.71:i,
f - 2F,. /3 2F,./3
= -- -
( 2
-1 - - xo) b b/2
b
Solving for f,
Xo] 4Fy
f= [1- ,; 3
Using Eq. (e) to eliminateffrom Eq. (b) gives
= {( _ Xo)4Fy _ [(1 _ xo) 4 2

F)' _ F)'](_!_ _ Xo)}
Pc, 2bt I b 3 b 3 3 2 b
Thus 2]
Fc, = A g = Fy I -
p [
34 (Xo)
b (cJ
which is used in combination with Eq. (a). The results are presented in Fig. 6.6.8.
Fcr Fc,
tor for
Xo Fy = 36 ksi KL Fv = 100 ksi KL
Fc, (ksi) r (ksi) r
b
0.667f; 24.0 )09.2 66.7 65.4

0.50
0.45 0.730 26.3 89.0 73.0 53.4
0.40 0.787 28.3 72.0 78.7 43.1
0.35 0.837 30.2 57.0 83.7 34.2
0.30 0.880 31.7 44.1 88.0 26.5
0.25 0.917 33.0 32.9 91.7 19.7
0.20 0.947 34.1 23.2 94.7 13.9
O.IO 0.987 35.5 8.0 98.7 4.8
I
.i-;Coupon test, F, = 100 ksi
700
100
I\
'1.
tID-r-.
~
A i 600
\ F,/3
I Residuai stress 500
I ,f
Inc lude distribution
:;
residuai stress. across flange w idth
o.. j ..t 50 F,. = 100 ksi
400 Q..l,t
Coupon test. Il
JF,• = 36h• 300 ...~
J
36 I
I I
200
1-
!
Include residuai stress,
F, = 36 ksi
-....... 100
Figure 6 6.8
C0lumn sn·ength cu~'--.~S
- ---:1---___J_ _ ___i___ ___J_ ____i___ __ _
~hov~·ing et·~xt o:- r c:~~C11;! { 20 40 60 80 iOO 140

,tres, ( f: cc T,.000 ks1 ).
-KL
;- (Weaie -ax,s
. slendemess ratio)
So!uiioj\ f 1Jr i~Àa:r:pfe -~}.( .2.
-· ~, . . .•. . . .. .
7
Section 6. Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) Strength Curves • 253
lf the web of the section were to be included, le/ I could easily include the web
terms. Furthermore, Eq. (b) could also have included the web 1erms. Such inclusion of the
effect 0 ~ the web brings in the variable A 11j A and in most cases the effect is small.
I
Fmally, curves similar to those of Fig. 6.6.8 can be obtained by using an average
st
r~ss-strain curve for a. short le ngth of rolled shape as referred to earlier in this section, in
which case Eqs. 6.6. 12 :md 6.6.18 can be used wi1h the E, obtained from the "cross-section"
stress-strain curve. •
6.7 STRUCTURAL STABILITY RESEARCH COUNCIL (SSRC)

STRENGTH CURVES
Parabohc Equation-Basis for Allowable Stre<;s Design

(1960-2004)
Based upon the methods disc ussed in Sec. 6.6, column strength curves can be obtained for
weak- or strong-axis buck.ling with various disiribmions of re,;idual slress. For most practi-
cal situations ic has been reported 1ha1 an assumed Jinear dis1ribution of residuai stress in
the flanges results in a reasonable average column curve l6.20]. Furtbe rmore, the develop-
ment in the previous section (Eqs. 6.6, I 2 and 6.6.17) show, that for 1be swne slenderness
ratio, H-shaped coluinn sections allowed to bend in the weak direc1ion can c arry less load
than columns perm itted to bend only in che strong direct.ion. Compressive residuai stress
which is greate.s1 ai the flange tips accounts for this strength difference.
Typical column strengt.h curve s for parabolic and linear distribution of re&idu al stre.s~
a.cross the flange are shown in Fig. 6. 7 .1. For s1rucl'ural carbon stecl s, tbe ave.rage value of
( 4) Strong a,i, -
.,.--~ parabolic residuai
s.rress.
0.9 _..,.... ( 3) Strong axis -
- line.ar fc!;.i dua.l
I
I
I
I
residna1 s.rress I
0.8 'i--··-- Eukr

, curve
I
I
(2 ) Weak ax is - I
par:ibolic
residuai stres1,;
0.7
\ I
\ I
,,
..._,
/ ,,
/ ,1
o.n SSRC pa.raoolic: \
srrtngrh Cllf\'e- \
\
Eq. 6. 7. l \
\
' \
C.5 I ~- - - - - -- - - - - - -- - -- - --,
\ '
- - --'-- - -- - ... ~
i _ _ ___(,_,_ __,
Figure 6.7.1
Column stre ngth curves f.,,. o 0 .5 I.O -/2
H-shaped se-etions having
compressive residuai sere·~ ai
flange rips. (Adapted frnrn
Ref. 6.20, p. 39)
. . ress is 12 to J 3 ksi (83 to 90 MPa), corrcsponct·

the maximum compressive_ re s iduai st · · s dual stress will generally be a Jowe f ing
o 3F.
roug hly Io .. J'" For 1he high-strength stee1s re; 1 r rac:.
tion of the yield stress. . SC Specificati on structural steel design accorct·
Since 1960 and unul the Al 2005 · h SSRC b · tng
' . D . Specification has use<l t e para ohe cquati
co lhe AISC Allowable Stress es_,gn The SSRC parabolic curve is on
based on the one proposed by Bletch [6.9].
F,. (KL)
Fc, = Fv [ I - 41r;E - r-
2
]
(6.7.11
. . d · Fio 6 7 J with 01her curves that distinguish betw•••

Equa11on 6 ·7. l 1s compare t·mb de .· "· The
· . f . -,
SSRC curve g1ves a1rly good agree
residuai stress patterns and axes o en m.,. . . men1
· d . · s particularly
with rhe weak axis curve for H-shape sec110n • .
when 111s noted that paraboi·
. _ . 1c
. · · e of the actual situa11on than lmear residua\ stres\
residuai stress 1s more represen1a11v · . .
. may note thai 10 prov1de the same degree of safely forali
F rom F ig. 6 .7 . 1 one d. h
co]umns, different strength curves would be rcquired dcpen mg on I e expected residua)
stress disuibution, the shapc of the scction. and the axis of beoctmg when the column
buckles. - · , I·
· made th a t p·g 1unct1on " e , w nch was u»>
N ote 1s 1 . 6..7. I 1·ntroduces, che ·slenderness
. .. "'""
as the slenderness parameter (instead of KUr) in ali prevmus e~mons_of th e AISC LRFD
Specificatio n. The 2005 A!SC Specijication replaces Àc by KU,. The slendemess pararne.
ter Àr is detìned a,
Fy
>.;= - - -- (6.7.2)
Fcr(Euler) -rr' E
(KL/r) 2
(6.7.3)
In 1em1s of rhe slentlerness parameter >.,. the SSRC p arabola b~ome s

>.;
4
for >., s V2 (6.7.4)
Note that A, cc \/2 when che parabola and the Euler hyperbui.: !.:s::cume tangent to each
0ther. Thus Eq. 6.7.4 applies for Ac !f V2;
for greater v,1i·i1 , f A.- · the Euler equaliDn
applies,
(6.7.5)
St.rength Equation-Basis for AISC LRFD and ASD De,;ign

Methods (2005)
T he parabolic equation, Eq. 6.7.4, provides a reasonable appro;_1mation for a colunm

scrcngth curve rhat provides a transition between elastic buckling and yielding, reflec1ing
essentially the effecl of residuai stress. Traditionally, accident;-il eccentricity and inì1ial
crookedncss were accounted for by using as increased safety factor as the slendemess
incrcased. Load and resistance factor design philosophy provided fora constane m~in o(
safety for ali columns. If the strength tmly varies with slend erness. then the nominai
strength P,, .~hould account for it.
Section 6.7 Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) Stre"gth Curves • 255
Bjnrhovde. as reported in thc SSRC G11ide fo.81, sho we d 1ha1 threc c olumn ,trength
c urves would be ~uftic-ien, to approximale 1he s1rength for aH prac-lical s1ecl shapes. These
:m: referrcd 10 as SSRC Curves I, 2. and J and 1he details are 10 be found in 1he SSRC
Guide[() 8, pp. 52-61 j.
In 1he developmem of the 2()05 AJ'SC Specific-ation. the spccific-nlion c-ommiuec
decided IO l-0nlinue using only one colurnn slrength curve for s1eef de;ign. Tl;u~. ,he sa111e
equation used in the 1999 LRf-D Spccificalion was adopteJ for Lhc 2005 AlSC Specifica-
(61 1, lÌon. The equatiun fil~ the SSRC C urve 2 modificd 10 re!lect a n initial out-of-5traightness
o f abouL 1/J 500. Howe vcr. the s le nde rne;,;, par,11n cter A, wa., repl~ccd by the more familiar
slenderne~., ratio KUr.
~l'Wect The nomi nal Slrenglh P,, of rolled sh:1pe co,npre~sion memher~ I ALS-C-E3) i~ given by
grctniru
[113!".!ld~ (6. 7 .6)
tre-,
KL fE
e,y for ill I. For - :S -Ul\//-=:· or /<~ :?-: 0.41:.-_,
r F,
led !"CSiduil
lhr colllllt
l:hwa.sll!ct
~ISCLR!tl KL 'E
r~-paln' :t. l·o;- - > 4.71
r
f:;:_
\ F,
or Fe<0.4~F,
{6.7 , >
(6.J.:, 1\i:,·~ F. i~ 1he elastic buciding slress (Enìer equ.u:ion. Eq Il.:-,; -:. .:i, r.,ç, , :
16 7.9/
f K L -,:
\ -;-)
T'ie -.:stablishmcnt of an acceptable s111g!C' equ:1tic1: ,,f me crii.;ca! stre,, Fc-r ha~ bec ..
the :.:.ib_ie, t of some comroversy , rnce. as has been , 'luwr.. t:he , h"pe cf tr.., c:,~,s-<.t..--c,ion
i10tl tbe met.holding) infl,;er.~ the <'.ren~h F..i. .
(6.i.l !henunre. re.sidua l stress and out-of-straigbrnes5 are sign,iicm, inOu.-ncing parameter, 1-~-
.,.-c oot. quantifiabk. Another major faclor affccting rnlumn ,trcng.th is end re•ùa:nL p ., -
: iangentlO!àl
' Ì<""uiarly in situations where lhe joims are 1101 rigid: By.,rhode [6 21 J ha:, pm \·ide.i euen-
.,,,.,_ trl".annent rel:11ing to proc1ical design ~;itua:ion,. Bjorhov :e [6. 22. 6.231 2is-:, ha.,
.e Eulcrelflll' re, ;ewed 11,e entire subject in the context of load a.'lcl g·sistance factor design .
\.fore rcc encly. Hall [6.24) has compared data fron1 physical test~ :uiJ hJ, p~.s.:-nt,.:d
~!atistica!ly cleveloped expressio ns for Fa - TI1ough the i!Clual AlSC C{!t::'llons :ire nN
rder;ed ro by Hall. Fig. 6.7.2 ìs pre.sented herc 10 compare Lht experimenwl data [6.24.1
wi:h the AISC equatìon for Fc,- Other recent propnsais for column streng:.h Cl:rve., havc
been given by Rondal and M:iquoi (6.261 aoct Ro11er [6.25]. :is weli as the thrc,c: SSRC
[1 Curves I. 2. and 3 mentioned previously (6.8). Lui and Chen [6.27] h;m~ di,, cu5sc:G :.he
design o f columns with imperfections using a beam-colurru, (see C hap. 12) approach.
lùon for a.-# Columns Having Varying Axial Load, Stepped Columns,
yie\ding,-; and Tapered Columns
entticìty '11
ras tbe~ Special treatroent is required when the axial load varies along the length ami/or 1he mem-
a C()llSIJI'-: ber is not prismatic over the enrire column length. The reader is referred IO Anderson and
,s,lbeDmc Woodv,:ard [6.28) and Castiglioni (6.29) for stepped columns. Shrivastava [6.30) for
'\
I.<,
1.4 F'!.. = AISC Formula (EJ -2) or ~3-3)

F,. F,
1.2
I.O
...
F"
0.8
F,
0.6
0.4
0.2
Figure 6.7.2
Cornparison of AISC
equations for Fcr for columns 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 I. ~ 2.11 2.2 1.4 2.6
o o.2 11.4 O.h O.X
wilh dala from phys ical tesls. A.. = Sl~nde-roc:,...s. parainc.tcr
(Test da1a from Hall (6.241)
· varymg
columns hav111•• · ax1.i·. I I oa d. S·andhu {6 ·31 J for columns. with an intennediate ax1·a1
"'
load. ami Ermopoulos [6.32] for tapere d b ars· un d er s tepped ax,al loads·
6.8 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

The sfrength requiremenc in Joad and resistance factor design according to AISC-E3 may
be stated
4>.-Pn ;;;, P,, (6.8.lj
wherc ef,, = resistance factor = 0.90

P11 = nominai scrength = Fc,Ag
r;,, "" Eqs. 6. 7.7 and 6.7.8
P,, = factored service Joad (see Sec. 1.9)
Eqs. 6. 7.7 and 6.7 .8 for Fc, are applicable in design of or,:;__!,a!) rolled H-shaped sec-
tion columns; however when thin-walled plate elements ar,, 1.:,< d in che cross-section
A1SC-E3 and AISC-E7 provide for using a reduced efficienc_. 1'f ihe section . When a thin
e lcment exhibits ìnstability {locai buckling) such an ele.ment dc,,, not carry its proponion-
ate share of the load. This may occur when the element widt11, .~:·c,;ness ratio exceeds the
ì. ,. values given in AISC Table 84. l .
AISC-E7 introduces a reduction factor Q into Eqs. 6 .7.7 an,i ;-,.7 .8 when lhe limits A, of
AISC Table 8 4.1 are exceeded. Thus, when locai buckling of one 0: more plate components
of the cross-section may occur prior IO achieving the overall buckling , !rength of the member.
the F, in Eqs. 6.7.7 and 6.7 .8 becomes QFy, giving forche criticaJ ~rress, the following:
I. For -KL ::;; 4.71

r
ai: -
QF.r
- or F~ 2: 0.44Q Fy
(6.8.;)
.. ~- -- -·-- ·- - ------- - - - - -
~~---
Section 6.8 Load and Resistance Factor Design • 257
I()!)
--.,Ì'-,
90
\.
' - 600
8o
\~,
i\. 500
~+~
70 i-..
~
.._"
60
-~ ..f,tJ'
-
i
]
so i--
rn;:~ ~
·'E
u 40 L-...
~
_.t;. ,, 36Jc .
-~r-. ......_
"
...
I'--
~~
3
- 200
30 .....
~~
i'-...
i'--...
20 i...:::
~ ...... I00
r---.-
Figure 6.8.1
IO --,___
I I '
Criticai co\umn stress F cr vs 140 160 180 200
KV~ according to Load and
o 20 40 60 80 100 120
Resistance Fac1or Design, for Slendemets ratio KL

/ r
vanous yìeld stresses.
KL > 4.71 -
2. For-
r
Z: QF,.
or F, < 0.44QF,.
Fc, = 0.877F, (6.8.3\
Since Q = I for the overwhelming majorily of rolled H-shapcd secrions (standard

W, S, and M shapes) listed in the AISC Mamwl Column Load Tables for F., ,= 50 J...si. Lhe
deve lopmeni of the logie behind the use of the Q factor is reserved for Sec·. 6 . 18 in par, li
on platc buckling.
The criticai stress F<., equation~. &js. 6.7.7 and 6.7 .8, are shown in Fig. 6 .8. 1 for
F,. = 36, 50, 60, 70. ancl 100 ksi. AISC Specifìcation scc1ion rcfercnces for axial compre•·
sìon are given in Table 6.8. 1.
Singly Symmetric Double Angles and Tees

Hot-rolJed double anglc~ and 1cc sec1ion~ uwitlly bocldc in 1hc- nc~ural mode t-.:i.-.ed ,,n
KUrwith rcspcct 101hc.x-or y-axì~. Howcvcr, ~incc thc ,hcar ccntcr 1-ee Scc. ~ 41 J <'C, D\'I
coincide wiùi thc ccntroid nf thc scction, a 1<m.io nal cfTcct t ~ fl<\'"hlc. Tit<>Utih 1hc ,ub.rt'<'t
111
of tor.iion i~ not 1rcatec.l unti I ('haptcr !I. thc rcadcr ,hould nOlc th:111hc AISC !,f.,n, / 1.aMc,
''Available Strcnglh in Axial Comprc.\sion" g1vini: dr"i,tn a~rnl ,1n-J\$th .J,, l',. hìf J,,ut-lt-
111
ang le~ and btruc tural u:e, include thc rll'ect of the nc~urnl-toi'M\>nal l>ud..hns hnm ,i.atc
the calcula1ion of Fc:r· Sincc tor-.ional ,unne" i, , ,i:nil,,·nntl'.1- rt'l"tcJ 111 1he ~ul>l- PI thl-
thickne,~ of 1he elcmcnt, (tlangc, nnJ web) 1hi, cllc.'.1 ,ml)· l'l' ,,a:n1fkitnt c->11 " ' " ' " ' ' ",li
having vcry 1hin componcnt,. ,uch "" htiht 1111i:c -.«l11>n, ThC' .k,uMc ilni lc IIIC'IIIN'r h.l,
ssion -AISC S pecifica,ti on

TABLE 6.8.1 Axial Compre
References
Specificatio n sections
AISC [1.13]
Topic
B4
L()cal buckling limils for
''noncompact'" sections
84
Locai buckling limits for
"compact'" sections
E2
Slendemess limjts C l.3a
Moment resisting frame. definiLion
CJ.3b
Unbraced frame, detinition
C2
Effective length faccors
E3
Column formulas, basic
Torsional and nexural torsional buckling
E4
E5
Single angles
E6
Built-up members
E7
Slcnder compression elements
Commentary C2
Alignment chart
been specifically tre;iled by Astaneh, Goel, and Hanson 16.40]. Zahn and Haaijer l6.4!j,
and Galambos [6.87), and the effect of b;ilanced welded connec11ons has been treated by
Tempie ;ind Sakla [5.43).
Built-up Sections
The compression member strength of built-up sections is affect,,J hy the shear transfer
strength of che fasteners attaching che elements together. and the lip-resistance of these
connectors. A <louble angle compression chord member of a tni ·,, .:an behave as a single
element compression member only when the two angles are ade,. ·:tely auached to each
other so that when the flexural buckling limit stale is reached the1 .: ,;, li be no relative axial
movcment (shear deformation) of one angle relative to anotber. '! .•e strength of built-up
sections as affected by fastener strength, spacing, and installaijo;; · ; -;-1-resistance) ofbolrs
has been s tudied by Libove [6.39] and Aslani and Goel f6.89, (._ ··, . a nd design ru\es are
gìven by Duan and Chen [6.82).
Column Strength as Affected by Connector Spacin g
When the ·controlling buckling mode "involves relative deformali ,~:1 that produces shear
forces in lhe connectors between individuai shapes," a modi tì~cl slendemess ralio
( K L/r )m is used. For Lhe double angle section, this wi Il be the ca~c when the controlling
flexural bucklin_g occurs in the piane parallel 10 the outstanding legs (y-axis for AISC
Manual properlles). When the controlling flexura\ buckling limit s1a1c is based on ,len-
de~ness KL/r in the piane parallel to the back- to-back legs (x-axis for AISC Mamwl pnip-
enics), th ~ angles will move parallel to each other and the connec to rs will nol aft~t the
compress1on strength.
Section 6.8 Load and Resistance Factor Design • 259
The modified slcndemes . ( L/ ) .

the connections AISC E s_ ratto K r m ts al~o dependent on the slip-resis1ance of
· • 6 proVldes:
I. Far snug-tighr bolred connections:
2. F Id r m
( KL) =
r
)(KL)2 +
o r;
(~)2 (6.8.4)
or we ed connector.t and for fully-1ightened bolred connec1io11s:
( -KL)
r
·- =
m
)(KL)2
-
o
r
+ O82
· (1 +
2 ( )2
cx
rx2 )
!!__
r;b
(6.8.5)
where ( ~L) 0
= slenderness ratio of the built-up rnember acting as a unit (for the
a y-axis in double angle mernbers}
-;:: = largest slenderness ratio of an individuai componcnt (for the z-axis
l
of a single angle for the double angle member)

( K/) m = modified (increased} slendemess ratio ba.~ed on che connectors (for
double angle members this replaces KUr based on v-ax.is)
a = distance between connectors measured along mcmber lengch
r; = minimum radius of gyration of individua! component (che z-axis
for an angle}
r;b = radius of gyration of individuai componem relative to it~ centroidal axis
parallel to member axis of buckling (for double angle members this is ry)
a = h/(2r;b) = separarion ratio
h = distance between centroids of individuai components perpendicular
to the member axis of buckling
a
-r;b = column slenderness ratio of individuai component relative to its
centroidal axis parallel to member axis of buckhng
The application of the modified slenderness ratio to the double angle member
applies only when ( K L/r \. exceeds ( K L/r )x; however, the modified ratio should also be
checked when (KL/r)x is the larger by only a small amount. In effect. the moditìed \·alue
always replaces the ( K L/r )y for the double angle member.
Tubular Sections
The formulas for Fc, are applicable for HSS sections and other tubula.r sections. Additional
infonnation on tubular compression members is available in tbc work of Sherman [6. 14.
6.15, 6.33}, as well as Snyder and Lee [6.34, 6.35\. Chen and Ross [6.36}, and Ross. Chen.
and Tali [6.37]. For round columns, see Galambos [6.38].
Single Angle Sections
The strength of single-angle struts (i.e. compression members) has received considerable
attention in recent years. For many years AISC recommended against using single-angle com-
pression members because of their having the torsi(mal (see Chap. 8) or t1exural-torsional (see
Chap. 9) lirnit states for strength.
The nominai strength Pn in compression is determined in accordance with AISC-E3
or AISC-E7, and then the slendernes$ modifications of AlSC-ES are applied if necessary.
. · members, AJSC-E5 allows for the rn

For the design of single-angle compress1onbe Joaded through one leg (lh e CCt O!
· · be lected when the mem r s are e salllc
eccenlnc1ty to neg . . f two-bolt connections or weldin OJic
Jeg), members are auached by a mimmum O g, and thcrc
are no interrnediate transverse loads. f •.
The effective slenderness ratio is calculated as O11 ov. s.
I. For equal-leg angles and unequaJ-leg anglcs connect~d thr?ugh the longer le
that are individuai members or web members 0! a planar truss WJl h adJacent web me1111ier!
attached to tbc same side of the gusset plate:
L
a. When O $: -- s 80.
rx
-KL = 72 + 0.75-
L
(6.8.6)
r rA.
L
b. When - 2: 80,
rx
KL = 32 + 1.25~ S 200 (6.8.7J

r rx
where L = Jength of member between work points at truss chord centerl ines
rx = radius of gyration about geometrie axis parallel to connected leg
ry = radius of gyration about che minor principal axis
When the unequal legs length ratio is less than 1.7 and conoected through the shoncr
leg, the KUr value, as computed in Eqs. 6.8.6 or 6.8.7. ~hall be increased by adding the fot.
lowing term,
(6.8.&J
where be and b, are the lengths of the longer and shorter k g. respectively, o( the angle.
The minimum KUr value, after adjustmem. is
KL L
- 2: 0.95- (6.8.9)
r Y.r
2. For equal-leg angles and unequal-leg angles, conne::tcd :hrough 1he longer tcg.
that are web members of box or space lrusses with adjacent \; ~ . ,.,~mbers attached io tbc
same side of the gussct plate or chord:
L
a. When O !S - !S 75,
r_,
KL L
- r = 60 + 0.8 - (6.8.10)
L
b. When - 2: 75.
r:r
Kl L
- r = 45 + - :s 200 (6.8.11)
where the definition of syrnbols is given following Eq. 6.8.7.

Section 6 .9 Effective length • 261
Whc n thc uncqual legs lcngth ratio is Jess lhan 1.7 and connectcd through the shoner
leg. th~ KUr value, as compulcd in Eqs. 6.8. 1O or 6.8. l l , shall be increascd by adding the
followmg tenn.
(6.8. I 2)
where bt and b, are the lengths of the longer and shorter leg. respectively. of tbc angle.
Tue minimum KlJr valuc, aftcr adjustment, is
KL L (6.8.13)
- :::. 0.82-
r rx
. 3. Single angles having other end conditions, with leg length ratios larger than 1.7.
or Wllh transverse loading, must be evaluated using AISC-Chapter H.
M any researchers contributed to development of the single angle research. including
Kennedy and Murty [6.42, 6.43], Woolcock and Kitipomchai [6.44), El-Tayem and Goel
[6.45, _6.46], Chuenmci [6.47], Galambos {6.87], Elgaaly, Dagher, and Davids (6.90. 6.91].
Adlun and Madugula (6.92]. Zureick [6.96], and Bathon. Mueller. and Ke mpner {6.971-
Other Non-Symmetrical Sections
Sections such as crucifonn (see Smith [6.48]) and Z-sections require special consideration
using the provisions of AISC-E4. The strength of buill-up sections connectcd intermit-
te ntly by fastene rs is affected by such fastener spacing as discussed above.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
6.9 .~ ~;___-- -- - - - - - - -- - - - - -- --
Discussio n of column strengtb to this point has assumed hinged ends where no mo ~ ent
rotational restraint exists. Zero moment restraint at the ends constitutes the weakest sHua-
tion for compression members having no transverse movement of one end relative to the
other. For such pinned-end columns the equìvalent pinncd-end length KL is the actu~l
length L; thus K = I.O as shown in Fig. 6.9.l a. Tue equìvalent pinned-cnd length ts
re fe rred to as the e.ffectìve length.
lp ip ip
,- r
'1 I ·~
T I
Q-.
I
I I
L 1 KL = O.ìL
\L
I KL = L L
I
1
I
KL = !_ L
~• 11
ll l ?
I
I
I
I •
Figure 6.9.1 . .
lp
(a ) End rota1 ions
I'
(b ) End romions
\'
(e) One end
remlincd. oiher
(d \ Parti~Hy r~m ained
al e 3(h end
Effective length KL; no JOIDI unrestrained fully rcs1rained
unres1rained
iranslatiOO-
For most real siruations ''.1oment restrainl at ille eo<ls d~s e~ist causing thc .
of zero moment (intlection pomts) to move away frorn lhe reSlramed ends as s1.n.._ ~ 11
Fig. 6.9. l b. c. and d where the effective leogths KL_ then are reduced. """'Il
In many situations it is diflicult, or per_haps arnpossible, to ~d~uately evaJ
degree of moment restraint contributed by. adJacent
. members
.
I lllle illt
fallframmg rnto a eournn1,.
° .
~~-
footing and soil under it, aml indeed the full mceracHon members of a stee '·, 1
Whether or the degree of end restraint can be ascert~med accurately, the
001 d
must understmid the concepts of hmced frame ao unbrcued frame. A more extc ~
treatment of frames is givcn in Chap. 14. 111r.e
Braced Frame
A hracedframe, acc-ording co AISC-Cl .3a, is one in which "lateral stability is pr .
. al . . I . "Th . Ib . OVtdcd i...
iagon bracmg. shear walls or equ1va ent mea.ns. e vert1ca racmg system VJ
d
" adeguate'' as determined by structural analysis " . . . to preveat buckling of the lllustbt
and to maìntain che lateral s1abilì1y of the strucmre, including the overturning ~
drift, under the facto réd loads .... " Note thai a vertical column in a braced fra e eas(lf
"d f· I · ·t b me wn..,..
have no s1 eways mo11ernent o 1ts top re auve !I> 1 s ottom. 0
.,...
Figure 6.9. l illustrates effective lengths for columns in a braced frame. .
II
been determined that a frame is braced, che bracing is pre-s umed to previde any Oncc bai
eraI restr~inr, as in Fig. 6.9.2a and e: th~refore, th~ jo!n_lS are assumed not to mov~ '--
(at
. Ileast 10 first order structural analys1s) and an ind1v1dual column may be des1gne<1
· erallJ
asif
1s0 ated once rhe effective ]ength factor K has been determined.
tht ~
From Figs. 6.9. l and 6.9.2a and e, one may observe that end restraint ·
frames always reduces the distance between intlection points: that is, reduces
length KL from the pinned-end condition. The dfective length factor K will alw e CClht
than unity. ays be te.
~
p p
p
p_J
~::,----- --.,-;,
... ...
,,
).(
,
... ...
/'
n I
0.7L < KL < L
2
T
KL
L
I
I
I
I
' I ''
/ KL > U.
11
1
, ... ... I
,, ... I~
I I~
(h I Unbraced rrame. hinged bue

(a) Braccd frame, hinged base
__ J:
/7
L < KL<2L
Figure 6.9.2
Effcctive length KL for
frames. (e) Braced frame, fiaed bue
'II
I
\
(d) Unbrlced frame, futed bue

\J
Section 6.9 Effective length • 263
Unbraced Frame
An unbracedframe,
th nd according to AlSC-Cl.3b. is one in which "laieral s1ability depends
upon e be ing stiffness of rigidly connected beams and columns." The buckling of an
u_nbraced_frame is one of sidesway where. for example. the top of a column moves to the
s1de relative to the bottom. In Fig. 6.9.2b and d an unbraced frame is shown having side-
sway buckling. The buckled shape and therefore the effective length of the columns will
depend on the stiffnesses of 1he panicipating members in flexure. The effective leng1h KL
may be obtained by matching the buckled shape of a column with a portion of the pinned-
end column buckled shape. As shown in Fig. 6.9.2, KL will always exceed L.
To understand why lhe mi11imu111 value of K in an unbraced frame is 1heoretically I .O.
examine the rectangular frame of Fig. 6.9.2d. The stiffest situation would be when the
beam is infinitely stiff, that is, it cannot bend. The intlection poinl would then be at mìd-
height and the buckled shape would be as in Fig. 6.9.3a.
The practical situation in an unbraced frame is that K is always v ·,:ater rlw11 w1ir_,•.
Furthermore, lhere is no simple way of obtainìng a value other than cvaluating the end
restraint. AISC-C l.3a requires that K "shall be. determined according to 1he methods of
analysis suggested in AlSC-C2-Commemary."
Alignment Charts for Evaluating Effective Length Factor K
For ordinary design, it is entirely impractica) to analyze an entire frame to detem1ine Ìt$
buckling strength and the effective lengths for the members.
Various investigators have provided charts to permit easy determination of _fra'.11e
buckling loads and effective lengths for commonly encountered sicuations. Eftective
length factors K are given by Anderson and Woodward [6.28] for stepped columns.
Sandhu [6.31] for columns having an intermediate axial load. Lu [6.49] for ga_b led
frames, Fraser (6.84] for pin-based crane columns. Stoman 16.851 for cross bracm~s,
Rutenberg and Scarlat [6.861 for columns in one-story buildings, and Hassan [6.50] _tor
one-story, one-bay frames, having vertical loads applied to the columns at an intermcdiate
point in addition to the load at the top. Galambos [6.5 J_l has presemed them for one- and
P!-~!
'-?
[.
I
r
L
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
r
i l ,,
I
l
KL = 2L KL > lL
J>ania_l / Z
p \ re.~tr:nnl I
,' />
I
f
Figure 6.9.3 _. ta) End rotation ( b) One end rotation fully (cl Onc end rl\t:ll iOII pa11i:1lly n·simincLI
Effective length KL; JOIII! fully restrained res1rained, olber olhcr end unrcs1ruìned
1J1111slation possible. unrestraìncd
1( -Gs
G,.
K
I.O
Gs
CO
50.0
.,
100.0
00
20.0
IO.O
..
100.0
50.0
I
IO.O IO.O so.o 50.0
30.0 5.0 30.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 20.0 4.0 20.0
3.0
0.9 3.0
2.0 2.0
IO.O 3.0 IO.O
8.0 &.O
~i
0.8 7.0 7.0
I.O I.O 6.0 6.0
0.8 0.8 5.0 s.o
0.7 0,7
4J) ' 2.0 4.0
0.6 0.7 0.6
0.5
0.4
o.s
0.4
3.0
il 3.0
2.0 7 2.0
0.3 0.3
1.5
0.6
0.2
I.O I.O
O.I
o 0.5 o I.O o
(a) Sidesway prevented (a) Sidesway not prevented
( Braced frame) (Unbraced frame)
+
()R
cl
8,. 8, A b1
bi 8,. o,
c2
Figure 6.9.4
Alignrnent Chans for b3 8 Os 89
effective length of columm (JR /J b4
in continuous frames c3
(6.54 or A/SC Manual 8,
pp. 16.1-241, 242], where
Il/ L, columns t
p
G = '2:-1 / L, girders
two-story, one-bay-wide frames, and Gurtinkel and Robinson (6.52] bave given Kvalucs
for tbc generai case of an elastic rotationally restraìned column (both with and witholl
sidesway ela.~tic restraint). Switzky and Wang f6.53] have summarized buckling lold
data from which effective lengths can be obtained for frames one-bay wide and up tomie
stories high.
The most commonly used procedure for obtaining effective length is to use dle
alignment charts originally developed by O. J. Julian and L. S. Lawrence, and prcscaled
in detail by T. C. Kavanagh [6.54): Tbe alignment chart method using Fig. 6.9.4 inbo
•Tue derivation was ~nled in detail in lhe 2nd ediùon ( 1980) of dùs te,u (pp. 843-8.'\ I).
Section 6.9 Effective Length • 265
(a) (b) (e) (e)

(d) <O
..1./JI.
l ~
l
l'L
l
~l'L
l ,:l,j l l l l
? ·~J
Blk:klcd I I ' I I
I
' '' I I
''
shapeof I I I
column I I I I I
I
'
''
I I I I I
shown by I
dashcd \
\
I
I
I
I I' I
I
''
I I I
lirw, \ I I I
,,,.,,. ,,,.,,. I
n, rr
I
I
7!t "'rr 1/lr

t t t t
t t
'TheorcticaJ K va.lue 0.5 0.7 1.0 I.O 2.0 2 .0
Rccomrnendcd dci.ign va.Ne, ,wt;en
I Ktcal condi1ions art l.nnMxlm;ued. 0.65 0.1\0 I.O 1.2 2.10 2 .0
.llfJ Rotation fixed, Tran<lation fi~cd

Figure 6.9.5
Effective tength factors for
cen.
trally loaded columns
)l&V1ng v·"ous
.... idealized end
End
condirjons
code
fo Rotalion free, Translation fixcd
Rnu.1ion fU<ed. Tra.nslation free

I
conditions. (Adapted from
Ref. 6.8, p. 49)
? Ro1a1ion free, Tra.nslation free
suggested by the AlSC Commentary as satisfying the "analysis'' requirement of A1SC-

C2.2 lo get "adequate'' K values. Dumonteil [6.93) has presented e,quations equiYalent
to thc alignmcnt charts, and Lui (6 .94) has given a simplified formula altcrnati\'e.
It is emphasized that thcse alignment chans are based on idealized condition~ whkh
seldom exist in real structures. The alignment charts were based on rhe deflec1ed shapes of
the sub assemblages shown in Fìg. 6.9 .4. in addition to a list of nine conditions. presented
in the AISC Commentary-C2.2b. For different end beam conditions. AISC pro\'idcs a set
of girder stiffness multipliers that could be used for improved accurac) in the value of TI.'.
The development of the alignment chans is primarily based on the assumption that all
beam-column connections are fully restrai.ned. With complex framing schcmes. the limita-
tions of the alignment charts to model the stability of frames berome~ mo~ prc\'alcnt. ln
such situations, AlSC Commentary-C2.2b provides alternative approaches for the dctenni-
nation of tbe cffective length. However the..~ methods can be 1.edious and impractical to
apply in routine design. AlSC 2005 includcs an alternative in\proved method. called thc
Direct Analysis Method, that detem1i11es the required strength more accurate\~ and allows
the use of K = I in the compressive strength cquations. lliis new mcthod ncc0un1i:. explic-
itly for imperfections and inelasticity, prior to huckling. hy using n:duced stitTncss IC'
account for the spread of yielding and by using notional lateral loads to account for mcm-
ber imperfections and out-of plumness. The method is prc~entcd in Al SC Appcndix ì. and
is discussed in more dctail in Chapte rs 12 and 14.
For simple situations. one may use Fig. 6.9.5 from thc SSRC Guide lti.8). For
braced frames it is always conservative 10 takc the K factor a:- uniry. ami s0mc: interpola-
tion is possible from Fig. 6.9.5. For unbraced frame s. exc:cpt perhap for 1hc nagp,,k-
type situation of Fig. 6.9.5, case (e). an nrbitrary selection l'f J; is 001 sati~r.1e1<,r\· f,>r
design.
tors for Inelastic

Adjustment of Alignment Chart K Fac
Column Behavior
. . fon involves slendemess ratios KUr ·
The design of columns in ordmary constrnc 1 • • •n tbc
.melasuc
. buckJmg. range (1.e.,
. I ~ • F, . > about 0.5Fv ). The melastic bu kl·
À ,- < ··' o, e, • e •ng
strength is given by Eq. 6.3.1,
(6.3. I]
. ·-..1·tY d, t ~•·tr"v •SS Pe,.I '4 r . When. the ali:,0 nment ehan .1S
where E, is the tangent modulus of eIa st1
· · 1· · . . ption
used to evaluate K there 1s an 1mp 1c1t assu,n · chat etasttc ·. · buckhng
. . comrols·
Wben the column is inel astie anè 1he beam is el3 Slic. an adJUS!ment may be made in
- factor G used in
the restratnt - rhe ahgnment
· e,,"arL Th, e:
G factor would then become
. -
G rno:las~c = -\''1(El/'
-(E,!/ L)col ·-
- ---
ì b•·
- G .
elasnc T a (6 9 ])
· ·
_...., -• VJ ._drn
The adjustment factor T a is intended rn account for the reduced Sliffness of the inelastic
column, and may be stated as
E, F~r. inelastic
T a = E. = p (6.9.2)
· cr. elzstic
Equation 6.9.2 can be ex.pressed in severa) ways; in the fourth edition of the book, lhe
authors used a different expression than AISC, using
F}.
(6.9.3)
as the parameter to determine the reduction factor T a. In the 2005 AISC Manual [ 1.151, lhe
factored service Joad Pu divided by the gross area Ag is used as the main parameter (along
with Fy) in AJSC Table 4-21, "Stiffness Reduction Factor" on p. 4-317 (see Fig. 6.9.1).
Tue fact.or T a is imended to account for "a reduction in the stiffness of columns due
to geometrie imperfections and spread of plasticity from residuai stresses under high com-
pression loading" [1.15, p. 16.1-247].
The procedure of using Eq. 6.9.2 and various simplifications for practical use have
been discussed by Yura f6.55]. This provoked considerable discussion by Adams {6.56],
Johnston [6.57], Disque [6.58], Smith [6.59], Matz [6.60], and Stockwell [6.61). Tue
AISC-Commentary C2 endorses Yura's procedure as modified by Disque [6.58).
Values of T a (Eq. 6.9. I) have been tabulated for steel of Grades 36, 42, and 50 in
Table 6.9.1. The AISC Manua/ [ 1.15] calls these ''Stiffness Reduction Factors". Harichan-
dran [6.88] has summarized the procedure. and noted how easily mistakes can be made.
For truss compression members, end restraint may be present and joint translation is
prevented so that K might Iogically be less than I .O. Under static loading, stresses in ali~
members remain in the same proportion to one another for various loads. If ali mcmbcrs
are designed for minimum weight, they will achìeve ultimate capacity simultancOUSly
under live Ioad. Thus restraint offered by members framing at a joint disappears or at le8SI
is greatly reduced. Tue SSRC, therefore, recommends using K = 1.0 for membcrs of a
truss designed for fixed-position loading. When designing for moving Ioad systems -~
trusses, K can be reduced to 0.85 because conditions causing maximum stress in tbc mem-
ber under consideration will not cause maximum stress in the members framing in to pro,
vide restraint [6.8}.
Section 6.9 Effective Length • 267
TABLE 6.9. 1 Ad" 5t
f l~ mer:,t Ta of Restraint Factor G to Account
Torblnelast,c Buckling (Adapted from Ref. 1.15,
,a e 4-21, p.4-317)
T 8 '= Rar10 0 f -
theTangent Modulus E, to the Elastic Modulus E

ASD LRFD
fy. ksi
Pa P,, 36
42 50
Ag Ag
ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASO LRFD
45 -
44
- -- - - - -
43 - -- - - - 0.0599
42
- - - - 0.118
41
- - -
-
- - 0.175
40 - - -
- - 0.231
39
- - - 0.285
38
- - - - - 0.338
- - - -
37
- -- - -
0.389
36
- -
0.0570
-
0.438
35
- - -
0.127
0 .194 -
0.486
0.532
34 -
33
- - - 0.260 - 0.577
32 - - - 0.323 - 0.620
31
--
0.0334
0.115
- 0.384 - 0 .660
30 - 0.443 - 0.699
0.194 - 0.500 - 0 .736
29
28
-- 0.270 - 0 .554 0 .0842 0 .771
27 -
0.344 - 0.606 0.171 0.804
26 -
0.414 - 0.655 0.254 0.835
0.48] - 0.701 0.334 0.863
25 - 0.545 0.0162 0.745 0.410 0.890
24 - 0.606 0.122 0.786 0.483 0.913
23 - 0.663 0.223 0.823 0.552 0.934
22 - 0.716 0.319 0 .858 0.617 0.953
21 0.0695 0.766 0.410 0.890 0.678
20 0.189 0.969
0.81 I 0.496 0.917 0.734 0.982
19 0.303 0.853 0.577 0.942 0 .786 0.992
18 0.410 0.890 0.652 0.962 0 .83 3 0.998
17 0.510 0.922 0 .72 1 0.979 0.875 1.00
16 0.603 0.949 0.784 0.991 0.912
15 0.687 0.971 0.840 0.999 0.943
14 0.704 0.988 0.888 1.00 0.968
13 0 .831 0.998 0.929 0 .987
12 0.888 1.00 0.962 0.998
Il 0.935 0.985 l.00
LO
0.999
9 1.00
8
7
6
5 i I
I
,
l ,, ·~
- lndicates - stìffness reduction factor is not applicable because the required strength
exceeds the avaìlable strength lor Klr = O.
~
268 • Chapter 6 Compressìon Members
. be , fra-;ng at the en<ls of a column are heavi(y 1

Wheo. the adpcent mero r~ . ,.., d t b"lizing effect .mstead of stab,hzmg
. . . th O>d..,
-~""Il
compress1011 members, they may have a es a 1 .
nd .
6 e !Ilei!}.
ber being considered: in effecL a 11ega1ive G-factor. Bfl<lge a Fraser [ .8 IJ have pr
· G factors c.
sented a procedure to account for such negauve · · . . .
The application of the K factor approacb to the unbraced frame con tam mg a "leaner•
column is presented in Sec. 14.5.
6.10 LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN OF ROLLED SHAPES

:. .:. .:_~S, ~:..:::_.:..:..:!__.:::::~~'._'._~==..::..::.==-=-===..:....:.....--------------
.(W, AND M) SUBJECT TO AXIAL COMPRESSI ON
21 311d
Ali examples of this scction use W shapes that satisfy the 1>11 1 d/t w limits top~
elude Jocal buckling; ihus. Q = I .O. Section 6. 18 treats the subJeCt when Q < I .O.
General Procedure
Whether Load and Resistance Factor Design ~r Allowable Strenglh Design is used, the
strength of a compression mernber is based on 1ts gross area A g · The Slrength is alwaysa
funct.ion of the effective slendemess ratio Kl.Jr. :md for sho'.t columns the yield ~tress fy of
the steel. Since the radius of gyration r depends on the secuon selected. ihe design of eorn.
pression members is an indireci process unless column load tables are available. The gen.
eral procedure t.o satisfy Eq. 6.8.1 is:
1. Compute rhe faclored service load P,, using ali appropriate load combinations, as
discussed in Sec. 1.8.
2. Assume a criticai stre.<;S Fcr based on an assumed KU1;
3. Compute the gross area A g requìred from P,,/ (<f>cFcr ).
4. Select a section. Note that the width/thickness A, limitations of AISC-Table 84.I
to prevent locai buckling musi be satisfied. This is discussed in Pan Il of this
chapter. particularly Sec. 6.16.
5. Based on 1he larger of (K L/ r), or ( KL/r)y for the section selected. compute tbc
criticai stress Fcr ·
6. Compute the design strength <f>cPn = cf,,-Fcr Ag for the section.
7. Compare cf>cPn with P.,. When the strength provided exceeds the slrength required
(and is reasonably close) the design would be acceptable. otherwise repeat Steps 2
through 7.
EXAMPLE 6.10.1
Select the lightest W section of A992 steel to serve as a pìnned-end main member column
_I 6 ft long 10 carry an axial compression load of 115 kips dead load and 125 kìps live Joad
m ~ braced strucmre, as shown in Fig. 6. I 0.1. Use Load and Resistance Factor Design and
md1cate the first three choices.
Solution:
(a) Obtain factored loads.
Pu = 1.2D + l.6L = 1.2(115) + 1.6(125) = 338 kips
. (b) Es_timate slendemess ratio and obtain estimated Fcr· Since the assumption of
h_mg~d ends 1s made, the effective length KL equals the actual length L. i.e., K = t.O. Cot-
s1denng K L = 16 ft as a moderately long length. the slendemess ratio might be estimalc4
6
Section -10 Load and Resistance Factor Design Axial Compression • 269
Hìngoi
r
A992
S!«I
7 16'-0
Hinged
J
figuie 6.1O. I
fXample 6.1 O. l ·
at about 70 to 80. For rolled W shapes contained in the AlSC Manual Column Load Tables
for Fy = 50 ksi, Q = I.O, thus lhe special provisions of AISC-E7 are not involved. From
Fig. 6.8. 1 one might estimate f~,""' 34 ksi (KL/r "" 75). Alternatively, AISC Formula
(E3-2) or AlSC "Available Criticai Stress" Table 4-22 cou)d be used. The required area
may then be computed.
3 8
Required Ag = _.!1_ = ~ ) = I I. I sq in.
<PcFc, 0.90 34
(e) Select a section. Since buckling in the weak direction fbased on ( KL/ r\.] will
contro! the strength for W shapes when KL is the same with respect 10 both x- and y-axes.
the lightest sections for this design will be those having the least rx/' y· A high ' x indicates
excessive strength with respect to the strong axis, which may be utilized only by providing
additional bracing in the weak direction.
Using the "Available Strength in Axial Compression" Tables in the AISC Man.ual l I .15].
one might select a W8X48, the lightest W8 that has at least the required area. Fwthennore. the
W8 sections have the lowest rxl rY for a given area. Try W8 X48 section.
(d) Check the W8X48 section. A = 14.1 sq in.
KL
- = 92:
ry .
Fc, = 26.8 ksi
<PcPn = <J>Jc,Ag = 0.90(26.8)14.l = 340kips
[ <l>cP" = 340 kips) 2:. [ P,, = 338 kjps) OK
Note that ATSC Manual "Available Crit.ical Stress" Table 4-22 pro,1 ides a tabulation of
<f>cf~r for values of KL/r.
Since the design strength <f>Pn exceeds the factored load P,,. and s ince no other sec-
tion having this area has a tower rx/ r_,., the W8X48 is the lightcst section ava.ilable. Deeper
sections will be heavier, as follows:
Area Fc, <J>cPn

Section (sq in.) KL/ ry (ksi) (kips)
W8X48 14.1 92 26.8 '.B8 1st choicc

WIOX49 14.4 76 32.9 428 '.!nd choicc
Wl2X50 14.7 98 24.8 326 NG l '½- ~hnr1
.ns
Wl4X53 15.6 100 24.1 3rd choicc
•
---• --
EXAMPLE 6 .10.2
Select the light.est W section of A992 steel to serve as a main member 28 ft lo

145
carry an axial compression load of 65 kips dead load and ~ips live load in a b~c
structure, as sbown in Fig. 6. 10.2. The member i_s assumed prnned at t_op and bott
and in addition has weak direction support at rm~-height. The mid-he1gh1 brace a\
prevenls twisting of the column at the- brace local!on. Use AISC Load and Resista
Factor Design.
Solutio11:
(a) Obtain factored loa<ls.
P,, = J.2D + t.6L = 1.2{ 65) + 1.6( 145) = 3 lO kips
(b) Select from AISC "Available Strength i11 Axial Compr~sion:· Tables. Tue cfi
tive length factors K for buckling in eilher the strn_n g or me weak du~ll~? equa) unìty; i
=
Kx K, = I.O. Since the "Available Strength rn Ax1al Compress1on Tables are
puted assuming (K L/r)y controls, enter lhese tables with the effective length (KL)>..
enter with
P., = 310 kips; (KL)y = 14 ft

Starting with the shallow W8 sections and working toward tlle deeper secti,ms, find
W8X40 tf,cPn = 322 kips rx/r)' = l.73

WI0X45 <J>cPr. = 358 k.ips rx/ry = 2.15
Wl2X45 4>cP,, = 343 kips rx/ ry = 2.65
Si~ce tbe actual support conditions are such tbat (KL )x = 2(KL)y , if r,/rv ~ 2,
ax.ts controls and tabular loads gìve the correct answer. Thus, WIOX45 aud Wl2X45
obviously acceptable.
Since r,-/r_v for W8X40 is less tban 2, strong axis bending controls. The stren
may be obtained from the tables by entering wirh the equivalent ( KL )y that
r r Assume hinged lop and

I
Il
,, I bonom for x-axis and y-axis
bending
Il I I
A992 14'- 0
I
11
Il
I
r
steel Il
t
Assume hinged al mid-heighl
-H-
"
for y-axi! bending only
Il \ I
Potential buckled
14'- 0 Il I
11, shape if KzL,/'x govems
L-- 11,
Il
Bracing
fìgure 6. 10.2
Example 6.10.2. (a) (b)
Section 6.10 Load and Res1stance
- Factor Des,gn
. . Compress1on
Ax1al . • 271
correspond s to ( K L) ., = 28 ft. For equa! strenglh with respect to the x- and y-axes.
. (KL)_. 28
Equ1valcnt (KL)y =-- = - = 16.2 ft
r, /ry 1.73
~or ( K L )y = 16.2 ft, the W8X40 has a design strength <l>c P" ofonly 272 lcips; thercfore it
1s not acceptable.
(e) Check of section. lt is always advisable 10 make a final check of the apparently
acceptable section:
WIOX45, (KL/r)y = 14(12)/2.01 = 83.6, cf>cFc, = 27.0 ksi

'PcPn == <l>cFc,A g
= 27(13.3) = 359kips > [Pu = 310kips] OK
Use Wl0X45. •
EXAMPLE 6.10.3
Select the lightest W section of A572 Grade 60 steel to serve as a main member 22 ft long
to carry an axial compression \oad of 100 kips dead load and 200 kips live load in a braced
structure, as shown in Fig. 6.10.3. Assume the member hinged at the top and fi.xed at the
bottom for buckling in either principal direction. Use the AISC Load and Resistance Fac-
tor Design Method.
Solution:
P. = 1.2D + 1.6L e:c 1.2(100) + 1.6(200) = 440 kips

{b) Select the section. For this problem lhere are no AlSC Avai\able Streogth
Tables available for the direct selection of a section. To get au estimate of the
required section, use the Available Strength Tables for F" = SO ksi. Since the member
r _../Hinged
r
Poteniial 1 :: Potcntial
buck.led .____: 11 bucklcd ,
shape 1 :: shapc ~
(KL),- I 11 (KL), I
if - -
'y
I
I
11
Il
,,
if-- I
govems '
,.,
Il
(I
govems
Fixed
Figure 6.10.3 (al (b)

Eumplc 6.10.3.
is fixed at one end. m accordance wi

_ ·rn Fig. 6.10.3, assume K = 0.8. Select f
or
(KL)y = 0.8(22) = 17.6ftand
Required cf>c P,, "" P,,[

F,, =
5
F,. == 60
o]
= 440[?.Q] = 367 kips
60
WIOX49: <f>cPn = 392 kips for F_v == 50 k si
Try
?X")·
Wl - :,., •
·'-.P.11 = 4 12kipsforFy
'Pc;.
== 50ksi
· l ·ted usino the ratio 50/60 wiJ\ satisfy d -

There can be no assurance that sec.·flons se ec "' fi 1n·a1 Ch k Wl es1gn
d will ~erve as a trst . ec OX49 i
requirements: however. such a proce ure · Or
P,, = 440 kips with Fr = 60 ksi.
KL
[ rJ
= 17.6(12)_= 83.2] <
2.54
[4.7\~ = .
4.71)29~~00 == 103.6]
. ·. Fcr = [ 0.658i ]Fy
= ~ == = 41.4 ksi
F
~ ( ~-L y 11.2.(29,0~0)
(83.2)·
cf>F,, = 0.9{0.65si&}o = 29.5 ksi
,i..p11
'+' = '+'
·"FAcr g = 295(14.4)
· = 425kips
Thus, the W!OX49 is not acceptable.

Check WIOX54,
KL 17.6(12)
- =- - - = 82.5; Fe = 42.1 ksi; <J>F,,. = 29.7 ksi
ry 2.56
cf>P,, = cf>Fc,Ag = 29.7(15.8) = 469kips > [P,. = 440kips) OK
Use WlOX54, A572 Grade 60. Though the calculation is not shown here, Q = 1.0 for th'
section when Fy = 60 ksi. The limits for b1/2t1 and d/tw are discussed in Sec. 6.16,
the limits appear in Table 6.16.2.
EXAMPLE 6.10.4
Design column A of the unbraced frame of Fig. 6.10.4 as an axially loaded compressi
member carrying a dead load of 75 kips and a live load of 290 kìps using A992 steel. In
piane perpendicular to the frame the system is braced, with supports at top and bottom of
21-ft height.
Section S. lO Load and Aesistance Factor Design Axial Compression • 273
P01en1ial buckled
K,L,
shapc if - govems
'z
----- l W14 X 82
,_
1 1 ...
____ ----
Wt4
.... X 82 ... ____ l
Tf I
I
\
I
I
Wl4 X 82
I
I
2.l '-0 I \ Colurnn A \ I
I I I
I
I \ \
I \ \
I I
\ \ I
·aure 6. J0.4
Fle- od frame for
(Jnbracie 6.1 O..
exarnP
4 L _ 40'- o
40'- 0 _j_ 40'-0 _J
Solution:
P,, = 1.2D + l.6L = 1.2(75) + 1.6(290) = 554 kips

(h) Select a preliminary size as a basis for evaluating the effective length factors K.
While it is rare that a frame member would be designed as axially loaded. it may occa-
sionally be proper for some interior members having symmetrical loading. Note is also
made that the axially loaded member is one boundary for the more typical beam-column
interaction formula discussed in Chapter 12.
It is give n that ( K L h = 21 ft for tbe piane perpendicular to the frame: thus. a pre-
liminary member might be determined from interpolation in the A/SC Manual ·'Ava1lable
Strength in Axia\ Comprcssion" Tables.
(KL)y = 21 ft Find Wl2X72, <f>,Pn = 576 kips
(e) Evaluate the cffective \ength factor K. Using / = 597 in.4 for Wl2X72. com-
pule G,op in accordance with Fig. 6.9.4 and as discussed in LRFD Commenta~' C2.
"i.( El/ L ) columns 597/21

G1op = - - - = 0.65
"i.(E// L)bcams 2(881)/ 40
Gi,onom = 10 (accordìng to AISC-Fig. C-C 2.3)

Using Fig. 6.9.4,
Find Kx = 1.8
(KL), = l.8(21 ) = 37.8ft
for equa] strength about each axis,
-rx = --
37.8
= L8 ( coincidental\y l e sarne as
h K )
x
ry 21
- 274 • Chapter 6 Compression Members
(d) Select sections from AJSC Available Slreng!b Tables.
Wl2X72: rx/ ry < 1.8 Equivalent (KL )y = 37.8/ 1.75 = 2l.6 ft

<bcPn = 559 kips 01(
Wl4X74: r,jry > 1.8 (KL), = 21 ft t/>,Pn = 461 k.ips NG

(e) Make final check on W12X72. I = 597 in 4. A1 this poini. it may be noted that
the stiffness reduction factor could be used to modify rhe G value to accounc for inclastic
buckling. AJSC Table 4-21 is rn;ed to detennine the reduction value corresponding 10 tbe
value of P,i/ Ag, as foUows:
-P. = -559- = 26 .5 k SI. Ta -

- O.849
Ag 21.\
Ginolasric = T c,Gelastic == 0.849 ( 0 -64 ) = O.S4

From the Alignment Chait, Fig. 6.9.4, fo1<l Kx = 1.78. This will make no significant dif-
ference 10 <jJP,, for this proble m. KUr becomes 84.5,
(/>fcr = 26.7 ksi from AISC " Available Criticai Stress" Table 4-22
4'cP11 = </icFc,Ag = 26.7(21.1) = 563 kips > [Pu = 554 kips] OK
Use Wl2X72, A992. I
6.11 ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN

To satisfy che safety requirement of the Allowable Strength Design (ASD) the allowabl
strength as defined in AISC-E I must be equa! to or greater than the required strength b
on the ASD load combinations and may be stated as
Pn P
n -> a
where Pa = maximum compressive load using ASD lcad combination

P" = nominai strength
fl = safety factor equa! to 1.67
Equations 6.7.7 and 6.7.9 are used for typical rolled W sections satisfyìng the locai buckli
limitations on width/thickness ratìos for plate compression elements gìven in AISC-E?.
EXAMPLE 6. 11.1
Check the adequacy of the WIOX45 section for the conditions of Fig. 6.I0.2 if the
Allowable Strength Method Design was used. This is the section selected by LRFD in Ex
6.10.2. A992 steel is used and the service loads are 65 kips dead load and 145 kips live
Section 6.12 Shear Effect • 275
Solution:
(a) Compute slenderness ratio~
(KL)x 1.0(28)12
---- == ---...:..___ -· (KL)y 1.0(14)12
rX 4.32 - 77.8 - ry- = -2.01
-- = 83.6
(b) Compute the allowbLe strength Pn/0,.
(KL)y
[~ ] [ {E 129.000 ]
= 83.6 < 4.7)\},::; = 4.71'.f ~ = 113.4
:. Fc, :e [ 0.658i. ]Fy

= ~ = '11'2(29,000)
(K/ y
F, _ .
(83.6)2 - 4l.O ks1
F cr = [ 0.658•';"0 }o = 30.0 ksi
Pn/!1 = Fc,A 8 /D = 30.0(13.3) / 1.67 = 239 kips

From the AISC "Available Criticai Slress" TABLE 4-22
KL
-ry = 83.6 Fc,/il = 18.0
and
Pn/0 = (Fcr/!l )A8 = 18.0(13.3) = 239 kips > 220 OK

Tue allowable strength based on the ASD method exceeds the required slrength by 8.6%.
while the LRFD method gives a design strength higher than required by 13.7%.
In this case Allowable Strength Design is more conservative than Load and Resis-
tance Factor Design.
Use W10X45. •
.Z* SHEAR EFFECT
When built-up members are connected together by means of lacìng bars, the objecti.ve is to
make ali of the components act as a unit. As a compression member bends. a shearing
component of the axial load arises. The magnitude of the shear effect in reducing column
strength is proponional to the amount of deformation that can be attribmed \O shear.
Accordìng to the SSRC Guide (6.8}, s.hear in columns is caused by:
L Latera] load, resultìng from wind, earthquake gravìty, or otber cause.
2. Slope, with respect to tbe line of thrnst, due both to unintentional in.itial curvature
and added curvature developed during the buckling process.
3. End eccentricity of Joad. introduced either by the end connections or fabrication

imperfcctions.
Certainly thc shear from JateraJ load must allA:;iys '.:,e considered in design, Items 2
and 3 should al thc least be estimatcd. AJSC Specificar,011 [ l.13] requ1res providing an
arbitrary shear resistance (in addition 10 any .computable shear) ~f 2% of the compressive
strength of the member for lacing bars in Jatllced columns (see F1g. 6.1 2.1).
Solid-webbed sections, such as W ~hapes. have less shear deformation than do lat.
ticed columns us ing lacing bars and/or bacten plates.
Furthermore, as shown Jater, shear has an insignificant effect on reducing coturno
strength for solid-webbed shapes and may safely be neglected. The shea r effect shouJd 11-0l
however, be neglected for latticed columns.
To include the effect of shear, the curvature resulting from shear should be added 10
the buckling curvature to obtaìn the total curvature. Il is well known that
dMz dy
V = -= P- (6.12.L)
dz dz
after recognizing that Mz = Py from Eq. 6.2. l (see Fig. 6.2.1 ).
The slope fJ due to shear deformation is
/3 v V
(j - - stress
= - shear - - - = -- (6.12.2ì
shear modulus AG
where f3 v is a factor to corree! for nonuniform stress across various cross-sectional shapes.
The shear contribution to curvature becomes
d8 f3u dV Pf3v d 2y
(6.12.3)
d z = AG dz = AG dz 2
The tota! curvature ìs the sum of Eqs. 6.2.3 and 6.12.3,
2 2
d y = _ Py + Pf3u d y
dz2 El AG dz2
which gives
2
d y P [ I ] (6.12.4)
dz 2 + El I - P/3v/ AG y =O
o
o
o
(a) (b)
o
(e) (d) (e)
Single Double Lacing
Figure 6.12.1 lacing lacing
Banens Perforared
Types of lauiced columns. and plaies
ba1tens
Section 6.12 Shear Effect • 277
which is of the samc focm as Eq. 6.2.3; therefore the modified form of the Euler criticai
load is
(6.12.5)
modification for
shear effecl
ln accordance with the previous discussion on basic column sLrength. G and E can be
replaced by the tangent rnodulus values, G, and E,, and E,/G, = 2( I + µ ), and L can be
replaced by tbe effective length KL. Further, combining the shear effect with KL gives
2
F. _ Pc, _ 1r E1
(6.12.6)
or - A - (o:vKL/ r}2
where a v = V I + 2( I + µ. )1r2 {3 11/ ( K L/ r) 2 . Thus the shear effec1 may be accouoted for
by an adjustment to the effective length. For W shapes when bending abouL Lhe weak axis,
/3,, averages about 2. Using µ. = 0.3 for steel, typical values fora,., are
KL / r = 50 a,, = 1.01
70 = 1.005
= 100 = 1.003
Por slendemess ratios less than about 50, yielding controls, so that the shear effect on solid
H-shaped columns is equivalent to an increase in effective length of less than I%, which
can be safely neglected.
Latticed Columns
The lacing or batten plates used to tie together the main longitudinal compreS-•-ion elements
are themselves subject to axial defonnation. For instance, from Fig. 6. I 2.2a. rhe lengthen-
ing of the diagonal gives a slope y 1 over the pane! length a and from Fig. 6.12.2b Lhe short-
ening of the horizontal bars gives a slope y 2 over pane! length a. Because. the lacing
elements are relatively small in cross-section, lhe stiffness of such members lo resist ihe
transverse shear is considerably less than for solid-webbed members. Detailed rreatment of
the columns with lacing, battens, or perforated plates is available in the SSRC Guide [6.8)
and elsewhere [6.62-<5.64].
figun: 6.12.2
Sld def01111ation in laced (a) Effecr of leng1hcning (h} Effw of ,hone11ing
colamD· of diagonal bars of hori zontal bars
The S<ructural Stability Research Council [6.8] reports th c. suggestion of Bleich

[6.9] thac "a conservative estimate of the influence of 60° or 45°_ lac~ng. as generally spec.
ìtied in bridge design practice. can bi.' made by modi.fyìog tbe effecuve length factor" Kto
a new factor a,, K. as follows:
KL av = \ii + 300/(KL/r)2
For - ,. > 40. (6.12.1,
KL
Por - : ; ; 40. cr,, = I.I (6.12.8\
r
Such effective length modification will rarely affecl the design of short columns in brac~
systems.
6 . .13* DESIGN OF LAITICED MEMBERS
Under mos1 specifications, Iatticed members are designed according to d etailed empirica!
rules, mo~t of wbich are related to locai buckling requirements. Two examples follow that
illustrate some of the provìsions of AISC-E7 as wetl as generai proceòures for buih-up sec.
tions. Tue reader is referred to Blodgett (6.65) who has summarized tbe AlSC provisions
along with other information conceming built-up section design.
EXAMPLE 6.13.1
Design a laced column as shown in Fig. 6.13.1, consisti.ng of four angles 10 carry 100 kips
dead load and 475 kips live load axial compression, with an effective length KL of 30 ft.
Assume all connectìons will be welded and use A572 Grade 50 steel.
Sol11.tio11:
(a) Establish the depth h of section. The radìus of gyration of a four angle col-
umn depends only on h and essentially is independent of thickness. Thus selecting ~
establishes the slenderness ratio, and vice versa. Text Appendix Table A I shows tilt
r 1.48"
1
r __L
L5
r~-
x5 x¾ I
L __d
l___ h = 20" __ J
(e)
Figure 6.13.1
Details of Examplc 6. J3.1. (a)
t (b)
ld)
Section 6.13 Design of Lattìced Members • 279
relationships betwee th d" . -

n e ra rns of gyratton and the geometry of the cross-sectton.
Thus from text Appendix Table A I,
r "" 0.42h
Approximate K L = 360 = 857
r 0.42h h
Pu = 1.2( 100) + 1.6( 475) = 880 kips
Required
h area*
Approx. tf>cFc~
(in.) KUr A9
(ksi) (sq m.) Angles
24 35.7 41.0 21.5 L6X6X~ A= 23.0
LSX SX~ A= 23.44
22 39.0 40.3 21.8 Same as above
21 40.8 39.9 22. 1 Same as above
20 42.9 39.3 22.4 Same as above
'From AISC "'Available Critica\ Stress for Compression Members"
Table 4-22 .
•Required A g = Pu/(,f,cfc,)-
The 20-in. section is preferrcd, since the !1oor area occupied is likely more important
than the additional 0.44 sq in. of cross-section . Investigate 4 - L5 X5 X ~. as5urning
Q = I.O,
r, = iy = 4[13.6 + 5.86(10.0 - 1.48)2] = 1756 in.4
rx = ry =A=~= 8.66 in. [Approx 0.42(20 ) = 8.40 in.]

KL 1.0(30)12
r - - - = 4 1.6; <PcFc, = 39 .6 ksi ( AISC-TABLE4-22)
8.66
<PcP,, = <PcFc,Ag = 39.6 ( 23.44) = 928 kips > (P,, = 880 kips) OK
Use 4-LS X5Xi wilh h = 20 in.

(b) Locai bucklìng contro!. For Q = I.O 10 apply, augles musi satisfy width/lhick-
ness limits of ATSC Table B4.1, Case 5 to prevent locai buckling. In this case.
~ -
[-; =
b 5
0.625 = 8] < [À, = 0.45~
E
= 0.45~
·29,000
50 - = 10.8 J OK
Development of AISC limits appears in Chapte r 6. Part li o n plate strenglh.

(e) Design sing le lacing. Accordi11g 10 thc User Nott? in A1SC-E6. "The ind ination
o f lacing bars to the ax is o f the member sball prefe.rably be no t Ics~ than 60° for sing le
lacing . . .. "
For an inclination of 60° (ç = 30°) (Fig. 6 .1 3.lb), b = 20 - 2(3) ::: 14 in ..
assuming use of d istance between s tandard gage \ines for bolis. T hi s would be approxi-
mately center-to -center of welded connection. Thus
L 1 ~ 2b tan 30° = 2 ( 14 )0 .577 = 16 .2 in. Use 16 in.

f
One might prefer to use 15 in. since the User Note 0 AJSC-~6 -2 _Slates, "When thc di;.
lance between the lines of welds ... is more tban 15 rn .• the lacmg sha]J preferably be dou.
ble or be made of angles."
Fora single angle,
Li 16 [slendemess ratio for]·
-
r, = - - = 16.4
0.978
< 41.6 Il b
overa mem er
01rl\.
According to AISC-E6.2. "Lacing shall be proportioned to prnvide _a sheanng

strength normai to the axis of the member equa! to 2% of the compresswc design strength
of the mernber."
V,,= 0.02(880) = 17.6 kips (8.8 kips per side)
The force in one bar is
Pu = Vu/cos ç "" V,,/cos 30° = 8.8/0.866 = 10.2 kips
!:._ s: 140 for single Jacing

r
, = f; = \,IIJ-..
-
'I
12
-
b,3
bt
= 0.288t (Fig. 6.13.ld)
16 o 7. u 7 .
tmin = 0.288(140) = .39 m. se i6 111.
F 7 . L 16 = 127
or t = 16 m., r 0.288(0.4375)
From AISC "Available Criticai Stress for Compression Members'' Table 4-22,
<f>cFc, = 13.8 ksi
10.2
Required A = - - = 0.74 sq in.
13.8
0.74
Width b = 0.4 = 1.69 in.
375
Since no holes are required for connectors. tension on net section need not be investigated
for this design.
ft
Use bars X I ¾-
(d) Design the plates at ends (AISC-E6.2). The tie plates should extend along tbe
length of the member a distance equal to lhe distance b (Fig. 6.13.1) from the end of tbc
member. Use a length of 14 in.
b 14
t 2=
50
= 50 = 0.28 in.
Use tie plates ]Ì X 14 X l '-8".
(e) Examine the effect of shear on the effective length, Eqs. 6.12.7 or 6. l 2.8.
KL
- r = 41.6 > 40, Use Eq. 6.12.7
av = VI + '300/(KL/ r ) 2
= v'1 + '300/(41.6)2 = 1.08
Section 6.13 Design of Latticed Members • 281
Thus lhe ~ffective leng1h should havc been increascd 8% due 10 shear. The ncglecl of
nd st
e re raml probably is, in most cascs. equa) 10 abou1 thc same increase in effeclive
length. •
E)(AMPLE 6.13.2
Redesign tlle colurnn of Ellample 6.13.1 using a welded perforated box shape (Fig. 6.13. 2 )-
Thc factored load Pu is 880 ltips as compu1ed in Example 6.13.1.
~n o
Perfora1ed
X
I
ploie
16' 1 )'
Solid
- --+- ~ : 18"
Solid
plaie r.lzzr:::t:::::r::~d--1. plau:
613.2
f ~ ·fExample 6.13.2.
()elJIIS o
~lJ (•)
16"
(b}
L.:. (e)
Perlon1ed
plaie
Solution:
One important advantage of a welded snapc is the number of individuai componems in ~he
shape is minimh.cd. Four plates can be used for this welded shape. whereas a bolted or nv-
eted section requires four angles in addition 10 plates.
(a) Select tria\ section. Using text Appeodix Table Al fora box shape.
r:::. 0.40h
KL 360 900
r 0.4h h
Area :::. 4ht
Required
area• Plate
h Approx. ~, Ap thickness
(in.) KUr (ksi) (sqm.) (in.I
21 42.9 39.3 22.4 0.27

29 NG
~(solidplate) = ..3.!_ = 67 > (1.49~ -000 = 359)
I 5/16 50
18 50 37.5 23.S 0.35
16 56.3 35.7 N.6 0.41
15 60 34.6 23.-l 0.45
t from AISC "Available Criticai Stress for Compression Members"

Table 4-22
•Required A 11 = PJ (cbcFc,),
Without perforations, 2PLs-- ~ X 16 and 2PLs-~ X 15 are probably acceptable

1o
.
• sati~.
fying bit ratios in accordance with AJSC-84.2.
Usually, however, suc.h shapes are used on bridges where access is requircd f0r
maintenance so that perforations may be des11:able..
Assume pe-rforations to be 8 in. wide (frequenùy one-half or less of tota! width) illl((
h ~ 18in.
Netareaavailable = 2(18) (it) + 2(17 - 8)0} = 24.75sqin.

3 4
I, = 2(18)(~)(8.719) 2 + fi [ (l7)3 - (8) ]½ = 1564 in.
4
fy = f2(18) 3 ( ~ ) + 2(9)(½)(8.75)2 = ll 14 in.
ry
.014 ..
= \J 24.75 = 6.71 m.
KL 1.0(30 )12
- = - -- = 5~7· ef>cFcr = 36.5 ksi (AISC T ABLE 4-22)
r 6.71 ·· '
<J>cP,, = </JJc,Ag = 36.5(24.75) = 903 kips > [Pu = 880kips] OK
(b) Check proportioning of plates.
1. Check bi/ ratio for entfre perforated plate (AISC Table B4. l, Case 14):
-b
[t
17.125
=- - = 39. l ] >
7/16
[ A
'
= . -
I 49 /i-
. \ ,.~,
= l.49 /29,000
- - · = 15 9 ]
\ 50 .. NG
Must use a thicker plate: try , = ½in.

b 17
- =- = 34 < 35.9 OK
t 0.5
2. Check bit ratio for unstjffened ponion within hole (AISC-Table B4.1 ):
[ tb = O.S
4.5
=
]
9 <
[
A, Fy = 0.45\j{29,000
= 0.4\.j{E ~ = I 0.8
] 1
OK
3. Check proportions of access holes (AISC-E6.2):
Length of hole
- - -- - : s ; 2 Length ofhole = 2(8) = 16 in. max
Width of hole
Clear distance) ( Transverse distance )

( bet ween hoIes :;;=: between nearest lines
of connecting welds
Clear spacing between holes = 17 in. min.
~se ;PLs-½x 18 (solid) and 2PLs-½x 17 (perforateci) with holes 16" by s• &J)IICC!
2 8 center-to-center. 1
Section 6.14 lntroduction to Stabitity of Plates • 283
p,4Jl'f 11: PLATES

JNTRODUCTION TO STABILITY OF PLATES
Ali column sections. whether rolled shapes or built-up sections, are composed of plate ele-
ments. ~p lo this point in the chapter. considcration has bccn given only to thc possibility
of buckhng of the mcmbcr based on the slcndemess ratio for the cntire cross-scction. 1t
may be, however, that a locai buckling will occur first in one of the plate element! that
make up the cross-section. Such locai buckling means that the buckled element will no
longer take its proportionate share of any additional load the column is to carry; in olher
words, the efficiency of the cross-section is reduced.
The theory of bending of platcs and elastic stability of plates are subjects that should
be Sludied in depth by the advanced student in structural engineering. 1òc brief treatmcnt
lhat follows is intended to give thc reader the generai idea of plate buckling necessary 1?
properly use and understand current steel specifications. The generai approach and termt-
nology follow 1hat of Timoshenko [6.66, 6.671.
Before one can lreat the stability problem, the differential equation for bending of
plates is requircd, just as the differential equation for the bending of a beam, Eq. 6.2.2. was
used in the slender column stability treatment in Sec. 6.2.
Differential Equation for Bending of Homogeneous Plates
First. the strains will be obtained in terms of displacements. Lei h = plate thickness ~nd
u, v, and w equal the displacements in the x, y, and z dìrections, respectively. Refcmng
to Fig. 6.14.1, consider an element of a plate dx dy, and assume no stretching of ~e neu-
1ral piane at z =O. Examining a slice dx dy dz of the plate element locatcd at a d1stance
z from the neutra] piane shows, in Fig. 6.14.2, the coordinate unit strains t_.. E y, aod
- - -- - - - - - - - , , : _ .- X
Figure 6. l 4.1 .
nt coordmate
Plat.e e leme .'.
sysle,-.. defirntton. define• .ry plaot
,-----++--+--+---~.,
x.y dx
V-+----.-+---.- - - r i\•
I •·+ - dr
dy - \------1.. iX
I
I
,, • 8v dy
j-----~
I I
8y
Figure 6.14.2
Dcformations of plate nu
u + 8y dy
e1cineot in xy piane. y
i
w
-x
.()w
ax
Figure 6. 14.3
Defonnation of plate clemenr
perpendicular 10 the xy piane. y
~hcaring strain Y,y Thus

dli
u + -dx - u
ax dli
f., =---dx - - =-
é)x (6.14.la)
av
f ., =
,
-
òy (6.14.lbi
,w òu
Yxy = Y1 + Y2 = ax + ily (6.14.lc)
Expressing the displacements in the plane of the plate in tem,s of the lateral deflection w,
as shown in Fig. 6.14.3, and recognizing that positive slope gives a negative displacemem
u or v, one establishes
-v = z-
aw
(6.14.2)
ay
Substìtution of Eqs. 6.14.2 into Eqs. 6.14.1 gives strains in tenns of curvatures for x-direction
bending, y-direction bending, and twisting
òu ('J2W
E
x
= -ax = -z- -
ax2
(6.14.3a)
ÒV f:/1-w
E,= - = -z- ? (6.14.3b)
> ay ay-
av au ( a2w 2
aw ) a2w
-2;:-- (6.14.3c)
y xy = ÒX + òy = - z i)x dy + ÒX Òy = ax Ò)'
Next, making use of Hooke's Law ex pressing strains in terms of the stress u x- 11,.
normai stresses in lhe x- and y-directions, aod -r:xy, the shear stress, ·
l
Ex = E[ax - µ.ay] (6.14.4a)
l
Ey = E[-µ.ax + CTy] (6.14.4b)
Yxy = 'Txy/G (6.14.4c)
where µ. == Poissoo's ratìo (see Sec. 2.6) and G = shear modulus of elasticity.
For any stress condition, such as a-y = -ux thai gìves pure shear on an elclllCll
rotated 45° to the x-axis, the work done by the equivalent systems of Fìg. 6 .14.4 must bea
constant:
(6.14.S)
Section 6.14 lntroduction to Stability of Plate1 • 285
- of-...-.
l-..
u.
f!PIC6.14.4
(a)
~tsystemS- (Il)
Substituting Eqs. 6.14.4 into Eq. 6.14.5 gives
If U y = - a.,, maximum T = ai; thus

I I
E(I +µ.+µ.+I)= G
G = E (6.14.6)
2(1 + µ)
Solving Eqs. 6.14.4 for stresses in tenns of strains and substituting Eqs. 6.14.3 for
the strains give stresses in t.erms of curvatures,
(T = -- --
zE -w
- + µ.-- (a 2
aw)
2
(6.14.7a)
X I - µ.2 òx2 a_,.,2
(T
)'
=--zE
I - µ. 2
aw
- - ( µ.--+--
iJx2 iJ_v2
2
élw) (6 .14.7b)
ixy = -2zG -il2w

- (6.14.?c\
iJxiJy
Next it is necessary to relate curvatures and bending moments. Refen·iog to

Fig. 6. 14.5, and using the right-hand rute for positive twist. it is seen that the
moments per unit width are
112
-E, -=- - - + µ -a2w)
3
(,Pw
Mx =
1 r/ 2
Z<T x dz = - -- 2
12{1 - µ )2
-2
ax iJy
(6. 14.Sa)
112 3
iJ~w)
My =
1 1/1
za_,. dz = - Et
, ( µ -,Pw
12(1 - µ-)
- , + ·- ,
iJ.c ily-
(6. 14.8b)
112
Mxy =- [
. 1/ 2
1 nZ
•
rl:, = +2G(!!..) illw
12 ilx ,ly
(6.14.8c:)
Note that plate bending involves double c urva1ure (a dish-shaped denel·tion surfoc:e
for the plate). Tue narrower and longer in pian a plate i~. thc more ù1e bending c ausei< cur-
vature 10 be onc direc1ional. A beam is a special case o f a platc since il has :i narrow width
and long span. F'or beams. the Po isso n·s ratio(µ ) ctTect is ncglec:tcd. For iostan..:e. if the
-- --- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
l[;fF:
Figure 6.14.5
A plate element in bending.
(Note t.hat forces on faces at
x = O and .Y = O not shown.)
member is narrow in the y-direction and long in ihe x-direction, Eq. 6.1 4.Sa for the plate
would become
(6.14.9)
wbere the parlial derivatives disappear because w is no longer a funcrion cf J. lf Eq. 6. !4.9
is multiplied by the width b to change from moment per unii width in the \•-direction to
total moment, Eq. 6. 14.9 would be the differen11al equatioo for bearns,
d 2w
M,: = -EI--2 (6.14.IOì
dx
3
where / = r b/ 12.
In theory of plates, the sig_n convention is that M , is the bendi~g ~wmem caused by
stresses (]"_, acting in the x-dìrection. In bearo theory. the usual pracuce 1s to have the sub-
script on M referto the axis ofzero stress in bending; that is, the neutra! axis. Thus, forthe
span in the x-directìon and lhe width in the y-direcrion as assumed for Eq. 6.14.10, M,
(instead of Mx) would have been used in beam theory, since the y-axis is the neutra! ax~
about which bending occurs.
To continue the derivation of the plate bending differential equation. consider the
equilibrium of ali forces and moments acting on the plate element. Momem summaliOII
about the x- and y-axes and force summation in tbe z-direction gives three equations.
Figure 6.14.6 is a free body of the plare element showing on]y the forces involved with
moments about the y-axis.
qdxdy
Figure 6.14.6
Free-body forces iovolved in y ( Q.I + d(?_
,l_f
, <b) dy
rotation abour y-axis. (Forces
involved in rotation about the
x-axis not sbown.)
Section 6.14 lntroduction to Stability of Plates • 287
Talcing momenL<; about the y-axis gives
7bf.-...l •• + aM
__x d . {)'M )'X
"'x...,,. ~
.,. xdy - ~
X
+ "M:;;-tk
p
+ - ~ - dydx - ~
µ
-(QxdY + ~d-1~ )dx - q~ =O

/' t t
neglect mom. neglect
ann
Neglecting infinitesimals of higher order and dividing by dx dy gives
iJMx àMyx
- + -·- -Q =O (6.14.11)
dx iJy X
Similarly for moments about the x-axis,
r>My àMxy
- + -- -Q =O (6.14.12)
òy ÒX y
Force equilìbrium in the z-direction gives
òQX òQy
-+ - +q=O (614.13)
òx òy
Using Eqs. 6.14.11 and 6.14.n for Qx and Qy, and substitution into Eq. 6.14.13 gives
2
a2 Mx ò M,. iPMn,
- -2 + _ _- + 2- - - = -q (6.14.14)
ax ay2 iìx ùy
3
Deftning D = Et /[ 12(1 - µ, 2 )] and substituting Eq. 6. 14.8 into Eq. 6 . 14.14 gìves
the differential equation for bending of homogeneous plate.s,
(6.14. I 5)
Equation 6.14.15, if written for a beam of width b, is the di fferential e.quation for
load,
(6.14.16)
where qb is the load per unit length along the spao of the beam .
Buckling of Uniformly Compressed Plate
The following approach ìs essentially thai of Timoshenko [6.671 as moditied by Gcrstle

[6.68]. Realizìng that q is a generai term representing the transvc rse load C(llnponent caus-
ing plale bending, it is desired to find the transverse component of co mprc~~i\'e t'orce N,
N + òNx dx
' ÒX
Figure 6.14.7 (b) Plale elem«nl in beni position
Uniformly compressecl plale. (a)
wh.en the plate is deflected into a slightly buckled position. Taking sumrnation of forces in
the z-direction on the plate elemenr of Fig. 6. l 4.7b gives
2
N dyàw
- - ( N + iJNx
- dx ) dy (é!w
-. - +a-w dx )
2 = qdxdy
X ÒX X Ò.X ÒX rJX
-
(
N - -
ii1w + aN - + iJNx
- ·'i:Jw a
-_- dx - -
2 dydx
2
w) = qdxdy (16.14.17)
X r/x2 d.X ÒX QX dX
which upon neglecting the higber-order infinitesima! tenns gives

a2w (6.14.l&i
q = -Nx·--;:--T
r,X
Tue differential equation, Eq. 6.14.15, then becomes

2
à4 w a4w à4 w Nx à w
- +2-2-- + - = - - - (6.14.19)
ax4 iJx ay2 ay4 D ax2
which is a partial differential equation where w is a funclion of both x and y. The deflection
w can be expressed as the product of an x function (X) and a y function (Y). Further, bucl:-
ling may be assumed to give sinusoidal variation in the x-direction . Thus
w = X(x)Y(y) (6.14.20)
letting
m1r1:
X(x) = sin--·
a
where the X function satisfies the zero deflection and zero mo me nt conditions of simplc
support at x = O and x = a. Substitution of Eq. 6.14.20 into Eq. 6.14.19 gives, after w-
celling the common tenn sin mTTx/a,
~)\ _ 2 (n11r) 2d Y + d Y = + Nx ( ~ ) \
2 4
( a a dy2 dy4 D a
4
d ~ _ 2 (~)2 Jly + [ (~)
4_ Nx ( m1T )2]y = O (6.14.21\
dy a dy2 a D a
an ordinary fourth-order homogeneous differential equation.
The solution may be expressed in the form
Y = Ci sinh ay + C2 cosh ay + C3 s in /3y + C4 cos /3.Y (6.14.2:l
Section 6.14 lntroductìon to Stability of Plates • 289
where
Thus the entire plate deflection equation is
W =
. m7rx) (C sinh Qy + c
(sm-a- 1 cosh ay + C3 sin {3y + C4 cos {3y) (6.14.23)
2
which must satisfy boundary conditions. Assuming the x-ax.is as an axis of symmetry
t~ou~h the plate, i.e., identica! support conditions along 1he two edges parallel to the
direct1on of loading, the odd function coefficients C1 and c muse be zero. Thus
3
w = (C2 cosh ay + C 4 cos {3y) sin -m71"X- (6.14.24)

a
Using simple support conditions at y = b /2 and y = -b /2, requires that at y = ±b/2,
w = O = ( C2 cosh a -b + C4 cos {3-

2
b)
2
m7TX
si n - -
a
,iw = O = ( C2ci cosh a -b

-
b) . mr.x
- C 4 {32 cos {3 - sm-- (6.14.25)
2
~ 2 2 a
For a solution other tban c 2 = c 4 = o it is necessary for the determinant of the

coefficients lo be zero. Thus
2 2 b b
( a + f3 ) cosh a- cos /3- =O (6.14.26)
2 2
2 2
Since a ':/= - /3 unless Nx = O (a triviai solution), and since cosh a( b/2) > L the only
way Eq. 6. 14.26 can be satisfied in the real problem is for
b
cos {3 -
2
=o
Therefore
b 7T 31T Sr.
13 2 == 2' 2· 2· etc.
Using the lowest value of /3 (b/ 2) and substituting imo f3 as defined below Eq. 6.14.22
gives
(6.1 4 .2 7)
Since N.t = Fc,J and D = Et3/[l2(1 - µ.2)] , the elastic buckling unit stress may be
expressed as
1T2E
F.. = k ' (6.1-U S)
cr 12(1 - µ. 2 )(b/ 1)-
7.0
6.0
l 5.0
Figure 6.14.8
Buckling coefficielll for 4.0 --- m :4
m=1 m= 2 m= 3
uniformly cmnpressed
3.0 L __ ____;L __ __ j __ _ __,___ __.J
p.late-simplc support 4
longitudinal edges O 2 3
(Eq. 6.14.29). a//J
where for the specific case treated here, the elastic pi ate buckling coefficient k is
2
k = ~ + m !?_]
r, ~ -
,m /J a
(6.14.29)
The buckling coefficient k is a function of the cype of stress (in this case unifonn com-
pression on rwo apposite edges) and the edge support conditions (in this case simple sup.
port on four edges), in addition to the aspect ratio alb which appears directly in theequation.
Tue equation for plate buckling, Eq. 6. 14.28, is entirely generai in terms of k and the
development Ieading up 10 it for this one case may be considered illustrative of the proce-
dure. The integer m indicates the number of half-waves that occur in the x direction ai
buckling. Figure 6.14.8 shows that there is a minimum value of k for any given numberof
half-waves, i.e., the weakest condition. lt is noted that this weakest sit.uation oc.:urs when
the length is an even multiple of width, and that multiple equals the number of balf-waves.
Thus, setting a/b = m gives k = 4. Further, as m becomes larger the k eqwition
becomes flatter and approacbes a constant value of 4 for Iarge alb ratio. This gives forthe
elastic buckling stress equation of piace elements under uniform compression along lwo
edges and simply supported along the two edges parallel to the load,
41r2 E
F: = - -- -2 -- -2 (6.14.30}
ç.r 12(1 - µ., )(b/t)
6.15* STRENGTH OF PLATES UNDER UNIFORM EDGE COMPRESSION

Since rolled shapes, as well as built-up shapes, are composed of pi ate elements, the column
strength of the section based on its overall slendemess ratio can only be achieved if the
plate elements do not buckJe locally. Locai buckling of plate elements can cause premature
faiIure of the entire section, or at the least it will cause stresses to become nonunìfonn and
reduce lhe overall strength.
In Sec. 6.14 lhe basic approach to elastic stability of plates was developed. The the-
oretical elastic buckJing stress fora plate was shown to be expressible as
[6.14.28]
where k is a constant depending on type of stress, edge support conditions, and lengdl IO
width ratio (aspect ratio) of the plate, E the modulus of elasticity, µ., Poisson's ratio. and61r
the width/thickness ratio.
Section 6.15 Strength of Plates Under Uniform Edge Compression • 29 1
. 6.15-1 (a) Elcmcn1s supponcd along

Fi~rened aod unstiffened (b) Elcments supponcd along
two edgcs (stiffco<d clcmcni.) one edgc 1un'1ilfcncd ckmcni.sl
solfe 5sion elernents.
co111pre
In generai, plate compression elements can be scparated imo cwo categories: O) st i_ff.
ened elemencs; those supported along two edges parallel to the direction of compressive
stress; and (2) unstiffened elements; those supponed along one edge and free on the other_
edge parallel to direction of compressive stress. Referto Fig. 6.15.1 for typical examples of
these two siruations.
For the elements shown in Fig. 6 .15.1 various degrees o{ ed ge rotation resu-a.int are
present. Fig. 6.1S.2 shows the variation in k with aspect ratio alb for most of the idealiz.ed
edge conditions, i.e ., clamped (fixed), simply supponed, and free.
16 ,--- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - -- -- ,
fixcd fixed
I
I A 8
I fixcd $.S.
14 \
I
I s.s. fil\ed
I
I
I e D
\ s.s. free
12 I
I
I
I
\ I
1\ \_\
10 I\ \
... I\ \ T~pc of
"..
\ I
I \
\
\ Loadcd cdgcs fixed ._,ppon
·.:; I\ \
I \ \ alon~
E.,o \ \
I \
'---, '
Loadcd edgc~ ~,mply u11l0.1ded
(; 8 I\ \ supponed rdgr~
""
.s
:..
I I \
--- ..... --------- .~
g
a:> ('min = 6 .97
6
-----""·-.....,._:=..:.._..-------------l B
km,n = ~.4-2
. . _______ e
4
km,n = -l.00
figure 6.15.2 .
EJasric t,uckling ~oeffic1enls
for compression m flar o L---'1__.._L-_lL..-L-.......l--L..........1-_J-1'----'---'.;
2 3
rcctangular plates.
(>,clapled (rom Gerard Aspec\ ratio a I b
_.i&ecktr[6.69))
Ac1ual plale streogth in compression is de_pendent 0 ~. 01_:~JIY of the same factor~ lhat
affect overall column strength. particularly residuai stress. Ftgur~ 6._15.3 shows ty .
behavior of a compressed plate loaded to its ulti~a~e !~ad. A~su_mmg _ideai ela~tic-pJ::
materiai containing no residuai stress 1he strcs.s d1s~but1on remarns u~iform unttl the eta.~
tic buckling stress f~, is reached. Further increase in load c~n be_a~hieved but the ponion
of thc pia te farthest from its side supports will detlect out of lls ong1oal piane. This 0111
piane deOection causcs the stress distribution to be nonuoifonn even though the load~-
applied through cnds whìch are rigid and perfectly stn1ight. IS
Figure 6.15.3 shows thai pla1e strength uoder edge compression consists of the sun,
0
two component~; (I) claslic or inelastic buckling ~tress represent~ by Eq. 6. 14.28, and (i
post-~uckliog strength. Al~o one ~hould note the h1gher ~,t-buck.hng stren~th a~ the Width~
to-1l11ckness rntio bit becomes larger. For low values of bit, not only w11l post-buck]'
s~~ngth vanish. but the enti re piate may have yielded _and reached the ~train-hardening CO~~
d11!011, so that Fc,I f'y may become greatcr than unity. For plates wtthout residuai st,1
(referring to Fig. 6.15.4) thrce regions must be considered for establishing strength; el .
I
buckling (Euler hypcrbola), yielding (scgments AB, A B. and A" B), and strain harden~u
ff Fc,I 1-;. is defined as I / À;,
Eq. 6. 14.28 for plates then becornes tn
b r;,(12)( I - µ. )
.A,. "" -
t ,,,2 Ek.
1t is observed from Fig. 6. 15.4 that. when compared with columns (curve a), plates (e
b.and e? achieve a strain hardening condition al relatively higher values of A,.. Jn thc e llJV_
d1scuss1on on columns the value of .A,. at which srrain bardening commen<'cs (.Ao)
assumed lo be zero because of its relatively small value. The values of ,\0 for colum
plates un~~r unifonn e~ge compression for Fy = 36 ksi (248 MPa) are given a.s c::,ow
from Haa1Jer and Thiirhmann (6.70):
Columns =
.Ao 0.173 (KL/r = 15.7)
Long hinged tlanges .Ao = 0.455 (b/t = 8.15)
FiJCed flanges Ao = 0.461 (b/ r = 14.3)
Hinged wcbs .Ao = 0.588 (b/t : 32.3)
Fixed webs Ao = 0.579 (b/r = 42.0)
Lowb/r
I p Rigid straight
..mtri./ edge
7:::J:- Sìmple suppon
POSl•buckling
11rtnach
1-.k Rigid stnigh1
Slraight line indicatces
IHlifonn strea prior 10
ITilIIIl '"r':i ,.:...
Figure 6. I.S.3
Behavior of plate under edge
compression.
bud::lin1
A.venge uial llrlin l b~

Section 616 Alscw· .
· idth/Th1ckness limits A, Locai Plate Buckling • 293
2.0
(b) Platee- ~
(a) Column
1.5
~
I
l"' I
;,> I
I
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

...)
. re6.15.4 . I.O l.2 1.4 1.6

f1gu uckling compared w1th
p[ate bn t,uckling. (Adapted
,oturn f 6 70) A, =
(-;::
,r-,::: =
!!
I '\J
i 2
F1(12)(1 - 1-' )
"1 Ek
frOJTI Re. ·
~rom the table above, the imponant factor deterrnining Ao is whether the pla1e ele-
~ent is s up~orted along one or both edges paratie! to loading, while the degree of rota-
honal re stramt along the loaded edge (simply supponed or fixed) has essentially no effect.
Thus curves b and e of Fig. 6.15.4 each can represent two cases, where point A' has been
taken a~ À c = 0.46 and point A" at Ac = 0.58.
Smce plates as well as rolled shapes contain resi.dual stress the t.rue streogth should
be represented by a transition curve, Fig. 6.15.4, between the Euler curve and the point at
which strain hardening comrnences.
When considering inelastic behavior, the modulus of elasticity used for calcularing
strain in the dìrection of maximum stress a,. should be the tangent modulus E,. Ex.amioa-
tion of Eq. 6.14.4a shows that for inelastic strains in the x-ditection bui elastic strain i.u the
y-direction, E cannot be factored out. Bleich [6.91 has shown the solution for this case of using
different E values, and suggests arbitrarily using , / E,/ E as a multiplier for Eq. 6.14.28.
In summary, the strength of plates under edge compression may be governed by
(1) strain hardening, low values of Àc; (2) yìelding, at A c = say 0.5 to 0.6; (3) inelastic
buckling, represented by the transition curve (some fibers elastic and some yiclded); (4)
elastic buckling represented by the Euler hyperbola, at Ac about 1.4: and (5) post-buckli11g
strength with stress redisìtibution and large deformation. say for ,\'° greater than 1.5.
1For design purposes, performance criteria must be establi~h.ed to decide what range
of A c ~a\ues may be acceptable in design and how conservative (and siniple) or I.ibera! (and
relati~e ly complicated) should qe the specification ex.pressions for plate strength.
:, !
6 l6 AISC WIDTH/THICKNESS LIMITS Ar TO ACHIEVE YIELD STRESS
WlTHOUT LOCAL PLATE BUCKLING
For a better understanding of the background for these requirements the reader Ì!
invited to delve into the subjec1 of plale stability and stre ngth as introduced in Secs
6. 14 and 6.15. However, it may be sufficienl for many purposes merely to understanc
that components such as flanges, webs, angles. and cover plates. which are combine? 1'
form a column section may themselves buckle locally prio r 10 the en1ire section achie-.
ing its maximum capacìty. Typical e lements are shown in Fig. 6.15. l. The buckh.l
detlection of uniformly compressed plates is shown in Fig. 6.16.1 wherc two cmegon,
294 • Chapter 6 Compressìon Members
I
/-- - 1, ~
F" I 1-b:_J
Figure 6. I 6.1 (b) S1iffened elemenl
BuckJeJ Jeflection of (•) Unstifiened demcnl (plalt suppùOO.d a)ong
(plaie with one tdge free)
uni forniJy comprcssed ali four cdgcs)
pl;ites.
are apparent: (l) '·un~tiffened" plate elements having one free edge parallel lo loadio .
and (2) "stiffened" plate elements supported along both edges parallel to Joading. g
Plates in compression behave essentially the sa~e as columns and the basic elastj
buckling expression correspondìng to the Euler equation for columns has been derived
Eq. 6.14.28.
'TT2E
F,
cr
=k 12(1 - µ..2)(b/r)-
?
wherc k is a constant depending on type of stress, edge conditions, and length to wid
ratio; µ. ìs Poisson 's ratio, and bit is the width/thickncss ratio (see Fig. 6.16.1 ). l'ypical
values are given in Fig. 6. L5.2.
It is known that for low bit values, strain hardening is achieved without bucklin
occurring, for medium values of bit residuai stress and ìmperfections give rise to ìnelas ·
buckling represented by a transition curve, and for large bit buckling occurs in accordan
with Eq. 6.14.28. Actual strength for plates with large bit ratio exceeds buckling streng
1.e., they exhibit post-buckling strength. Thus strength for plates may be shown in a di
. sionless fashion as in Fig. 6.16.2.
To establish design requirements, thc desired perfonnance must be ascertained.
loca] buckling of a column component may logically be prevented prior to achieving fu
strength of the column based on its overall slendemess ratio KU,: The. performan
requirement would then be
Fcr ~ Fcr
component overall
element, column
i.e., plate
S1rain hardening
__ ì _ ___ _Al
I.O - - - - -
I
1. .
1\/ ,
I\
\,
Eia.stie budr.ling
1r· Ek
F,( 12)( I - 1iHh/1)1 =
I
>.2{'
Trans1hon -
I curve : '
I I I
-----L----L----~-----
1
I
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I
I I I
: I I
Figure 6.16.2
Dimensionless representation 0.7
of plate strength in edge
compression.
6 1
Section - 6 AISCWidth/Thiclmess Limits A, Locai Plate Buclding • 295
rneaning that acceptabl bi - .

e t rattos would vary depending on tbc overall slendemess ratio of
th e colurnn. lf post-b kl. . . . . -
·.
a liY comphcated. uc mg strength were cons1dered, the relauonstùp would be add1tton-
For many years the A/SI Specification [ 1.8) for cold-formed steel has used the
approach of Eq 6 16 I d . .
. · · · , an a 1so mcluded treatment of post-buckhng strength. AISC-E7
aIso mcludes similar p · · - - kt· f
. rov1s1ons to cons1der post-buckhng strength. Once bue mg o a
cornpress~on ele~ent has occurred, the efficiency of the element to carry load is reduced.
_ Design hnrns are generally simplified 10 assure che compression elcment will reach
y1eld stress F. wìthoIIt I I b k · · · f I
Y oca uc 1mg occumng, even lhough the slendemess rallo o a co -
umn may prevent the element from reaching yield stress. Tue width/thickness (bit) ratios À 10
prevent locai huckling unti! the yield st.ress is reached are the À, values of AISC Table B4.1
The requirement to achieve yield stress without tocai buckling is
(6.16.2)
Using f-1. = 0.3 for steel, E = 29,000 k.si, and F_v in ksi.
!!._ se,
I
[o.9s1,{FE.
v F_"
= 162) k .]
Fy, ks1
(6. 16.3)*
~hich is represented by point A at A" = I .O on Fig. 6.16.2, a poinl lying above tbe transi-
llon curve. Thus a reduced value of A, should be used to minimi2.e the deviation between
Fy and the transition curve which accounts for residuai stress and imperfections. Thus,
Àc = O. 7 is taken as a rational value, which gives for bit
!!_
t
s [0.951A"
\J@
F; = 113~ k .]
Fy, ks1
(6.16.4)
where F,, is in ksi. Table 6.16.1 shows width/thickness for various situations of uniform com-
pression·. Tue coefficients used by AISC since 1969 tend to imply greater accuracy in criteria
than ìs justified. The originai coefficients were established using F,. in psi: after some round-
ing they fonned the basis of the 1963 AISC Spectìcation. Table 6.'i 6.2 g,ives evaluated limits
for À,, the slendemess limit for noncompact elements. from AISC-Table B4-1 (p. 16.1 - 16)
For rolled and welded box shapes, tensile residuai stresses are induced at the comers
as discussed in Sec. 6.5. When compressive external loads are applied. the tensile residuai
stress F, must first be reduced to zero, aftenvhich additional compressive load causes
compressive stresses at the corners. Thus, when the nomi1~al stress P/ A g is Fy on the
cross-section, it is actually ( F,. - F, ) al the important regions near the
comers of the box shape. Sin~e tbe superimposed stress leve! is actua\ly less than F,., the
limit À, could be pem1itted higher than if the residuai stress were compressive.
For stiffened e\ements, such as uniform thickness plates and perforated plates. the
1986 LRFD Specification used v' (
F,, - F,.) in piace of"VF,, in the denominator of ~he
width/thickness ratio limìts. Tbe 1989 ASD Specification retained the more conservative
equatìons (without the subtracted F,.) used for the past severaI decades. Since the I 993
LRFD Specitìcatìon, AISC has reverted to those limit expressions bistorically used.
For unsiiffened elements, the stress at the free edge is predominanl and residuai
stress is generally low or compressive: thus no reduction F, is (or was) appropriate.
~For SI.~
t
,e; 425 \{ff;.F). with f )' in MPa (6 .16.:i)
296 • Chapter 6 Compressi on Members
TABLE 6.16.1 AISC Widthffhickness Ratio;,,,, Limits tor Plate Elements Subject
to Uniform Compression8
Bu ckling
Structural coefficients I< bit
Eq. 6.16.4 Fy(ksi ) AISC-84 f y( MPa)
e lements (Fig. 6.15.2) (4) (5)
( 1) {2) (3) (6)
Unstiffened:
(a) S ing le angles 0.425 2340 i \l'F:, 2400/ "VF, 76.6/ '-/F; 200/ \/p)'
(b ) Flangesd O. 70" 3000/ \/F; 3000/ VF., 95/ Wy 25-0/\/p)'
(e) Scem s of tees 1.277 4050/ VF, 4000/ ~ 128/ VF_, 333/\/p1·
Siiffened:
(a) Uniform thickne,s
flanges, such as
mbular sections
7500/VF.,c 238/'.!Fy 625/Vf,
(b) Webs of W section.s and
other stiffened elements 5.01' 8010/ ~ 8000/ \½ 253/ VF, 664i'Vfy
• Arbitrarily selected to be about one-third of the way between simpfy supported and fixed along the supported edge.
1,Edge restraint estimateci at about ~ fixed (k = 4.0 for simple support, and k = 6.97 for fìxed - see Fig. 6.15.2).
' Hollow sections generaliy receive negligbie torsional restraint by the thin supporting edges; thus a coefficient somewhat
fess than 8000 is used.
d AISC-84.2 explicitly mentions f/anges of rolled 1-shaped sections in uniform compression; included are outstanding legs of
pairs of angles in contact, ffanges of channels in axial compression, and angles and plates projecting from beams or com-
pression members, Al! of these are unstiffened elements having substantial rotational restraint along their supported edge.
6.17 AISC WIDTH/THICKNESS LIMIT Àp TO ACHIEVE SIGNIFICANT

PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Sometimes plate elements of the cross-section must not buckle unti! they haye undergonc
significant compressive strain exceeding the strain Ey at first yield, that ìs, strain into the
plastic region, as shown ìn Fig. 6.17.1. The lower the width/thickness ratio. the greater
compressive strain E that can be absorbed without buckling. In axially lor\ded colu
there would be no need for the ability lo undergo plastic st.rain because the overall stren
of the column based on its KUr would not require plastic deformation. How~Yer in beam
as discussed in Chapter 7, the flanges might be required to undergo sigt1\ficant plasf
straio wìthout having locai buckling occur.
Referring to Fig. 6. 16.2, Àc must be restricted not to exceed ,\0 if strain bardening i
(O be reached without plate buckling. From Fig. 6.15.4, Àc should not exceed a.bout 0.46 r,
unstiffened compression elements and 0.58 for stiffened compression elements.

For unstiffened elements, Eq. 6.16.4 with Àc "" 0.46 gives
!!_
t
s; [0.437VFy
{fE "" 74.4~ k ]
Fy, ksi
(6.17.1)
7
Section 6. 1 AISC Widthfrhidcness limit Ap to Achieve Significant Plastic Deformation
• 297
TABLE 6 .16.2
Width/Thickness Ratio A, Umiting Values • for
Plate Elements to Reach Yield Stress in
Axial Compression
AISC-B4
Fy(k.si)
Structural elements
36 42 50 60 65 100
Unstiffened:
(a) Single angles
(b) Flanges
12.8 11.8 10.8 9.9 9.5 7.7
15.9 14.7 13.S 12.3 11.8 9.5
(e) Stems oftccs
21.3 19.7 18.1 16.S 15.8 12.8
StitTened:
(a) Uniform thickncss
flanges, as for hollow
structural sec1ions 39.7 36.8 33.7 30.8 29.6 23.8
(b) Webs of W sections and
other stiffened elemencs 42.3 25.4
Unstiffened: 39.2 35.9 32.8 3 1.S
(a) Single angles
12.6 11.S 10.7 IO.O 9.4 7.S
(b) Flangcs
15.8 14.4 13.4 12.S 11.8 9.4
(b) Stems of tees 21.1 19.2 17.8 16.7 1S.7 12.6
Stiffened:
(a) U nifonn thickness
flanges, as for
tubular sections
39.5 36.1 33.4 31.3 29.5 23.6
{b ) Pcrforatcd plates 52.6 39.2 31.4
48.0 44.5 41.6
(e) Others 42.0 25.1
38.3 35.5 33.2 31.3
t Values in tables use equations from Table 6.16.1; column (5) for lnch-Pound units, a 11d
column (6) for SI units.
I
f I I
Stress I Plastic I Strain
: - rcgion - :- hardcmng-
1 I
Figur e 6.17. l . I I
1 . d strain-hardemng L...!..e,' -- - -.!.'- - -- -
Plasuc an -ss-stram . &
·onsof 5 .. ~
regi . hip for steel. Stroin
retauons
When k = 0.425 (its least value), Eq. 6.17. l gives
485
!: :5, [o.284 {E = ] (6. 17 .2)*
f \JFy ~
74.4 x %8949 = 195etc.
*For SI, with F_,. in MPa. -I> < 19S~

- --
- (6. 17.1)
r - F,.. MP0
b 127 (6.17.2)
- s ---
r Fy.MP0
Since residuai stress effccts disappear in the plasric range and materiai imperfectj
have less effecl, Eq. 6.17.2 is an overly severe liJnitation. F~rtheri:n~re, the SITain at onset
stmin hardening is 15 to 20 times Ey and that amou_nt ofpla51Jc Slram rs not necessary even fi
ach.ieving che plastic moment strength discussed m Chapter 7. The AISC-B4.1 AP com
section limits are intended to achieve comprcssion plastic stram about 7 to 9 times fi
o ne-half the stra.in necessary to reach stra.in hardening. Tiius. the unstiffened compres:i~n e
menr limil A,n is
!!.. s;
r
[o.Js {f = .
\j y
6 7
~· .]
Vf y, ks1
For stiffened elements, Eq. 6.16.4 with Àc = 0.58 gives

b ~0.55 JkE
- s
I
-F = 93.7 ,f~]
~r-
- k.
_v ~ _y, SI
When k = 4, che minimum value assuming edge rotational rest:raint as thc hinged con
dition (acLUally the k Jies somewhere between values for Cases A and C of Fig. 6.ls.2
Eq. 6. 17.4 gives
!!_ s
I
[1.1 {E ==
\JFy ~j
187 l
AISC-B4.2 gives the limìl for unifomùy compressed stiffened flange elements as
!!__ s [ 1.12 {E = 190 ]

t "VFy ~
A tabulation of the limits, Eq. 6.17.3 for unstiffened elements and Eq. 6.17.6 for stiffened e
ments, appears in Table 6.17. I. Additional discussions relative to local buckling l.imitations
develop plastic strength are given by Lay [6.71] and McDermott [6.72].
TABLE 6.17.1 Width/Thickness Ratio Àp Limits far Plate Elements

to Accommodate Plastic Straìn in Axial Compression
Unstiffened elements Stiffened elements

Fv Fy AISC-84.1 AISC-B4.2
{ksi) (MPa) (Eq. 6.17.3) (Eq. 6.17.6)
36 250 l0.8 31.8

42 290 IO.O 29.4
45 3!0 9.7 28.4
50 340 9.2 27.0
55 380 8.8 25.7
60 410 8.4 24.6
65 450 8.0 23.7
8
Sectlon 6, 1 AISC Provisions to Account for the Bucicling and Strengths of Plate Elements • 299
S* AISC PROVISIONS TO ACCOUNT FOR THE BUCKLING AND

iJsr-suCKLING STRENGTHS OF PLATE ELEMENTS
:,;.---
As <liscussed in Secs. 6.15 and 6. 16. plate elements in compression, either ''stiffened'' or
5
"un liftène~" (see Fig. 6.16. l), have strength after buckling has occurred, i.e., post-buckling
strcngth. Sllffened elements have a large post-buckling strength while unstiffened elements
have only a little. However, since the strength of such elements can be evaluatcd, there is
good reasou to previde for its use as has becn done in the No11h American Specificatio,r for
the Design of Co/d-Fonned Sree/ Structural Members [ 1.8], firsc introduced in 1946.
From Fig. 6.18.1 a it is apparent that che nominai strength P" of a stiffened element
might be expressed as
P,, =r fo\(x) dx (6.18.1)
involving an integration of a nonuniform stress distribution; or ahernatively. an ·'effective

width" concept (Fig. 6.18.1 b) may be used:
( stiffened element) (6. 18.2)
where be = effective width over which the maximum stress may be considered
uniform and give the correct total capacity.
Figure 6.18. lc shows that Eq. 6.18.1 is equally valid for the unstiffened element except
that rhe stress distribution is not symmetrical about the center of the element. lf a reduced Slress
f:wg < Ima, is used, the unstiffened element capacity could be wrinen (Fig. 6.18. l d).
P,, = tbf.wg = Agross!avg (unstiffenedelement) (6.18.J)
Tbc AISC and the AISI 11 .8] have chosen to treat thin elements according to Eqs. 6.18.2
and 6. 18.3. although actually either equatiun could have been used for either type of
elemen1. Because of the large post-buckling strength of the stiffened elemenl, one can
imagine that ir has buckled and part of the cle ment is no longer active. On the orher hand.
the unstiffened element, with rclatively little post-buckling strength may be thought of as
not buckling because of the use of a reduced stress.
f (r)
- h --- \ b,/2 ;--- h- -

=
--
X
Supporlcd .--- ~-- Free

figure 6.18.1
PIate elements under
.
ax ,al edges:
hinges
'--·~---- ----~-·- \ cd~c
comprcssion. showmg · ac'luaI

( a) (b) (cl (d)
siress distribution and an
equivalent system · S1iffencd demen1 Unstiffened ekmcnl
Effect on Overall Colunm Strength
Por design. it is desired to use gross section propenies; thus for ,-tiffencd elements
(6.18A)
and for unstiffened elemenls,
/ ~vg
P,, = J,- f max A gross -
- Q.r f,max A g.ross.
max
wherc Q and Q may be Lhought of as shape factors. or form facto~s-

a ·1 d f both stiffened and unsuffened elements
A compression system compose o · _ . . . wou[
be treated as unstiffened for establishing the stress favg • th en the effecu_ve width for th
. . - , = f avg · 'T'hus
stiffened elemencs 1s dctermrned usmg J max •
the cotal capac1ty would be
P,, = /wgAeff
which gives
favg Q Q J, A
P,, = -.- (Jmax) - Aeff
- ( A gross
)
== s a ma:,; gros~
_/max Agross
From Eqs. 6.18.4. 6. 18.5. and 6. !8.7, it i~ clear thac t?e effect of pre1:11ature loca( buck_.
ling before the strength of the overall column ha., been achiev~d- 1~ 10 ~uluply the maximum
achievable stress by the fonn factors Q. Neglecting t.he poss1b1l~ty_ of stram hardening, the
maximum stress is the yield stress, which is therefore to be mul_uplied by Q.
The nominai strenc:th of a compression member havmg stender elements must
include the effect of rcd~ced efficiency of the cros~-section by including the form,
shape, factor Q in accordance with AISC-E7. The effect of locai bucklin~ of slender ele-
ments is accounced for by replacing Fv by QFy. The short column equatton. Eq. 6.8.2, is
Wh.en E!:::. s 4.71) E or Fe ~ 0.44QFy

r 'J QF,
[6,&,2)
Jt is only for short columns where the Jocal buckling of cross-sectìonal elemenrs reduces
the efficiency; for Iong columns where
KL
->4.7 1~
-
r QF_v
local buckling has little effect,; therefore AISC-E7 neglects such effect and considers the
Euler equation as the basis for strength.
Since the form factor Q is used to account for the reduction in efficiency of the cross-
section instead of modifying the cross-sectional properties. whether or not Q is \ess than
unity, the nomina! strength P,, is computed as the product of Fcr times Ag. and the radius
of gyration r is that of the gross section in the computation of KLJr.
Factor Q 5 for Unstiffened Elements
AISC-E7. I gives the equations for Q, for four different types of shapes; rolled W shapes
where the flanges are the unstiffened elemems, built-up shapes, single angles and stems
of tees. Referring to Fig. 6.16.2, one may note that when Ùle slenderness parameter Àr is
Jarger than 0.7, Q is less than 1.0. For inelastic buckling, a transition parabola could have
been used to compute the reduced stress. For simplification, a straight line has bee
used, as shown in Fig. 6.18.2. The straight line uses Àc = 0.7 as the maximum for which
Fcr = J,~ and intersects the elastic buckling curve within a small range of pos.\ible
6 8
5eetion · 1 AISC Provisìons to Account for the Buck.ling and Strengths of Plate Elements • 301
A,
I.O
lnelastic tran<ition curve
ci
'V
\
Elas1ic pla1e buckling curve
..:
e
\ / AISC-raised clastic buckling cun·e
~<:
_g ''
ti
:,
.,
''
"O
' ',, ....
Cli:
.... .. __
o
618.2 o 0.7
fig:ti~n of Q, for
()Il .,«ened sJender b f F , 12(1-µ. 2)
~pSUJ" 5] Slelldemess Parame1er, A, ; - • 1-'- - - ,-
tlement. [I.I . 1 V E '11" k
maximum slenderness values. dictated by type of shape accordiog co AISC-E7.I. Note

that it is not so much tbc shape per se (angle, T-shape, or w shape) that requires a differ-
ent Q but it is an evaluatìon of thc relative moment restraint along the supponed other leg:
the legs would tend to buckle simultaneously by rotating about the axis at the junction of
the two legs. This case is clearly a weaker one as compared to unstiffened elements
(flanges) of W shapes. In addition to elaslic buckling strength, there is some post-buckling
strength; lhus the elastic buckling curve used for des ign has been raised to account for
some post-buck.ling strength, as shown in Fig. 6.18.2.
Although Qs has been defined to thìs poim as Fc,I F, , whcn overall buckling of a col-
umn occurs (based on its KUr) the average stress P. /A
. " li J • •
is
alwa"S less than F,,. This means
loc&J bucklmg of an unstiffened element will reduce the efficiency of 1he cross-secnon 0 11I~·
when Fc,,plaie for the plate element is less than Fcr.column ·
Thus. in generai, for columns
Fcr.plme fcr.plaic
Q, = F. > - - - (6.18.8)
cr.~-olumn - Fv
and for compression flanges of beams.
Fcr.plate Fc,.plate
Q_. = F > - -- (6. I 8.9)
cr.beam Oange - fv
The AISC-E7. I givcs the equations for Q,:
I. For flanges, angles, and plates projecting from rolled column see1ions. or othe(
compression members:
~
b
a. When - s 0.56 - = ~ 95 ]
I [ F,. V Fv, ksi
Q ., = I.O t6.l 8. 10)
95 b
b. Whe n ---,== < - s
VFy, ksi 1
Q5 = [ ( J.415 - 0.74(
7)Ji) -· ( 1.415 - o.oo-ns( 7)V F,. k:-i) j (6. 1s .11 l
302 • Chapter 6 Compression Membars
b 175
c. When-- > ~
t \, F.., ks1
Q, =[
0.69E
Fy(7 r . 20,000
= (Fp ksi)c~ r ]
where b = width of unstiffeoed compression element, defined in AISC-B4 , and f = lhickne

of element.
2 _ For flanges, angles, and plates. projecting from built-up columns, or other com
pressìon members:
-- b <
a. When - --
I
L0.64\J/~
'
.y
= Jt V_109\ikc]
~F k ..
l'y , KSI
Q, = I.O
b. When
109~
e <-
b
:s; II 1.17lff:kc
-
_
-
199~]
_ r. .
y'p_y, ksi l L Fy V Fl',kst
.
Q, = [ ( t.415 - o.6s( 7. )J ~J = ( 1.415 - o.00382(; )J~·~-~ 51

)]
b J99Wc
c. Wheo - > - - ==
t ~
where kc = , ~ (Note: for calculation pwposes, 0.35 s; kc ::;;;; O. 76). Note thai h = clear
vh/tw
distance between flanges less the fillet or corner radius, or clear distance between flanges
when welds are used, and tw = web thickness.
3. For single angles:
a. When -b s; [ 0.45 -
t Fy
Jf = _ V
76.6 ]
r.;-;-:
Fy, ksi
Q, = LO
76.6 < -b
b. When • r.:;-:---;
V Fv, t
s; [ 0.91 -
Fy
Jf = 155
VÌz.ksi
]
. ks1 p
.,.,.tìon 6.18 AISC Provisions to Accou t f h
.,,.,., n or t e Buckling and Strengths of Plate Elements • 303
b 155
c. When - > ---..,=-
1 ~-.ksi
0.53E IS,400 ] (6.l!U8)

Q,=~=
[ Fy(,)
(F,..
b2
ksi )(-)
4. For stems of cees:
a. When 7 s [0.75 [E. = 128 ]

\f-;::. ~
Q_, = I.O (6.18.19)
b. Whcn 128 < ~s [1.03 {E= 175 ]

~ I \JFy ~
Q, = [l.908 - 1.22(~)-Ji = 1.908 - 0.00716(~)~] (6.18.20)
c. When ~ > 175
'~
{6.18.21)
where d "" the full depth of tee.
Reduction Factor Qa for Stiffened Elements
The concept of usìng an effective width over which stress may be considered unìfonn.
even though it is actually nonunifonn, was developed by von Kamufo [6.73] aud later
modified by Winter [6.74]. Winter's equation. the format of which has bee.n used by the
A/SI Specificarion (l.81 since 1946, is
bE-_1
-
1 .
9fr· [
-
f ·
0.475
10 - - - - F::
(b/1)\Jf
IE] (6.18.22)
where f = P,, / A g, stress acting on the element (j ma.x of Fìg. 6.18. l)

b /t = actual width/thìckness ratio
The form and constants of the equation were essentiaJly de1ennined to agree with experi-
mental results.
Substituting E = 29.000 ksì gives
bE 324 [ 81 ] (6.18.23)
-:- = Yj I.O - (h/r)Vf
Experience with light gage steel sbowed 1hat the coeffo:ient of lhe second tern: _in Eq.
6.18.23 could be reduced. Since 1962 the equation used by both the AlSI Spce1t,catton
[1 .81 and the ATSC SpecificaLion has been essen1ially unchanged. In A[SC-E7.2 are gi\,
rhe following:
l. For uniformJy compressed slender elements, except flanges of square and ree
gular sections of unifonn 1hickness. when
327 [ 57.9 ]}
~ 1 - (b/ t ) ~ (6.t&.2
where / is taken as Fcr ca!culated using Q = I .O. .

2. For flanges of square and rectangular slender elements of unifonn thickn
when
-b > [ 1.40, /fii

- = 238 ]
1 V/ VJ, ksi
bE
-;- =
{ 0[
7
!.9¾
0.38
1 - (b/t) \, :n
~ l
or
where f = P,,/ Aerr · To avoid iterati on in calculating the c orrect J value..f can conserv
tively be taken as / - Fy.
3. For axially-loaded circular sec1ions. when
E D _E
O.li-< - < 0.4) --ç;-
Fy t ,·y
0.038E 2 1100 21
= Qa = [ F_v ( D / t) + 3
-----+- 1
Q or (Fy,ksi)(D/1) 3J
where D is the outside diameter of the section, and t is the wall thickness.
The difference between Eqs. 6.18.25 and 6.18.26 can be explained partly by the dilfer
ence in the assumed rotational restraint (moment along the supported edges. Fig. 6.18.lb)
Additional discussion ofthe effective width for stiffeoed elements in compression ·
available in the work of Korol and Sherboume (6.75, 6.76], Dawson and Walker [6.77
and Abdel-Sayed f6.78]. Sharp (6.79] has considered stiffened elements having one edg
stiffened by a lip. Kalyanaraman, Pekoz, and Winter (6.80] have proposed an effecti
width expression for unstiffened elements.
Since a column cross-section may include unstiffened element'i, which under prese
design procedures utilize reduced average stress rather than an effective width, the contro
ling stress on unstiffened elements is used as the applicable maximum stress acting on 1
stiffened elements. Thus the stressfis
(6.18.27
and the design requirement is that
(6.18.28
Sectìon 6.19
Desìgn of Compressìon Members as Bucklìng Provisions • 305
Substituting Eq 6 18 27 .
· · · mio F...q. 6.18.28 shows that
(6.18.29)
and froni Eq. 6 . 18.28,

(6.18.30)
Thus,
f = <PcQ, Fc,.colun1n (6.18.31)
Note that Q F · F .
. s cr.colu11111 IS cr 1n AISC-E7 .2. ln other words, whcn Q < l. F,, is redefined
as QFc, m the ATSC Speciftcation
Finally, Oa as defined by E~. 6.18.4 is
Q..• = A c ff _ bEt 16.1 g .4 J

A gros; bi
where Acff = Agross - L(b - bE)t.
Design Properties
In computin~ the nominai strength, the following mles apply in accordance with A[SC-E7 -
Por ax.1al compression:
= Fcr A g ·
1. Use gross arca Ag for Pn
2. Use gross areato compute radìus of gyration r for KU,:
Por flexure:
1. Use reduced section properties for beams with flanges containing stiffened
elements.
Since lhe strengths of beams do not include Q factors relating to thin compression
elements, it is appropriate to use section properties based on effective area.
For beam-columns:
1. Use grnss area for P,, .
2. Use reduced section properties for Oexure involvin.g_ stiffened com.pression ele-
ments for Mnx and Mny·
3. Use Q0 and Qs for determining P,..
4. For Fc, based on 1.ateral-torsional buckling of beams as discussed in Chapter 9.
,t he maximum value of Fc, is Qs Fcr when~unstiffened compression elements are
involved.
l 9 DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS AS AFFECTED

, LOCAL BUCKLING PROVISIONS
Design of single and double angle. struts, structuràl tecs. welded buill-up l-shapes. and
most other built-up sections. including box-type sections, involves the close attention to
width/thickness lìmitatìons to prevent locai buckling. Most ro\\e,c\ W, S. and M shapes have
proportions such that local buckling will not occur (that is. ) prior to ac hieving the stre ng.th
of the section based on the overall slenderness ratio KLh:
The following examples illustrate situations where Q < \.0.
EXAMPLE 6.19.1
A douhle angle compression chord member for the truss of Fig: 6.19. l consists
2-L8 X4 x½, having shon legs back-co-back. The 28-ft-lon_g m~mberis braced in the pi
of che cruss every 7 fc, buc only at the ends in (he transver~c d~rcct1~n. As~ume the two angl
are attached iogether wich fully-tighcc ncd bolts and ~e spacmg 0 _1 bolts 1s dose enough
the double angle member reac hes its maximum ax1al compression strength*. Neg\cct
concribucion co laceraì suppon from the roofing. Compuce che maximum ax.ia\ service an
pression Joad this member can be permitred 10 carry. The service load is 30% dead load
70% gravicy live load. Use A572 Grade 50 steel and ùie A ISC LRFD Metho<l.
2L8x4x 2
1
T~ _ I .I' = 0.859 in.
forgwss
1 Sèction
B
--------- J.,n_ gUS.\CI plate
Figure 6.19.1
Example 6. 19.1. Section A·A
Solution:
(a) Check locai buckling. Tue 8-in. legs of this double angle member are unstiffi
compression elements. Check wherher or not ihe width/thickness ratio À excecds A,
0
AISC-E7.l. The authors conservatively use Eqs. 6.18. 16, 6.18.17, or 6.18.18 for sin
angles; one could argue th.is case should use Eqs. 6.18.10, 6.18.11, 6. I 8.12. For Eq. 6.18.l
6
76.6
= -b = - 8 = ) (
(A 16.0 > A, = . r::-:-: = •76.6 \
r::: == 10.8)
I 0.50 V~-, ksi V 50
Since À > A, , loca) buckling will reduce the section efficiency. Using AISC-E7.I (orBj.
6.18.17) check the next limit
b ) ( 155 155
= 21.9 )
( 7 == 16.0 < • ;-::-:-: == • r:::
v Fy, ks1 v.50
Q, = (1.34 - 0.16(7)li)
Q, = 1.34 - 0.00446(;) ~
= 1.34 - 0.00446(16.0)\/50 = 0.835

(b) Compute design strength For axial compressìon, propertìes of the gross secti
are used. From the AISC Manual propertics of double-angles with short legs back-to-
(p. 1-100),
Ag = 11.5 sq in.
rx == 1.08 in. r), = 3.97 in. ( for shon legs scparaced i in.)
~e possible ~eduction in strcngth relating to the conncction between the two angles was discusscd in s«.
and 1s covered in AISC-E6.
Section 6.19 Deai
gn of Compression Members H Buc:lding Provla1ona • 307
Assuming K = 1 o for 1 ..
· russ members a~ di-.cu!o-.e<l in Sec . t..9.
(K L)x 1.0(7)12 ( K L),, 1.0( 28) 12
r.,
- = - = 78
1.08 r,.
-- · ------
3.97
85
Checking the limit of AISC-Fom,ula (E7 _ ). Eq. _ _ ,
2 682
2
( 4 .71 fI._ = 4 .71 [ ~ = 124) > 8S
Thus . \J<ii:- \J 0.835(50)
Fc, =Q [ 0.658>'..Qr ] F,,
2 2
where F = 'Tf E 11' (29,000)
< (KL / r )2 = (85 )2 = 39.6 ksi
F cr = 0.835[ 0.658 ~1 = "'• 50 26.9 ksi
= cf,FcrA 8 = 0,90(26.9) 11.S = 278 kips

cf,P,,
Pu = 1.2D + L6L = 1.2(0.3P) + 1.6(0.7 P) = 1.48P
t/>P,, = P" = 1.48P . ·. P = 188 kips ( maximum seivice load capaci1y ) •
EXAMPLE 6.19.2
Design a d_oub~e angle compression member for use as a ~preader strut for hoisting lai:se loa_ds .
as shown 111 F1g. 6.19.2a. The lifted load is 60 tons. of which 55 ton~ is live load mc\udmg
impact. The remainder is dead load. Use f ~ = 60 ksi and Load and Resisrance Factor Design.
Solution:
(a) Compute factored load P". Ar 4 to I slope. of c able the co mpressive load in the
strut is 120 tons (240 kips).
P,, = 1.2(~~}240) + l.6(~1}240) = 376k.ip~

(b) Estimate the slenderness ratio. Assume K = I.O and referring ICI Fi.g. 6.19.lb.
use tex.t Appendix Tahle A I 10 estimate r,
r, ""' 0.29h
l"v <::< 0.24b
bO IOn~
C"r>nc hO<lk
CG of :mgk ,
JO """
figite 6,19.2 20·.o· - - - - -
es,niPle 6.19.2.
(el (b)
lf 8-in. legs are used, r, -::::: 0.29(8) ::: 2.32 in.
KL 1.0(20)12
Estimate - ~ - ' - - - = 104
r 2.3
(e) Selcct sectioo. From AISC ' 'Available Criticai Stress for Compression Mem
Table 4-22 (p. 4---320), estimate cf>fcr "" 20.4(60/50) = 24.5.
Pu 376 .
Required A
g
= -<f>Jcr
- = -24.5- = I 5 .4 sq m.
Try L8X8X½ , 'min = 2.49 in., Ag "" 15.5 sq in., KL /r = 96.4.

The estimated </>Jc.- obtair.ed by increasing the F~ = 50 ksi value in the ratio of the Yie
stresses is probably high for KUr over 100. Applyrng AISC-E7. I (the same as Eqs. 6.JS.J
and 6.18.17) for single angles.
À = -b = - 8 = 16.0
. )
>
(
Àr
76.6
= -- -- = -76.6- = 9.9\ l
( I 0.50 ~ V6Q )
Since À > À,, locai buckling will reduce the section efficiency. Usìng AISC-E7.1 (or
6.18.17) check the next limìr
( 7b = 16.0) < ( . r.:.

155
.
v Fy, ks1
= . 155
r,;:_ = 20.0
v60
)
Qs = 1.34 - 0.76 (tb)\J°t

(Fy
Qs = 1.34 - 7) ~
0.00446(
= 1.34 - 0.00446(16.0)V60 = 0.787
Q = Qs
Check whether or not this is to be treated as a short column,
(~l = 96.4) < ( 4.71~ = 4.71

29,000
0.787(60) =
117
)
Thus, it ìs a short columo. Evaluating Fcr,
Fe = ( ~L r
1f2E ?T
2
(29,000)
= (96.4)2 = 30.8 ksi
- [
Fcr - Q 0.658 F, Fy QF,] = 0.787[ 0.658~ ] 60 = 24.9 k~i
J0.8
t/>Pn = <f>cFcrAg = 0.90(24.9)15.5 = 347 kips < 376 kips
Increase size of angles to 2-L8 X8X-& , Ag = 11.36 sq in.,

Section 6.19 Design of e . .. • 309
ompress,on Members as Buckling Prov1s1ons
(~1::.=96.4) < 117:7= 14.2

Revised Q,. = 0.849; revised Fc, = 25.5 ksi
<bP. =- </>,f~,AR = 0.90(25.5)17.36 = 398 kips > 376 kips
Use 2 - L8X8x&
•
MPLE 6.19.3
e)(A
Select the thinnest I 2X 12 square HSS (hollow structural sections) to carry an axia\ com-
pressìon
th of 6? kips <lead load and 250 kips \ive load. The effective length KL i~ 18 ft aoct
e rnember ~s pan of a braced sys1em. Use F,. = 65 ksi and the AlSC LRFD Meth °'.1·
Note that Whtle using Fy = 65 ksi illustrates procedure, Grade 45 is the maximum ava,l-
able for rectangular HSS tubes under ASTM ASOO.
Solution:
(a) Compute factored load pu.
P,, = 1.2( 60) + l.6(250) = 472 kips

(b) Obtain estimate of required area. Use text Appendix Table A I to estimate radiu~
of gyration.
r = 0.4h = 0.4(12) = 4.8 in.
Using Eq. 6.8.2 for Fc, with first tria! Q = I.
KL 18(12)
-=--=45 Fc, = 53.6 ksi
r 4.8
pii 472 .
Required Ag = --· = 9.78 sq li\.
<PcFc, 0.85(53.6)
Try HSS 12X l2X~ (Fig. 6.19.:ì):
Ag = 10.8 sq in.; rx = r = 4.79 in.; b/1 =

1, 48.5: I = 0.233 in.
(e) Compute strength of se\ected section. Check bit on stiffened ele ments. Loc~I
buckling may reduce the efficiency of this section. Compute the reduction factor Q m
accordance with AlSC-E7 .2b. Because the stress fon the stiffened elcment of ~ colu~m
sec tion will be less tha.n ip._.F,., the ,\, limitation will actually be higher than the hmitatlon
for Eq. 6.18.25. ..
Stiffened
compression
clements
12" - 1
li
_J
figute 6. l9.3 (a) Gross section

E1arnple 6.19.3. (b) Effeclivc ~cc1ion
- -- -
31 O • Chapter 6 Compression Members
For -b 2
(E
[ 1.40 /--: 238 ]
= - ==
I \ f ~
bE
7 =
{
l.92~
;'i[
f I -
0.38 IE]
(bjt){j or -\/J,ksi
327 [
1
_ 64.7
(b/r)Vf, ksi
]}
[6.!&.2
where f =
Fcr wltich is a func1ion of Q. For this secliun having no unstiffene<l ele
Q., = I O; thus Q = Qa. Estimate Q0 = 0.90; try .f = Q" Fc, = 0.9( 53.6) = 48.2 ksi usi
Fc, = 53.6 ksi as obtained from the firsr estimate of KUr.
( '?._
t
= 48.5) ~ [ 1.40 /lff = ~
f, ksi
\
= _~ = 34.2]
v48.2
bE _ { 327 [t _ 64.7 ] ,,, ~ [ ) _ 64.7 ] -

! - ~ ( b;:) ~ V48.2 (48.5) \/48.2 - 38·0
Thus locai buckling will contro! rhe section cfticiency for ali four sides of the tube.
effective area is
Ae,r = 10.8 - 4(7- bt} 2
= 10.8 - 4(48.5 - 38.0)(0.233)2 = 8.52 sq in.

Q ,.,, Aerr = 8.52 = O. 789
Ag 10.8
Clearly the section is inadeguate because Q is far less than the I .O assumed . lncrea.~e
section to HSS 12Xl2Xft,
A,1; = 13.4 sq in.; r, = ry = 4.76 in.; b/t = 38.2; f = 0.291 ir..

Recompute the KUr value for the tria! sectìon,
KL 18(12)
- =- - = 45.4
r 4.76
Try f Jess than 48.2 ksi used initially; try 42 ksi,
( '?.. = 38.2) ~ [ 1.40, {i = 238 = 238 = '36.7]

t Vf ~ \/42
bE ={ 327 [I _ 64.7 ] = 327 [l _ 64.7 - ] = )?
1
~ (b/r)~ \/42 {38.2)V42 ·
Aeff = 13.4 - 4 (1b- 7bE)t 2
= 13.4 - 4(38.2 - 37.3)(0.291 ) 2 = 13.J sq in.

Aerr 13.1
QT = Ag = 13.4 = 0.978
Section 6.19 "- ·
uwsign of Compr. .1ion Members .. Buddlng Provi1ion1 • 311
( 4.71\i/ E
QF,.
-= 4.71 /'J™ •
\J 0 .978(65)
IOI) ~ 45.4
A shon column as cxpected!
2
F, = - ~ = -rr (29,000)
(KL/r)i ( 45_4 )2 = 139ksi
Fc, = Q[0.658V.:,.1 ]F,, = 0.97{0.658°":"~"'1 }s = 52.S ksi
ff>cP., = ff>,.F, ,AK = 0.90(52.5)13.4 = 633 .kips > 472 kips
This larger section than the initial selection has a much Jower bit ratio and thus regardle~s:
of the assumption on f. Q will be ,•ery closc 10 I .O.
Ust' HSS 12Xl2X~. •
EXAMPLE 6.19.4
Determine the nominai axial compressive strcngth p11 for the nonstandard shape of Fig.
6.19.4 for an effcctive length KL equa! to 8 ft. Use P, = 100 ksi and the AlSC LRFD
Method. ·
Unstiffencd
demcnts
s,;u""'
clcmeo1
~ f/\
Il
1
I .,,
;"
figure 6.19.4 (•) Gross scction

Exarnple 6.19.4. ( b) EHcctivc ,cnion
Solution:
In axìal compression this section contains unstiffcned compression elemcnt~ (Oanges) and
a stiffened compression element (the web). Unstiffened elcments must be Lrcated finr,l so
1hat the effective stress leve! may be detennined.
(a) Properties of the gross section.
fy == negligible (web) + 2(Mco.S)( 10) 3 (nanges) = 8'.\.4 in. 4
A 8 == 11(0.25) + 2(5.0) = 12.75 sqio.

,.y == v(1A = Vs14/l2.7s = 2.s6 in.
(b) Unstiffcncd elemeots, AISC-E7.lb, Eqs. 6.ll\.14 ;md 6.IIU5. Chcd;. tlw web
slendemess effect kc on the support restrnint of thc unstiffened dement,
h 11
- = --- = 44
1,,1 0.25
4 4
k, = . r.-:- = . r:--: = 0.603 < 0.7b3
vll / 1111 V44
312 • Chapter 6 Compression Me.mbers
When kc lies between 0.35 aod 0.763, as it does in this case, the fonnulation of
depends on k,. UsingEq. 6.18.14,
1109vi"; = to9VD.603 = 85 ]
L~ vioo ·
< (!!., = io.o) < [ ~
t99Vkc = 199\/D.6o3 _
Vìoo - 1s.s
b) (Fy, ksi
Q., = 1.41s - 0.00382 ( --; \J-T
[ LOO
se 1.415 - 0.00382(!0.0)\f o.603 = 0.923
(e) Stiffened element, AISC-E7.2a, Eq. 6.18.24,
= !: = ~ = 44) >
2
(
À
1 0.2:>
(Àr = .v~IOO = 25.4)
!hus Q,, < I .O. The stress/ that acts on the s~iffened element i~ F cr which includes Q, 1
1s, Eq. 6.8.2. A first trial may be made assummg Q = Q.,, that 1s. Q,, = I.O.
Kl 8(12)
- = 37.5 ) < ( 4.71. ,/E J29,000 = 80.2 )
( -r =-
~~ V~
- . = 4.71 - -
100
This is a short column.
2
'1T2E '11' (29,000)
F = - - -2 = - - ' - -2 - = 204 ksi
e (KL/r) (37.5)
Fcr = Q [ 0.658QF,]
F, Fy = 0.923[ 0.658\U.lli!.!fil]
2CM 100 = 76.4 ksi
Trial f = QFc, = 0.923(76.4) = 70.5 ksi
bE { 327 [ 57.9 ] 327 [ 57 9 ]

t = ~ I - (b/t)~ = V7o.s 1 - (44)~ = 32.8
Aeff = 12.75 - ( ~- ~E }
2
= 12.75 - (44 - 32.8)(0.25)2 = 12.05 sq in.

Aerr 12.05
Q,, = Ag = 12.75 = 0.945
Q = Q,,Q5 = 0.945(0.923) = 0.872
Another iteration,
F~, = Q[ 0.658~;-JF,. = o.sn(o.6ss""]t''!!.I }oo = 72.9 ksi

f = QFcr = 0.872(72.9) = 63.6 ksi
bE ={ 327 ( _ 57.9 ] 327 [ 57.9 ] =
~ I (b/1)'vf.ksi = V63.6 I - (44)V63.9
Acff = 12.75 - (~ - bE
1
),2
12.75- (44 - 34.2)(0.25)2 = t2. l4sqin.
Q = Aeff = ~-
a Ag 12.75 - 0.952
Q = Q,,Qs = 0.952(0.923) = 0.879 Close enough~
Fc, = Q[ 0.658~ ]Fy == 0.879[0.658""~"'1}00 = 73.4 ksi
cj,cPn = cJ,Jc,Ag = 0.90(73)12.75 == 838 kips •
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Member-$," Joumal ofthe S1r11ctutr1/ Di1ùion. ASCE. 96, ST7 {July 19701. 1377- 1401 .
6.64. Bruce G. Joh.nston. "Spaced Steel Columns:· Jm,mr1/ (>( 1/te S1mc11,ml Did.,ilm. ASCE. 97. ST5 ~May
1971), 1465-1479.
6.65. Omer W. Blodgett. /Jcsign o.f W,lded Stnww~s Cleveland. Ohio: farne, F. Lincoln Are Wclding f-oun-
dation. 1966.
6.66. S. 1ìmoshcnko and S. Woinowsky-Krieger. Theory of Pla1e.~ and .'ìhell.,. 2nd cJ. Nc\l Yon. · l\kGrnw-
Hill Book Company. lnc ., 1959 (pp. 79- 82).
6.67. Stephen P. T1moshenko and Jamcs M. Gcrc. n,eor.· o.f El,wìc Swbility. 2nd cd. Ne" \'Mie McGraw-Hill
Book Company, lnc-.. 1961 (pp. 319-328. 351- ) 56).
6.68. Kun H . Gcrstle. Ba.vie Srru,:rurol De.,il(n. New York: McGrnw-Hill 8(\0k Colllf'lln~. In,; .. IQ(,1 I.PI'·
88-90).
6 .69. Gcorgc Gcrard and Hcrben Bcckcr. ll(mdbonl: ofStn1r 11,rnl Stobili tv. Pan I-B11r Wn11 nj 1-'1,u Plntt" <,
Tech . Noce 3871. Na1ional Advisory Commiucc for Aeromiutici-. Wa,hinpton. O.C-·· Jul)' I 9S1
6.70. Gcerh:ird Haaijcr and Bruno ThUrlimann. "'On lncla~tic Dud.lini; ,n St('c1:· Tm11so.-tit,ni. ASCE. I 2$
(1960), 308- 344.
6.71. Maxwcll G. Lay. "Flange Locai Ruc~ling in Wìdc-Fh1ngc Sh.tllC'... J,,un111f "' '''" Srm, tunil I>,,.,.,,.lft.
ASCE, 91, ST6 (Decc:mber 1965). ()5-116.
6.72. fohn F. Mdxrmon. "Locai Plastìc Buckling òf A514 S1~el Membcrs." Joum,i/ ofthe Stnir111ra/ l>n-;.
sion. ASCE. 95. ST9 (Scp1cmber I%9). I 83'/- 1850.
6.73. Thcodorc 1011 Kiim1an. E. E. Sechler. aml L. H. D<•nnell. ··11,c Sircnl)lh ofThin Plaies in Comprc\~i
'/ì-cmsac/ÙJ1Js. ASME. 54, APM-5~-5 (19J2). 53.
6.74. G. Winler. "S1rcn1,,1J, ol'Thin Con,pres.,ion Flang~s." Trc111.rnoim1s. ASCE. 112 ( 1947). 527- 576.
6.75. Rnben M. Korol :wd Archib;ild N. Sheolxmrn~.• ··s,reng_:h i-:r~dìc1.ions o; P;ales in Uniiuial Com~,_
sion." Joumo/ ofthe Sm .1cr11 rn/ !Jil'isim•. ASCE. 98, S1 ) (Scptember 197-). 1965-1986.
6.76. Archibald N. Sherbournc and Rnbcrr M. Korol. "PMl· Bu.:klìng of Axially 4
Comprcsscd Plates," 10.,
of1h1· Stmoural 1Ji,,i.,io11. ASCE. 98, STIO (Octobcr 1972). '.!223-223 .
6.77. Ralph G. Oawson and Alm-tair c. Walker. "1'0~1-1.lu,kl_ing of G~ome.1rìcally lmperfec1 Plates." lourruir
tlw S11·11c1ural Division. ASCE. 98, $TI (Junuar)' 1972). 75-94.
6.78. Ge<>rge Abdcl-Sayed. ·'Effecli\/e Widlh ofThin Plarcs Ìll Co111pression." Jouma/ r~frlre Strumiraf Di.,.
sion. ASCE. 95, STIO (Oc1ob<-r 1%9>. 21~3--2'203.
6.79. Maurke I... Sh:,rp. "Longiludi,u,J Stilkners for Compr.:~sion Membcrs." Jo11mal oj the Str11,·1um/ Dia,
.,irm, ASCE. 92, ST5 (Oc1obcr 1966). I 87-111 .
6.80. v. Kalvcmaraman. 1eoman Pek<'Z. a_nd George Winter. "UnstìffoneJ Compres,ion Eleme111s." Jo,.n,aJ
1/w s,;,,.-r,,ra/ Dfrision. ASClò. 103, ST9 (Seplcmbcr 1977). 1833-1848.
6.81. Russcll Q. B,idge and Donald J. Fr~scr. "hnpro.,ed C-Factor Melh~ for Evaluating Effectivc Lenglh$
Columns:· Jvunwl ofSm1c111ml Engi111•emrf!.. 113, 6 (Junc 19!!7). l.>41-1356.
6.82. Lian Duan and Wai-Fab Chcn. ~~ii;n Rule-,; of Buìlt-Up Members in l..oad and Rcsi,1.ancc Factor
Oesig11; · Jmmwl oJSrruouml E11ginuri11g. 114, 11 (Novembcr 191!8). 25~2554.
6.83. AISC. Sp,•cijicmi(m Jor Ln,ul ,md Rcsisumu Facror Desig11_of Singli:-A11gle Members. effcetì\'c
ber I, 1993. Chicago: American lns1i1u1c llf Stcd Cons1ru~uon. 1993.
6.84. o,, nald J. Frascr. "Uniform Pin-b3scd Crane Columns. Effectìvc Length,.'' E11gim•cring Jo11m11I. Al
26, 2 (2nd Quaner 1989), (I 1-65.
6.85. Snycd H. Stoman...Effcctivc L<'ngth Spcctr~ for Cro~s Br.icingS:' Juimwl 0JS1ruc111m/ E11gi11u,;,,_,.
ASCE. 115, 12 (Deccmbcr 1989). 3112--Jl22. ·
6.86. A. Rutcnberg and A. Srnrla1. "Ronf Br:i,·ing and Effcctivc. Lcng,th of CC\lumns ìn <hc-Story Indu.s1ri:t1
8uildincs .. Jo,mwl vl S1ruc1111·t>/ E11ci11e,·ri1111, ASCE. 116, 10 (October 1990). 2551-·l566.
6.87. T. V. G;h:mbos. "Oe.~ìgn of Axìally (.naùeù Com1iressed Angles," Smu-111ml S1abi/i1y Researd, Cou
A111111al Techrrical Sessiv11 Proceedi11g.<, 1991.
6.88. Ronalù S. Harichandrau. "S1iffncss Reduction Fa<·tor for LRl'D ofColunms:· E11gi11cc,ir:g Journa/,
AISC. 28, 3 Ord Quaner 1991). 129--130.
6.89. Farhang Aslani and Subhash C. Gnel. ··An Aualytical Critcrion for Bucklìng Strcnglh o i Buih-up e
prcssion Member<' E,1ginuri11g Jmmu,I, AISC. 28, 4 (4th Quancr 1991 ), l59--16tl.
6.90. M. Elgaaly, H. Dagher, ,md W. Daviùs. '·Be.havior of Single-Angle-Compression Mcmber,;;· Jouma/
S1mctwY1/ Engineering. ASCE. 117, 12 (Dcccmbcr 1991 ). 3720-3741.
6.9l. M, Elgaaly, W. Davids. and H. Oagher. "No11-Slcnd~r Single Angle Stru1s." Engineering Jo11rn11/. Al
29, 2 (2nd Quaner 1992), 49-56.
6.92. Se.shu Madhava Rao Adluri :md Murty K. S. MaduguhL "Ec,cntrically 1..oaded Steel Single Anglc
S1ruts," Engineering Jo,mml. AISC 29, 2 (2ml Quar1er 1992). 59-66.
6.93. Pierrc Du01on1.:il. ··Sìmple Equa1ions for Effective lenglh Factors;· Engi11eeri11g .foumal, AISC,
29, 3 (3rd Quancr 1992). 111-115. Disc. 30, I (l~t Quaner 1993). 37; Errata 30, l (lst Quaner
1993). 38.
6.94. Eric M. Lui. "A Novel Approach fur K Fac1or Detem1ina1ìon." E11gù1eerì11g Jormwl. AISC, 29,3 ()rd
Quarter 1992), 150-159.
6.95. Farhang Aslani and Subhash C. Goel. "Analy1ical Crì1erìa for S1i1ch Strcngth uf Buih-up Comprcssìon
Mcmbers.'' Engineering Jm1rrrtil. AISC. 29, 4 (4th Quarter 1992). J02-11 O.
6. 96. A. Zurcick. "Design S1rcngth of Cnncentrically Loadcd Single Anglc Smns," E11git1t·~ri111i Jo,mwl.
AISC. 30, I (1st Quarter 1993), 17--30.
6.97. Leander Bathon. Wcndelin H. Mueller 111. and Leùn Kempner. Jr. "Ultimate Load Capaci!)' of
Single Steel Angles." Journal of Srrtictural F.1111ìntering. ASCE, 119, I (J:inuary 1993).
279-300.
PROBLEMS
Ali problems are to be done accordìng to the AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design Methocl or AUowahle St
Design Methocl as indicated by the instructor. Alt given loads are service loads unless otherwise indìcated. For each
lem, draw the potential buckled shape on a figure showing the column and its restraints for both x and y priucipal
tions. A linal check of strength must be shown in ali design problems.
Problems • 317
t,. I. For mc case assign~ by the i_nstructor, select thc

lightest W sect1on to cany an ax1al compression load 6.6. Select lhe mos1 economical W se.ction 10 ca.rT)' an
as indicated. Tue member 1s pan of a braced frame axial compression load of 50 kips dead load and 100
Assunte the member as pinned at the top and bouom: kip.~ lìve load. The member has ( K L), = (K L) ,,
= 18 ft and is pan of a braced system. As~ume 1hà1
relative costs of various steels are as fol\ows: A992.
Po PL 1.14; A572 Grade 60. I .20.
Dead Uve Member
load load length Steel 6.7. Redesign the wlumn of Prob. 6.6 assuming addi-
(kips) (kips) (ft) grade tional weak direction suppon al mid-height.
case
-----20 80 22 A992 Grade 50
2 6.8. Selecl the lightest W section 10 carry an axial com-
20 80 14 A572 Grnde 50
4 pression load of 60 kips dead load and 250 kips
60 40 30 A992 Grade 50
5 40 20 live load. The member is pan of a braced frame
6 60 A992 Gr.1<le 50
20 80 14 A572 Grade 60 and is assumed 10 be pinned at the top and bonom
7 80
20 14 A572 Grade 65 of ils 30 fl lcngth. and in addition has )alerai sup-
8
pon in the weak direction al 14 fl from thc bnuom.
Use (a) A992 s1eel; (b) F, = 65 ksi.
6_2. Select the lig~test W section to carry a compressive
Joad of 200 kips dead load and 625 kips live load. 6.9. Selec1 the lighlest W section 10 carry an
The effective length KL is 25 ft. Use A992 steel. axial compression of 90 kips de.ad load and
320 kips live load. The member i~ pan of a
6.3. Compute the maximum service axial compression braced frame. The idealized s uppor! condi-
load permitted on the built-up cross-section of the
lions are 1hat the member is hinged in both
accompanying figure. The load is 30% dead Joad and
principal directions a1 the 1op of a 30 fl
?O% Jive load. Tue steel used is A992. and the effec-
height; s upported in the weak direction at 14
tive lengths are ( K L )y = 14 ft and ( K L )x = 42 ft.
and 22 ft from ihe bottom: and fixed in both
directions al the bottom. Use (a) A992 steel:
~ X 16 (b) l\ = 60 ksi
8
6.1 O. Select the lightesr W sec1ion for the column shown

in the accompanying figure. The loading is 30 kips
~ X 26
4 dead load aod 120 kips gra\'ity li\'e load. TI1e
member is built into a wall so that it may be con-
sidered as continuously braced in che weal.: direc-
tion. Note: Noi ali of the available W sections are
~ X 16
R included in the A/SC Manua/ "Available Stre ngth
oblem 6.3 in Axìal Compression" tables. Use (a) A992 steel:
(b) F, = 60 k,i
6.4. Far che data of Prob. 6.1, consider the member to
be fixed at the bottom and hinged at the top ancl
part of a braced system. Select 1he lightes1 W sec-
tion for the case assigned.
6.5. Selecl the lightest W section 10 serve as an axially -1

]oaded column 28 ft long, in a braced frame. wìth
I
additional lateral support in 1he weak direction at 18'-0
mid-height. The load to be carried is 65 kips dead
Joad and 150 kips live load. Assume the top :md I
L_'---1......,..._,
bo1tom of the column are hinged.
(a) Use A992 and indicale first and seconcl choices.
(b) Use A572 Grade 60, indicaiing firsl :md second

choices. Proble m 6.10
-------------·--
6.11. Redesign the column of Prob. 6.2 assumjng there each fiber of the cross-section, and the residua}
is no residuai stress or accidental eccentricity such distribution in ~e flange is as shown. (b) Sei~
thai the column buckling strenglh may be repre- lightest W se.ct1on to carry a dead load of 100
sented by Euler's equation, Eq. 6.2.8, usiug KL for and a live load of 200 kips with an effective
L lf designing using the LRFO Method. use KL of 30 ft. Use your constructed curve as the
tionship between F cr and K.Ur. If designing usin
<Pc = 0.90. If designing using the ASO Method,
use n" == 1.67. Use F Y = 50 ksi and take note LRFD Metbod, use <Pc == 0.90. lf designing
the ASD Method. usdlc = 1.67. Use F ,. =
!-
so
that Fcr cannot exceed Fy.
(e) Solve using lhe AISC Specification and com
6.12. Use che tangent modulus theory co compute the with tangent modulus theory result.
column strength relation.ship (averagc unit stress
6.14. Follow the same requiremenls as for Prob. 6.13
F cr on gross area vs sJendemess ratio KUr). Draw
construct a column strengtb curve. This time
the diagram to scale and obt.a ìn any Fcr values by
residuai stress <listribution ìs linearly varyiog
scaling from your diagram. The steel has
shown in the accompanying figure. For (b) and ~
Fy == 50 ksi but the stress-strain curve for the
use ùJe loading and support conditions of Prob. 6
materiai is as shown in the accompanying figure.
Assume no residuai stress. Using your Fc, curve. 6.15. Repeat Prob. 6.14, except for (b) and (e) use
select the lightest W section for the loading and loading and support conditions of Prob. 6. 13.
support conditions of Prob. 6.2. If designing using
6.16, Design an interior column (use W sbape) fora m
the LRFD Method, use t/J,. == 0.90. lf designing
tistory rigìd frame. No bracing is provided in
using tbe ASO Method, use n,. == l.67. piane of the frame. In the piane perpendicular to
6.13. Using the cangent modulus themy: (a) Conscruct a frame, bracing is provided at top, bottom, and ·
column strength (Fcr = P,,/ Ag vs KUr) for an H- height of columns and simple flexib!e beam-t
shaped section. Assume weak axis bending umn connections are used. Tue axial compres '
( K L/r )y controls and neglec1 the effect of the web. load is 400 kips dead load and I I 00 kips live I
Assume the idealized stress-strain relationship and bending moments are neglected. Use A5
shown in the accompanying figure is to be used for Grade 50 Steel.
F,
2F,
Drawlo
E= 29.000 ksì Avg. stress p'
Stress P, usable scale
(200,000 MPa) A,
T
E
Srrain L
..
Problem 6.12
Compression
Tension
E=O
F,.
2F_.
Stress
T
F,
3 E
S1rain
Re~iclual stres~
Problcm 6.13
Problemi • 319
Stress
E= 29,000 ksi
Strain
Problcm 6. 14
T
t __ Sameas
12'- 0 design column
Wl6 X 89
Wt6 x 89 (bcam)
I Design 1his
12'-0 column
j__
1 - - -- 40'-0 - - -1,_____ 40'--0 - -- 11--- - 40'--0 - ---<

Problem 6.16
. An ax.ial comp resskii~n I~ad cons~sting of 100 kips The effective length K L = 10 ft. Assume the backs
6 17
· dead toad and 4 00 ps 11ve 1oad 1s to be carried by of the angles are separated by a i- in. gusset plate.
a column having an effective length K L = 28 ft. Indicate the orientation of the angle legs {i.e .. short or
Use A992 steel. Satisfy the width/tbickness limits long legs back-to-back). lf angles are selected for ali
Ar of AISC-Table B4. l . three steels, indicate the economical choice if relaò,·e
costs are A36 (1.0). F, = SO (1.07). and F_, = 60
(a) Design a rolled W section.
(1.10). Use (a) A36 steel; (b) F" = SO ksi: and (e)
(b) Design the lightest welded J-shaped section Fy = 60ksi
using three plate~.
6.21. Design as in Prob. 6.20. except the member must
(e) Design a welded laced (single lacing) column carry 40 kips dead \oad and 140 kips live load. and
consisting of four angles. KL = 16ft.
(d) Design a welded box with solid plates. 6.22. Design as in Prob. 6 .20. except the member must
carry 30 kips dead load and 50 k.ips \ive \oad. and
(e) Design a welded box having two perforated
KL = l6ft.
plates.
_ Design as in Prob. 6.17, except the axial load is 6.23. Design a top chord member fora roof truss to carry
6· 18 90 kips dead load and 210 kips live load and 40 kips dead load, 80 kips live load. and 40 k.ips
1 wind Joad acting simultaneously. Assume this
KL = 32ft. loading combination govems the design. The
. Compute the maximum service load (25% dead member is braced in the piane of the truss by
6 19
· Joad and 75% live load) acceptable fora structural adjoining web members connecting in at S-ft inter-_
tee WTJ2X38 when used in a truss location where vals. The chord is braced transverse to the piane ol
it is braced in the piane of the truss at 20-ft incervals the truss al I 0-ft intervaL. Neglect bending. due 10
and braced transverse to the piane ofthe truss at 10- roof loads.
ft intervals. Apply che provisions of AISC-E7 if
(a) Design a double angle memhl!r conncctcd Il'
necessary. Use (a) A992 stee\; (b) Fy = 65 ksi
gusset plates.
_0. Select the Jjght.est double angle compr~ion _member
62 (b) Design a strucl\lrnl tee.
w carry I IO kips dead load and 130 k1ps uve load.
6.24. Sdect the lightest stmctural tee (WT) for use as a 6.30. Redesign tl1e ~olumn o_f Prob. 6.7, selecting
<op chord compression member to carry 35 kips HSS iostead ot a W sec11on.
dcad load and 100 kips liv-e load. Ncglect bendìng. 6.31. Compute the service axial compressive load
TI1e mernber has 9-ft elfoctivc lcngth for buckling in mittcd on the nonstandard 1-shaped section s
either thc x-x or y-y phu1c. u~c (a) A992 steel: (b) in the accompanying figure if the load is 30%
F_,. = 65 ksi. load and 70% Live . toad. The effeclive lcn
6.25. Sclec t the lightest structural tee (WT) to seive as (K L)y = 12 ft and (KL)_, = 6 ft. Use (a) A.
rhc compression chord of a truss 10 carry 40 kips steel; (b) F_v = 60 ksi; and (e) Fy = 100 ksi.
tlead load and 45 kìps live load. In the plane of the y
trnss thc chord is braced by adjoiniog web mem-
C ::;:!;;;::::::J I X 8
bers that frame in ,ìl 5-fl intcrva.ls. Perpendicular 4
10 thc piane of the trus~. the chord is braccd at 10 ft
by a system of lateral purlìn suppons. Use thc __ _,.
mos1 cconomkal of A992 or A572 Grade 65 steels ! X 11
4 -
ifGrade 65 costs 12% more than A992.
:::=~~~=~ ! X R 4
6.26. Compme 1.he seivi<.-e axìal compressive load permined
_,,
on a IOX IOX¼ stmctural tube having an elfcctive length
=
(KL ),. 8 ft . Theloadis6C)%liveload.Use(a)A992
Problem 6.31
s1ed; (b) Fv = 60 ks i: and (e) F, = 100 ksi.
6.27. Compute 1.he scrvicc axial compressive load permit- 6.32. Repeat Prob. 6.31 except use the nonstandard
ted on a 12 X8X¼structural tube having an cffectìve section of the accompanying figure.
length ( K L )_1. = 7 ft for weak axìs bending, and
( K L )_, = IO ft for strong axìs bending. The load
is 35% dead load and 65% live load. Use (a) A992
steel; (b) F_,, = 65 ksi; and (e) F~, = 90 ksi.
6.28. Redesign the column of Prob. 6.1 , selecting an
HSS instead of a W section.
6.29. Redesign the column of Prob. 6.6, selecting an

HSS inste.ad of a W section. Problem 6.32
s: Laterally
Supported
l JNTRODUCTION
7-_:__--- - - -- -- - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - --
A beam is _defined as a member acted upon primarily by transverse loading. ofcen gra,·ic)
dead and hve load effects. The temi transverse loaclino is taken 10 inclucle end momcnc~.
Thus, beams in a structure may also be rcferred to as ;irden (usually thè most importam
beams which are frequenlly at wide spacing); jvixts (usually less imponanr beams which
are closely spaced, frequently with truss-type webs); p11di11s (roof bearn~ spanning
between trtls$es); srringers (longitudinal bridge bearns spanning betwcen tloor bc.ams):
girts (horizontal wall beams serving principally to resist bending due to wind on the sicle o(
an industriai building; frequently supporting corrugated siding): and /i111d.1 (member~ rnp-
porling a wall over window or door openings). Other cenns, such as header. trimmer, :md
rafter, are sometimes used.
A beam is a combination of a tension element and a compres~ion dement. The con-
cepts of tension members and compression members are now combined in the treatmen1 .:is
a beam. In this chapter, the <:ompression element. (one flange ) thai is integrally braced per-
pendicular to its piane through its attachment to the s1ab\e tension flange by mean~ of 1he
we b, is assumed also lo be braced laterally in the direction perpendicular l" lhè'. piane of thc
web. Thus, overall buckling of the compression flange as ~1 c11lum11 cannot oc..:ur prior 10 il~
full parlicipation to develop the momenl strength of ù1c sectiC1n. \\'hih! i1 i~ likcly truc that
most beams used in praclical situacions are adcquately braccd latcrally so lhJt such stahil-
ity need not be considered, the pcrccntage of stable situat1on)( i~ prob;ibly not a, hi;;h as
a~sumed. The important treatmenl of lateral stahility is f0rnul in Chapter <J Gala111b0s Iì .1 1
has provided an interestìng history of beam J csign according l<' , :i.riPU'- edition~ ,1f the
A ISC Specification.
7.2 SIMPLE BENDlNG OF SYMMETRICAL SHAPES

T he most common tlesign situa1io11s involve selc...:tion of rolkd wide-tlang.1· ~hapc, fw1_n
thc AlSC tables, which oftcn bernmes rnutine ami mav le:itl tlw designer Ìl11(1 Oh'1nml1-
dcncc in lrcalment of beams. il is wcll known that thc llL·,un: lormul:1 (f .',fc ' /) i,
32 ·1
322 • Chapter 7 Beams: Laterally Supported
Beams. including open-web joisls. channels. and W (wide-flange) shape,. along with
tubolar columns. (Pho10 by C.G. Salmon)
-,
Figure 7.2.1
Elastic sec1ion modulus
expressions for symmetrical
[
.I"-
s = I_;_
e;
__
,
' e,
shapes.
applicable to ordinary situations. The scresse.s on the common sections of Fig. ì.2. I may
computed by the simple flexure formula when loads are acting in one of the princi
directions. When any section with at least one axis of symmetry and loaded through
shear center is subjectcd ro a bending moment in an arbitrary direction. 1he compon
Mxx and M y;, • in the principal directions. can be obtained and the stress comµuted as
M.
f =_E_+ M,."..
_._
. Sx s,.
where S is the section modulus. defined as the moment of inertia / divided by the dista
e from the center of gravity to the extreme fiber. Thc subscripts x and y indie.ate the
about which the moment of inertia is computed and from which the distanl'e e is meas
(see Fig. 7.2.1 ). For members without at least one axis of symmetry tbc reader is refo
to Sec. 7.10.
7.3 BEHAVIOR OF LATERALLY STABLE BEAMS

When beams have adequate lateral stability of the compression flange, Lhe only s1:1bi
limit state chat might prevent achieving max.imum moment slrength is locai buckling
compression of the flange and/or web plate elements comprising the cross-section.
Tue stress distribution on a typical wide-flange shape subjected to increasing be ·
moment is shown in Fig. 7 .3.1. In the service load range the section is ela.,,;tic as in Fig. 7.3.
and the elastic condition exists until thc stress at the extremc fiber reaçhes the yield sires.~
Section 7.3 Behavior of Laterally Stable Beams • 323
-If<:_lf=F, -il·',fw;, J=F,
I
x
- - Elasuc - --===a
F.igured'stribution
7.3.1
1
.
at d1ffereat M < M, M=M
'!
M
'!
~
<M
<
M
I' M=M,
stress .
(a)
g•s of loading.
sta~ (b) {e) (d)
~Fig. ?.3.lb): Once_1he str~in E reaches Ey (Fig. 7.3.2), increasing strain ìnduces no increase
m stress. This elastic-plashc stress-strain behavior is the accepted idealization for structural
steels having yield stresses up to about Fv = 65 ksì (448 MPa).
When the yield stress is reached at the extreme fiber (Fig. 7 .3.1 b), the nomina!
moment strength M,. is referred to as the yield moment My and is computed as
(7.3.1)
When the condition of Fig. 7.3. Id is reached, every fiber has a strain equa! to or greater
than E y = Fy/ E_., i.e., it is in the plastic range. The nominai moment strength M,, is tllere-
fore referred to as the plastic moment M P, and is compmed
Mp = Fy1ydA = F'"Z (7.3.2)
J
where Z = y dA is called the plastic modu/us.
Note the ratio Mp/ My is a property of the cross-sectional shape and is independent
of the materiai properties. This rati.o is known as the shape fa cror ç,
Mp z
ç=-=- (7.3.3)
My S
For wide-flange (W) shapes in flexure about the strong axis (x-x ) the shape factor ranges
from about 1.09 to about 1.18, with the usual value being about 1.12. One rnay conserY-
atively say the plastic moment strength MP of W sections bent about their strong axis is
at least 10% greater than the strength M1. when the extreme fiber just reaches tbe y,eld
stress Fy. · . .
Design procedures have long recognized thai beams do exhibit the behav1or d1s-
cussed above. Extensive testing has adequately verified that plastific.ation of the entire
cross-section does occur [7 .2] (assuming lateral-torsional buckling as treated in Chapter 9
and locai buckling as treated in Chapter 6, Part II, do not occur).
Elaslic region - :- Plas1ic region I

F_. I
I
I
I
I
I
figure 7.3.2
..
I
StrCSs-strain diagram for
lllOSI structural steels. Str:iin
EXAMPLE 7.3.1
Determine the shape factor for a rcctangular bcam of width b and depth d.
Solution:
Referring to Fig. 7.3.3a. the mome nt My a l first yìeld is
ami
MV
.
l
,= . A · v dA
. ./ ,,
)' 2y
f = d/2 = F1 d
l'~..
I
·di 2 2F,. bd2 .

My = 2 Jo dy2b dy = Fy6 = F_,.S
From Fig. 7.3.3b,

d/2 bd2
Mr =
.l fydA = 2
1 o
F,bydy = F,r
4 = Fyl
The sbape factor is then
Figure 7.3.3
A rcctangular section and a
W ~ection in weak-axis
bending.
I-- h ----J (a) Stress when
M=M,
(b) Stress whcn
M=M,
H
(e) W section
in weak
axis bcnding
which illustrates that ù1ere is a greater reserve beyond first yield in the bending of a
tangular section than in an 1-shaped section bending about its strong axi,. The reader
alerted to the facl that the W shape beni about i1s weak axis (y-y) is es!-cntiaìly a rectan
lar seclion (two rcctangles separated by a distance) (Fig. 7.3.3c).
Once the plastic moment strength MP has been reached, 1he section can offer
additional resistance to rotalìon, behaving as a hinge but with constant resistance Mp
condition known as a plastic hinge. In a statically detenninate beam, such as a simply s
ported one, having one plastic hinge form will make the structure unstabh::; one real hi
a1 each end and a plastic hinge in ilie midspan region will create an unstable situaù
known as a collapse mechanism. In generai, any combination of three hi nges. real or p
tic. in a span will result in a collapse mechanism.
Referring to Fig. 7 .3.4, one may note that Lhe angle of rotation 9 (rndians/inch) is e
tic from service load M unti! the extreme fiber reaches Fv at M,.. thcn becomes pani
inelastic unti! the plastic moment Mp is reached. Once the plastic hinge has occl.llffll
the M - 8 curve has become horizontal, detlection of the beam (rotation of the plasri
cross-section) increases without restraint. At the collapse condition the elasti<: def
Sectìon 7.4 Laterally Supp0 rt d 8 . .
e eams-Load and Res,stance Factor Des,gn • 325
= Scrvke load
l- ~~I-- - --------~
w
I I I I I i IiI
~
wL
Service
moment 2
T
w u = Factored servire load
,~1~111111111'4
(/~- --- MPH-17'"-?'".__ __
M
u " ' Pla\tic hinge r
M~.
~ractorcd
w Li mome:nt
-t-
figure 7.3.4 .
Plastic behavior. (a)
( b) Moment-ro1a1ion charac1cristic.s
due t~ bending on the segments between the ends and midspan is negligible compared to the
rotat10n O" occurring at the plastìc hinge. Thus, the analysis may treat the collap!ie situation
as two rigid bodies having an angular discontinuity 0,, at midspan. As will be sbown later in
Sec. 10.2, it is only for statically determinate situations that one can expect every point
along the factored moment diagram lO be proportional to the elastic moment diagram.
Redistribution of the moments occurs during loading beyond the elastic range in usual
statically indeterminate situations; that is, the bending moment diagram after a plastic h.inge
has occurred will no longer be propottional to the elastic bending moment diagram.
As discussed by Yura, Galambos, and Ravindra [7.3]. even ifthe beam bas adequate
resistance with regard to lateral-torsional buckling (Chapte.r 9) and to locai buckling
(Chapter 6, Pan II) to achieve the plastic moment strength, the actual limit state will &tiU be
failure by lateral-torsional buckling, compression flange local buckling. or web locai buck-
lìng, but in the plastic range instead of the elastic range. Thus, prevention of failure b y any
of these instability modes unti! adequate rotation e., has occurred require.s limits on the dis-
tance between poinrs of lateral support, on the width/thickness ratio of the compression
flange. and on the depth/thickness ratio of the web.
7.4 LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS-LOAD AND RESISTANCE

FACTOR DESIGN
The strength requirement for beams in load and resistance factor design according IO
AlSC-Fl may be stated
(7.4.1)
where <f>b = resistance (i.e.. strength reduction) factor for flexure = O90
M,, = nominai moment strength
M 11 = factored service load momeot (see Sec. 1.9)
Compact Sections
The nominai strength M,, for laternlly stable "compact sections" uc:cording. to AISC-F2. I
m ay be stated
(7 -1.:.)
where Mp = plastk mornenl strength = F1Z.,.

Zx = plastìc modulus, Eq. 7.3.2
F, = specified minimum yield scress
Design must account for the fact that local buckling of the compression flange or 1
buckling of the web may occur prìor to achìe:ing the higb c~mpressive _strain neeessary
develop M,,. When the width/thìckness Jimitattons A, of AISC-B4 are sat1sfied, achievc
of only M>' is assurcd (thai is, locai buckling al a stress below F_,. is preve nted as discussed
Sec. 6.16). The limits A, for preventiog local buckling io beams are given in Table 7.4.1.
TABLE 7.4.1 Width/Thickness Limits A, for "Noncompact Section" Beams to Achieve Fy

at Extreme Fiber (AISC-Table B4.1)
Yield Flange Flange Flange Web

(Unstiffened) (Unstiffened) (Stiffened)
stress
Rolled 1-shape Welded 1-shape HSS box
Fv
(ksil
!!.~ = 1.0 (I h ke~ b1
2t1
{kcE
= 0.95 FL,.-;
·-b
t
iE
= 1.4 ,_
\J Fy
_!:_ =
tw
5.7J¾ Fy
2t1 'v Fy
162kc 238 970
170
= VFi. = VFy = \/Fy
\/Fy
36 28.4 161.8 0.31 19.1 39.7 161.8
100 0.40 20.4
40 0.63 25.6
42 26.3 149.8 0.33 17.7 36.8 149.8
100 0.40 18.9
40 0.63 23.7
45 25.4 144.7 0.33 17.8 35.5 144.J
100 0.40 18.2
40 0.63 22.9
50 24.1 137.3 0.34 16.2 33.7 137.3
100 0.40 17.3
40 0.63 21.7
55 23.0 130.9 0.35 15.4 32.l 130.9
100 0.40 16.5
40 0.63 20.7
60 22.0 125.3 0.36 15.0 30.8 125.3
100 0.40 15.8
40 0.63 19.8
65 21.1 120.4 0.36 14.6 29.6 120.4
100 0.40 15.2
40 0.63 19.0
90 18.0 102.3 0.40 12.9 25.l 102.3
100 0.40 12.9
40 0.63 12.9
100 17.0 97.1 0.41 7.9 23.8 97.1
100 0.40 7.8
40 0.63 12.2
4
• kc "" • r.-;:- . where 0.35 s kc s O.763
Vhltw
.. FL = 0.7Fy tor S,a/Sxc 2: 0.7 and FL = Fl,.S,,,JS,,c) 2: 0.5Fy for S,,,JS,,c < 0.7. First case was used here.
Section 7.4 Laterally Support d . .
e 8 eams- Load and Res1stance Factor Design • 327
TABLE 7.4.2 Width/Th .1..,· . .

• =ness L1m1t s A for HCompact Section# • Beams
to_Achieve Significant Pl;stic Strain (AlSC-Table B4.1,
wr th E = 29,000 ksi and Fy in ksi)
Unstiffened elements
Stiffened elements Stiffened elements
(uniform compression)
Fy (uniform compression) (bending)
br65 b 190
(ksi) -:s-- h 640
2r, VFy r,~ -'1/F:
y
- -- < -
tw -
-
YFy
36 10.8
42 31.7 107
IO.O
45 29.3 98.S
9.7
50 28.3 95.4
9.2 26 .9
55 90.5
8.8
60 25.6 86.3
8.4 24.5 82.6
65 8.1 23.6 79.4
;:~~s~~:tlysis is restricted by AISC-Appendi>< 1.2 (p. 16.1-151) 10 steels having F• s 65 ksi
extreme fiber strain is assurcd only of reaching E y = FJ E5 • To achie,·e grealer strain. the
values of bit (referred to generally as A by LRFD) must be funher resuicted. To undergo large
pl~ tic Slrain the more severe width/thickness limitations >..P discussed in Sec. 6. 17 and pre-
scnbed for "compact sections.. must be satisfied, as given in Table 7.4 .2.
User Note in AISC-F2 states that ali current ASTM A6 W, S. C and MC standard
sections have compact webs and flanges except for ten sections identifìed 10 have i:Jang.es
with b1/ 211 ratios larger than A,, .
For the welded (flange and web continuous\y anached) 1-shape. the l>J/ 211 lLmit in
2005 is a function of h / 1,v. Rolled I-shapes typically ha,·e /, / , 1,. lcss tban 40 and nearly
all have that ratio 55 or less; welded l-sh apes of similar proportions cao be expccted to
have similar h f tw ratios. The 1993 limit~ for welded 1-shapes are higher for proportions
similar to rolled 1-shapes, and lower for thin web plate girders. The explanation i~ thai
the lhinner the web the \ess rotational res1rain1 it offers to prevcnt thnge locai buc\.:ling..
The reduced limits for btf2t1 at the web A, limit compared with 1986 LRFD are. for
ex.ampie. 21.7 instead of 24.0 for A36 steel. and 16.6 instead of 18.J for G rade 50 steel -
Since h f tw is low for rolled 1-shapcs. the limit indepcndent of h f ,«· \\3~ retained for
simplicity.
Noncompact Sections
Locai buckling in hot-rolled 1-shaped sections is. for practical pu.rpo~es. (,nl~ pos:-ible in
the flanges. Thc nominai strength M,, for laterally slable ··noncompa..:t ~el"lions'" "ho~e
flange width/thickness A exacrly equals the limit~ A,. of AISC-Tabk B-1 . I is the_ 1110'.lll'lll
strength available when the cxtremc libcr is at thc yield stm-~ fv- 13n:ausc o l re~1tlual
stress. the streng1h is expressed as
M,, = M, = (F,, - F,)S , = 0.7F,.S, t7 ...Uì
This is the " residuai momcnt'' that will cattl-c thc cxtrcme fih<:r ~tn:sl' tll ri~e frc,111 its n:~iJ -
ual stress 0.3F,. value whcn thcrc is no applicd load acting tn thc ) idd ~l"l:~~
F, - ·1:hc das-
tic section modulus Sx equab thc Jl\OlllClll of ine11i.t / 1 cli,·i(kd h~ thc Ul~( al)CL' ll'l' lll th e
neutra] axi~ to thc extreme lihcr.
-·-- --~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - -
Partially Compact Sections

The nominai strength Mn for Jaterally stable "noncompacl seciions" whose flan
width/thickness ratios A a.re Jess than Ar but not as low as A,, must be linearly interpola
between Mp and M, = O.?f~Sx, as follows according to AISC-F3.
where A = bJ/211 for 1-shaped member flanges

br = flange width
lf = flange thickness
Apf = compact Jimit for reaching Mp (AfSC-Table B4.1)
A,r = noncompact limit for reaching Mr (AISC-Table 84.1)
The reader may note that the Ar expressions for unstiffenecl flanges given in Table 7.4.
differ from the derived
given for uniform compression [Table 6.16.1, unstiffened (b) flange-sì in Sec. 6. 16. In ad ·
tion to the introduction of h/tw, as discussed above, the difference arises because
flange is not actually uniforrnly compressed and in the rolled aDcl welded 1-shaped sectio
re.~idual stress (usua]ly assumed as 10 ksi in rolled sections and 16.5 ksi ir, welded
tions) is present. The limit on h/lw for the web arises from the buckling of the stiffeo
plate (the web) under linearly varying stress (bending moment stress), a case which w
not included in Sec. 6. I6.
Slender Sections
When the width/thìckness ratio A exceeds the lim.it A, of AISC-B4, Lhe section is refe
to as "slender" and must be treated in accordance with AISC-F3.2(b). The nomin
I
I
I
I
---- ------r------------
1
Com act Noocompact

Oange I tlange.
I
I
Figure 7.4.1 o.3s

..J
II=~ :
Fi \11';.Ts[:
Slender tlange
Nominai flexural strength I
as a function of the flange O +-----......:~1______ Y_!l.j..._ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __
slendemes ratio of rolled o
1-shapes. Adapted from AISC Aro Aif
Manual [1.15, Table 84. l]. Slendemess, A = b/2r,
4 t
Section 1. La erally Supported Beams-Load and Resistance Factor Design • 329
S
trength of such a section is
M = 0.9EkcS.x _ 26,lOOkcS...-
" ~ - v,;-;;: (7.4.5)
talcing E = 29,000 ksi.
. Figure 7 .4.1 illustrates the three ranges for the limit state of flange locai buckling,
showmg the relationship between nominai flexural strength M and the flange width/thick-
ness ratio b1 /21 . "
1
EXAMPLE 7.4.1
Select the lightest W or M section to carry a uniformly distributed dead load of 0.2 kip/ft
superimposed (i.e., in addition to the beam weight) and 0.8 kip/ft live load. The simply
supported span (Fig. 7.4.2) is 20 ft. The compression flange of the beam is fully supponed
against I.nera! movement. Use Load and Resistance Factor Design, and select for the fol-
lowing steels: A36; A992; and A572 Grade 65.
ljj1j111j1!\Jl
t--- -20'-0"~ -1
I~,
>•.'L·
Mma.~ ::: T
Solution:
(a) Compute the factored load M,,.
w,. = l.2w0 + I.6wL = l.2(0.2) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.52 kips/ft

Mu = w,. L2 /8 = 1.52(20)2 /8 = 76 ft-kips (not including. beam weight)
(b) A36 steel. A ssume "compact section" since the vast majority ot" rol\ed sections
satisfy ,\ s A1, for hoth the flange and the web. The design strength d>bMn is
4>bMn = <f>bMp = 4>bZxF_,.

The design requìrernent is
Required (/>1, M,. = .lvi,.

76 12
Requl· red Z - M" = ( ) = 28.1 in.~
X - </>1,F_.- 0.90(36)
Select from AISC Manuaf-Table 3-2 tpp 3- 1 l to 3-19) "Selection by z;·:
Try Wl2X22 Z,, = 29.3 in.3

Check "compact .c.ectìon" flange limit A,,_r (Table 7.4.2):
b1 - 4.03 - 4 7) < ( ",,r

( A = -211 - 2(0.425) - .
, = . r=--
65
V F_~, 1--Sl
= io.s) OK
li is assumed rhat A1, for the web is not exceeded; this is automt1.il' tor rolb! W ~hapes.
330 • Chapter 7 Beams: laterally Supported
Check the strength. Corree! the factored momenL M,, to include the beam weighr.
w" = J.2(0.222) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.55 kips/ft

Mu = 76(1.55/1.52) = 77.3 ft-kips
M,, = Mp = ZJy = 29.3(36)/12 = 87.9 ft-k:ìps
<l>bM,, = 0.90(87.9) = 79.1 ft-kips > (M,, = 77.Ht-kips]
Usi! WJ2X22 Fy = 36 ksi.

(e) A992, Grade 50 steel.
~6(12)
1
· - M,"-
Requ1red Z_, - <PbF'_v
= = -?O.3 in .3
0 _90 (50)
Select from AISC Manual-Table 3-2 (pp 3-11 to 3-19) "Selection by Z_,";
Try WIOX19 Z., = 21.6 in. 3
Check "compact section" flange Iimit Àpf (Table 7.4.2):
~=
( A= 2tf 4.020
2(0.395)
=s1)<(À1
.
=~
65 =9 2\}
p . I
Check the strength. Correct the factored moment M 11 to include the be:im weight.
M11 = 76( 1.51 / l.52) = 75.5 ft-kips

M,, = Mp = ZxFy = 21.6(50)/12 = 90 ft-kips
<PbMn = 0.90(90) = 81 ft-kips > [Mu = 75.5 ft-kips]
Use WIOX19, Fy = 50 ksi.
(d) A572 Grade 65 steel.
_ M,, 76(12) . 1
Reqmred Zx = -:z-
'l'bFy
= 0.90(65 ) = 15.6 m.·
Select from AISC Manual-Table 3-2 (pp 3- 11 to 3-19) "Selection by z_;·:
TryW12Xl4 Zx = 17.4 ìn.3 s_, = 14.9 in.3

Check "compact section" flange limit Àpf (Table 7.4.2):
b1 3.97 ) ( 65 )
(À = 21f = 2(0.225) = 8·8 > Àpf = • ~ = 8· 1
V Fy, ks1
[ A= ,: = 54.3 (AISC p. 1-25)] < [Àpf = 79.4 (Table 7.4.2)]

In this case the controlling limit state is locai buck.ling of the flange ,\, > À > A,,
above. the section is classified as "noncompact:'
Section 7.5 Laterally Supported Beams-AISC-ASD Method • 331
th st
M =~h;~k e _ rength. The ~trength is obtained by interpolation between M P and
' · _yS,. using Eq. 7.4.4. F1rs1 A, for the flange must be obtained (from Tablc 7.4.1)
2
as 1. l , which exceeds bf / 2tf of 8.8 and the section is "noncompact":
_ {E 170 170
À
rf - I.O\} F:. = - - - = - - = 21.1
y ~ V65
Mn = MP - (Mp - 0.7FyS.-)( A - Àpf )
À,f - Àpf
MP = ZxFy = 17.4(65)/ 12 = 94.2 ft-kips

88 8 1
M,, = 94.2 - [94.2 - 0.7(65)14.9/ 12)( · - · ) = 92 ft-kips
21.1 - 8.1
Mu = 76(1.54/1.52) = 77 ft-kips
'PbM,, = 0.90(92) = 83 ft-kips > [M., = 77 ft-kips] OK
Use Wl2Xl4, F.,,= 65 ksi.
•
7. 5 LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS-AISC-ASD METHOD
In accordance with the philosophy of Allowable Strength Design described in Secs. 1.8
and 1.9, Eq. l .8.8(a) gives the flexural structural safety requirement. as follows:
M
- " :::.. M (7.5.1)
nb - a
where Ma = required strength, which equals the service load moment

Mn / Ob = allowable flexural strength
M,. = nominai flcxural strength, computed as in Sec tion 7.4
flb = safety factor equal to l.67 according to AISC-FI
EXAMPLE 7. 5.1
Redesign tbe beam of Example 7.4. l using the AISC Allowable Strength Design Method
with A36 steel.
(a) A36 steel. Assume "compact section" since nearly all sections satisfy the
width/thickness limits Àp thus, the allowable strength M,, / D. relalionship c:::m be
expressed
M
- " =-·-
F,Z.t] >M
[ n n - 0
That is, the aUowable strength must cqual or exceed the foc1ored I ad M .,.
The superimposed service load ( I kip/ft) bending moment i~
M ., = wL2 /8 = 1.0(20) 2 / 8 = 50 ft-1...ip~

_ fìM" = 1.67(50)12 = 27 8 10 ~
Requ1red Zx =- F ,
·'' ·'6
Select from AISC Manual Tablcs 3-2 "Selection by Z,.'' the lighteS! section having at l
Z_, = 27.8 in. 3
Try W]2X22 = 29.3 in.3 z,.
Check AISC-Table B4. l "compact" limit ì.v foT fl,in ge~ (web for A36 automatically sa.
fies Ap limit),
bf 4.03
( A = --'- = - = 4.7)\ _ (
<-.
_
,\l'f - . 1
65 _
.· - 10.8
)
2t,1 2(0.425) V f',., ks1
Use W12X22, F, = 36 ksi.
7.6 SERVICEABILITY OF BEAMS
Serviceabiliry. instead of strength, may and often does contro! the design of beams. fa
sive deflection may cause damage ro supported nonstructuraJ ele ments sucb as partitio
may impair the usefulness of the st.rncture by. for instance, distorting door jambs so 1
doors will not open or close, or may cause "bouncy" floors. These are serviceability pr
lems, often unrelated to the strength of the floor system.
Au excellent treatment of design for serviceability of steel structure~ is provided
Fisher and West [7.55]. An overall appraisal of structural serviceability is provided by
ASCE Ad Hoc Committee [7.4]. Galambos and Ellingwood (7.51 have discussed gene
serviceabi\ity limit states, and Ellingwood [7.6] has provided guidance for steel struc(Uf
Excessive defleciion is often indicative of excessive vibration and noise transmission,
serviceability issues.
Overall treatment of building floor vibrations, induding recommended criteria,
provided by Murray (7.7]. Murray, Allen, and Ungar have an extensive practical treatm
of vibrations in the AISC publication, Floor Vibmtions Due to Huma11 Activity [7.5
Wright and Walker [7.8), Murray f7.9], Ellingwood and Tallin [7.1 I], Tolaymat [7.] 2],
Allen [7.13] also have treated floor vibrations and the related human respon.se. Hatfi
[7.14] has provided a design chart for floor vibration. Allen and Murray [7.54] have giv
design criteria for vibration resulting from wallcing. Griffis [7.57] has discu&~ed se;i
ability limit states under wind.
On roofs a major deflectìon-related concem is ponding of water; this is spccifi
treated later in this section.
Deflection
Numerous strnctural analysis methods are available for computìng detlections on uni~
and variable moment of inenia sections. In generai, the maximum detlection in an el
member may be expressed as
WL3
~max= /31 8
where W "" tota! service load on the span
L = span length
E = modulus of elasticity (29,000 ksi or 200,000 MPa for steel)
I = moment of inertia
/31 = coefficient which depends upon the degree of fixity at suppons, the
variation in moment of inertia along the span, and the distribution of
loading. (Fora simply supported bearn, {3 1 = 5/384; other values are
available in AISC Manua/ Tables 3-23, pp. 3-21 l to 3-226)
Section 7.6 Serviceability of Beams • 333
. urc 7.6.1
M . al t,ending moment
.,...,,,e .
'! • rarn for intenor span
dì:18 . uous uniformly
of conun -·--r'·- -
103d<--<I 1,eam.
L2_ ·-
ìi. -- -
. For continuous beams. the midspan deflection in the common situation of a uniform
loadmg on a prismatic beam with unequal end momcnts (sec Fig. 7.6. I) may be expressed* a~
SL2 .
6.,n,~<pan = 4 BEJ [M., - O.l(M" + Mb) j
(7 .6.2)
1:4-uation 7.6.2 will give satisfactory result~ when considered to be the maximum delìec-
tlon for nearly ali practical loadings for beams having uniform moment of inercia. Equation
7.6.2 may be verified by the use of a method such as conjugate beam.
For uniformly loaded simply supported beams, Eq. 7 .6.1 becomes
5wL4
.!l =-- (7 .6.J I
ma., 384E/
which upon substitutìon of M '= wL2 /8, J = Me / J, and e = d / 2. gives

lOfL 2
6. = - ·- <7.6.4)
max 48Ed
Equation 7.6.4 can be used as a good approximation for any simply supported beam as
long as the maximum stress occurs near midspan. Refer to 'fable 7 .6.1 for typical va\ues.
AISC-L3 states, "Detlections in structural members and structural systems under
appropriate service load combinations shall not impair the sen:iceabilirY of lbe structure."
No specific lìmits on detlection are oiven in the 200S AISC Specification.
Traditionally, a live Ioad dcfle:tion linùt of U360 was invoked wht~n plastered ceil-
ings were used. This generally was adequately restrictive; in recent years. howc,er. ceiling
structures have been more tolerant of larger deflcction.
For the U360 Iimitation. Eq. 7.6.4. using E = 29.000 ksi becomes
L 48(29,000) 387
- < -- - --
d - 10(360).l f
o.o.st
wherefis the service load stress in hi.
TABLE 7.6.1 Deflection Relationships Accordìng to Eq. 7.6.4
~max Ud Ud ( f = 22 ksi ) Ud ( f = 30 ksi )
U360 387/f 17.6 12.9

U 300 464/f 2 1.l l S.5
U240 S80/f 26.3 19 ..;
U200 696/f .,1 .6 2.~.2
·
*See Chu-Kia Wang. Charles G. Salmon and José A. Pmche,ra. · , 1 c.·
· R-,·111,mn',, "'·<
, ..'' ·r•, I) · i~I! 7th ,·d. \k>hn Wik\
'c1 • • ·
& Sons, New York. 2007), p. 516.

t L 2666 .. p
For SI; d= - for j in M ·a.
1
On the other hand, the AISC-L3 statement above is more generai. Each struc
must be evaluated based on its own requirements and lìmitations. In spìte of this, thc rna
useful traditional approaches are stili useful. Typically, L/240 has been acceptab\e forco
mon roof members. Accor<ling to A1SC Commencary-L3. "Defleclions of abou1 \/30()
the span (for cantileve.rs, 1/150 of the length) are visible and may lead to generai archit
turai damage or cladding teakage. Detlections greater than 1/200 of the span may irn
operation of movable components such as doors, windows. and sliding partitions."
Past guidcs may stili be useful. Fully stressed (say, to a service load stress of a •
0.6Fy) floor beams and girders used the limit.
L 800
- < - --
d ·- F_,., ksi
Por tloor beams and girders, subject to shock or vibrarory loads, supponing open areas
of partitions or other sources of damping,
L
- s: 20
d
For roof purlins, fully stressed. except flat roofs,
L 1000
-<--
d - Fv,ksi
Assuming che service load stress f equals the typical maximum value of 0.66F,. fi
"compact sections," the coefficients of 800 and 1000 correspond to Ud of 528/f and ·
respectively. Using the~e Ud values in Eq. 7.6.4 would gìve simply supportcd beam lirn"
of about U260 and U210, probably not severe enough limits for most siruation~.
On continuous spans, it is the actual deflection that is of importance, not the
ratio. Por continuous beam deflection, a comparìson of Eqs. 7.6.2 and 7.6.4 shows 1
Eq. 7.6.4 can also be used for continuous beams if the stress .f is cornputeù using
equivalent bending moment Me,
Me= Ms - O.l(M0 + Mt,)
EXAMPLE 7. 6.1
Select the lightest W section to carry a uniform dead load of 0.5 kip/ft and a live load of I
k.ip/ft on a simply supported span of 42 ft. Adequate lateral suppo1t is provided. The li
load detlection is limited to U360. Use A572 Grade 50 and Load and Resistance Fac
Design.
Solution:
(a) Compute the factored moment Mu. Estimating the beam weight at 70 lb/ft:
1.Vu = I .2wo + I .6wi

= 1.2(0.5 + 0.07 est) + 1.6( I.O) = 2.28 kips/ft
M., = w,,L2 /8 = 2.28( 42 )2 /8 = 504 ft-kips
5500
*For SI, with F, in MPa. !::_ s
· d F,.
l 6900
- s - -
d F,
See1ion 7.6 Serviceability of Beams • 335
(h) Compute required pi . d

compact s ,; h . aSltc mo ulus Z" to satisfy strength requirement. Assuming
ec.,on, t e design strength c/,bMn is
. M 504(12)
Requ1red lx= _ u_ = - -- 134 in.3
cf>b Fy 0.90(50)
Select from AISC Manual Table 3-2 "Selection by Z/'
Try W24X55: Zx = 134 in.3

The section is compact for FY = 50 ksi.
(e) Cornpute required moment of inertìa I, to satisfy the deflection lirnit. The service
load moment instead of the factored moment must be used since deflection is of concem
when the Slructure is being used, not when failure is imminenl. The service live load
moment is
M = wL2 /8 = l.0{42)2 /8 = 221 ft-kips

4
5wL 5ML2
ii = - - = - - -
384E/ 48E/
. 5ML2 5(221)(42)2(144)
Reqmred l = - - = - -- - -- - 1724 in.4
48E A 48{29,000)(42/360)
Select from AlSC Man.ua/ Table 3-3 ''Selection by / x''
TryW24X68: l x = 1830in.4
Note that the section required to contro! deflection ìs Jarger than the section required for
strength; i.e., deflection controls.
(d) Check the W24X68 section:
Wu ::; l.2(0.5 + 0.068) + 1.6( 1.0) = 2.28 kips/ft

M 11 = 503 ft-kìps
Mn = Mp = Zx Fy::; 177(50)/12 = 738 ft-kips
<PbM,, = cf>h(738) = 0.90(738) = 664 ft-k:ips > M,, OK
As expected, the strength considerably exceeds the required strength. Check denec1ion:
M(service live load) = 221 ft-kips
11 = 5ML~_ = 5(221)(42)21728 ::; J.32in. < f~ = l.40in. ] OK

48El 48(29.000) 1830 l.3o0
Note that the live load deflection and the limitare quire clo$e (within 6 (}) but rhe strcogth
considerably exceeds the requirement (32'7o greater): that is, tJ,,j lf!rti()11 cul/lm/s.
Use W24 X68, Fy = 50 ksi. •

Ponding of Water on Flat Roofs

When members of a tlat roof syste.ni deflect. a bowl-shaped vol~me_ is created which.
capable of rctaining water. As water begins 10 accumulate, deflectwn
. .
mcreases to prov·l
an increased volumetrie capacity. This cyclical process contmues unili either (I) the
. .b . . h sue
ceeding deflection incrernents become smaller and equi1I num 1s reac ed: or (2) succe
ing deflect.ion increments are increasing. the sy~tem becomes unstable. and coli
occurs. This retention of water which results solely from the detlection of flat roofframj
is what is referre.d to as ponding. From a serviceabilìty standpoint, this ponding of water.1
. .m costI Y repIacement of both t
a major reason for splitting of roof membranes. resu ltmg
membrane and the insulatìon.
To prevem ponding of water accumulated on flat roofs, the 1963 AISC Specificati
required supporring members to sati~fy the limitation
L 600
- <-
d - In
where fb is the computed service load bending stress in ksi. Using Eq. 7.6.4, this wou
correspond roughly to a deflection limitation L/240 on a simply supported span.
Avoidancc of ponding is much more complex than indicated by the above limitati
Marino (7 .17] has provided an ex tensive treatment that forms the basis for the AIS
Appendix 2 provisions. The flat roof is treated as a two-way system of secondary membe
(say, purlins) elastically supported by primary members (say, girders) Wi\ich are rigi<ll
supported by walls or columus, as shown in Fig. 7.6.2.
AISC-Appendìx 2, Sec. 2.1 gives a simple but conservative critcrion
Cp + 0.9Cs :S 0.25
and
32L,Lb
where e/I = - 107/
--·
p
32SL;
e=--
, 107/,
lp = length of primary member, ft

l.r = length of secondary member, ft
S = spacing of secondary member. ft
11, = moment of inertia of primary member, in.4
/5 = moment of inertia of secondary member, in.4
Id = moment of inertia of steel deck supponed on secondary member.;, in.4 per
The criterion CP + 0.9C, :S 0.25 assumes the supporting members to be loaded
full strength before onset of ponding. The tenns CP and C, indicate the relative stiffnesses
the primary and secondary support systems, respectively. The righi hand side of Eq. 7.6.1
*For SI, with L and Sin mctres, and /in mm4 , and Id in mm 4 /m.
Cp + 0.9C, s 0.25 (7.6.I
Id 2: 400S4 (7.6.1
SL, Lp'
e =--
pl013 1,.
17.6.I
5SL, 4
e• =--
1013 I,
Section 7.7 Shear on Rolled Beams • 337
figure 7f.6. 2
arrangement for
F)at roo . F
pon d1·ng analys1s. ( rom
t,1arino [7.17 ))
is a Stress lndex U (See AISC-Appendix 2) representing the ratio of the increase in stress as
a reSult of ponded water to the service Ioad allowable stress. For instance, assuming that the
service load stress in a member supporting ponded water could be penniued to increase to
0.8F). from 0.6Fv or 0.66Fv, the Stress lndexes U would be
0.8F>" - 0.66F>'
U = - - -- - = 0.212
0.66F_v
0.8Fv - 0.6Fv
U = . . = 0.33
0.6Fy
A Stress Index U of 0.25 is a reasonable lower limit for that quantity. Design aids appear in
ATSC-Appendix 2 as Figs. A-2-1 and A-2-2. These diagrams show Eq. 7.6. 11 to be con-
s~rvative, the more so when stresses at onset of ponding are low. Burgett [7 . 18) has pro-
vided graphs for a fast check using Eqs. 7 .6. ll and 7 .6.12. More recently, Ruddy [7 .19]
has illustrated the procedure for a concrete floor over metal decking and supported by steel
beams and girders.
Equation 7 .6.12 pertains to roof decking that is supported on secondary members.
Since this conlributes little to ponding, it may be treat.ed as a one-way system in the man-
ner presented by Cl:tinn [7.20]. When roof decking is the secondary member. then it should
be treated according to Eq. 7.6.11.
More elaborate mathematical treatment of ponding has been given by Salama and
Moody [7.21], Sawyer [7.22, 7.23], Chinn, Mansouri, and Adams [7.24]. Avent and
Stewart [7.25], and Avent [7.26].
7.7 SHEAR ON ROLLED BEAMS
Whereas long beams may be governed by deflection and medium length beams are usually
controlled by flexural strength, short-span beams may be governed by shear.
To review the development of ù1e shear stress equation for symmetrical sections. con-
sider the sUce dz of the beam of Fig. 7.7. la. shown as a free body in Fig. 7.7 1b. lf the unit
shear stress v at a section y1 from the neutra! axis is desired. it is observed from Fig. 7. 7. le
that
dC' = vi dz l7.7.I)
;I -~~~
~
I•) (b)
Figure 7.7. l
Flcxur;1I stresses involved in
deriva1io11 of shear stress
cquation. (e)
The horizontal forces arising from bending moment are
C' =
l "'
• )!
f dA
C' + dC' = r
./Y1
1
(f + df)dA
Subtracting,
dC' = JYI
r2 df dA
dMv
df=,
1
Y1dMy dM1Y2
dC' = - -dA =- vdA
Yt I I Y, •
Substituting Eq. 7.7.4 into Eq. 7.7. l and solving for the shear stress v gives
v = -dM( -I
dz ti
)1''' Yt •
vdA
and upon recognizing that V = dM /dz, and letting

) '2
the farniliar equaùon

Q=
1 ))
ydA
VQ
v = -
lt
is obtained where Q is the first moment of area about the x-axis of the cross-sectional
between the extreme fiber at Y2 (Fig. 7.7. lb) and the particular location at y1 at whicb
shear stress is to be determined.
nd
U er usual procedures of steel design. 1he shear stress is computed as the average
va\ue over the gross area of the web ncglecting the effect of any fastener holes; thus
V V
fv = - = - (7.7.7)
d1,,, A ..,,
~ote tha~ large_ holes cut in a bcam web to permit passage of pipes and ducts require spe-
cial cons1derauon and their effec1 may not be neglected.
The following example i.llustrates that in an 1-shaped beam most of the shear is car-
ried by the web.
Determine the elastic shear stress distribu1ion on a W24X94 beam subjected to a service
load shear force of 200 kips. Also compuce the portion of the shear carried by the flange
and that carried by the web. (See Fig. 7.7.2).
l--9,065 7 °-r 5
'igure 7.7.2
W24X94
I "2700 in.•
]El~t-t )--_-__-:_-_-_1~:~siksi
0.875 !
13.4
~xample 7.7 -J - (a) (b) Shear stress
Solutwn:
(a) Stress at junction of flange and web.

V = 200 kips
Q = 9.065(0.875)(12.\55 - 0.4375) = 92.9 in.3
200(92.9) .
v = - - - - = 13.4 ksi (web). v = 0.76 kst (flange)
2700(0.515)
(b) Stress at neutra! axi~.
Q = 92.9 + (12.155 - o.ins)1(0.515)(0.S) = 92.9 + 32.8 = 125.7 in.'

200( 11S.7) .
V = 2700(0.515) = l&.l KSI
(e) Shear carried by flanges and web. Using an approximate linear variation.
V(tlanges) = 2m(0.76)(0.875)(9.065) = 6 kips
V(web) = 200 - 6 = 194 kips
In thìs case, 97% of the shear is carried by tl1e web.

(d) Average shear stress f v on web.
V 200
f = - = 16.0 ksi
v dtu· 24.31 (0.S1S)
which is l J .6% below rhe maidmum value. •
Nominal Shear Strength V11 in Ro!led Beams
As shown by Examp.le 7 .7 .1, the web is Llie elemeni that pri marily carries the shear in 1-sha
sections. This is true also for the web (or webs) of "singly or doubly symmetric members
channels subject to shear i_n the piane of the web." (AISC-G2. l .)
As long as the web is stable, that ii,, instability resulting from shear stress or a corn.
binatìon of shear and bending stress cannot occnr. the shear strength V,, of the section i
based on overnll shear yielding of the web. Thus.
i~, = ,,-_.Aw
where -rY = shear yield stress of the web steel
A u.· = arca of the web = dt w for rolled beams
d = overall depth for rolled beams
f w = web thickness
According to the "energy of distortion" theory (see Sec. 2.6), the shear yield stress r
equals thc tension-compressiou yield stress Fy divided by V3 when shear stress a
alone, giving from Eq. 2.6.5,
,,-
1
= 0.58Fv
Thus, it ìs logieal for AlSC-G2. I lo use -r, = 0.6f';.. Equation 7.7 .8 then becomes
where FYIJ) = yield stress of the web(= F,. for the section in rolled section ).
Equation 7.7 .9 impues thai h/rw ratios do not exceed (AISC-02. l)
!!_ = 2.24 /E = _3_8_0_

lw -V ""i; ~
The development of Eq. 7.7.10 appears in Chapter 11 (Sec. 11.8) on plate girders
However, typical of plates as developed in Chapler 6 the buckling streng1h depends on
slendemess ratio; in this case h/tw as shown in Fig. 7.7.3. From that figure one may not
that maximum shear strength is available when h /tw does not exceed 69. 7 (for A36 sLeel)
The h/tw limits below which Eq. 7.7.9 is applicable for rolled bearns withont stiffeners
given in Table 7.7.1.
Load and Resistance Factor Design for Shear in Rolled Beams
The shear strength requirement in the AISC LRFD Method according to AISC-Gl may
stated
cf>v V,, ~ V,,
where <bv = I.O for h / tw not exceeding the limit of Eq. 7.7. I O (basically rolled beams)
cl>v = 0.90 for h/tw exceeding the limìt of Eq. 7.7. lO (see plate girders, Chap. 11)
V,, = 0.6.F;,Aw (i.e., Eq. 7.7.9) for beams without transverse stiffeners not
exceeding h/tw limits given in Table 7.7.l
Vu = factored service load sbear (see Sec . l.9)
TABLE 7.7.1 M
aximum hltw Limits When Stiffeners Are Not
Used (Based on AISC-G2.1 l
fy
fy
(ksi) (MPa) hltw1
36 248 63.6
42 290 58.9
70[~,
45 310 56.9
50 345 53.9
60 414 49.3
65 448 47.3 For rolled .ec1ions
100 689 38.2
'hlt.., limit = 380/~k · E
Y• sa, q. 7.7.10see Chap. 1' (Sec. 11.81 for derivation.
24
22
20
e::- 18
.;.
16
:,.·1-<~
i.,
t.
14
12
No
100
..,. C j ii
..
.e
.; 10
stiffencrs
uscd
- ''C
e
·ee g
;z
6
50
2
Figure 7.7.3
Nominal shear stress Vn/ A,0
vs web slendemess h / l w for 100 200
A36 steel beams without
,ransverse stiffeners. Web slendcmess .!!.
,.,
Allowable Strength Design for Shear in Rolled Beams
The safety requirement for shear in the AISC ASD Method according lo AISC-G l may be
stated
V.
2- > V (7.7.12)
n- a
where V,, = 0.6FyAw (i.e.. Eq. 7.7.9) for beams without transverse stifTeners not exceed-
ing h/tw limits given in Table 7.7.1 (same as for the AJSC LRFD Method)
V ,r = factored service load shear
fiv = 1.50 for h/ twnotexceeding the limit ofEq. 7.7.10 (basically rolled beams)
11v = 1.67 for h /1111 exceeding the limi! of Eq. 7.7. IO (see pi ate girders. Chap. 11)
342 • Chapter 7 Beams; Laterally Supported
EXAMPLE 7.7.2
Selecl the lightest W section of A992 steel to carry_ a liv~ load of 26 kips/ft and dead IOad
of I kip/ft (in additioo to the weight of t.he beam). fhc s1mply_supported span is 5 f1. Lat-
era! bracing is adeguate for late.ral stability. Use Load and Res1stance Factor Design.
Solutwn:
Since the loading is heavy and the span is shon, the designer should investigate shear as
well as flexure.
(a) Compute factored loads Mu and V,,.
Wu = 1.2-Ulo + I .6WL
= 1.2( I ) + l.6(26) = 42.8 kips/fl
M 11 = wL 2/ 8 = 42.8(5)2/ 8 = 133.8 ft-kips
Vu = wL / 2 :e 42.8(5) / 2 = !07 kips
With these heavy superimposed loads the bearn weight will have little effect.
(b) Select a section far flexure. Assume "compact section''; then,
<PbMn = <PbMp = <f>bZ,- F_,,

The design requirement is that <f>bMn = Mu; thus,
. Mu 133.8(12) .
Reqmred z, = q,bFy = 0 _90(S0) = 35.7 m.-
1
Try Wl2X26 from AISC Manuo/ Table 3-2 " Selection by z_;· as the !ightest bearn
having Zx ~ 35.7 in.3 Ali sections included in thai table are compact.
(e) Check shear.
<l>v Vn = <l>v(0.6r;.)Aw
= 1.0(0.6)(50)(12.2)(0.23) = 84.2 lcips
Since V,, = 107 kips exceeds the shear strength provided by W l 2 X26. the seclion is nOI
adequate. Tue required web area A w for shear is
. Vu 107
Requtred Aw = <f>v(O.6 F.y) 1.0(0.6 ) 50 = 3.57 sq in.
From the bending moment requirement. the next heavier sectìons are deeper, sucb as Wl4 oc
Wl6. If a W16 is selected, its web thickness required will be 3.57 / 16 = 0 .22 in. Try
WI 4X30, Zx = 54.0 in.3 For shear,
<l>vV., = 1.0(0.6)(50)(13.8)(0.27) = 112 kjps
which exceeds the factored shear Vu = 107. l kips (includiog beam weìght) and i
acceptable.
For using <b = I, the condition of h / t10 :5 2.24 YE/Fy must be satisfied:
h unsupponed height, T 11.625
-fw = b h. k
we t 1c ness, fw
=- - = 43.1 <
0.27 [2.24v'E/i..v = 54.0]
Section 7.8 Concentrated Loads Applied to Rolled Beams • 343
~his
st is less than the limit value of 54.0 and conlìnns the use of Eq. 7.7.9 for lhe nominai
reng!b v. in shear. The detailed discussion of the use of intennedia1e sliffeners when
h/tw
th exceeds the value from Table 7.7. l appears in Chapter 11 on pla1e girders. Note that
e value for h/tw 1abula1ed in the A/SC Manual for 1he Wl4X30 is 45.4 based on an
nd
u e~Slimate of the radius al 1he junction of flange 10 web; when the larger tabulated
value 1s ava1lable it should preferably be uscd.
Use Wl4X30, F,. = 50 ksi. a
~ -CONCENTRATED
- - -- - -LOADS
-- -APPLIED
- - -TO----..::::.____________
ROLLED BEAMS
When concentrated loads are applied to beams. beam bearing a1 suppons. and reac1ions of
beam flanges at connec1ions to columns, a localized yielding from high Cùmpressive
Slress followed by inelastic buc kling in 1he web region adjacent 10 the toe of a fillet occurs
in the vicinity of concencrated loads. This entire behavior was formerly combined under
the category "web crippling."
Typical of compression-related situations, 1here are two possible behaviors; yiel~ing
and instability. Recent AISC Specifications consider three categories: (a) locai web yield-
ing, (b) web cripplìng. and (e) sideswav web bucklino.
Tue transrnission of concentrated loads in bea,;-to-column connection~ is trea1ed in
Chapter 13 and concentrated loads on plate girders and related design of bearing stiffoners
is treated in Chapter 11.
Load and Resistance Factor Design

The requirernent of AISC-Jl0 may be stated
</>Rn;;:;: R" (7 .8. I)

where = resistance (strength reduction) factor
R,. = nominai reaction strength
Ru = factored reaction
Load and Resistance Factor Desìgn-Local Web Yieldìng
Referring to Fig. 7 .8.1. the concentrated reaction R acting on a beam is assumed ciitical_ at
·.
the toe of the fillet (a d1stance k from che foce of thc beam). TI1e Ioad is ..,~-sumed to d1smb-
·, .. .
ute along the web at a slope of 2.5 to I. Pnor. to 1985 LRFD peci·nc·'ti s
1 " · o,1 , the distribuuon
'---criticai
~ction
,,..
Figwe 7.8.1
Locai web yielding
N : bearing lcng1h
k : dislance from outcr fac.c of Oange 10 web
r
ì
considerations for we of filkl (propeny givcn in AISC Mamwl

~blishing beanng wilh dimen~ions of rol led sections)
tength. R : concen1r.11ed load 10 lx 1rnnsmi11cd 10 girdcr
was conservatively taken as 45°. The 1978 ASD and earlier Specifications were hclsed
the work of Lyse and Godfrey (7.27]. Investigators f?.28 , 7.29] have shown the 45° si
to be overly conservative; the load actually spreads over a distance ( N + 5k) 10 (N + ?k
for an interior load rather rhan the distance ( N + 2k) formerly used.
The nominai reaction strength R,, based on the yield strength at the loe of 1he fillet 0
a rolled T-shaped section is as follows:
1. For interior loads where the concentrated load is applied at a distance from the
end of the member that is greater than the depth of the member,
2. For end reaclions,

R,, = (2.Sk + N)l\,v'w
where k == distance from outer face of flange to web toe of fillet

N = lenglh of bearing :2:: k for end beam reaction
F_vw = specified minimum yield stress of the web
lw = web thickness
The resistance (strength reduction) facror cp for locai web yielding is I .O; fois reflects th
traditional lower cotal safety factor used 10 contro! locai web yielding tha.n used for overall
strength of a member.
Allowable Strength Design-Locai Web Yielding
The safety requirement in the AISC ASD Method, Eq. l .8.8 is
where R,, = nominai reactìon strength

Ra= factored service concentrated load
n = 1.so
The required nomina) reaction strength Rn based on the yield strengt.h at the toe o
the fillet on a rolled 1-shaped section is given by Eqs. 7.8.2 and 7.8.3.
Recent research has shown that Eqs. 7.8.2 and 7.8.3 are conservative. with yieldin
confined to a length defined by a 2.5 to I slope.
Load and Resistance Factor Design-Web Crippling
To contro! the stability of the web at concentrated loads, AISC-J l 0.3 gives the nomin
strength, based on the work of Roberts [7 .30]. The nominai reaction strength R,, based
this stability cri1erion is
1. For interior loads, (i.e., concentrated load acts at d/2 or more from member end
Rn = 0.801~[1 + 3(~)(:; ysJ)E;:'J

5
= 136r~[ l + 3( ~)(:; Y- ]~
Section 7.8 Concentrated Loads Applied to Rolled Beama • 345
2
• For end reac1io11.~ {i.e .. conccntratcd load acts al less than d/2 frorn member end):
la. For N /d :s 0.2
R,, I+ 3(~)(~,~ )" ]JE~::f

= 0.401;,{
5
(7.8.5)
= 68!{1 + 3(~)(',; )"s

])F::~~:
2b. For N /d > 0.2
R" = 0.40r,~ ? [ l + (4N

d - 0.2 )(',; )
15
] -v··~
~
(7.8.6)
- - 0.2 )('w
(4N - )1.
5
= 681,,,2 [ I + ] r,ç:;;
\/.....:.::....!.
__
d ~ ' lw
where
E = modulus of elasticity of the steel (tallen as 29.000 ksi)
1
f = flange thickness through which the concentrated load is transmined
1w = beam web thickness
d = overall depth of the beam
Fyw = specified yield stress of the beam web. (taken as llsi when E is inserted)
Allowable Strength Design-Web Crippling
Again, Eq. 1.8.8 expresses the safety requiremen1 in ùte AISC ASD Method. as follows
Rn
fi~R" [1.8.8}
where R,, = nomina] reaction slrength

Ra = factored service concentrated load
n = 2.0
For the AISC Allowable Strength Method, AISC-J I 0.3 specifies n = 2.0. The. required
nomina] strength R,, is gìven by Eqs. 7.8.4 through 7 .8.6.
Load and Resistance Factor Design-Sidesway Web Buckling
The nominai reaction strength Rn based on sidesway web buck\ing as gi,·en by AISC -J 10.4
controls for compressive individuai concentrated forces applied tn members when rel:uiw
la1eraJ movement between tbe loaded compre.ssion flange and the tension flange is posi-i-
ble. Thìs phenomcnon has becn studìed by Robcn~ (7 .30]. Elgaaly 17 .31 l. and Roberts :md
Chong P .32]. Rarely will sidcsway web buckling contro! on a rollcd l-~hapt.·d SCl'liun:
however. it can influence design of a platc girder.
The nominai reaction strengrh R,, based on sìdesway weh buckling in arcordance
with AISC-JI0.4 is as follows:
1. When the comprcssion flange is rc:.1mi11ed agains1 r,11a1i,111:

for (h/1,v)/(l,b/b1) :s 2.3,
_ C,1~,11 [ (~ ) -'] l 7.8.7)

R,, - ? 1 + 0.4 /I
Jr L1, ) 1
for (h / tw)/(L1, / b1) > 2.3,

R., = no Jimit
2. When the compression flange is not restrained against rotation:
for (h/tw)/(L1,/b1) ,e-;; 1.7,
c/Ii,11[
R -'" - - - 0.4
(l1/tw)']
" 1i2 \ L1,/b1
for (h/rw)/(L1, /br) > l.7,

R 11 = no limit
where Lb = Jargesc Jateratly unbraced lengrh along either flange at the point of load
br = flange width
110 = web thickness
h = clear distance between flanges less the fillet or corner radius for rolled
shapes: distance between ad_jacent lines of fasteners or the clear distance
between flanges when welds are used for built-up shapes
e, = 960,000 ksi when M,, < M y at the location of the forc-e
= 480,000 ksi when Mu ;::: My at the location of the force
For the situation where the flange is restrai11ed against rotation, when the factored
force exceeds the design streng_th <f>R_., (where q, = 0:85), either ~ore locai lateral bracing
must be used or stiffeners prov1ded. When the flange 1s 1101 restramed agamst rotation, and
the strength is not adequate. locai lateral bracing must be provided at both flanges at the
point of application of the concentrated forces.
Allowable Stress Design-Sidesway Web Buckling
For allowable strength design, A1SC-J l0.4 gives O equa! to l. 76. The safety requirement
is given by Eq. 1.8.8.
EXAMPLE 7.8.1
Determine the size of bearing plate required for an end reaction of 15 kips dead load and
25 kips live load on a WIOX26 beam of A992 steel. The beam rests o n a concrete wall
having a 28-day compressive strength J; == 4000 psi. Use the AISC LRFD Method.
Solution:
(a) Compute factored reaction Ru and required R,..
R11 = 1.2( 15) + J.6(25) = 58 kips

Required Rn = R /<f, = 58/1.0 = 58 kips
11
(b) Determine pian dimensions for bearing plate. The bearing length must satisfy
more severe requirement of Eq. 7.8.3 (locai web yielding), and Eqs. 7.8.5 or 7.8.6 (
crippling). Solving the simpler Eq. 7.8.3 for the required bearing Iength N gives
Rn 58
N = -r I- - 2.5k = -50(0-260)
-- 2..5(0.875) -- 2.3 .m.
rrw'w .
Section 7.8 Concentrated Loads .O.pplied to Rolled Beams • 347
Try ~ 3-in. bearing plate. As a pr.ic1ical matter. 3 in. ~hould be considered a~ minimum
beanng length unless clearances require a tesser length.
Before _checking Eqs. 7.8.5 or 7.8.6, whichever applies, for web c rippling. investi-
gate th e requ1reme n1 for be.aring on the concrete. The nominai bearing strength Pp of con·
crete 1s g1ven by A!SC-J8 as
PP = 0.85J;. A1
where A I is the arca of stect concentrically bearing on a concrete suppon. The requirement is
lhat cf>PP 2: R,, (i.e.. the factorcd bearing toad). Tue strenglh reduction factor 4> for bearing is
0.60 (AlSC-J8). Thus. solving for the requircd bearing area A I gives
Required P R f4, 58/0 60

Required A 1 = P = -"- - = - - ·- = 28.4 sq in.
0.85 f ~ 0.85 f~ 0.85( 4)
Fora 3-in. bearing lcngth, the width B (see Fig. 7.8.2) would have to be 9.5 in. Since the bcam
flange width is only 5.77 in., a width B smaller than 9.5 in. is desirable. A 4-in. bearing le ogth
requires a width of 7. 1 in. Try a plate4 in. X 7.5 in. ( A 1 = 30 sq. in.).
Now check web crippling on the W IOX 26 :
N /d = 4/10.33 > 0.2; Eq. 7.8.6 applics.

4 4 15 44
Rn = 68(0 .260) 2[1 + ( ( ) - 0.2)( 0 ·260 ) ] S0(0· 0) = 68.2 kip~
10.33 0.440 0.260
The n the design strength cf>R,, = 0.75(68.2) = SI. I kips. Since this is less than the foc-
i . be .
tored load R,, = 58 kips , the bearing le ngth N mus t be increas.ed. A 5 y m. anng
length N gives <l>Rn = 59.5 kips which exceeds R,, and is acce.ptable.
Use bearing pla te, N = 5 ~ in. X B = 6 in.
(e) Determine the bearing plate thickness. Tue uniform (assumed) bearing pre s~ure
under factored load is
Unìform bearing pressore /J = S.:~6 ) = I .76 ksi

The criticai section for bending is taken a t the toe of the nange-to-web fillet. a di~-
tance k fro m the mid-thickness of the web, and the beam flange is a~sumed not to partic i-
pate . The bending moment is treated as that acting on a cantile ver bcam. Tue facto.-ed
moment M,, is
2
p(B/2 - k )2N 1.76(3 - 0.875 ) N
M,, = 2 = 3.97N
2
Por a rectangular section. the bending strength requireme nt is
<J>M,, ~ M,. (b)
\VIO x 2r,
r-- -1s.n·2k
Figure 7.8.2
Ewnple 7.8. l.
where <P = 0 _90 and M,, = M,, = zf,~. Fora rectangular section of width N and lhickness
r (see Example 7 .3.1 ),
Z = Nt 2 /4 (C)
To satisfy Eq. (b) above, </JZF.,, = 3.97N; thus.
0.90Nr 21\
- - - - = 3.97N
4
and for F1, = 36 ksi. the rcquired thickness becomes
t 3.97{4T . u 1 .
Required 1 = \ I10.90(36)
-- - = 0 .7O 111. se 1 = 4 m.
Use bearing plate, ~X5 ½xo'-6". 1
Solving for lhe bearing plate t.h.ickness in ge nerai, equating <J>M,, to Mu,
,v,1- p( B/ 2 - k ) 2N
d> - F. =
· 4 ' 2
/2p(B/ 2 - k) 2
Required I =\ </>FY (7.8.9)
7.9 HOLES IN BEAMS

Flange Holes
For tension members the effect of fastener holes has been discussed in Chapter 3, where
holes are deducted and net section is used. For compression members, sìnce the fasteners
occupy mosl of lhe space in the hole, the fasteners are assumed in design to completely fili
the holes and a deduction for holes is not made.
When the nominai strength M,, reaches the plastic moment Mp . certa.inly tension
flange holes reduce tbat strength; however. there will be a shift in neutral axis associateci
with a loss of strength al one flange, an effect that somewhat counteract~ tbe effect of
holes. Traditìonal design has neglected the effect of holes when holes do not represent a
significant proportion of the flange area. When the nominai moment streng!l: M,, is limited
to Iess than MP by some type of instabilìty the effect of holes is reduced.
Traditionally, the AISC Specification has requìred deduction for flange holes only
when the area of t.he holes exceeds 15% of the gross flange, and then only Ihe area io
excess of 15% was deducted.
The 2005 AISC Specification approach represents a departure even from the 1999
AISC Specification. AISC-FI 3.1. indicates that gross section is to be used except when the
tensile rupture limit state is a failure possibilìty.
1. The tensile rupture limit state does NOT apply when
F,, A1,. ~ Fy A.fg Y,

2. The tensile rupture limit state MAY apply when
Section 7.10 Generai FlexuralTheory • 349
When Eq. 7 .9 .2 applies, the nominai nexural strength M,, at the location of the holes ~hall
not be taken greater than
FuA/11
M,, = - A--Sx (7.9.3)
li:
where A /n = net tension nange area

Af g = gross tension flange area
Yi = I.O for F,./ Fn s 0.8; I.I otherwisc
Recent tesL, {AISC Mm111n/, Ref. 1.15, p. 16.1-284) .. ... indicate that the flexural
~rength ~n th~ net s~tion is better predicted by comparison of the quantities F,. A fg and
uA /n, wuh sl1gh1 adJustment when the ratio of F,. to F,, excceds 0.8.''
Exarnple~ of procedure for considering boli holes appear in the Chapter 13 section
on beam and gtrder splices.
Web Holes
The AISC Specification ( 1.13) permits neglect of fastener holcs located in the web.
largely for the same reasons fastener holes in the flange may be neglccted. Large holes
cut into beam webs are entirely another matter. These holes require special analysis and
usually will havc lo be reinforced by attaching extra plate mate riai. often including stiff-
eners, around the sides of the hole. Design of large web holes in beams is out~idc the
scope of this tel(t. The recent work of the ASCE Task Committee [7.33. 7.341 should
serve as a basic guide for design of beams with web openings. The definitive work
related specifically to the AISC LRFD approacb is that of Darwin [7 .60\. The reader
may also referto the work of Bower [7 .35-7 .38]. Frost and Leffler [7 .39}. Mandel. Brcn-
nan, Wasil, and Antoni [7.40], Cooper and Snell L7.4ll. Chan and Redwood 17.42. 7.43\.
Wang, Snell, and Cooper [7.44], Larson and Shah [7.45), Cooper, Sne\J. and Kno~tman
(7.46], Redwood, Baranda, and Daly [7.471, Redwood and Uenoya [7.48). Daugherty
[7.49], and Narayanan and Der-Avaness ian [7.50]. Design tab\c.s for rcctangular holcs
have been given by Redwood (7 .5 LJ. and a design example is prcse.nted by Kussman and
Cooper [7.52).
7.10 GENERAL FLEXURAL THEORY

Thus far, consideratioo has bcen givcn only to synunetrical shapc~ loadcd ~ymmetricall~
for which f = Me/ I is corree! for computing el:\stic tlcxural strcs,. The following de, cl-
opment lreats the generai bending of arbitrary pri~m:itic bcam,, i.e .. bcarn;. having any
cross-scctional shape with no variation along thc length. 111cy are also a"~ume<l 10 be fn.>e
from twisting.
Considcr the straighl uniform cross-section bcam t>f Fig. 7.1 O. I actcd upon hy
mornent applied in the piane ABCD which makcs the angk· )' witl1 thc x: piane. Tite
rnoments are represented by vectors normai to the pi.mc of act ion lposi1i,·c momcn1
defined by using right-hand rute for rolation). . . .
Ex ami ne next a ponion of thc bcam of lcnl!,th ~ as slwwn in Fig. 7 .10.2:1. 'lo sa11sly
equilibrium on lhe free body of Fig. 7.10.'.!a requircs
.l" «/ 1\ = () t7 . IO. I\
y
e
,___ _ -+--_ L - -- - --I
D
Section,1-,1
)'
Figure 7.10.1
Prismatic beam under pure bending.
Mx = .lyudA
_LMy = O, M). =
JA
f xudA
It is to be noted from Fig. 7. I0.2b that the momencs Mx and M_, are both positive in accor
dance with the customary convention of calling positive bending that which causes co
pression in the top portion of the beam. Also, the subscripts for M designate the axis ubo
which bending oçcurs; i.e., the direction of the moment vector.
Bending in the yz Plane Only

If bending occurs in the yz piane, the stress u is then proponional to y. Thus:
a- = k1Y (7.10.4
M,
/
X
y
y
X
/ /
M,
figure 7. 10.2
Free body of a portion of a
., X
beam having length z. (a) {b)

Section 7.10 Generai Flexural Theory • 351
Using Eqs. 7.10.1 through 7.10.3 gives
k11y dA = O 17.10.51
M ., = k l 1· \'
A
.
2 dA = k I
I ., 1,7.I0.6)
My = k11 X_\' dA = k1 lx_,, <7.10.7)
From the firsr ofthe above expressions. J,._y dA = o, meaning x must be a centroidal axis.
The stress may then be computed as
M,.y My.r
u = - - or (7.l0.8)
lx lx_\'
and the angle y musi be such thai
(7.10.9)
As a practical matter it would be unlikely thar an unsymmetrkal beam section would be

located in a piane making the angle y with the xz piane. and have bending occur in the y;::
piane. Equation 7.10.9 also shows that ifa section is use.d with at le.astone axis of symrne-
try (for which JA xy d A = I.,y = O), tan y = oo, y = 90°, meaning the loading and the
bending both occur in the yz piane.
An important conclusion here is that only if lxv :::: O does the bending occur in the
piane of loading. For example, on unsymmetrical shapes such as angles or 1..ees loaded in
the xz or yz piane, the piane of loading and the piane of bending will be different.
Bending in the xz Plane Only
If bending occurs in the xz piane the stress u is then proporti on al to x. Thus
<T "" k 2x (7.10.10)

and from Eqs. 7. I 0.1 through 7. I0.3 are obtained:
k2 { x dA =O (7.10. 11)
JA
which means y must be a centroidal axis. Also,
(7.10.1~)
(7.10.1.')
and
M,. 111
tan y =- =- l 7.10.1--l)
A1,, I>
_ O tao y = ()• i ·e ., 1he Joading and bending both occur 1-n t

In tIie case wI1erc / x.v - •
xz piane.
Bending in Neither xz Nor yz Planes

Thi5 is rhe realistic case when considering unsymmetrical sectio_ns in flexure. Since it i
assumed ali stresses are within the elastic limit, the tota! stress u is the sum ofthe stres-es
due 10 bcnding ìn each of the xz and y.: planes. Thus
a = k1Y + k2X
and
Mx = k1 I_, + k2lxy
My = k1 {_,._,. + k2l_v
Solving Eqs. 7.10.16 and 7.10. 17 for 1.: 1 and k 2 and substituting into Eq. 7. lO. 15 gives
MJ,, - Mrlx, MJ., - MAI.,.)'

IT = . . ~ ' y+ . 2 X
/_,:fy - l;.y f., ]). - fxy
which is the generai tlexure equation. The assumptions inherent in Eq. 7.10.18 are (a)
scraight beam; (b) constane cross-section; (e) x- and y-axes are mutually perpendicular cen
troid~l axes; and (d) that stress is proportional to strain and the maximum value is wilhi
1he proportìonal limi1.
Principal Axes
The principal axes are mutually perpendicular centroidal axes for whìch the moment
inertia is eiù1er a maximum or minimum. Furthermore, these axes are the only mutuali
perpendicular axes for which the product of inertia lx_,. is zero. When a section has an axi
of symmetry, that axis is a principal axis and Eq. 7 .10. I 8 becomes
Mx M_,
u = -v + -x
lx ' I_,.
When there is no axis of symrnetry, Eq. 7.10.19 can stili be used if the principal axes
located and the quanti.ties Mx, My, !_,., ly, x, and y are ali corrected so as to refer to lhe pri
pal axes. Usually such transformations offer no advantage over direct use of Eq. 7. IO. I 8.
lnclination of the Neutra! Axis

When the loads acting on a flexural member pass through the centroid of the cross-secti
but are inclined with respect to eìther of the principal axes, the stresses may be dete ·
by using Eq. 7 .10. 18 or Eq. 7.10.19. However, note should be made thatthe neutra! axis ·
not necessarily perpendicular to the piane of loading. As shown from Eqs. 7.l0.9
7.10.14 and Fig. 7.10.1,
Mx
tany=-
My
Since the stress along the neutra] axis ìs equa! to zero, u may be set equa! to zero·
Eq. 7.10.18. With u = O, solving for -x/y gives
Section 7.10 Generai FlexuralTheorv • 353
_~ = (Mxly - M>.lxy)( 1,J,. - l!y ) (7.10.21 )

Y lxly - l;y M ,-lx - Mxlxy
From Fig. 7. l O. I, Section A-A. it is seen that at any point on the neutra! axis,
tan a = - x / Y· Dividing both numerator and denominator of the right side of Eq. 7. l0.2 l
by My gives
Mx
- / 1, - lx,-
M,, · (7. 10.22)
tana=___:._ __
Mx
lx - -M l ;r)'
y
Substitution of Eq. 7 .10.20 into Eq. 7 .10.22 gives
l y tan -y - l xy (7.10.23)
tana =
lx - / Jr}' tan y
When investigating a section with one axis of symmetry. 1,,,- = O; Eq. 7 ·10.23 then
becornes
ly (7. 10.24)
tana= - tan y
1,-
eXAMPLE 110.1
A Wl8X50 used as a beam is subjected to loads inclined at 5° froro the vertìcal axis as
shown in Fig. 7.10.3. Locate the inclination of the neutral axis.
Solution:
I;, == 800 in.4; /} == 40.1 in.4
tan 8S0 == tan y
Using Eq. 7. 10.24,
/~, 40.1 -o
tan a == - tan -y = - - tan 8:, = 0.573
/_. 800
a == 29.8° (29°50')
Figure 7.10.3
Binially 1oaded beam of + axis
)'
EsaJ!lple 7.10.1.
EXAMPLE 7.10.2
Compute the maximum tlexural stress in a 6X4X½ angle with the long Jeg VeJti
downward when serv1ce · Joaded wtth k1p t on a ~.1_mpIY supporled span of IO ftcan
· O.5·1t· (
Fig. 7. 10.4). Compare the value assuming the angle 1s completely free to bend in
direction wilh tbat obtained assuming. bending in only the vertical piane.
l"
clYl_ ,,_i_l 4
fr
0.5 kip/f1 (incl. bcam I\'!)
I 1II.11 1 1 i I I ~
II X
1
_
199" -r
_j__ _ _ __ X
1----- - -~!
L !,.,.,
10·- o 6• I
A 81
Figttre 7.10.4 i
y
Data for Example 7.!0.2.
Solutwn:
(a) Angle free to bend in any direction. Using Eq. 7.10. 18 with AISC properties
lx= I7.4in.4, I_, = 6.27 in. 4
lxy = [6(3.00 - 1.99)( - 0.987 + 0.25) + 3.5(2.25 - 0.987)(-1.99 + 0.25) ]o.so

= [(-4.47) + ( -7.69) ]0.50 = -6.08in.4
Mx = i(0.5)(!0) 2 = 6.25 ft-kip~ = 75 in.-kips
M_v = O
Stress at point A:
fA = _Mx(ZvY . . .:. .__ = 6.25(12)(6.27(+4.0l )

- lxyX)
__:___ - (-6.08)(-0.987)1
J
lxly - l;y 17.4(6.27) - (6.08)2

75(19.14)
= .1 = 75(0.265) = +19.9 ksi (tension)
72
Stress at point 8:
_ 75(6.27( + 4.0l) - (-6.08)(-0.487)]

fs - 72.1
= 75( 0.308) = + 23.1 ksi ( tension)
Stress at point C:
_ 75[6.27( -1.99) - ( -6.08)(-0.987)]

fc - 72.l
= 75( -0.256) =:; -19.2 ksi ( compression)
Section 7.10 Generai Flexurellheory • 355
(b) Angle free lo bend in any dire.:tion, Use ahcma1e method i.ugge,.ted hy Gaylocd
alld Gaylo~ (7.53) (pp. 143-147). Compute 1he streSSC!< a.,!>uming lirst that thc bearn
beotls
7 only m lhe )'l: piane. Conveniently lei M, = IOO m.-lr.ips. Then. according lo Eq.
9
· l0.
YZ piane.
• M>. = M, l_,y/ I_, must also be acting (Fig. 7. IO.Sa) if bending i,; to occur unly in thc
nd Sinc~ the real loadìng has only M,. M, mu~t be remo\"ed by application c,f an cq~I
a opposue moment, further considering chat bending occurs only in the x~ piane. llm,
means. according 10 Eq. 7.10.14. the simultaneous application of M, = M, I" I I, (Stt
Fig. 7.10.Sb). . .
Bending in venical piane:
Mx= 75.o( 66.16

IOO ) = 113.4 io.-kip~
113.4(4.01)
fA.1 = fBt = - - 17.4
- - = 26.1 ksi (tension)
113.4( 1.99)
lei = l?.4 = 13.0 ksi (comprcssion)
Bending in horizontal piane:
MJ =- 113.4( - 6.08)/17.4 = 39.6 in.-kips

39.6(0.987)
fA2 = f Cl = . = 6. 2 k.si ( comprcssion)
6 27
39.6(0.487)
.
fB2 = - --
6.27
- = 3.1 ksi (compression)
Total stresses in generai bending:
fA = +26.1 - 6.2 = +l9.9ksi (tension)

fs = +26.1 - 11 = +23.0ksi (tcnsion)
fc = - 13.0 - 6.2 = -19.2 ksi (compresl;ion)
whìch agree with the values, 19.9. 23.1 , and - l9.2 ksi, respcctively. as computed b) thc
generai formula.
The generai equation for stress at any point is sccn to be
f _ ~~~'~X + '.\9.6x
· - 17.4 6.27
where if f = O, thc neutra! axìs is ·" = - 0.969x .
.\4.9( -6 0~\
M\= 6~27
M, = IO() in.-kips
., - -1~.S4 in.-k.ìr,
-~: ..
I Loadin~
+dircclion
+
u!
_ e ~ "-
Ali I
M,
lfKl\ - b.~)
17.-1
= 14.') in.-kip,
.' "''" ··~;
figlltC 7. I0.5 . ..
Solution by superp?s111on of y
l,ending in the venical and
borizonial planes. (u) lk1tding in wrtic:11 pla11e ( h) llrnd111r in h-,r110111al planr
-- - ----- - -- ----- · -
.
Thj s superunposmon· · mechod permits
.· - . . to visualize
the designer . what. is, taL:
"'ng
place. [f attached construction constrains an unsymmetncal section .to beod in tbc ver.
tical piane, the 1·estraining moment capacity can be cornputed by usmg Eq. 7.10.9.
(e) Angle restrained to bend in che vertical plane:
75( 4.0l) = + 17.J ksi (tension)

fA = fa = 17.4
75(-·i.99)
fc = . = - 8.6ksi (compression)
17 4
Unless the borizontal constraints actually act, the tensile stress at point Bis underestimaled
by 25% and the co mpressive stress at C is under.estima ~ed by 55%. . .
Frequently designers assume J == My / I 1s apphcable w1thout cons1denng whether
or not adequate horizontal resiraints are present. Although usually s~me degree of res!raint
is present, care should be exercised when invesugatmg unsymrnetncal beams. Neglect of
the Jateral (horizontal) component is always on the unsafe s1de. 1
7.11 BIAXIAL BENDING OF SYMMETRIC SECTIONS

F!exural stresses on sections with at least one axis of symmetry and loaded through the
centroid may be computed using Eq. 7.10.19, which when modified 10 give maximum
stress u becomes
where Sx == 1,./( d /2) and s,. = l_J(b/2) are tbe section modulus values.
Nominai Strength
The nominai s1rength of a section subject 10 biaxial bending is not r.:adily deter-
mined. Such strength will certainly depend on the proportions of the sec tion and tb
relative rnagnitudes of the applied moments Mx and My. The use o f an interaction;
equation such as used for beam-columns is not believed adequately cc,m;ervative for
cases where there is no axial compression or tension. In the pas·t, tbe AISC AS
Specification has traditionally Jimited the combined stress according to Eq. 7.11.11
a maximum of 0.60 Fy. This effectively implies that the nominai strength of the sec-
tion under combined Mx and My is reached when the extreme fiber stress reaches tb
yield stress Fy. Thus, the entire cross-section will be elastic; no credit is then given t
any ability of the cross-section to undergo plastic deformation. Certainly this approacb i
conservative.
Following the above approach, the elastic stress equation, Eq. 7 .11. l. could be u
with nominai maximum strength moments, Mnx and M,.y, and a maximum stress Fy. Th
the nominai strength could be assumed to be reached when
Section 7.11 Biaxial Bending of Symmetric Sections • 357
Load and Resistance Factor Design
Merhod I. Many designers will use the beam-column safety criteria of AISC-HI
th
for e member loaded in biaxial bending witbout axial load. In the authors' view thai is
hkely an unconservative approach. The criteria of AISC-H I were deve.loped as strength
r
elationships for compression members, which simultaneously are acted on by bending
r~oments;_ not very dose to treating the strength in biaxial bending. The AISC Specifica-
llon_ ce~arnly permits biaxial bending to be covered by AISC-Hl (see User Note at the
~egi~nrng of AISC-Chapter F). When one does thai, no new princip)es are encountered
m th1s section of the text.
Merhod 2. AISC-H2 uses the combincd stress approach of Eq. 7. I l.2 recognizing
th at th e safety provisions include an overload effect an<l an uoderstrength (resistance fac-
tor) _effect. This method is imended 10 apply for other than <loubly and sìngly symmetric
secuons. However, AISC-H2 permits use of this rnethod in lieu of AISC-Hl. A Slress-
based simple linear interaction equation (without the axial load term) is used,
hx fby
--+-~ I (7.11.3)
F1,x F by
where fbx = flexural stress due to factored moment M.,x

= MuxfSx
h,y = flexural stress due to factored moment M,"
= Muy/ S_y •
Fbx = flexural stress due to the design moment cl>b M,.,,
= <f>bM,,x/ Sx
Fby = flexural stress due to the design moment </>1,Mny
= <bbMny/Sy
Equation 7. ll .3 can also be written in terms of forces (i.e., moments in this case)
M.,x M.,y
- - - + - - -:'.','.. (7.11.4)
4>bM11x <f>bMny
To compensate for the use of the beam-column strength equation, which can be
unconservative in the absence of axial load the nominal strengths about the x- and ,·-axes
may be taken equa! lo the nominai strength; based on yielding.-which puts. a conservatively
high (or at least as high) value for F1,x and Fb,· in the denominator of the tem,s of Eq. 7 .11.3.
Taking this conservative approach, ·
(7.11.S)
Substituting Eqs. 7.1 l.S into Eq. 7.11.4. and muhiplying by S., gives an equation for the
required Sx
(7.11.6)
Allowable Strength Design
In the AISC ASD Method, Eq. 7.11.4 replaces the factored service load mon~ents iW.,
(divided by ip1,) with the service load moment M., (here called M_, and M,.) nmll,phed by
the safety factor fl. whic h thcn gives

D.M:x !ìM_r 
S,. --
D.Mx +
FJ
fl1~(S·,·)1
F
,
S
y
TABLE 7.11.1 Typical Sx/SvValues
Shape Oepth d (in.)
M 6, 8 5-7
M 10. 12 8-11
Light W and M 4-8 3
w 8. 10 3-4
w 12 3-6
w 14 (up 10 84 lb/ft) 4-8
w 14 (over 84 lb/ft) 2½-3
w 16, 18, 21 5-9
w 24.27 6-10
w 30,33,36 7- 12
s 6-8 d
s 10-18 0.75d
e upto7 l.5tl
e 8-10 1.25d
e 12, 15 d
EXAMPLE 7.11.1
Select the lightest W or M sectìon to carry service dead load momenls Mx ""' 15 ft-kips
My = 5 ft-kips, and live load moments M, = 45 ft-kips and M_~ = 20 ft-kips. Consider
adequate lateral bracing is provided to preclude instability. Use steel having F,. = 50 lesi,
the AISC LRFD Method. .
Solution:
(a) Computc factored loads M11x and Muy·
Mu, = 1.2(15) + l.6(45) = 90ft-kips

Muy = 1.2(5) + 1.6(20) = 38 ft-kips
(b) Using Method 2, determine required sectìon modulus Sx and select sec ·
Equation 7 .11.6 gives
.
Required Sx 2
90(12) 38(12)
0.90(50) + 0.90(50) Sy
(s")
2 24 + IOS.. / Sy
7
From Table .11.1 lhe ratio S,JSy can be eJ1pected 1o be on 1he order of 3 to 4 ;
lhus Sx "" 54 to 64 in.3
.. Using the A/SC Manua/ (15], one must use the plastic modulus Z, AISC Table 3-2
Seiectton by Z " Tu, · ·
• -< •
. z b
e secuon modulus S.r may be approJ11ma1ely convened 10 x y mu 11-
I·
th
plymg by e average shape factor 1.12 (see Sec. 7.3). For 1his case the inilial 1riaJ S, values
5410 64
of would have become Z.r s:: 61 to 72 in. 3 and the same staning sec1ion of WJ6X40
would have been ob1ained.
TryWIOX60:
Sx/S> = 66.7/23.0 = 2.9

Required Sx = 24 + 10(2.9) = 53 i·n.3 < 66.7 in.-' OK
For WJOX49,
= 54.6/18.7 = 2.92
Sx/Sy
Required Sx = 24 + 10(2.92) = 53.2 in.3 < 54.6 in.3 OK
Use WIOX49, F,. 50 k si.
l_f one had assumed a IO-in. depth as desirable and used Eq. 7. 11.6 with a coefficient
of 3.5 msiead of 3,
Required Sx = 24 + 10(3.5d / bf)
For W IO sections, d /bI is either I or 1.25.
Required Sx "" 24 + 35 = 59 in. 3

which would also have required a check of two sec1ions. Thc more generai approach U!'Ìng
typical Sx /Sy values see ms most useful unless a specific depth is desired. •
SELECTED REFERENCES
7. I. T.V. Galambos. ''History of Stecl Beam Design:· Engir,eenn!( Joumnl. AJSC. 14, 4 tfourth Qu3.11~r
1977), 141 - 147.
7.2. Joint Commirtee of Wekliog Rescarch Council and thc American Societv o f CiYil Enginc.er,;
Cvmme11tary "" Pla.,rir Oe.,ig11 in Stee/, 2nd ed.. ASCE Manual and Rcports on Prnc ticc No. J \ . Ne"
Yo rk. 197 1.
7,3. Joseph A. Yura, Thcodore V. Ga lnmbo,. and Mayasal)dra K. Ravindra. --n,e Bemling Rcsis1anc.: 0f
Steel Beams," louma/ of 1he Stmf/11ra/ Divisìon. ASCE. H._.. ST9 (Sepiembc-r 1978). 1355-1 ~70.
7.4. Ad Hoc Committec on Serviceability Rese:tteh. Committee 011 Rc,earch of the S!rnctur.Jl Di, 1>Ìon.
"Structural Scrviceability: A Criticai Appraisal and Re.,ca.teh Nceds:· ]()lm,ri/ ofS11·11umn l E11gmeering.
ASCE. 112, 12 (Dccember 1986). 264{>-2664.
7.5. Theod ore V. Galan1bos and Bruce Elliogwood. "Serviceability Limi1 Statcs: Deflection... Joumol uf
Sm1c111ra/ E11gi11eeri11g. ASCE, I 12. I (Ja.nuary 1986). 67-S4.
7.6. Brucc Ellingwood. "Scrviceability Guidelines for St(•c l Structurcs." E11gi11e1·ri11g J, 1um<1/. AISC. 26, I
( I s t Quartcr 1989), J- 8.
7,7. Thnmas M. Murray. " Building J-loor Vibration~." Erryi11e,·ri11g .lmm,r1/, ,\ ISC. 28, .\ (.\rd Qu,uwr 199 1),
I02- 109. Errata. 28, 4 (4th Quartcr 199 1), ! 76.
7.8. R.ichard N. Wright and William H. Walkcr. "Vibrntion and Detlcction vfStrd Bridg-:s:· EnRi11,,1•ring
.loumal. AISC. 9, I (January 1972). 20-31.
7.9 Thomas M. Marray. "Design to Prtvent Flllor Vibrntions." E11,~i11eai11g .hm,,w l, i\lSC. 12. .1 (Tlmd
Quarter 1975). 82-87.
7. 10. n,omas M. Murray. "Acceptability Criterion for Orcupam-ladur.oli Flc,or Vihration,.'' C:11gi11urirrg J,,.,,.
110/. AISC. 18, 2 (Second Quarter !% 1J. 62- 70.
7. 1 L Brucc Elling wood and Andrew Tallin. "S1ruc1ural Scr\'ice.abili1y· Floor Vib;·a1i(l11,." Jw,m,i/ 1,(Sm w -
111n1/ E11gi11ee1·i11g. ASCE. 110, 2 (February 1984). 401-418. Oi,ç. 111. 5 t May l'll!)l. 11 :-t>- 116 1
- - - - - - - - • - ---·-
360 • Chapter 7 Beams: Laterally Su pported
Raed A. Tolavmat. ·'A Ne"' Approach to Floor Vìbr:1tio n Analysis." Engi11eering Joumal. AlSC, 25, 4
7.12.
(4th Qua,1er Ì988 J. 13 7- 143. .
D. E. Al)en. "Buìlding Vibrations from Hunian Aciivitìes." Concrete lntema110nal. 12, 6 (June l9'loJ,
7. 13.
7 14.
:~:t~.Ha tlìeld. "Design Charl for Vibralfon of Office and Residential floors," Engineering Jou"""-
AISC. 29, 4 (4th Qua11er 1992 ). 141-1 44. . ,.
J. w. Larson and R. K. Hunard. ·'Eco nornical Use of Cambered Stcel Beams. presented at AISC
7.iS.
National Sted Constnictio n Conference. March ]990. Ava1lable as Bethlehcm Steel Corp. Technica/
81,l!e1i" 1'/3-309. May 1990.
o~vid T. Rìcker. "Cambering Steel Bea.ms." Ellgineuing Joumol. AISC, 26, 4 (4th Quaner 1989),
7.16.
136--142.
Frank J. Marino. "Ponding of Two-Way Roof Syste1ns.'' Engineering Joumal. AISC, 3, 3 (July 196<,)_
7. 17.
93- 100.
7. 18. Lewis B. Dnrgea. " Fast Check for Pondìng." Engineering Joum ul, AJSC. 10, I (Firs t Quaner 19;3ì.
26-28
7.19. John L. Ruddy. ''Ponding of Concrete Oeck Fl<.iors," En!1(11u ring Jo,mw/, AISC, 23, 3 (Third Quaner
1986), 107- 115.
7.20. Jarnes Chinn. '·F,rilure of Simply-Supported Flal Roof, by Ponding of Rain," Engi11eeri11g Jouma/,
AISC, :?, 2 (Aprii 1965 ), 38-4 1.
7.21. A. E. Salama and l\·i . L. Moody. "Analysis of Bcams and Plates for Ponding Loads,'' Jouma/ of tlie
Srruc111r<1l Division, ASCE. 93, STI (Febnrnry 1967). 109-126.
7.22. o. A. Sawyer. "Ponding of Rainwater on Flcxiblc Roof Systems." lournal of 1l1e Srr11c1ural /)ii•ision,
ASCE. 93, STI (Fehruary 1967), 122-147.
7.23. D. A. Sawyer. "Roof-Strucrure Roof-Drainage lnterac Lio n.'' Jo11rnal of 1/te Srruc1ura! Divisio,i, ASCE.
94, STl (J;,lllary 1968), l 7S- 198.
7.24. James Chinn, Abdulwahab H. Mansouri, and Staley F. Adams. ·'Ponding or Liquìds on Flat Roofa."
Joumal of the S1ruc1ura/ Divisio11. ASCE. 95, ST5 (May 1969). 797-807.
7.25. R. Richard Ave ni and William G. S1ewart. ''Rainwa1cr Ponding on Beam-Girder Roof SysLems," Journoi
ofthe Structural Divisio11, ASCE. IOl, ST9 (September 1975). l9I J-l927.
7.26. R. Rich:i.rd Aveni. " Dc!lection and Ponding of Steel Joisis." Journa/ of rhe Stnuwr,, 1 Di111s10n, ASCE.
102, sn (July 1976). 1399-1 410 .
7.27. I. Lyse and H. J. Godfrey. ··1m>es1iga1ion of Weh Buckling in S1ecl Beau1s," Tronsac1io14 ASCE, 100
( I 935 ), 675-706.
7.28. J. D. Graham, A. N. Sherboume, R.N. Khab ba7., and C. D. .lensen. We/ded l111erior Beam-ro-Co/11m11
Connectio11s. New York: American lnstitute of Steel Conslnlctìon. lnc.. 1959.
7.29. B. G. Johnston and G. G. Kubo. "Web Crìppling at Seat Angle Suppons," Fritz Lahoca,ory Report No.
l92A2, Lehigh University, Be thlehem, Pa.. 1941.
7.30. T. M. Roberts. "Slender Plate Girders Subjccted to Edges Loadìng." Proceedings of 1he hwirurio11 of
Civil Engineers. Part 2. September 1981. 71.
7.3 1. M. Elgaaly. "Web Design Uoder Compressive Edge Loads," E11ginee1i ng Jour1wl. AISC. 20, 4 (Founh
Quarter I 983), I 53-1 7 I.
7.32. Terence M . Robcrts and Chooi K. Chong. "Co llapse of Plate Girders Under Edge Loadir.g," Joumal of
the Structural Dii·isio11. ASCE. 107, ST8 (August 1981). 15 03-1509.
7.33. ASCE Task Commiuee on Design Criteria for Composite Stntcmres in Steel and Concm c. "Propo<:ed
Spccìfication for Structural Steel Beams with Web Openings," Joumal ofS1rucr11ra/ f.,1gineering,
ASCE, 118, 12 (December 1992), 3315- 3324.
7.34. ASCE Task Commitlce on Desig n Crit<."ria for Composit<." Structures io Steel and Concrete. "Comrnen-
tary on Proposed Specification for Struc!llral Steel Bcams with Web Openings (with Design Example)."
Jo11ma/ ofS1ruc1ura/ Engineeri11g. ASCE. 118, 12 (December 1992). 3325-3349.
7.35. John E. Bower. "Elastic Stresses Around Holcs in Wide-Flange Beams," Joumal ofrhe Stnictura/ Di,;.
sian. ASCE, 92, ST2 (Aprii 1966), 85- 101. ·
7.36. John E. Bower. ''Experìmenlal Stresses in Wide-Flange Be.ims with Holes," Joumal u(rhe Str11c1u,al
Division, ASCE, 92, STS (October 1966), 167-1 86. .
7.37. Jolm E. Bower. "Ultimate Strenglh of Be:ims with Rectangular Holes," Joumol ofthi: S1ruc111rol Dil'i·
sio11, ASCE, 94, ST6 (June 1968), 131 5-1337.
7.38. John E. Bowe r. Chaimian. Subcommittee on Beams with Web Openings of the Task Committet oo Flex,
ural Members. "Suggested Design Guides for Beams with Web Holes," Joumal ofthe Srmcrurul Dil'i·
sio11. ASCE, 97, STI I (November 1971), 2707- 2728. Disc.• 99, ST6 (lune 1973), 13 12-1315.
7.39. Ronald W. Frost and Robert E. Leffier. "Fatìgue Tests of Beams with Rectangular Web Hoks," JOllnwl
of the S1rucrura/ DMsio11, ASCE, 97, ST2 (February 1971 ). 509-527.
Problems • 361
7.40. J ames A. Man del. Paul J B .
Ca.;:;tcllatcd Deams,'' ./ou~na~en>Jnan. IlcnJarnin A. Wasil. and Chades M. A ntoni. "Stress Distrihutlon in
7.41. Peter B. Coopera d R the S t mciora/ Divi.Iion. ASCE. 97, ST7 (July 197 1). 1947- 1967.
O
" ASCF
S tructurt1/ Divisìon. 8·
,,ben R Sncll ''" st
·
c ~ on Bcains wilh Reinfor~ù Web Opening_:;,~• Journol o/ tlie
9
7.42. Peter W. Chan and R' h· ,, 'ST3 (M.rch 1972), 6 11--<,32.
lorm,a/ uftlte Sll·uct~~u~~.G_- Redwood. "Stresses in Bcams wi1h Circulàr Eccentric Web Hole,."
7.43. Richard G. Redwood, . ,v,.,wn, ASCE. 100, STJ (January 1974}. 231-248.
J.ournal ofJhe Structural •nd D'Peter
. . W· Cha. n. ''Des1gn
. A 1ds
' tor
. Beam:,;. wnh
. Circular E.cccntnc. \\'eb H olei.,..
7.44. Tsong-Miin Wa ,.. iv,s,u,r, ASCE. 100, ST2 (February 1974), 297-303.
ng, " 0 b<:n R. Snell o d p , · · ·
Hole.\." Jounw/ of the S '. n eter B. Conpcr. --s,rength of Beams wnh Eccentnc Rcmforced
7.45. Marvin A 1 ' truct1,ra/ D,v,sion, ASCE. 101, ST9 (Sep1ember 1975). J783- 18ffl.
. .arson and Kirit N Shal "Pl . . . . .. .
S1rucrurul Division ASCE · , '· asuc Design of Web Opernngs 1n Steel Beams, Jounial o/ tht
7.46. Pc,t,: B C ' . IOl,ST5 (May 1976). 1031-1041.
r · ooper Roben R s li d~
Holcs," Journal 'of ,1, S · • ne ' a,~ . .1•rry D. K.nostman. '"Fa,lure Tesi, on Beams wi1h Eccentric Web
7.47. Richard G. R cl e· t~ucrura/ D,v,.11on, ASCE, !03, ST9 (Scptembcr 1977 J, 1731 - 1738.
inforced Holce,
R' h· d
.'~::00· Hrn•n Baran<la, and M ichael J. Daly. "Te,ts ofThin-Webbcd Reams with Unre-
· · ouma ofrl,e S1rucw,u/ Division, ASCE. 104, ST3 (March 1978). 577-595.
7.48. re '" G. Redwo()(J and M' U .. . . . ..
11m1/ Di vision ASCE IOS moru enoya. Cn11c~l Loads for Webs w1ù1 Holes. Joumal of the S1n1c-
7.49. . · , , STIO (October 1979). 2053-2()67.
Bnan K. Daugheny "Ela,t' D f .
Divìsion ASCf 106 · ' ,e e o nnatmn of llcams with Web Openings; • Jo11rm1/ of rhe Strucrural
7.50. ' · ' • ST! (fanuary 1980). 301- 312.
Rangachari Naroyanan and N . . . . . • .
cangular Hol . .. 1 onre Gara-Vcm, Dcr-Avanessian. "Design of Slende~ Webs H:wrng Rec-
7.51. es. ourna/ oJStrunura/ Engineering. ASCE, 111, 4 (Aprii 1985). 177-787.
R - G. Redwood ''Tab!e, f PI · D .
AlSC 9 1 (J · • or amc es,gn of Beams with Rectangular Holes:· Entineering Jnur,wl.
, , anuary 1972). 2- 19.
7.52. Richard L. Kussman and Peter B C "D . , . •·
Enei e · · ooper. es1gn Example for Bearm with \\·eb Openmg,.
Q n er"'g 1ourna/. AISC, 13, 2 (Second Quancr 1976) 48 - 56
7.53. rd
~ - H. G aylo • Jr., and C. N. Gaylord. Desisn of Sree/ s,,;,,.,u:es.· New York: McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pany, lnc .. 1957. Chap. s.
7.54. D. E. Allen a nd T M Mnrray ''D ..· e · · f - . · -- · · J /
AISC 30 4 ( 4 h · · · cs,gn ntenon or V1bra11ons Due to Walkrng. E,1gmecr1ns mmw .
• • t Quaner 1993). \17-129.
7.55. James M. Fisher and Michael A W, · s · b ·1· , s / B ·1d· S 1
Dc · G . · · est. en,tcea , ltv De.si1-:n Considerations 1 or ree w me~ .. 1ee
sign Utde Series No. 3, 2nd ed. Chicago. rL: ~erican lns1i1u1e of Sceel Con~tructioo. 2003
7.56. Lawre nce G. Griffis Lo0 d d R · · · · S \
D .. G . . · on esrstance Fnc1or Des,grr ,1f \\1-,\h(lpcs Encased III Concrete, t~c
esign Utde Senes No.6. Chicago, IL: American lnstitute o f Stcd Construction. 1992.
7.57.
Lawrcnce G. Griffis. "Serviceability Limit Sta1es Umkr Wind Lnact:· En1:i11eei-in1: Joumal. A ISC. 30.
l(lst QullJTer 1993), 1-16.
7.58. 1
C. -.~arls and T.V. Galambos. "Oesign Rccom,men.dations for E.qual Leg Single Angle F lexural !\lem-
bers, lo1mw/ ofConsrructional Steel Re.iearch, 43 (1997). l-3, 65-85.
7.59.
Th~~nas M: Murray, David E. Al\en. and Eric E. Ungar. Fino,· \lib,nrim15 Due 10 H,11nnr1 Ani,·il\. Steel
Design Gurde Senes No. J I. Chicago, IL: American Jns\itu\e of Su,cl Cons1n,c1ion. 1997. 69111'-
7.60.
David Darwin. Steel and Composire Beam.< wir/i Web Ope 11ings. Design Guide Serie-, No. 1. Chicago.
IL: Amencan lnst1tute of Stecl Conscruclion. 1990, 63 pp.
pROBLEMS
Ali problems are to be done_ ~ccordi~g to t~e AISC .Ll~!'D_Method or the AlSC ASD Me1hod, as indicaled by the instruc-
tor- Ali given loads are serv1ce loads unle~~ otherw1se mchcated. Forali problems assume adeq11ate /atemi sr'.pport ?-f the
~;~iressionflange such rhat faterai srab1hty does not contro/. Assume ali standard sections are equally rcad1ly ava1lable
indicated grade ~f steel _(even though actually they are not). A figure showing span and loading is required. and a
final check of strength 1s reqmred.
?. I. For the case (or cases) assigned by the ins_tructor, weight. and a unifonnly distributed live load WL as
select the lightest W secuon to carry a unifonnly indicated. The member is simply suppon ed and
distributed dead load wD in addìtion to the beam deflection is 1101 of concern.
.~
~ ·----- .
.-
-
-- -·--- --. -.. .... ..... .
. '
362 • Chapter 7 Beams: Latera!ly Supported
7 .4_ Repeat Prob. 7.1 (~ases 5 lo 8 as ~ssigned) addìti

Wo WL ally assuming lhe hve Joad deflect1on may not ex
Dead Uve Span /.J300 (n.ot an AISC Spec/ficatio11 requirement). e
load load fength Steel
Case (kip/ft) {kip/ft) (ft) grade 7 .5. For the case (or cases) as~igned by thc instruct
A36
select the lightest W sectlon to ~~rry a unifol'fl\l
0.2 0.8 35
2 0.2 0.8 35 A992 distributed dead load WD m add1t1on to the be
3 0.2 08 35 A572 Grade 65 weight. and a uniformly distribute<l live load w
4 0.2 0.8 35 A5 14 Grade 100 indicated. The member is simply supponed L
5 0.2 0.8 55 A36 deflection is noi of concern.
6 0.2 0.8 55 A992
7 0.2 0.8 55 A572 Grade 65
8 0.2 0.8 55 A5 l 4 Grade lOO
0.4 1.6 30 A36
wo WL
9 Dead Live Span
IO 0.4 1.6 30 A572 Grade 65 load load length
li 0.8 3.2 30 A36 (kip/ft} (kip/ft) (ft)
AS72 Grad~ 65 Case
12 0.8 3.2 30
13 0.4 1.4 60 A36 1 2.0 18.0 7 A36
('1 0.4 1.4 60 A992 2 2..0 18.0 7 A992
15 0.4 1.4 60 A572 Grade 65 3 2.0 18.0 7 A572 Gr-.de 60
4 2.0 18.0 7 A51 4 Grade 1
5 8.0 12.0 s A 36
7.2. A simply supported welded 1-seccion beam carries 6 8.0 12.0 s A992
7 8.0 12.0 5
a concentrated load W at midspan (see accompa-
nying figure). The load is 20% dead load and 80%
live load. For the case (or cases) assigned by the
7.6. A W24X94 beam on a 6-ft span ( e.:: accompany.
instructor, detem1ine the maximum service load W
ing figure) underpins a column that brings 1IOki
-,I
that can be permitted to be carried.
dead load and 280 kips live load ro its top flange
a location 2.5 ft from the left suppo11. The column
14·-ojw bearing plate is 12 in. measured along the beam,
I ,dx12 1 and the bearing plates at the end suppons are eac
a J>r
l25" 3
Jtp24 ~ -- - 28'-0 ----1
8 in. Investigate this beam of A992 steel for (a
flexure, (b) shear, and (e) satisfactory transmissi
of the reactions and concentrated load (i.e., I
web yielding and web crippling). Specify chang
f-- --l
12" (if any) required to satisfy the AISC Specificario
Problem 7.2
Case I (for other cases see table) 2 6
i - - --'
- -"- i 280k
Column
Jl 12" long
Wo WL
Flange Web Span
plates plate length Steel
Case (in.) (in.) (ft) grade
W24 x 94
I 1/2 X 12 3/8 X 24 28 A36

2 1/2 X 14 3/8 X 30 28 A992
3 3/4 X 12 3/8 X 24 28 A607 Grade 70 6'-0"
4 3/4 X 18 1/2 X 30 28 A572 Grade 65
7.3. Repeat Prob. 7.1 (cases I to 4 as assigned) addi- Problern 7.6

tionally assuming the live load deflection may
not exceed U360 (not an AISC Specificatio11 7.7. A Wl6X77 section of A992 steel is to serve on
requirement). 10-ft simply supported span. The wall be ·
Problems • 363
Jength is I O in. ~at maximum slow/y moving
concentrated serv1ce ~oad (25% dead load; 75 % (h) Use the loading detennined in (a) to compute
Hve Joad) may be camed? the flexural stress at points designated by let-
ters. assuming the beam is free to bend and not
18
Oetermine the size bearing plate required for
· · end reaction of I I kips dead load and 44 kips
(oad on a Wl4X53 beam ~f A572 Grade 60 steel.
li: restrained to bend in the yz piane. Use the flex-
ure formula, Eq. 7. I0.18.
The beam res~s on a. 4-m.-thick concrete wal} (e) Repeat (b) but use method describe in
(!~ == 3500 pst). Spec1fy thickness in multiples Example 7. I0.2(b ).
i
of in. and the length and wìdth to whole inches. (d) If your instructor specifically assigns and dis-
cusses this part, locate principal axes. transfom1
(LRFD Method only) For a Wl2X87 of A 992
19 the moment into components M~ and M~. about
• • steel, calculate the design shear strength <f>Vn, and
the principal axes. compute moments or" inenia
the bearing Jength N required when the design end I~ and / ;. with respect to these axes. and use
reaction <f>Rn equals the design shear strength.
f = M~/S~ + M',./s;.
JO. through 7 .13.
7 (e) State conclusions.
For the section shown in the accompanyi.ng fig-
ure, assume uniform loading in the piane of the 7 .14. The given 8X6X¼ angle is positioned with ics long
web (yz piane) fora simply supported span of 12 leg pointing dow~ward and used as a sim.ply sup-
ft and neglect any torsional effects. Assume the poned beam of 12-ft span. The unifonn dead load
service Joad acting is 20% dead load and 80% live is O. I kip/ft (including angle weight) aod gravicy
load. and that che limit state occurs when the max- live load is 0.5 kip/ft. The hori.zontal leg is 10 be
imum stress reaches the yield stress FY at one restrained by anachments to mak.e rhe angle bend
Point. vertically. Assuming the attachment 10 tbe hori-
zontal leg is simply supported, for what service
(a) Detennine the maximum unifonn service load
load lateral bending moment must the connecrion
assuming bending occurs in the piane of Joad-
be designed? Consider only the unsymmetri.cal
ing (yz; pla11e). section effect and neglect any torsion. Assume the
I
Z6X3
2 X21.I4
I_.~ 34.4 in.
I~,';: 1~.9in.4 jt.t==1::::=::::::::::I\'==='====~~_ : .
- ,-------
6.125"
__
X - 1 - - - - -- 12 .-0--------1
- .\
L·---D~ I
; '1 I
2 E
F
i
Problem 7. IO '
)"
A e
- t A B
A
r-x
8
8
x - -- L
2.42"
C8 X 11.5
C..L
12"
I i
L7 X 4 X
2 I
I
4.58''
CIO X 15 .,
IDE" I
_ ___i__
Wl6 X 50
e
D
•,. E E r
Problem 7. l I Problem 7.12 Problem 7. 13

Oetcrmine laletal
beoding momenl
capaci1y rcquired .
4
lx = 44.3 in.
angle . l, = 2l.7in.4
0.6 ~ìp/fl prope111e, { - . •
I,,. = - 18.33 ,n.
.)/; I t t I t t t t t t t I t t t 1),é..
1--- -- - 12·- 0 - ~
Problem 7.14
'
y
contro!Jing limit state is the achievement of yield Joad). To select the beam assume My "" 2 M
stress Fy al the extreme fiber. thai torsion is neglected. Use A992 stee.{
assume Jateral s tability does not govern.
7.15. SeJect the Iìghtest W8 section of A992 steel to use
as a purlìn on a roof sloped 30° to the horizontal. 7.17. Select the lightest W section to carry Mx"' 2
The span is 21 ft. the load is uniform 0.1 8 kìp/ft ft-kips (30% dead load and 70% Jive load)
<lead load plus the puriin weìght and 0.34 kip/fl lateral ruoment M f resisted by one flange is I
snow load. Latera! stability is assured by attach- ft-kips (20% dead load and 80% live load). lì
ment of the roofing to the compression flange. select the beam assume My °" 2Mj . Use A57
Assume the load acts through the beam centroid, Grade 50 steel and assume lateral stabilìty d
there are no sag rods, and biaxi.al bending must be notcontrol.
assumed. Any torsional effect can be resisted by
the roofing and therefore it can be neglected. 7. J 8. Repeat Prob. 7. 17 but select a combination
flange section and channel as found in the AIS
7.16. Select the lightest W section to carry moments, Manual [l.!5] under "W Shapes witb Cap Ch
Mx =
145 ft-kips (15% dead load and 85% live nels," pp. 1-112 or 1-113.
[oad) and the lateral moment M1 resisted by one
flange is 30 fl-kìps (20% dead Joad and 80% live
Torsion
1 JNTRODUCTION
B:._::.·- - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- -- - --
In structural design, torsional moment may, on occasion. be a significant force for "hich
provision must be made. The most efficient shape for carrying a torque is a h(1l\ow circular
shaft; extensive lreatment of torsion and torsion combined with bending and axial force i~
to be found in most texts on mechanics of materials [8.1 ].
Frequently torsion is a secon<lary, though not necessarily a minor effect that muq he
considered in combination with the action of other forccs. Thc shape, thai make good
columns and beams, i.e., those that have their materiai di.\Ui.butcd as far frorn their cen-
troids as practicable, are not equally efftcient in resisting torsion. Thin-wall circular a.nd
box sections are stronger torsionally than sections with the ~ame area arrange<l a-., channcl,
I. tee, angle, or zee shapes.
When a simple circular solid shaft is rwisted. the shearing <., tres~ at an~ p1Jint on 3
transverse cross-section varies directly as the di stance from thc center of thc shaft. TI1u,.
during twisting, the cross-section which is initially planar rernains a. piane and rotate" onl)
about the axis of the sbaft.
In 1853 the French engineer Adhémar Jean Barn: cle Saint- \ 'cnant pre-.,c nted IO
the French Academy of Sciences the cla~sical tl,r...ion theor~ that form, the ha, i, tor
present-day analysis.* Saint-Venant showed that when a noncircular h.ir ,, (\1,1,ted . .1
Irnnsverse scction that was planar prior to twii.ting d0c, 1101 rema111 piane alter l\\ 1,tinf.
The originai cross-secti<,n piane surfacc hccomc, a w~trpcd ~urface . In t0r-.10n ,11u.1-
tio ns the out-of-pl:inc. or warping cffrct. must be con.,idcrcd in .tddition lo thi: rnt,\11\lll,
or p ure twi~ting. effect.t
•For ,1 ,umn1a ry o f Saint-Vrna11t', wnrl... ,cc h aa~ To<lhu111.;r .md !<ari P<· .. --on I 1/,,mn n• t• I • "' •
f,l risticitv ,.md o/ tl1t· Sm·11g1/i o( M111eri11/, . Vnl. Il. IS9~ (t<'pn1111·d b) l>.11<·1 1'0Mi.at1<m,, lt - '-•" ' 1'-
1960. pp. 17- 5 1).
r l'hrougl10u1 C'h:.,ptcr, K,ind 9. the , :,,1111),,I ,J, " u,cd 11,r lhl' ,1t1fk ,,1 1\11,1 11:HI and lle,i'-1.,ncc I .11·1or Oc"!!" 111t· r,"''· 11,.,. fJJ;t<•r ,!> in th~ ,h rie"''' 11"'"1
huh, criplcd ; r/11, ln tndit alc hcnd,111!.
365
366 • Chapter 8 Torsion
In this chapter primary emphasis is gjven 10 the recognition _of torsion on the u
structural members, such as l-shaped, channel, anglc, and zee sect10ns; how the torsio
stresses may be approximated and how such members may be selected to resist torf
effects.
Also included is a brief treatment of torsional stiffness and the computation of
1
siooal stresses on closed thin-wall sections as well as torsional buckling.
8.2 PURE TORSION OF HOMOGENEOUS SECTIONS

A review of shear stress under torsion alone and of torsional stiffness seems a desir
beginning prior to considering structural shapes in locations where the warping 0 /
cross-section is rcstrained.
Consider a torsional moment T acting on a solid shaft of homogeneous materia]
uniform cross-section, as shown in Fig. 8.2.1. Assume no out-of-plane warping, or at 1
that out-of-plane warping has negligible effec1 on the angle of twist </>. This assurnpti
will be nearly correct so long as che cross-section is small compared to the Jength of
shaft and also thac no significant reentrant comers ex.ist. It is further assumed that no d.
tortion of the cross-seciion occurs during twisting. The rate of twist (twist per unit lengtb
may therefore be cxpresseò as
d<J,
(i = rate of twist = - (8.2.1
dz
which can be thought of as torsional curvature (rate of change of angle ). Since it is the re
ative rotation of the cross-sections at z and z + d z that causes strain, the mag.nitude of di
pJacement at a given point is proportional to the distance r from the center of twist.
strain angle ì', or unit shear strain, at any element r from the center is
ì' dz = r dt/J
y = r(d<f>/dz) = rO (8.2.2
/
dz
Figure 8.2.1
Torsion of a prismatic shaft. (a) (b)
Section 8.2 Pure Torsion of Homogeneous Sections • 367
Using the shear modul G H , .

us , ooke s law g1ves the unit shear stress v as
V = -yG (8.2.3)
Thus, as shown in Fig 8 2 lb th .
· · . • e elemental torque 1s
dT = rv dA = r-yG dA = r 2(dtf>/dz)G dA (8.2.4)

The total resisting moment for equilibrium is
T = 1r2d</> G dA
A dz
and Since def>/ dz and Gare constants at any section.
T = d<f, G1r 2 dA = Gld</> (8.2.5)

dz A dz
1 2
where = JAr d A. Equation 8.2.5 may be thought of as analogous to flexure, i.e.• bending
mo~ent ~ ~q_uals rigidity El times curvature d 2 y/dz2. Here torsional moment T equals
torSional ng1d11y GJ times torsional curvature (rate of change of angle).
Shear stress may then be computed using Eqs. 8.2.2 and 8.2.3,
v = yG = r -d<J> G (8.2.6)
dz
and
d<J> T
-=-
qz GJ
which gives
Tr
v =- (8.2.7)
J
Thus as long as the assump1io11s of this development reasonably apply, torsional shear
stress is proportional to the radia! distance from the center of twist.
Circular Sections
For the specific case of the circular section of dia.meter 1. no warping of the sections occurs
(i.e., no assumption is required) and J = polar moment of inertia = 1r14 / 32. Thus, for
maximum shear stress at r = t/2,
16T
Vma,,. = -- .
1TI~
(8.2.8)
Rectangular Sections
The analys is as applìed to rectangles becomes complex since the shear stress is affe.c ted by
warping, though essentially the angle of rwist is unaffected.
As an approximatìon, consider the element of Fig. 8.2.2 subjected to shear. in which
y = 1-d<J> (8.2.9)
dz
I
F;gure 8.2.2
Torsi on of a r<sctaogu lar
section.
Fora thin rect::mgk. neglecting end cìfccts, the shear stress may be expresse.d as
or using Eq. 8.2.5.
From the theory of elasticity [8. l -8.3], the maximum shear stress Vmax occurs at
midpoint of the long sidc of a rectangle and acts paralle.l to it. The magnitude is a functi
of ùie ratio bit (length/width) and may be expressed as
k1T
Vmax = /J/2
ami thc torsional constant J may be expressed as
J = k2bt 3
where the valucs of k 1 and k 2 may be found in Table 8.2.1.
TABLE 8.2.1 Values of k1 and k2 for Eqs. 8.2. 12 and 8.2.13
I.O 1.2 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 -o

4.81 4.57 4.33 ~.07 3.88 3.75 3.55 3 44
0.141 0.166 0.1% 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0 291
I-shaped, Channel, and Tee Sections

As will be observed from a study of Table 8.2.1 the values of k1 and k2 become nearly co
stant for large ratios bit. Thus the 10rsional constants for sections composeJ of thìn ree
gles may be computed as the sum of the values for the individuai components. Such
approach will give an approximation which neglects the contribution iu thc fillet regi
where thc components are joined. For 1110s1 common structural shapes t.his approximati
causes Jiule error, lhus
where bis the long dimension and t the thin dimension of the rectangular clements.
More accurate expressions for various structural shapes have been devcloped
Lyse and Johnston (8.4], Chang and Johnston f8.5], Kubo, Johnston, and Eney (8.61,
El Darwish and Johnston (8.7].
In addition 10 the torsional propenies in the AISC Manual. torsional design aid
lications are available by AISC [8.8), Hotchkiss (8.9), and Heins and Kuo I8. IOI.
Section 8 ·3 Shear Stresses Due to Bending ofThin-Wall Open Cross-Section1 • 369
3 SHEAR
ipEN STRESSES DUE TO BENDING OF THIN-WALL
CROSS-SECTIONS
Before treating the computation of strei.ses due to torsion of thin-wall open sections
re 5trained from warping, a review of shear stress resulting from generai flexure will be
~eveloped. Recognition of a torsion situation preccdes e<lncem about cakulation of rcsult-
mg stresses. Extensive treatme nt of thin-wall mcmbers of open cross-i.ection is givcn by
Timoshenko [8.11 \.
Referring 10 the generai thin-wall section of Fig. 8.3.1. where x and _,, are centroidal
axes, consider equiHbrium of the element I ds dz. acted upon by flexural stress <7: and shear
stress T, both of whìch result from bending moment. The shear stress T muh.iplicd by lhe
thickness 1 may be tenned the she(lr jlow Tt . Force equilibrium in the .::: dìrection rc.qui.res
ò(TI) òu.
- -dsdz + , - -dzds = O (8.3. I)
òs òz
d(T;) dU.
or - - = - ,- - (8.3.2)
as a:
1. Assume moment is applìed in the yz: plane 011/y, i.e., M_, = O. The flexural stress
due to bending, as given by Eq. 7 .10. l 8. is
l7.IO.l8)
(8 ..3.3)
Recognizing that ½· = aMx/òz, and substituting Eq. 8.3.3 into Eq. 8.3.2 givcs
a(rt) - ,v,.
- - = - - -·- ,, - (1,.y - lx_,.x ) (8.3.4)
a.1· 1_,1,. - 1;'_1' ·
i:;,- 8.3.1 y
~ on thin-wall open
eecooas in bending. <al
lntegrating to find rt at a distance s from a free edge gives the shear llow TI as
Tt :: _
lx /7
- v..>-__2 [ fy
__
1x y
1·'
O
yt ds - fxy lor Xl ds]
2. Asswne moment is applied in the xz piane only. i.e., Mx = O. The flexural &ttess
due to bending as given by Eq. 7 .1.0.18 ts
[7.10.18]
Taking iJCT ,/òz, recognizing that Vx == aM_ji!z, and integrnting to get the shear flow 71
gives in a manner similar to Eq. 8.3.5. '
TI = . + Vx
2
I, ly - lxy
[(,ylof'yt ds - fx ( ' Xl
lo
ds] (8.3.6)
3. Moments applìed in both yz and xz planes. lf sbear stresses are desired they ca
be computed by superimposing the-results from Eqs. 8.3.5 and 8.3.6.
H is to be observed from Fig. 8.3.1 b that equilibrium requires that the shear V1, in th
y dire.ction equa) the componems of rt in the y direction summed over the ent1re sec.
tion. Similarly Vx equals the summation of .,, components in tbe x direction. Rotation
equilibrium must aJso be satisfied; 1he moment about the centroid of the section is (s
Fig. 8.3. I b)
which will be zero in some cases (such as 1-shaped and Z-shape.d secti ons). lf such ro1a
tional equilibrium is automatically satisfied when tbe flexural shears act through the cen
troid, then no torsioa will occur simullaneously with bending.
8.4 SHEAR CENTER

The shear center is the location in a cross-section where no torsion occurs when tlexu
shears act in planes passing through rhat location. In other words, forces ac:ing through
shear center will cause no torsìonal stresses lo develop. i.e.,
(8.4.1
Since the shear center does no1 necessarily coincide with the centroid of the section,
shear center must be located in order lo evaluate the torsional stress . For l-shaped an
Z-shaped sections, the shear center coincides with the centroid, but for channels a
angles it does not.
Referring to Fig. 8.3. lb, consider the shears V,. and Vy acting at distances from
centroid Yo and xo, respectively, such that the torsional rnornent with respect to the ceniro·
is the same as J( Tt )r ds integra led from zero to n; thus
Section 8.4 Shear Center • 371
In other words. the torsional moment is (V>.xo - V,.y0 ) when the loads are applied in
planes passing through the centroid but is zero if the \oads are in planes passing through
the sheai: center, i.e.. the point whose coordinates are ( x 0,y0).
It 18 observed thai the location of shear center is independent of the magnitude or
type of loading, but is dependent only on the cross-sectional configuration.
To detenni ne the shear center location. first !et one of the shears be zero, say Vy = O;
then from Eq. 8.4.2.
Yo == - - \ 1n
Vr o
(rr)r ds (8.4.3)
where according to Eq. 8.3.6,
Tt = ~ [,xyJor· yl ds - I, {'_'(( ds]

1.,1,. I 2xy lo
Alternately, letting "'.t = O gives from Eq. 8.4.2,
xo=-
'1''
V,. o
(rr)rds (8.4.4)
Tt = -VY 2 [ ly
J_,ly - l.,y
1'o
yt ds - f,_1• i'·'o ]
xr ds
EXAMPLE 8.4.1
Locate the shear center for the channel section of Fig. 8.4. l.
Solution:
Many practical cases can be solved without using the generai fommlas. Eqs. 8.4.3 and
8.4.4. Since the shear center location is a problem in equilibrium, moments may most con-
veniently be takeu through a point that eliminates the greatest number of forces. Thus,
letting Yr = O and taking moments abom point A of Fig. 8.4.la, changes the equilìbrium
equation, Eq. 8.4.2. to
V,.q
·
= VJ'1 =
lo
t (,t)h d.1 (a)
V-
'(
She.ar
ccnter
\ .
\')
\'
Fipt8.4.I (a)
i C)
Qane1 of Example 8..i. l
For these thin-wall sections, the length s along which integration is performed is measllred
at mid-thickness.
Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a), and using y =
- h/2 where t = ti gives
Thus the shear center location along the x-axis is
t/i2b2
q :e - -
4/x
measured in the positive x directiou to the left of the channel web.
For the shear center coordinate measured along the y-axis, apply V, and let V;, = 0
and because of symmetry Vx must act at y = O for cquilibrium. To demonstrate, let v, ~
applied at the distance y0 below the x-axis and take moments abolii point A. Satisfying
equilibrium,
v,(~ - )b) = fo\rr)yds

-V:
,I=-'
/"
1s o
xl ds
To illustrate numerically, use b = 4 in., h = 12 in., and , = lw in which case lhc

centroid of the channel (referto Fig. 8.4. lc) is located
_ ~Ax 2b(b/ 2)rw 2(4)(2)

x =-~-A-= (11 + 2b)tt,, = 12 + 2(4) = 0 ·8 in.
Then, s = x + 3.2 in.
-rt = -V..iw
29·87fw
1" O
(s - 3.2) ds = __
- V.t
29.87
(s -
2
2
- 3.2s)
Substitution of -rt into Eq. (e) gives
~. ( 2h - Yo
)
= Jo/4 29.8;
-V
2- (s 2
)
3.2s Il ds
3 2 4
-_ -Vxh ( -s - 32-
s ) 1 + Vxh
=- -
29.87 6 . 2 0 2
Section 8.5 Torsional Stresses in 1-Shaped Steel Sections • 373
Th ..1 h ·
us Il s_s own ~ t )'o 1s zero. Tue shear center may also be located as follows. Fin.t com-
pute. by tntegratmg over each stress distribution of Fig. 8.4.1. 1he shear forc.es acting in
each of the component elements of the section. Then the shear center is located such that
Vx or V~ counteract all of the shear forces acting on the components to produce equilibrium.
In solvmg for the shear center location. the solution may be made as illustrated, and then
checked by verifying that the forces are in equilibrium. •
8. 5 TORSIONAL STRESSES IN 1-SHAPED STEEL SECTIONS
The structural engineer must recognize a torsion situation and be able to apply approxi-
mate design methods and perform a stress analysis when necessary, even though only
occ~sionally will torsìon be severe enough 10 contro! the design of a section. Rolled steel
secuons under uniform and nonuniform torsion have been studìed analytically and experi-
mentally by many investigators.
The development in this section is similar to thai of Timoshenko [8. 11 ), Lyse and
Johnston [8.4], Kubo, Johns1on, and Eney [8.6]. Goldberg [8.12), and Chu and Johnson
[8.13]. Discussions of some of the practical aspects. along with solu1ions for various
loading and suppon cases, are given by Hotchkiss [8.9) and Johnston [8.14]; chans for
design are available in the handbook from AlSC {8.8] and in the paper by lohns1on
[8.14]: and design tables using the f3 modifièd flexure analogy method developed by the
authors are presented in Sec. 8.6. Lin [8.15, 8.16] has given additional and expanded /3
value tables.
Application of load in a piane other than che one chrough the shear center (see
Fig. 8.5.1) will cause che member to twist unless external restraints prevent rnch 1wist-
ing. The torsional stress due to twisting consists of both shear and ilexural stresses.
These stresses must be superimposed on the shear and flexural stres~es that exist in the
absence of torsion.
Torsion may be categorized into two types: pure tori;ion. or as it is often calkd,
Saint-Venant 's torsion, and warping torsion. Pure torsion assumes that a cross-sectional
piane prior to application of 1orsion remaìns a piane and only element rot:ition occurs
during torsion. A circular shaft subjecred 10 torsiou is a situation where pure torsion
exists as the only type. Warping torsion is the out-of-plane effe, t that arises v. hen the
flanges are laterally displaced during twisting. analogous 10 bending frnm laterally
applied loads.
1. Pure torsion (Saint-Venant's Tursion). Just as tlexural cun·ature (c-hange in ~lopL'
per unit length) cau be expressed as M/ EJ = cf2_,·/ d: 2• i.e ., moment di\'ided by tle,ural
rigidity equals flexurnl curvature. in pure torsinn the torsional momcnt ,\1 di, idt>J hy thc
torsional rigidìty GJ equals the torsi.onal curvature lChange in anglc nf 1,,·ìst <h per unit
Shear
l!.' 11trr
I/
t I
I
_j_
:ilwar
C-1.' llt t'I
Sh~~r
"'('1!t\·r
P,1
7 = l'h f = I',
Figure 8.5.1 (1> 1 ,.
1.11
Common torsiomd loucling~
Twis.tmg prè.\/tn!ed
a1 this i:.nd
l _ _ _ _x .-t:=:~~-µ.+,--L
,.:
/ /
~
~ :
/
/
--~-... ......
A ~- Cenier of top
!i I
2 .,_J_ _ _ llot
L ·~v' ~ t1ange afler

,,.,..,,,,.-· .,,.,..,; \.\. 1wisting
Figure &..5.2 L__- ''J
Tor~ion of an J-shaped
section. z
/ \ '- Twisiing prcvenied •1 thi< end Section A-A
lenoth)
o ·
Recalling
-
previouslv, derived Eq. 8.2.5 for T, whicb now become~ the companent
M, due to pure torsion.
where M, = Pure torsional rnomenl (Saint-Venant torsion)

G = she.armodolusofelasticity = E/[2(1 + JL) ),intermsofthe
tension-compression modulus of elascicity E and Poisson's ratio JL
1 = torsional constant (see Sec. 8.2)
fn accordance with Eq. 8.2.7, stress due t.o M, is proportional to the di.stance from thr
center of twist.
2. Wa,ping torsion. A beam subjected to torsion M,, as in Fig. 8.5.2, will have its
compressi on flange bent in one direction laterally while its tension flange is bent in the Otik.'!.
Whenever the cross-section is such that il would warp (become a nonplanar sectionj if not
restrained, the restrained system has stresses induced. The torsional situa tion of Fig. 8.S.2
illustrates a heam that is prevented from twisting at each end but the top flange defle<:rs laier
al\y by an amount u1 . This lateral flange bending causes flexural norma] stresses (tert,ioo
and compression) as well a~ shear stresses across the. flange width.
Thus. torsion may be thought of as being composed of two parts: (I ) rotacìon of ele-
ments, the pure lor.~ion part. and (2) translation producing lateral bending, lhe warping pan.
3. Differential equationfor rorsio11 011 l- and channel-shaped sec1ion,. Considerlhe
deflected position of a flange centerline, as in Fig. 8.5.2. where uI is the lateral deflection
of one of the flanges at a section a distance z from the end of the rnernber: <J> is the twist
angle at the same section, and v1 (Fig. 8.5.3) is the horizontal shear force developed in the
flange al the section due lo lateral bending. An important assumption is thai 1he we
remains a piane during rotation. so that the flanges deflect laterally an equa! amount. Thus
the web i., assumed thick enough compared lo the flanges so thai i.s does not bend during
twisting as a resulr. of high torsional resistance of the flanges. Except for 1hio-web plat
girder.,, it has been shown [8.6, 8.17] that assuming no lateral bending in the web. i.e.,
vi
- c=~:::;t.;:::i---y-~--,[
Figure 8.5.3
,,/ j
Warping shear force ~--è--~I
vi
[~=:I----'
'J
on 1.-shaped ~ec1ion.
Section 8.5 Torsìonal Stresses in 1-Shaped SteeJ Sectìons • 375
e~ect on the warping torsion component, is sufficiently correct for practìcal purposes.
Smce rarely are thin-web plate girders used without stiffeners, and certainly not when tor-
sional stress exìsts, such cases are not of practical importance.
From geometry,
(8.5.2)
for small values of </>. For understanding of torsion on I- and channel-shaped sections,
Eq. 8.5.2 is the single most important relationship. The twist angle is directly propor-
tional Lo the lateral deflection. Torsion boundary condirions are analogous to lateral
bending boundary conditions.
Differentiating three times with respect to z in Eq. 8.5.2 gives
(8.5.3)
For one flange the curvature relationship is
(8.5.4)
wherc M1 is the lateral bending moment on one flange, 11 i, the niome11t of inc;1i;,i fo, oae
flange about the y-axis of the beam, and the minus sign ari~es from po ·itl\ e bending as
shown in Fig. 8.5.2. Also, since V = dM/dz,
t8.5.5ì
lbng Eqs. 8.5.3 and 8.5.5 gives
ìd\ ~
V·= -El, -h ..- - -c;- ~8.5 6,
1 (
.1 2; d ::;'
l<.cfening to Fig. 8.5.3, the torsional moment cc-mpo,,,:nt .\1 ,.:-u,;;ig. iat.::-.J :>c!ntiir,,g
-,f 'he flanges, equals tbe flange shear force l'.j- Lime:; if\e ru,:i'J1,1 •.rm Il. Thi, ;:,~11,p·-, no
she-ar resistance to warping is contributed by the web.
i,~ ,!\J>
M =Vh = -EI,- - - --
w J . 2 d.: 3
wl1;;;re Cw= lrh 2/2, often refcrred to as thc i'.·01,-,i11g 10,~i/Jlwl cr,,w,mt. ,
The tota! torsional moment is composed ot thc sum ol 1h,: n,1:111,111:.11 parr ,\/1 anJ th..: ,~,t-
era! bending part M11, which from Eq.,. 8.5.1 and 8.5.8 givc
dc/> d\f,
Mz = M, + M1,, = Cl -1_ - EC,,. - ~i
( .... { 1..
1he differential equation for torsion. The torsional moment M: depend~ llll thc lnmling :111d
in usual situations will be a polynomial in z. Ellpressions for thc torsion wns1,1111 J :md
warping constant Cu, for various shapes are to be found in tc·xt. Appcndìx Tabk A2.
Rewrìte Eq. 8.5.9, dividing by ECw,
d 3 cp Cl dc/> _ - Mz
dz3 - ECw dz - ECw
Letting À2 = GJI ECw (À = 1/a of Torsion Anal;,,~is of Steel Members [8.8]), and fotthe
homogeneous solution of Eq. 8.5.10, !et <l>h = Ae ,
which upon substitution of the homogeneous solution gives
which requires
m(m2 _ ,\2) = O; _-_ m = 0, m = ± À
<f>h = AieAz -t-. A
2e
- Az + A
3 (8.5.13)
Thus
which upon using the hyperbolic function idenlities and regrouping the constants may be
expressed as
<f>h = A sinh ÀZ + Bcosh ÀZ +C (8.5.14)
where
For the particular solution, since M z is in generai some function of z,
M;; = f(z)
Let </>p = f 1( z), and substitute into Eq. 8.5.10, giving
3
d f1(z) _ A2 df1(z) = __1_/(z)
(8.5.15)
dz 3 dz ECw
where tenns on the left-hand side must be paired with terms on the right side. Rarely will
be required to contain higher than second-degree terms.
/ 1(z)
EXAMPLE 8.5.1
Develop, using the differential equation, the expressìons for the twist angle cf>, as well
the first, second, and third derivatives, for the case of concentrated tor&ional mo
applied at midspan when the ends are torsionally simply supported.
Solution:
Referring to Fig. 8.5.4, it is apparent that Mz is constant and equa! to T/2. Thus let
t/,p = Ci + C2z (any polynomial)

( a) Distribu1ion of
I01a.l tor~ionail moment
M: =Ms -t-Mw
causing shear in flange
( b) Dis1ribt11ion of portion
of 1orsiona) momen1 M_,
due 10 Sain1-Venan1
Figure 8.5.4 torsioo (pure torsion)
c,seofExample 8.5.1.
concentrated torsional
roomeot at midspan;
ronionally simply sup~orted. ( e) Distrimnion of por1ion
(Adapted from Hotchkiss of torsional momenl M""
[8.9], Fig. 3) due 10 warping torsion
Using Eq. 8.5.10 gives
- A2C2 ,,. - -
1
ECw
-(!.).
2 '
e 2 ,,. - T
2GJ
The other constant C1 may be combined with C of Eq. 8.5.14. The complete ,olution for
this loading is therefore
T
 ,,. A sinh Az + B cosh Az + C + - - ;: (b)
2GJ
Consider the boundary conditions for torsìonal simple suppor!. Thinking of the lat-
cral bending oftbe flange (since is proportional 10 u1 ). simpìc ~upport condition~ mean
zero moment and deflection at each end, or for torsion.
= o at z- o a.nd ... -·

,_
d2<!> = d>'' . =O ;:od - (
,:
o al ._ ~
dz 2 ·
ln this ,:;ase tbe differential equalion is discontinuous al U 2: t l,u.., u -u1g 1cm ~kipr of thc
flange at L/2, i.e., 4>' = O. along with </> = O anù cf," '" O al ;: "'- r1 w11l r"'nmt soluuon
t', >f thc three constanls of Eq. (b).
hom cp = O at z == O,
O = B +C
Using </>" = O at z = O.
<J,'' = AA~ sinh A: + Bì. 2 r ç ~l; ì;
O = l.J
n·.,; ; fr,,m Eq. (e).

e=o
• ~ ·;w.. ,, • ,,
Using ,f = O at z = L/ 2,
T
o= A,\ cosh ,\L/2 + 2.GJ
T f I ]
A =- l
2GJ ,\ cosh ,\L/ 2
Finally, Eq. (b) becomes
T [ sinh Az J
</> = 2GJA ,\z - cosh ,\L/2
Also
T [ cosh ,\z ]
</>' = 2GJ I - cosh Al/2
TA [ -sinb ,\ z l
,t," = 2GJ cosh AL/2 J
2 1
TA
- cosh Az [ J
qi"' = 2GJ cosh AL/2
Thus the solution of the differcntial equarion is iHusrrated. Tue stress equations making
use of the derivatives are developed in the next sect10n. 1
4. Torsional stresses. The shear stress v_, resulting from the Saint-Venant torsion M
1
is computed in accordance with the fonn of Eq. 8.2.11,
V= -
Mi
J J
and using F..q. 8.5.1 gives
dc/>
v., = e,-_
d,.
whose distribution is shown in Fig. 8.5.5a. Though shown unifonn fully across the flange
the stress drops sharply to zero at the flange tips.
The shear stress Vw that resulls from warping varies parabolically across the width
the rectangular flange as shown in Fig. 8.5.5b and may be computed as
where Q1 = statica! moment of area about the y-axis .
..,.,- No web
shear ~ .r
s1ress Bending axis
Sain1-Vem1.nt torsion. Warping lorsion. Flcxure.

Figure 8.5.5 M, Mw M_,
Direction and distribulion of
sbear stress in 1-shaped
sections. (a) (b) (e)
C)
l'igll!I: 8.S.6 .
DilllCllsions for coropotauon
rJ staliC&I moment of arca.
a,.
(~
The negligible shear carried by the web is not considered. For maximum shear stress
v,," which actually acts at the face of web but may be approximated as acting at the
mid-width of the flange, take Q 1 (see Fig. 8.5.6) as
(g)
(h)
Substituting Qf and V1 from Eq. 8.5.6 into Eq. 8.5.17 gives

(i)
(8.5.18)
ring
•
1M,
taking the absolute value. The direction of tbe shear flow has no effect o n the combining of
shear stresses.
The tension or compression srress due to lateral bending of flanges (i.e., warping of Lhe
cross-section as shown in Fig. 8.5.7) may be expressed as
M1x
/1,u,=-,- (8.5.l9)
J
i.16)
wiù h varies linearly ac ross the flange width a~ shown in Fig. S.5.7 . Thc bending
moment M j, the lateral moment acting on one fl ange, m.1~1 bè ohtained b) ~ubsti.tuling
mge,
Ec,. 8.5.2 into Eq. 8.5.4 and noting that I1h2/2 is thc warp i~g t01sional constarti C.. .
1h of
U7) f::-: :rnnus sign is dropped since tension occurs on o nc sidc ·:Jh11-~ u ,mpat ~1e1, oc<:111'!' 0 ;;
t~ìf~,)1-hcr.
r. 1 •,m -. i :;tiess
iJ;;c;t1;.!Cion
~ ?' / lt· ._;,rp!a.: _~
1t 1~ :-t1s;-;;eC
ftpiel.5.7
"-piac of cross-section.
,,..__,.._,.,.. ,~
~ - .~.... .
The maximum stress occurs at x == b/2, which when used with Eq. 8.5.20 giv
' . ~~
Eq. 8.5.19, fbw == E/1(~) :2,: (2/;f)

2
Ebh d tf,
fbw == 4 dz2 (8.5.21)
Iu a summary, three k.inds of stresses ari se in any [-shaped or channel sectìon due 10
sional loading: (a) shear stresses v,. in web and flanges due to rotation of the elementK
cross-section (Saint-Venant torsional momenf, Ms>: (b) shear srresses Vw m the flanges due
of:
lateral bending (warping torsional moment, M10) ; and (e) norm~I stresses (tension and lo
pression) fhw due to lateral bending of the flanges (lateral bend.ing moment on flange~-
, "'J).
EXAMPLE 8.5.2
A Wl8X71 beam on a 24-ft simply supported span is loaded with a concentrated load
20 ki~s at _midspan. Tbe ends of the member are simply s~pporte~ with respeçt to torsio!
restramt (1.e., <P = O) and the concentrated loa~ accs WH?
a 2-m. ec_centricity from tbc
piane of 1he web (see F1g. 8.5.8). Compute combmed bendmg and tors1onal stresses.
#-=================W
~-- 12'- <t--J 20kips
20k
-I ~·,
l
d = 18.47"
if- [}:, .
-t,,.=0.495'
WJ8X71
Wl8X7l
Figure 8.5.8
Data for Example 8.5.2. 1---- -- 24'-<Y' -------Il
Solution:
The differential equation solution for this type of loading and end restraint was obtained in
ExampJe 8.5.1. The solution as obtained is
4> _ T [À sinh ÀZ ]
- 2GJA z - cosh AL/2
In accordance wìth the derivation (see Fig. 8.5.4), T is the applied torsional moment,
T = 20(2) = 40in.-kips
Recalling from Eq. 8.5.10,
A= {GT = 3.39 1
v~ 2.6( 4685) = 59.9 = 0 ·01668
E 2E(l + µ,)
where G= E = 2.6 for µ = 0.3
bt3
J ~ ~3' Eq. 8.2.14
= H2c1.63s)co.s10) 3+ c1s.41 - 1.62o)co.49s)3] = 3_39 in.4
2
eID -_ l1h _ (7.635)3(0.810) (18.47 - 0.810) 2
- _ _. . ; _ : _ ~ - - -- -- = 4685 .tn.6
2 12 2
The above values of J and C.., compare with J = 3.49 and C.., = 4700 given in the
AlSC Manual { 1.15] computed for rectangular nanges using a more exact expression for J
including the effect of the fillets al the junction of flange to web. Though differeru sourccs
give slightly different values for thesc torsional constants. any of the values are satisfactory
for design purposes.
The function values rcquired are
AL= 24(12)/59.9 = 4.80
z >..z sinh >..z cosh >.z

O.lL 0.480 0.499 J.118
0.2L 0.960 I.I 16 1.498
0.3L 1.441 l.994 2.231
0.4L l.922 3.343 3.489
0.5L 2.402 5.477 5.567
(a) Pure torsion (Sain1-Venant torsion). Using Eq. 8.5. 16.
Vs == Gt d</>/ dz
d<f, T (
1
cosh ÀZ )
dz = 2GJ - cosh Àl/ 2
Tt ( cosh ÀZ) 40, ( cosh À:)

Vs == 2J l - 5.567 = 2(3.39) I - 5.567
The shear stress v., is a maximum at z : O and zero ai z = Li2:
__ _ 40(0.810) / _ _ I _\ = 3 9., k~i

v, (flange at,. - O) - 2 ( 3_39) \ l S..56ì J ·· - "
0.495
v, (web at t = O} = 3.92 O.SIO = ~AO l-..•1
(b) Lateral bending of flanges (warping tun;iùrÙ. l.i,t· Eq. g5. I~ for , ht!J1 su e,~ in
fl..nges,
· ·d h f the flange and the maximum value Oc

Th.i.s shear stress acts at mid-w1 t o ' cu11 81
z = L/2 while the minimum value is at z = O,
2
40 ((7.635) 17.660) _ .
"
Vw ( t,ange at z = L'2)
I -- -2 ( 4700)- 16 - 0.27ks,
Vw (flange at z = O) = 0.21--J-.~~i = 0.05 ksi

For norma! su·ess in tlanges due to warping, use Eq. 8.5.21:
2
Ehh d </>
fi,w =- 4- z2-d
d 2 T). [ -sinh À z; ~J
dz 2 = 2Gl cosh AL/2
= T(2.6 )Abh [ sinh ÀZ ]

f1,w 81 cosh AL/2
which is a maximum at z = L/2 and zero at z = O. Thus
40(2.6)(7.635)(17.660) [5,477]
fhw (flanges at z = L/2) = ( . )( _ )
8 3 39 59 9 5 _567 = 8.49 ksi
(e) Ordinary flexure. Maximum normai stress is

PL 20(24)(12)
fb (at z = L/2) = 45_. = (
4 127
) = 11.34 ksi
The shear stresses due to flexure are constant from z = O to L/2 and are computed by
VQ lOQ Q
v=- = - - = -
lt ll 70t II 7t
For maximum flange shear stress, taking the more correct value at the fa~c of the web
rather than the value at mid-width of the flange,
Q = ( 7.635 - 0.495) ( 17.660)

(0.810) - - = 25.53 in:,
2 2
25.53
v (flange at z = O) = ( . ) = 0.27 ksi
117 0 810
For maximum web shear stress,
Q = 7.635(0.810) ( -17,660)
- + -16.850
-(0.495)
(16.850)
- - = 72.18 in. 3
2 2 4
72.18
v (web at z == O) == - - - - = 1 25 ksi
117(0.495) .
A summary of stresses showing combinations is given in Table 8.5. I.

Sectìon 8.6 Analogy betweenTorsion and Piane Bending • 383
TABLE 8.5. 1 Summary of Stresses tor Example 8.5.2
Support Midspan
Type of Stress (z = O) (z = L/2)
Compression and 1ension

maximum stresses:
Venical bending. fb o 11.34
Torsional bending, fbw o 8.49
19.83 ksi
Shear stress, web:
Sai11t-Venant torsion. v.,· 2.40 o
Venical bending, v 1.25 1.25
3.65 ksi
Shear stress. flange:
Saint-Venant torsion, v, 3.92 o
Warping torsion, Vw 0.05 0.27
Vertical bending, v 0.27 0.27
4.24 ksi 0.54hi
•
8.6 ANALOGY BET\.YF,EN TORSION AND PLANE BENDING

Because the differential equatioo solution is time consuming. and really suited only for
analysis, design of a bearn lo include torsion is most con\'e nie ntly done by rnaking tht'
analogy between torsion and ordinary bending.
Consider that the applied torsional rnorneot T of Fig. 8.6. ! <:an be cun,·erted mt0 a
couple PH times h. The force PH can then be treated as a lateral ìoad ac:tmg on lhe !1ange of
a bcmn.
The substitute system will have constant shear over on~-half 1hc: spnn. J Jiagr:1m :,~
givcn in Fig. 8.5.4a. The true distribution of lateral shear wh;ch contributes to lateral
dd1ection is only that part due to warping as shown III Fig. 8 e; .~e l.'hus Lhe sub,!irutc , ~,-
tem overestimates the lateral shear force and conse.quentl) ,,Yeres.j mate~ the latl.'ral b~nd·
ing moment M1 which causes te.nsion and compressi<'1l ~t.·e •,·~
I I! 1'11
'°u ~-~,.
Fi~ 8.6. l
ADalogy bctween flexurc a11,i
laBÌOII.
Tn 111os1 practical design situations when ìc ìs desirable to include the effe

. . t " h . ~~~
s1on, thc compressive stress due to the warpmg compone~ 1~ t e quantuy of mosl .1 '"'-
rance. The shear stress contributions are nonnally nor of stgmficance. rnPor.
EXAMPLE 8.6. 1
Compute the stresses on the W18X71 beam of Example 8.5.2 and Fig. 8.5.8 usin Ih
ural analogy rathcr than the differenti al equation solution. g e fle~.
Solution:
The substitute system is as shown in Fig. 8.6.2a. The lateral bending momem is tben
M.1 = V1( L/ 2) = 1.13(1 2) = 13.6 ft-kips
acting on one flange. Twice the moment ac ting on the cntire section gives
2Mt 2 ( 13.6)( 12 ) .
fbw = Sv = _
15 8
= 20.6 ks1
For torsional shear stress, since Mz = T/ 2 = 20 in.-kips,

M,t 20( 0.810)
V = -- = = 4 .78 ksì ( flange )
s J 3.39
Vs= 4.78( -0.495)

- · = 2.92ksi ( web)
0.810
For lateral bending flange sbear stress,
1.13(5.90)
= 0.27 ksi
(30.0)0.8!0
where Q_r = (7.635/ 2)( 0.8!0)(7.635/ 4) = 5.90 in. 3
it(----~r~----r~
r l l'-0" - PH = 20(2)/17.66~ 2.26k T T
----------====-=
Figure 8.6.2 I oom1mmm11111~

Comparison of lateral shear
on ~ange_due to warping
tomon wJCh that from simple
!alerai flexure analogy.
L ll/111111111111111111111111
24'-0"
(a) Aexu~ analogy &bear

.,
(b) Wa,ping torsion shear

Section 8.8 Analogy between Torsion end Piane Bending • 385
The results of the two methods are compared as follows:
Flexural Differential
Type of stress analogv equation
Compression/tension stress = fb + f bv• = 11.3 + 20.6 = 31.9 'ksi 19.83 k~ì
Web shear stress = v + v, = 1.25 + 2.92 = 4.17 ksi 3.651/J.i
Flange shear Sll'CSS = v + v,. + v,., = 0.27 + 4.78 + 0.27 = 5.32 k.si .a.UkM
The flexure analogy without modification is obviously a very conservative approach.

In some situations it is so excessively conservative as to be practically useless. Funher-
more. the most important design item, the lateral bending stress fbw is overestimated by
the greatest amount.
The relationship between the flexural analogy and rhe true tor ion problem is be!-t
ìllustrated by referring to Fig. 8.5.4a. Note thai rhe fu)J 1orsional shear resuhing from M,,
and M,t· is analogous to the lateral flexure problem. Figure 8.5.4b sho"·s the portil)n of the
shcar that goes into rotation of elements, while Fig. 8.5.4c shows tht: ponion .::omributing_
to iaieral flange bending. lf one could correctly assess how thc ~hear due 10 warµi ng tor-
' t()n cornpares with lhe lateral flexure situation. design for torsim: could be greatly ~imph-
fi~d wirhout bcing grossly conservative.
Figure 8.6.2b shows the accurate variation of \'f for 1k pr1 1blem of Exarnple 11.(l l.
co;nputed according to Eq. 8.5.7. whereupon
T ( cosh À;: )
~f = 21, ~)Sh Al./ 2 . -·"' I
,:;!,;eh TI/i can be thought of as the lateral load. which m, .ml. 1'1-. :,l,c: il r, •!'l tl1 t..i:,.,I
J'·:
b--.~..:m~ analogy is Tl2h. which ìs then modìfied by ihc hy. ,.:h0 1i,' f .1, .,;r :,
'l'h~ latcral bending moment can thus be exprc~,~d fl " ,, p 1 ob·~n 1~
M=-{3 -
T{L-' \) '\r
f 2h \ 1
, ·• ·,, g,neraJ, the change in !arerai rnomcnl bctwct'.n th-. .,1.r,1 r,n ,, ,.1h.1:,1 1 .-ln .•fr <1 !J; . , .
,.;ti "-' f1 i\ a rcducrion factor thai dcpcnds on AL.

li 1~ be notcd that if Eq. R.6.2 i'- mulllphcd I'} h, an j 1 l1c· 00,, ·r 1trn1• ,
10
1i111u;1ht of a~ a com.:entratcd load. thc anall•j,lou, rnonn n, M
!,:'l1•1ment I cqual<i fJ 1ime11 thc "impk ht"am momcnt.
r1111, thc mudified nc~urc analogy g1\C..\
f.Ji 1hc C:l"-' of Hg. K.l\. I. ili

Tables 8.6.1 through 8.6.5 give "e.xact" values for /3 for severa! co~mon loadingatid
restrai111 conditions. For 01her cases Table l of Ref. 8.9 (where Mw equals M, h above
the c urves of Torsional Analysis of Sreel Mcm~ers [8.8] ma~ be ~sed. In Tables 8.6.3
8.6.4, m is tbe applie<l torsional loading per un1t length (say, m.-kips/ft).
!:
l ABLE 8.6.1 f3 Values, Concentrated Load,

Torsional Simple Support
~
t l ul - 1--~ ~ bl -
=<lg
j
M,h = /3( TabL )
at z = al
f3 values
AL a = 0.5 a= 0.4 a= 0.3 a= 0.2 a= 0.1
0.5 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99

1.0 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.97
2.0 0.76 0.77 0 .80 0.84 0.91
3.0 0.60 0.62 0.65 0.72 0.83
4.0 0.48 o.so 0.54 0.62 0.76
5.0 0.39 0.41 0.45 0.54 0.70
6.0 0.33 0.34 0.39 0.47 0.65
8.0 0.25 0.26 0.30 0.37 0.55
IO.O 0.20 0.21 0.24 0.31 0.48
TABLE 8.6.2 /3 Values, Concentrated Load, Torsionally

Fixed Supports
M,h = /3,(Tab2L )
at z = O
M,h = /32( Ta2bL)
at z = L
a = 0.5 a= 0.4 a= 0.3 a= 0.2
JtL /3, = /32 /31 /32 /3, /32 /3, /32
0.5 0.99 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.99
I.O 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.98
2.0 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.94 0.92 0.96 0.92
3.0 0.85 0.86 0.84 0.88 0.84 0.91 0.85
4.0 0.76 0.78 0.75 0.81 0.75 0.86 0.77
5.0 0.68 0.70 0.67 0.74 0.67 0.80 0.69
6.0 0.60 0.63 0.59 0.67 0.60 0.75 0.62
8.0 0.48 0.51 0.47 0.56 0.49 0.65 0.52
IO.O 0.39 0.42 0.39 0.47 0.41 0.56 0.44
Section 8.6 Anatogy between Torsion and Piane Bending • 387
TABLE 8.6.3 .B.Values, Uniform Load, Torsìonal

S1mple Support
"'
~1 I I i 11IIII111% M,h = /3(; abL 2
t-~~--·'·--·-· ·--j
)
i>L
--L····· - -·- ·
at z = al
{3 values
AL a= 0.5 a = 0.4 a= 0.3 a= 0.1
a = 0.2
0 .5 0.97 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.98
I.O 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.92
0.91
2.0 0.70 0.71 0.71 0.72 0.74
3.0 O.SI O.SI 0.52 0.54 0.57
4.0 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.4[ 0.44
5.0 0.27 0.27 0.34
0 .29 0.31
6.0 0 .20 0 .20 0.22 0.28
0.24
8.0 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.16 0 .19
LO.O 0.08 0.08 0.09 O.li 0.14
TABLE 8.6.4 f3 Values, Uniform Load, Torsionally

Fixed Supports
m
~l\1111\1111114t M1h = /3( ~t2)
I L I at z = O and z = L
AL 0.5 I.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0

{3 0.99 0.98 0.94 0.88 0.81 0.74 0.67 0.56
TABLE 8.6.5 f3 Values, Concentrated Load,

Torsionally Fixed Supports
~ f ~ M rh = {3(positive moment
by flexure theory)
~aL ~ hL~~ == t3(2Ta2th ]
~ L-- ~-t atz =aL
AL a= 0.5 a == 0.3 a= 0.1

0.5 0.99 1.00 1.00
I.O 0.98 0.99 1.01
2.0 0.92 0.95 1.05
3.0 0.85 0.91 1.10
4.0 0.76 0.85 1.1 6
5.0 0.68 0.79 1.2 1
6.0 0.60 0.73 1.:.5
EXAMPLE 8.6.2
· ti e beam of Example 8.6.1, using the md'
Recompute the stresses due to torsion on 1 . o 1fied
tlexural analogy method utili:z.ìng the /3 values from Table 8.6. l.
Solution:
The flexure analogy gives
M f = I 3.6 ft-kips
as previously computed.
AL= 4.80 (as computed in Example 8.5.2)
From Table 8.6. I at a = 0.5, f3 ~ 0.41, i.e., use about 41

analogy value. Thus thc modified flexure analogy gives
Mt = 13.6(0.41) = 5.58 ft-kips

2Ml 2(5.58)12 _ .·
r - -- = --- - 8.48ks1
J bw - S
)'
15.8
which compares favorably with fow = 8.49 ksi as computed by the differential equatioo
solution using AL = 4.80. Far this case tbat exactly fits a table c~se. the /3 modìfied flexure
analogy is the "exact" value obrained from rhe differential equat100 solution value. 1
8 .7 PRACTICAL SITUATIONS OF TORSIONAL LOADING

There are relatively few occasions in actual practice where the torsional load can cause signif.
icant twisting, and frequently these situations arise during construction. In most building con.
struction che members are laterally restrained by attachments along the length of the memher
and therefore they are nm free to twist. Even though torsìonal loading exisrs, it may be self-
limiting because the rotation cannot exceed the end slope of the transverse attac-hed members,
Torsion exists on spandrel beams, whcre such loading may be unifonx-._\y distribuled:
torsion also cxists where a beam frames into a girder on one side only. or where unequa]
reactions come to apposite sides of a girder. The design of crane runway girders invol\'es
the combìnation of biaxial bending and torsion, and is illustrate<! in Sec. 8.8 for laterallv
stable beams. Any situation where the loading or reaction acts eccentricully to the she~
center gives rise to torsion.
Analysis for Torsional Moment
The determination of the torsional moment in a framing system involves an elastic analv-
sis where the joints may be rigid or semi-rigid. While the details of such an analysis ~
outside the scope of this text, some discussion is necessary so that at least the problem is
understood. Goldberg [8. 12] has discussed this subject and presented an approximate
method suitable for design. Spandrel girders have been treated by Lothers [8.18]. Chen and
Jolissaint [8.19] have provided a simple analysis technique for rigid frames.
Consider an example of a floor framing system (similar to Goldberg's [8.121) as
shown in Fig. 8.7.1. Spandrel beam AB is subjected to torsion because of the floor beams
framing on only one side. Contrary to some common belief, however, the corsional
moment is not equa! to the beam reaction times its eccentricity from the centerline of lbe
girder web. Moment is transmitted across the joint, and che end moment on the beam mUSI
Section 8.7 Practical Situations ofTorsionat Loading • 389
r
9 0.5 kips/ft
@) (J
b
L
Il
3@14'- 0 = 4'2"-0
ali girder<, WI0X45
ali beam,,
I = 241\ "tn.4
W6X25
GJ = 105 ft 2-kips
. res.1.1
figll .
.
w of floor franung.
tJ= +. = 51.3 in .
I = 53.4 in.•
Pia/I vie
equal the torsional moment on the girder. To attack such a problem one musl first deter-
mìne the relationship between the angle of twist q, and the applied torsional moment T.
_ For example, in Fig. 8.7. l the loading system causes equal torsional moments at lhe
1
3 pom\s on member AB. Assuming the girder torsìonally simply supported at ends A and B.
using either the dìfferential equation solution formulas or the curves of Torsìon.al Analysis
of Sreel Members (8.8] (Case 4, p. 64), for ÀL = 15(12)/ Sl.3 = 3.51, ooe finds che angle
of twist at poìnt a,
GJ
<f>TL ::::: 0.09
or -'- l6.2!.E._
'l'na = GJ
for T applied at a. In addìtion the value of </> al point a for T applied ate is
T Te
<f>ac = 0.07(180) G~ = 12.6 GJ
Finally, for T0 = Te = T,
T T
<Pa = (16.2 + 12.6) GJ = 28.8 GJ
The twist angle <l>a must be compatìble with the end slope of che beam; using slope detlection,
Mal> = MFab
2E/
+- - [ -2</>a - </>1>
3A]
+L
Lab al•
where MFub = the fixed-end mome.nt for beam al> at a

cf> = beam slope at a
0
<Pb = beam slope al b

il = relative deflection betwce.n a and b
After having established the necessary slope detlection equations for mome nts. joint
equilibrium and shear cond.ìtions are necessary. after which simultaneous equalion!': muSI
be solved. One such joìnt equa1ion ìs thai at joìnt a.
T + Mo1, =O
After solving for the slopes. then the torsional moments can be found; for the tol'liion
moment at a, ili
T = </Jn GJ /28.8
Jn the Goldberg [8.12] example using members having properties similar lo th

. . . .
Fig. 8.7.1. the value of Tobtaincd was 1.55 tn.-kps usmg an approximate method of s .
-w
-. ,. . ·b·1·
Iymg de1onna11on compat1 1 11y.
atts.
Suppose one had taken che simple beam reaction for member ab, 0.5(7) "' 3.S k.
a~d assume use of AJSC Man~al Table I 0- l, "AII-Bolted Doub~e-Angle Connections" •
..
F1 13.21). If the ecce11tnc1ty had becn taken to the bolt Ime_ on the outstanding
?t5
9
( 2 4 m.), the torsionaJ moment would havc been far too gr~at, whtle 1f the eccentricity h:
becn taken as one-half the WI0X45 (Fig. 8.7.l) web th1ckness (0.350/2)• the lors1ona1 .
moment would have been far roo small.
The proper torsionai moment can only be obtained (even approximately) by con .
· eterormallon
enng ,. · compau·b·1·1 uy.
Sld-
Torsional End Restraint

lf a torsional situation is deemed to require analysis, the torsional end restraint musi be
evaluated. Under AISC-B3.6 two basic types of construction are pennitted: Type FR (full
restrained) w~ich. is the rrad_itional "ri~id fram~'' c<~,n~truc_tion; and Type PR (pania)]!
restram_ed) wh1ch mcludes '_'s1mple" _or_ ·convenuona!. tram'.n~ ~here there is assumed ~
be neghg1ble flexural restramt at the JOJnt, as well as serrn-ngtd' framing where a defi
flexural restraint exists that is less than Type FR. med
The correlation of ''simple" and "rigid" framing with torsional restraint is show .
Fig. ~,:-2, A~ain, the lateral bending analogy ~ili ~elp in visualizing the torsional res~
cond1t10ns. Figure 8.7.2a shows the analogy s1tuat1on of zero deflection and zero mo
mcnt
Upper flange
(a) ATSC simple framing connec1ion

M,==M,+M.,; Mi=O
Pl111«8
PlatesA
i
d
L L?:. d
t/,= o
dt/, = o
d:
Figure 8.7.2
Torsional restraint condilions. (b) AISC rigid framing connection ( A!SC Type FR) with
(Adapted from Hotchkiss additional sliffening plates.
18.91, Fig. Il> M,=M.~M , ==0
Section 8.8 Torsion-Laterally Stable Beams • 391
whic~ C<mcspond torsionally lo <f, = O and d2</,/dz2 = O. lt is noted that 41 = O only if

the -~•mplc
.
connection cx1end s, over a s,gmficant
. . .
ponion of the beam depth.
Figure 8 ·7 -2b shows the analogy situa1ion of zero deflection and zero slope which
corresponds torsionally to </, = O and dtf>/ dz = O. Ho1chkiss L8.9l states the ends of the
beam must.be boxed in (plates A. Fig. 8.7.2b) so as to assure dtf,/ d z = O. Ojalvo L8-20,
8·22 1has discusscd lorsional restraint and indicates that "boxing'· is not sufficiem 10 obtain
d,J,/ dz = O.· When "boxmg · " , t h al 1s.
· weldmg. s11ffener
. plates between the toes o f fl anges
a nd e~teod mg them along the beam for a length equal 10 tbc beam depth, is used and the
benm •s th en welded to a thick column flange 1he authors believe it is essentially "torsion-
ally
. fiixed" · F""h ennore, 1f
· the column has flexible flanges. column suffeners
. (plates B.
F1g. 8.7.2b) should be provided.
Tiie Ojalvo 18.20l suggcstion of welding a lcngth of channel. anglc. or bent plate
~lween the flanges on one side of the web seems lo be a more efficient and economical solu-
tton. The eocts ~f lhe member musi be welded against thc insides ofthe flanges. and there must
be a weld_vemcally along the edges thai bear against the web. Test.~ of severa! torsional
restramts. mcluding 1hat proposed by Ojalvo {S.201 . bave been reponed by Heins and Potocko
l8 -21l- Vacharajiniphan and Trahair [8.231 also discuss torsional restraint at 1-section joints.
The Slructural engineer should remember that in practical situatìons where no special
d . . ,
_es,gn is made al the ends. the torsional restraint is neither simple (d-,J,/dz - = O nor
? )
hxed (dq,/ d z == O) bm is. however, usually such that the end twist is nearly zero (d, = O).
Sg LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN FOR TORSION-

LATERALLY STABLE BEAMS
Nominal Strength
The nominai strength of a section subject to torsion or torsion combined with flexure is
not readily detennined. Such strength will certainly depend on the proportions of the sec-
tion and the relative magnitudes of the forces applied. The AISC ASD Specification (such
as the 1978 Specification, Sec. 1.5.1.4.4) bas traditionally timited the combined stress to
a maximum of 0.60F,.. This implies that the nominai streogth of the section unde r com-
bined bending and torsion is reached when rhe extreme fiber stress reaches the yield st rcss
F_,.. Thus . the entire c ross-section wìll be elastic: no credi! is giveo to ability of the cross-
section lo undergo plas1ic defom,ation. Certainly this approach is conservative. An inter-
esting rcview of the design of 1-shaped beams for combined flexure and torsion is gi\'en
by Driver and Kennedy l8.35). .
AISC-H2 uses an imeractioo equation. where thc nominai strength about each _ol th_e
two major axes can conservative\y be takeo equa\ IO its yield tnoments. (Note that ib,s m
chapter the strength reduction factor <Pois given the subscript to clear\y distinguish II from
,t he angle <!> of twist.) Thus. the elastic biaxial bending stress equation. Eq. 7 .11 . 1. can be
used afte.r converting the torsional moment into a paìr of Latera) bending moments acting in
opposite directions on each flange.
In the examples that follow. the be.ams are assumed to be stable such thai the latcral-
torsional buckling limit state does oot control (sce Chapter 9).
eXAMPLE 8.8. 1
Select the lightest W section of A992 steel to carry 0.55 kips/ft dead load. in addition to the
weight of the beam. and live load of 2.0 kips/ft. The superimposed \oad is applied ccce~-
trically 7 in. from the center of the web on the simply supported span of 28 ft a.e; showo ,n
Fig. 8.8. l . Assume the e.nds of the beam have t0rsional simple support.
w " 2.55 kips /fl • bean1 wt

T-g:,,- ~
A
I--- 28, - O" - ----J
~7111~~ 1-clnr per ft
Section A-A
figure 8.8.1 (b) T orsional suppon
Condiiions for Exarnple 8.8.1.. (a) Vcrtical support
Solution:
(a) Compute factored loads eccentrically applied.
U)
11
= 1..2(0.55) + 1.6(2.0) = 3.86 kips/ft
(b) Compute factored moment Mux. Estimating the beam weight as 0.13 kipslft, tbc
moment Mux is
M = !wL 2 = ! 13 86 + 1.2(0.13)](28)2 = 394 ft-kips

' /IX 8 8 1. '
(e) Consider the i.orsion effect. Thc factored unifonnly distributed torsional momeni i;
mu = 3.86(7) = 27.0 ìn.-kips/ft
Consider mu/h as the uniformly distributed lacerai load acting on one flan ge of the bearn.
Then using the flexure analogy, the lateral bending moment M1 acting on onc flange is
l m,, I 27.0 ( 2S)2 2646 ti k.i

MJ = 8hL2 = 8-1-, -_ h t- ps
without regard to the modification factor /3 .

As a first approximation, assume h = 14 in. and /3 = 0.5 (approximation from
Table 8.6.3, for "AL ,::, 3). Thus the modified flexure analogy gives
2646
M1 = /3-h- = 0.5 ( l4
2646) .
= 94.5 ft-k1ps
The design acceptability criterion is
Mux Muy
- --+---~
<PbMn.T <P1, Mny
and using the procedure discussed in Sec. 7.11 gives
Required Sx ~ M1,x + Muy (Sx)

4>b Fy <Pb F_v Sy
394(12) 2(94.5)12 . _
= 0.90(50) + 0.90(50) ( 3) = 256 m:'
in which the ratio S,/Sv is estimated at 3 (Table 7.11.l) for medium weight Wl4 secùons.
and M1 is doubled to give an equivalent moment acting on two flanges.
This would indicate a Wl4Xl76 having an Sx = 281 in.3 Since the actual SJS..
ratio for W 14 sections in this weight range is 2.6, the required is then reduced to 236. s..
indicating Wl4Xl45.
Section 8.8 Torsion-Laterally Stable Beams • 393
Using torsional propenies in the A/SC Manuaf [1.15, p. 1-21] for the Wl4Y 145.
YGJ/Ec,,, = V1s.2/[2.6(31,700)] = 1/73.6 >..L = 28(12)/73.6 = 4.6

More complete torsional propenies are available from Ref. 8.8 pp. 33-53.
Usmg Table 8 6 3 r, 18 · • .
. 3
191 m. · · • ,.,
Try Wl4XI32. reduced to abou1 0.33. whjch funhcr reduces requ1red Sx t.o about
ÀL = 28(12)/73.4 = 4.58
f3 =,:, 0.31 (Table 8.6.3)
m., L2 27.0(28)2
Mf "" {3 - = 0.31 . = 60.2 ft-kips
8h 8(14.66 - J.030)
Check design strength criterion under AISC-H I. Compute the factored bending stress fu,,,
Mux Muy Mux M.,,.

- ; , + - - - = - - + _ _. ::; cf,bF),
cf,b nx </>bM,,)' Sx S,. ·
j~,, = M,.x + Muy = 394(12) + 60.2(12)
Sx Sy 209 74.5/2
= 22.6 + 19.4 = 42.0 ksi < (<l>bFv = 45.0 ksì ) OK

Use Wl4Xl32.
Where high torsional strength is required, the wide W14 sections are most suitable. For
the same weight per foor, deeper sections give a reduced stress from in-piane tof web) flexure
but an increased stress from restraint of torsional warping. Tue W21 X 132 U,m = 39.5 ksi)
and the W24X 131 Uun = 40.8 ksi) give about the same maximum tot.al flexural stress as tbc
above selected beam.
The differenti al equation solution gives for the factored \alerai bending stress f "" due
lo warping torsion 19. l ksi as cornpared with 19.4 ksi cornputed above. The maximum fac-
tored flange shear stress fuv is 22.3 ksi, while that in the web is 18.1 ksi. both compute.d
from the differential equation solutìon. These are acceptable under AISC-Hl.
fuv = 22.3 ksi < [ 4>1, Ty = 'Pb( 0.6Fy) == 27 .O ksi] OK•

EXAMPLE 8.8.2
Design a beam having torsionally fixed ends to carry two concentraled loads of 28 kips
(8 kips dead load and 20 kips Jive toad) acting eccentric to the piane of the web by 6 in.
as shown in Fig. 8.8.2. Ass ume for conservatism that for in-piane (of web) flexure the
beam is simply supported. Use A992 steel and the AISC LRFD Method.
Scction A-A
166..\ ft"-kips
figure 8.8.2
l,.o.lding and factored
,noments for Example 8.8.2.
Sollltion:
(a) Compute facwred Joads eccentrically applied.
Wu = 1.2(8) + 1.6(20) = 41.6 kips

(b) Compute factored moment Mux. Estimating the beam weight as 0.15 kips/ft, tbc
moment M,,x is
2
M
lU:
= W'.u{12) + l wL2
8
= 41.6(12) + Ht.2(0.15))(36) = 528 ft-kips
(e) Consìder the iorsìon effect. The factored concentrated torsional moment is
T,, = 41.6(6/12) = 20.8 fc-kìps

Considering Tu/ h as che analogous /aura/ concentrated loads acting at 011e flange, thc
tìxed-end moments are computed; thus
T, ab 2 T. a 2b 20.8( I2) (24)

Mrh (at ends) = - '-' -2 + __!!_.._ = ~ (24 + 12)
· ' L L2 (36)-
= l J0.9 + 55.5 = 166 ft 2 -kips

and in the positive moment zone (midspan region).
M h(atconcentrated) = T,,L _ 166

1 loads 3
2
= 20.8(12) - 166 = 83 ft -kips
The above moments are computed without regard for the f3 reduction factor; the flexure
analogy gives M1'1 values as shown in Fig. 8.8.2b. These values are more appropriate than
using the expression in Table 8.6.5 because that expression is for one concentrated IOad.
The /J values from Table 8.6.5 are reasonable, however, since the effect of one load 00 tbc
torsional stress at the other load is small.
Estimating average AL at about 3, and using al = 0.3 L in Tabie 8.6.2 for end
moments, the modified analogous fixed-end moments become
M1h (atends) = 0.88(110.9) + 0.84(55.5) = 98 + 47 = 14.5 ft 2-kips
For positive moment at 12 ft from tbe support, referto Table 8.6.5 and estimate /3 as
0.9, though the exact case being treated is not covered in any of /3 tables. Thus
M1h (at z = 0.3 L) ;::: 0.9(83) = 75 ft 2-kips

which is known to be conservatively high (see Fig. 8.8.3) because the value 75 includes tbc
effects of both concentrateci torsional moments. (Torsional Analysis of Sreel Membm
=
[8.8], Case 6, indicates that Tu applied at z 0.3L has negligible effect at 0.7L.)
(d) Select the member. Assume h ~ 14 in., which makes
M1 = 75(12)/14 = 64ft-kips
Section 8.8 Torsi on - Laterally Stable Beams • 395
urt 8.8.3
fiS ~ar,a
. ,·on
I
for concentrateti
fJf. :il moment T. Lcss •han /!2
tofS1()1l
528(12) 2(64)(12)
25
= 0.90(50) + 0.90(50) < - )
= 141 + 86 = 227 in.3

A preliminary check of Table 8.6.5 gives about 0.8 for a {3 estimate. This would
reduce lbe required Sx to 217 in.3 and indicatcs a Wl4Xl32. Try w1 4 xt32 :
Sx = 209 in.3:
AL = 36(12)/ 73.2 = 5.90
Using Table 8.6.5, tind {3 "" 0,74 which gives
83 12
M1(at z = 0.3L) = {3Mih = 0.74 ( ) = 53.9ft-k.ips
h 14.66 - 1.03
2(53.9)12
Required Sx = l4I + ----'---'-- (2.8) = 222 in.3
0.90(50)
Thus the next heavier section is indicated; Use Wl4X 145.

For a more accurate check of the Wl 4X 132 using Torsiona/ Analysis of Steel Sec-
tions (8.81, Case 6 for AL = 5.90 at z = 0.3L,
M fh = ( Ref.ff8.8) T,, 0.37(20.8) , .

- = -----'-- - = 47.0 n--k1ps
coe A {1/ 73.2)12
M1 = 47.0(12)/ 13.63 = 41.3 ft-kips

528(12} 41.3(12) .
fu,, = 209
+ _/
74 5 2
= 43.7 ks1
Since J,,,, does not exceed <P1> F,. = 0.90(50) = 45.0 ksi. the W14X 132 would be accept-
able by the more exact check. ·
Also, the stress under factored moment at Ù\e supports must be checked. Ui-ìng Tnbk
8.6.2, find (3 1 ~ 0.68 <1nd {3 2 ~ 0.61 for AL = 5.87 (Wl4 X 145} ~mcl al = 0.3L. Then
2
Mtf1 = 0.68( 110.9) + 0.61(55.5) = 75.4 + 33.9 = 109.3 fl -kips
M1 = 109.3(12)/ 13.69 = 95.8 ft-kips

Thus the factored moruent •Mt about the •v-axis resisted by one flange gives the faC\(lr~
stress fu,,
Mt 95.8(12) . _ .
f. = - = - - - = 26.3 ks1 < (<f>bFy - 45.0 ks1) OIC 1
un S,./2 87.3/2
Thcse two examples illustrate 1.hat 1~sing ap~rox.imate /3 val~es. alon~ with lhe flex11re
analoay"
for lateral- bendino"' due to warnmg
..,
tors1on,
.
g1ves suffic1ently
. .
qmck and
.
a~·
"'-llra1t
results for ordinaiy design. Furthermore, th_e designer can better ~1sualiz~ what 1s happenin
using the Oexure analogy rather than workrng w1th t.he hyperbohc funcuons for cf>. g
The {3 modified flexure an,a logy has been_ expanded by ~in [8. I~] w~ere additionai
f3 tables are provided, Johns1.on [8.14] has prov1ded more deta1led design a1ds to cocnpu1e
torsional fu.nciions other than ihe compressive or tensile ~tress due to restramr- of wa'l)· .
i.e., particufarly the shear stress. fohnston also has severa! excellent detailed design exmg,
ples. Sa1'?1on [8.24] an~_Un [8.16] have provided a~ditional_ insight in their discussion::
Johns1.on"s paper. Addiuonal approximate fomiula s for design are prov1ded by Johnston
Lin, and Galambos [8.25, p[>. 330-331 ]. '
For additional treatment of combined torsion a.nd fle~ure, panicularly on channeJ
and zee sections, the reader is referred to the work of Lansmg [8.26]. For nonprisroaf
open section members, Evick and Heins [8.271 present solution techniques and give so~:
design infonnation.
Anolher topic, ouiside the scope of this text, is the_ secondary lateral bending momeni
that arises from Lhe rorsional deflection of the compress1on flange laterally. In the deflected
posilion the compressive force resulting from ordinai)' flexural moment A-f~ time, the laterai
flange deflection gives rise to the secondary late.ral moment which in turn causes greaterlai-
eral deflection. Discussion of this topic appears elsewhere [8.28, 8.14) and is simìlar tothe
secondary bending mome.nt that occurs in bearn-columns, a subject treated in Chapter 12.
8.9 ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN FOR TORSION-

LATERALLY STABLE BEAMS
In Allowable Strength Design, the safety criterìon is Eq. 7.11.7,
[7.11.7]
Using the yield moments for Mnx and M,,_,,, the equatìon becomes
[7.11.8]
ST
·
~ fìMx
Fy
+ fìMy
F..,
(S·r)
Sy
17.J l.91
The torsion is converted into equivalent My by using tbe flexure analogy as discussed in
Sec. 8.6. The procedure is the same as illustrated for LRFD in Sec. 8.8 excep1 in ASD the
service loads are used instead of factored loads.
EXAMPLE 8.9.1
Investìgale the Wl4XI32 selected in Example 8.8.1 for the loading anù conditìonsof
Pig. 8.8.1. Use rhe AISC ASD Method.
Section 8.10 Torsion in Closed Thin-Wall Sectior,s • 397
Solutu>n:
(a) Computc the i-ervicc load momcnt M, . lncluding lhc 0.13 kiplft beam wci~hl,
Mx = ~wL2 = h 2.55 + 0 .13){2Rf = 263 ft-k ips
(b) ~ onsidcr lhe torsion effect. The unformly distributed i.crvice load torsional
momc nlm ,s
m = 2.55(7) = 17.9 in.-kip~/ft
Consider m/h as the uniformly distributed \ateral load acting on one flange of Lhe beam.
Then u~ing the f3 modified Oexurc analogy. the lateral bending moment M J acting on one
flange ,s
M 1 = {3 -l -L
m 2 l 17 .9 .
= 0 .31- - - (28)2 = 39.9ft-k1ps
8 h 8 13.63
(e) Check AISC-H L interaction criterion, as follows
fiMx + 0.M_,, = l.67(263)( 12) 2( 1.67)(39.9) ( 12) = _ < 1 OK

0 934
M n.t Mny 209(50) + 74 .5(50 )
Thus ihe W14 X132 is acceptable! •
TORSION IN CLOSED THIN-WALL SECTIONS

s.tO
In generai, where a high torsional stiffness is required. a closcd scclion is prefe rred o, er
the ordinary open section, such as the 1-shape or channel. An exce.lknt generai discussion
of the torsion phenomena with comparative behavior of open and closed sections i~ gi, en
by Tamberg and Mikluchin [8.291. Some practical comments relating to closed sect1ons '"
torsion are given by Siev [8.30]. The high torsional stiffness exhibi1ed by dosed seclions
makcs them ideai for aircraft structural components and curved girders in bridges :md_
buildings. This subject is created in a number of textbooks (8.1- lU] so that ooly a bnet
treatme nt follows.
ln the closed section of Fig. 8.1 O. I, che walls are assumed thin so that the shearing scre~s
may be assumed unifom1ly distributed across the thickoess r. lf the sbear stress is 7 • d,e n T t 15
the shear force per unit distance along the wall. usually referred to as s/1ear J1o11·. Since only
torsional stress is presently being considered. the ll<)nnal sttesscs. (o- ~ of Fig. 8.1O. I b) are zero.
Since u z = O, the shear flow Tt cannot vary along the wall: i.e .. T t is con~t.ult.
t ", o =
rr
fi u,e 8. IO. I
,g flow in a closed 1hin-
5t,ear (a) (b )
,aul,tC(ion.
Referring 10 Fig. 8.lO.la, the increment of torsional moment contributed by tach

element is
dT = -rtp ds (8.10.1)
Integracing gives rhe full torsional moment, which is in effect the same as Eq. 8.2.S,
T = -rt ipds (8.10.2)
!
Nore that p ds is the cross-hatched area of the triangular segment in Fìg. 8_10_
1
Thus the integra! ·
1 p ds = 2A (8. I0J)
where A = area enclosed by the walls. FinaJly,

T = 2TtA (8.10.4)
Jf a cut is made in the wall of a closed thin-wall section (Fig. 8. 10.2), a relati
movement ( as in Fig. 8.10.2b) will be produceà between the two sides in the axial directi ve
of the member. Tbe unit shear strain along the peri meter is D!I
y = -r/G (8.10.5)
The internal strain energy for any elemental length ds along the perimeter is
dW; = !-rty ds (8.10.6)
(8.10.7)
The twisting moment T about point O can now be replaced by a r.ouple, Tir. The
extemal work done by the couple is
dW
e
= .!(!_)n
2 r
= T(J
2 (8.10.8)
Equating ifltéma1 and extemal work per unit length gives
T8 = _I____1Tds (8.l0.9)
2 4AG .,
hT
ds Tt fsds/t
8 = - - = -...c,_-
2AG 2AG (8.10.10)
since TI is a constant.
9" !!
r
T/r
Figure 8.10.2
Forces on a cui thin-wall
i.ection. (8)
(b)
Section 8 .10 Torsion in Closed Thin-Wall Sectjons • 399
°
In rder lo obtain more useful forms of the equations, recali from Scc. 8.2 th ai
T ..- GJIJ (8.2.51

and us ing Eq. 8.1 O. Io gives
T1
T =GJ - - -
J
tl.l'/t (8. 10.11 I
2AG
and eliminating T between Eqs. 8. 10.4 and 8.10. 11 gives, when solving for the torsional
constant J.
4A2 (8. lO. I 2>

J = --
f,tJs/t
The design of closed sections for bending and torsion is o utside lhe scope of this
text, and the reader is referred to the work of Fehon and Oobbs [8.31 ]. Shenner [8.32] has
shown applications of the closed thin-wall tube concept of torsion applied to trussed suuc-
tures and structures containing plates and truss forms .
Tue deve)opmen1 of the equations for torsion stiffness and stress in closed lhin-wall
sections may be developed alternatively using the ..membrane aoalogy"' developed by
Prandtl [8.1- 8.3].
Tue objective here is to illustrate the high degree of torsional stiffness that closed
sections exhibil as compared to open ones.
~)(AMPLE 8.10.1
Compare the torsional resisting moment T and the torsional cons tant J for the seciions
of Fig. 8.10.3 ali having about the same cross-sectional area. The maximum shear Sltes s
'T is 14 ksi.
Solution:
(a) Circular thin-wall section. Using Eq. 8.10.4,
T = 2TtA = 2(14)(0.5)(7r(l0)2/4) ~ = 91.6ft-kips
4A2 4(251r)2
J = --- = --- = 393 in.4
20
./ds/t 7T
where Jds/t = 21r(5)/ 0.5 = 201t.
IO"
rF
12 X 6 slructura\ L~-1
-r
tO" diam. pipe
A = 15.7 sq in.
tubing
A = 15.9 sq in. I
~- 2
~.!."J 1"
Ch3nncl
~oos·for Example R. IO. I.
fmtff: S JOJ A = 16.0sq in.
(h) Rectangular box section.
T "" 2-rtA = 2(14)(0.5)(72)f2 = 84.0 ft-kips
_~= 4 72
L = 2s8 in.~
.I - J ds/r
(
(36/0.5)
(e) Channel seccion. Since for t.his open section,
the maximum shear stress will be in the flange. Also,
J = L !br3
4
J = H I0(0.5) 3 + 2(5.5)(1)3 ] = 4.1 in.
J-r 4.1(14) .
T = --- = - - - = 4.8 ft-k1ps
t1 (1)( 12)
The c.ircular section is best for torsional capacity, the rectangular box is next: these
closed sectìons have the torsional constant J equal to 96 and 71 times that of the channe1
respectively. The resisting moments are 19 and 18, respectively, times lhat of the channel. ~
8.11 TORSION IN SECTIONS WITH OPEN AND CLOSED PARTS

Generally this problem is treated by combining the prìnciples discussed separately for
open and closed parts. The procedure lo be used for detennining resisting moment, stiff-
ness. and shear center location for such sections is presented with exampies by Chu and
Longinow [8.33]. The following is a summary of pertinent equations:
Tota) resisting moment is
11
T = L2T;t;A; + GJfJ (8.11.1)

i= I
where J = 2,!b13 for open pans only.

Jn addition, each of the closed cells must satisfy E.q. 8.10.10:
l
ds
Tt·- = 2GA·IJ (8. l 1.2)
' .) J ' f; '
8.12 TORSIONAL BUCKLING

Since the differential equation for torsion was developed earlier in this chapter, and buck-
ling of axially loaded columns has previously been treated, torsional buckling may now be
examined. The strength of most centrally loaded columns is reached at the tangent-modulm
Euler load with a reduced efficiency if locai buckling occurs before overall col~mn buckling
occurs, a~ discussed in Chapter 6. However, some thin-wall sections snch as angles. ~
Section 8. 12 Torsional Buclding • 401
6 "'\ I- -C<ntroid
~ and shear
'
--
~ccntcr
\l__i
d:
:-1
: z
,_ -'I
/
f" ureS.12.1
r:!sìonal buckliog. (hl
zees, and channels, having relatively low torsional stiffnes~ may. under axial compre!-sion.
buckle torsionally while the longitudinal axìs remains straight.
The subject of torsional buckling is treated extensively by Timoshenl:(o and Gere
[6.67, pp. 225- 250] and Bleich [6.9).
Using concepts previously developed, it is the objective here to ~how mathematically
lbat such buckling can occur aod identify situations wherc che designe r should be cautious.
Consider the doubly symmetrical section in the shape of a cro~s given in Fig. 8.12.1.
whose shear center and centroid coincìde. Rec alJing the Eulec equation.
d2y
El - + Py =O [6.2.3}
dz.2
which differentiated twice becomes
d4 v d 2 ,·
E1 - ·· =- p- · (~U2.I)
d ::. 2
4
dz
4
Since El d y/ d z4 is the loading, the Euler column can be ù1ought of as a beam laterally
loaded with the fìctitious loading - P( d 2y/d z. 2). Thus with the section put in tl1e slightly buck-
led position (i.e ., rotated the angle q, at distance z from me end) me compressive force u ; 1 dr
on lhe e lement dr dz is stalically e.quivalent 10 a lateral lo.ld whose inten'-ity per 11ni1 length is
The increment of torsional moment about the :-axis trihutary to the length il: equa\~ the
load times the moment ann r: thus
rd" </)
dm : = -(u :tr rlr) - -2- d ::.
cl~.
.
The tota] 1ors10nal moment r,or t he s-11·ce d-'- of the column is
m
i
t2cp
= -az-'dz2
- dz 1A
2
r t dr (8.12.3)
Equation 8.12.3 represents the conuibution to ihe torsional moment Mi tributary lo lhe
elememdz:
dM,. = m:. (8.12.4)
The differential equation for corsion on 1-shaped sectioos, Eq. 8.5.10, ìs
dcp d3 </J
M . = GJ - - ECw-d 3 (8.5.\0J
' dz z
which when differentiated once becomes
2 4
dM d cp d 4>
__z = GJ- - -
2
ECw--4 (8.12.5)
dz dz dz
Referring 10 Fig. 8.5.2, positive M: at thc section z gi~es a cl~kwise rotatìon;
whereas in Fig. 8.12. 1 at the section z there is_coun1erclockw1se :otatwn_- Thus the F.q.
8.12.4 relationship requires a minus sign for use 111 Eq. 8 . l 2.5. The d1fferen11al equation for
torsional buckliog is then
d2cp
u --
z dz2
1A
r 2r dr = GJ-d2</>-2
dz
- ECw- -
4
d44>
dz
or
ECw- <p
d4-
4
dz
- ( GJ - U: l )
A
d -
r 2r dr - </J
2
2
dz
=O (8.12.6)
in whìch JA 2
r t dr = lp , the pelar moment of inertia about the sltear center. When the cen-
troid coincides with the shear center, Eq. 8.12.6 alone determ.ioes the buck.ling condition.
Note is made that the warping rigìdity ECw is zero (text Appendix Table A2) for
shapes consistìng of thio rectangular elements intersecting at a common poiut.
For other cases, Eq. 8.12.6 may be written as
(8.12.7)
, u)p - GJ
where p- =
for which the generai solutìon is
(8.12.8)
Considering the pin-end column, with rotation about z prevented at each end, but
with warping not restricted at the cnds gives in a manner similar to the Euler column
derivation in Chapter 6, that
and since A I cannot also be zero,
sin pl = O, pl = mr
Section 8.12 Torsional Buckling • 403
The elaSlil· bu1:kli11g Slrc~s u-: c-rilieal .il whi1:h torsional budding oc.:1:1u, i,
<J,lp - GJ
= --··-
EC, ..
..
e, ' cri1ical
[7T2ECw
= ---L---
2
+ G •/ ] ---
I _
1,, = f ,,,
(8.12.91
which is a1:curate for ùouhly sy1mnetrical sectionJ! whose shear <.:enter and centroiù coincide,
such as 1-shaped se.ctions. ·n1c symbol f:.
is used instead of a - cri1ic'al in AISC-FA. Equation
8.12.9 is use~I with IP = lx + ly aud Li; the effective length K2
L For the common single-
angle stnu. Smce the distance from centroid to sbear center is small, Eq. 8.12.9 will provide a
reasonable approximmion for the torsional buckling stress. Expression~ for the warping con-
s1.ant Cw a nd the_torsion l.'.0nstant J for various shapes are tu be found in text Appellù!x Ta~Jle
A2. Though not m thar table, values of the Wru,Jing constant C w fora combina11011 W-~ecnon
wuh a channel cap (see AISC Manual Tables 1-19 and l-20 PP- 1-112- 115) have bcen gl\·en
by Lue and Ellifritt [8.341-
The rea<ler should not lose sight of the fact that ù1e most probable bucklìng mode is stili
that occurring at the langent-modulus Euler load because of lateral bending aboul the x- or~--
axis. Thus the problem involves Ùlree criticai values of axial load: bending about cither princi-
pal axis and twisting about che Jongirudinal axis. On wiùe-flange sections, torsional buckling
may he imponam on secrions with extra wide flanges and short lengths [6.67· PP· 225~2501-
ln the generai case where the shear ceoter docs not coincide wìth the centroid. th e
buck.ling failure is actually a combination of torsion and 0exure. For thi;;. case. the three
differencial eguatìons, ( J) buckling by lacerai bending about the x-axis: (2 l buckling by lat-
eral bending abouc the y-axìs; and (3) twìsti.ng about the shcar center, are interdependent.
Thus three simultaneous differential equations must be solvcd to get the buckhng loads.
The development and solution of the these equatìons is outside the scope of this text and 15
adequately treated elsewhere [6.9; 6.67, pp. 225-2501.
LRFD Design for Torsional and Flexural-Torsional Buckling

For design, AISC-E3 implies that the nominai strength of compression members will1
compact and noncompact sections (as defined in AISC-B4) can be computed ,rirlroul t' Oll -
sidering flexural-101-simw/ buck/ing.
Compressìon me.mbers without stender elements that are singly ~ymmelric or
unsymmetrical. and certain doubly symmetrìc sectìons. such as crnciform and built u? sec-
tions, must be designed lo include the flexural -torsional buckling limit state acc1,tùmg to
AJSC-E4. Single angle compression members are excluded from the~e proù,ions andare
lo be designe<l according to AISC-E3, ES and E7. _
For doubly symmetric sections (such as built-up 1-sections). whcn the flexural-torsio nal
limil state is evaluated, an equivale.o! rnclius of gyration ,-E c,m be compared with r, anll r,_ Il'
reduce the computations. The ,tlternative is to compute the ela~tic flexural-torsional buckhn!!-
stress Fc from Eq. 8.12.9 [iclenlical to AISC Fonnula (E4-4 )] and compare with I~,. c·i,mputed
using the larger of KxL,./r, a.ml K,.L J r,. in the column formulas t1f AISC-E~ tabe, texl
Chapter 6). · · ·
To develop the r 1:; equatio n. set Eq. 8 .1 2 .9 egual Lo the Eukr equalion.
1r2E EC.11-1T2 GJ
2
=--- +-
(L/rE) ,,, L2 1,,
C.,, GJ L~
+ ---
(, t:::I,11r2
which fòr steel with E/G = 2.6 givcs

== le JL-2
---3!!. + 0.04 - -
rE (8.12.10,
\j 1,, 1
p
• . - . lt has been demonstrated rhal only for short lengths w,-11

Jor <loubly symmeu·1c sec110ns. · · rE
be lower than r, and r" for W shapes [6.9). . . .
. ·. · ,nay buckle in a combmanon flexural-tors1ona1 "'""-
Smg1y symmetnc sec1JOn5 , . '"~.
which will depend on the Euler column buckling 5 lress Fc)" for ax~s of sy~metry, and lhe
. al buckJ"m g stress pa (Eq. g · 12 ·9) · A1SC-E4
tors,on ·
g1ves ,he elasuc buckJmg stress F, ,or
r
the combined mode as
where f ~y = 2
(8.12.12)
( Ky l./ry)
F,z =(;:~i~+ GJ) ;P (8.12.13)
x2 + YÒ)
H=l - _o_ _ =lx-+- -
ly
(8.12.14)
( r5 IP
J,, = Ar5 = I~ + ly + A(xb + Yb) (8.12.15)
E = tension-compression modulus of elasticity, ksi
G = shear modulus of e lasticity, ksi
Cw = torsional warping constant, in.6
J = torsion constant, in.4
lx, ly = moment of i nenia about principal axes, x and y
4
IP = polar moment of inertia, Eq. 8. 12. 15, in.
K,,, K l = effective length factors in the y-direction, and for torsional buckling
(z-axis)
x0 , y0 = coordinates of shear center with respect to centroìd of sec:1.ion, in.
ry = radius of gyration about the axis of symmelry
r0 = potar radius of gyration about the shear center
EXAMPLE 8.12.1
For the sections given in Fig. 8.12.2, detennine under what conditions, if any, torsional or
tlexural-torsional buckling is likely to occur under axial compressìon lo ading. Assume the
members pinned at the ends of the unbraced lengths, and free to warp at the ends. fully
recognizing thai these two assumptions minimize buckling strength.
Solution:
(a) W8X31. Since the centroid and shear center coincide, use Eq. 8.12.1 Oto get tbc
equivalent re:
1 = H2(7.995)(0.435)3 + 1.13(0.28s)3] = o.494 in.4

(ATSC Manual Table l-1, J = 0.536 in.4 )
Section 8.12 Torsional Buc:kling •
Shear
\-"; centcr
CGand 0.?15
.120
~ 7y ~
shcar
e.enter X - - -=,:-;- I
CG 8.215
0.430 l
2 19
W8X31
/ \.L8><8X .!_
2
WTSx 18.5 Shear ccntcr
A = 9.13 sq ìn.
A =tl.38 >qin.
I_,= 110 in.4
I., = 48.7 in.' A= 7.1S Ml in.
I , = 3?.I in.' li= 1, = 48.6 in.•
I,= 21.6 in.'
,, = 2.02 in. r.1e:: 2.41 in. ,-J = '~- =- 2.SO in.
r, = l .60 i_n _ r, = J.S9 in.
~~,~ s.I_2.2ExamPle 8.12.1. (Il)
(b) (e)
l'*-:- tor
~u0115
Cw = h2 ly/4 = (8.00 - 0.435)2(37.1 )/ 4 = 531 in.6

(AISC Manual, Cw = 530 in.6 )
IP= lx + ly = 110 + 37.l = 147.l in.4
rE
- )Cw + 0.04,;
--ç JL2
= -
531
- + 0.04
0.494L1 (144)
147.1 147.l
= Y3.61 + 0.0193L2
where L is the unsupported length, in feet. Only when L is less than 4.9 fl does r-'" ex.ceed r1:;
?nly fo~ a very short column is torsional buckling a possibility, and even when ,.E approaches
1ts mm1mum value (when L = O), whìch is rF. ( min) = 1.90 in.. it is 011ly 6% l~s than r, ·
Tue result using this section is typical of standard w and S shapes and ind1cates tor-
sional buckling may generally be neglected for them.
(b) WT8X28.5. The centroìd and shear center do not coincide. but the section has
one axis of symmetry; use Eq. 8.12.11:
3
J = j[(7.l2)(0.715) 3 + 7.50(0.430)31 = 1.066 ì.n.
Using the formula from text Appendix Table A2.
3
_ _!_[(7.120) (0.715)
3 3 3] = l.85 ·m.6
C-w - + (7.50) (0.430)
36 4
6
T he AISC Manual [ l . l 5. Table 1- Il gives J = 1.1 O in. 3 and C,c = 1.99 in.
IP = lx + lv + Ay5 = 48.7 + 21.6 + 8.38(1.S8f ~ = 91-~in.~
2 1
For use in Eq. 8.12.11, compute the criticai stresses FC\. and f ~: from Eqs. 8.1 - ~-
h 0
and 8.12.13 using for an effective length KL (for y- and ::-;x.es) the common lengl
10 fl:
n 2 (29,000)
F - - -~ - ---'-~ = 50.9 ksi
~,. - [1.0( 10)(12)/1.60] 2
= ( !2! ~ + Gl ) -I [8.12.13]
F, ,. ( KcL)2 lp
_(r. 2 (29,000)1.85 + 29,0_~0(I.Ob6 ) ) -1- = 131 ksi

Fa - (l.O(LO) l 2 ]2 2.6 91.2
. . fi·oin tl1e centroid of the section to the shear center at the junclion or
The d 1stance }o .
18
ib.c mid-thicknesses of the flange and the web
Yo =Y _ ti/ 2 = 1.94 - 0.7 1.5/2 = 1.58 in.

xo =o
1P = 9 l.2 in.4 ( computed above)
H _ I, + ly = 48.7 + 2 1.6 = 0.7?
- fp 91.2
Tben using Eq. 8.12. 11.

_ + ( / 4(50.9) (131 )0.n) - .·
F - -50 9- - 131
- l - , II - ,, - 45.3 ks1.
e - 2(0.77) \/ (50.9 + 131 )-
Equating F, to Euler's formula, an equivalent radius re of gyration for flexural-torsional buck-

ling can be obtained to compare with r_.. and ry,
229,000
1T2 E ?T
45.3 = 2 = (120/ ri-)2
(KL/ rE)
'E = 1.51 in.
In this case 'E is less than ,,. =
1.60 in. and flexural-torsional buckJing is criticai for
ordinary lengths. The same situation will occur with double angle cornpression members.
An equal leg angle (such as in Fig. 8.12.2c) will have z2 as ìts axis of symmetry, and the
radius of gyration with respect to rhat axis must be used for '>' in Eq. 8.12. 12. 1
As a conclusion to this treatment, the designer is cautioned about using open sec-
tions (torsionally weak sections) in compression having less than two axcs of symmetry.
particularly when high wìdth/thickness ratios exist for the elements. The width/thickness
ratio limits (À, in AISC-B4) for contro! of locai buckling, if not exceeded, provide some
contro\ since locai buckling of sections such as angles, flanges, and tees is closely relatCI!
to torsional buckling.
SELECTED REFERENCES
8. I . Arthur P. Boresi, Richard J, Schmidr, and Omar M. Sìdebottom. Advanced Mechanics o( Materials. 5rh
ed. New York: John Witey and Sons. [ne., 1993, Chap. 6. ·
8.2. S. Timoshenko. Strengt/1 of Marerials. Part li, 2nd ed. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, lnc.. 1941
Chap. 6.
8.3. William McGuirc. Steel Structuns. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. lnc., 1968. pp. 346-400.
8.4. lnge Lyse and Bruce G. Johnston. "Structural Beams in Torsion," Transacrions, ASCE. 101 (19361.
878-926 (includes Discussions).
R.S. l'. K. O,ang alld Btuce G. lohn<1on. "Tor,.ion of Plate Girde,.,.," Tmmactìrm.,. ASCE. 119 I 195:l). 3, 7- 396.
R.6. Gerald G. Kubo Bruc . G Joh . G·-•- ··
T - ' e · n~1on, and Willi.am J Fnt\· ··Nonunifonn TfKMon of Plate lnM;,i,,
mn.,·act1<m.,. ASCE. l21 <1956). 759- 785. (Good ~.;m,;,~ ofh-.n;ic,n tho.>1"'.)
8.7 · I. A. El Darwish and B
,·ion ASCI! .
e· I . · / l)' ·
™"-e '· ol\nsh)n. "Tuf'i.ion of S1nu.:tural Shapes..~· Jm,rruil '!f thl' Stn1rmm i\,.
1'. · · . " 91• STI (February 1%5), 203-227. r,_,,..,ua· 92, STI (Februan• 1966). 471. Sec "'"'
run:.·awon.,. ASCE. 131 ( 1%6). 428-429 for summar)· or equatìons. •
8.8. Paul A. Seabum and Ch• l . 1 e . "-- · G 'A,, .,_ ·
N 9 . ·e. ....r e.s - a.ner. Tr,r.umwl Analui.\· of Sll·tl ,U~ml>t-rJ, St«~t uc:,1.gn u,~ Jçne,
o. · Ch,c.,go IL: America" lnsti1utc of Stecl Clln~t,;,c,io~. l H, pp.. l'197.
89
· · Jol~n_G. Hotchk.i~,. ''Tor,;ion ofRolled S1eel Section, in Building Strutture,." r,.,ginurin11J,, i1m.,I.
AISC.. 3, I (January 1966). 19--45 _
&. IO. Conmil P: Hein,. Jr. and John T. C. Kuo. ''Torsional Propenies of Com('l·•site-Girde"':· En11ineering
Jom710/. AISC. 9, 2 (Aprii 1972), 79_ _
85
I!. I I. S. Timo~hen~n. 'Thcory of Bending, Torsion. and Buckling of 11,in-'WalleJ Memhe.n. of O1,cn Cm"-
Scchon, J. fronk/in lnsr.. 239, 3, 4, and 5 (1945), 201-219. 249-268. and 343-161
8 2
· I · John E. Goldberg. "Torsion ofl-Typc and H-l'ype Bcarns." Transactionr. ASCE, 118 Cl953). 711 .. 193
8 13
· · Kuang-~~11 Chu and Roben B. Johnson. "Torsion in Beams wìth Open Sec1ion,." Juunwl rf ih,• 51r1,<··
"""' Dmsio11. ASCE, 100, ST7 (July 1974), 1397-1419.
8 4
· 1 · Bruce G. lohnsl()n. ''Design of W-Shapes for Combine<! Bcnding ao<I Torsion." Engù,eering Jou,.,,al.
AISC. 19, 2 (Se-eond Quaner 1982). 65-85.
&. l S. Philip H. l.in. ''Sìmplitìed Design for Torsional Loa<lìng of Rollcd Stccl Members." F.ngò,i,-o-ing Jo,..--
na/, AISC, 14, 3 (TI1ird Quaner 1977), 98-107.
8 16
- · Phil H. Lin. Discussion of "Design of W-Shapes for Combined 8ending and T,>rsion," by Bru..-t G. John-
sion. E11gineeri11g lournal, AISC. 20, 2 (Second Quaner 1983 ). 82-87.
8.1? · J. N . Goodier and M. V. Banon. "Tue EffecL< of Web Deformation on the Torsion or 1-Beam~:· J. Appl.
Mech., March 1944, p. A-35.
8. I 8. J. E. Lothers. "Torsion in Steel Spandrel Girders:· Transactfrms, ASCE. lll <1947). 345-37<,.
8.19. Min-Tse Chen and Dooald E. Jolissaint, Jr. "Pure and Warping Torsion Analysis of Rig,d hamc, :·
Jmm,a/ ofStruc1ura/ E11gi11uring. ASCE. 109, 8 (Augusi 1983). 1999-2003.
8.20. Morris Ojalvo. Discussion of "Warping and Distonion at 1-Scction Joints," by P. Vacharajiniphan anlt
N. S. Trahair, Jouma/ ofrl,e Sm,c111ro/ Divisio11, ASCE. tot, STI (.lanuàry 1975). 34~-345.
8.21. Conrad P. Heins and Robert A. Potocko. "Torsional S1iffoning of 1-Girde.r Webs:· .lmmwl o_f'tlie Srmr·
rum/ Division, ASCE, 105, ST8 (August 1979). 1689- 1698.
8.22. Morris Ojalvo. Discussion of "Torsillnal Stiffeoing ofl-Girder Webs." by C. P. Hcins and R. A Potnck,i.
Joumal ojtl,e Siructural Di1ùiorr, ASCE, 106, ST4 (Aprii 1980). 939.
8.23. P~rpan Vacharajittiph.an and Nicholas S. Trahair. "Warping anJ Diswnion at 1-Section Join1s:· .Tmmwf
o} the Sm,cturnl Division. ASCE. 100, ST3 (March 1974), 547-564
8.24. Charles G. Salmon. Discussion of "Design of W-Shapes for Combined Bending and Tor~ion.'' by l:lnh :c
G. Johns1011, F.rigineeri11g Jo1m10/, AlSC. 19, 4 (Founh Quarter 1982). 215-216.
8.25. Brucc G. Johnston, F. J. Lin, and T.V. Galambos. Bo.,·ic Steel Design, 3rd ,'ti. En~le\\01.xi Cliff,. NJ·
Prcntice-Hall. lnc., l 986.
8.26. Wamer Lansing. "TI1in-Wallcd Memberl< in Combincd Torsion and Rexure." Jiw,.,aoi,m,. ASCE. l l8
( 1953), 128-146. (Panicular empha~is on channel and zec seclions.)
8.27 · Donal<l R. Evick. and Conrad P. Heins. Jr. "Torsioo of Nonprismati<: Beams or Ope11 Sc1.·tinn." J,,,,mol cf
the Structura/ Divisio11, ASCE, 98, STI 2 (December 1972). 2769-2ì84.
8.28. Basil Sourochnikoff. "Strength of 1-0eams in Combined Ben<.ling and Torsinn." Jh.msactì,,,u. ASCE.
ll6 (1951). 1319-1342.
8.29. K. G. Tamberg and P. T MikJuchin. ' Torsional Phenomena Analysi, and Con.:retc S1rn1.·ture Design ...
Analysis ,!fSn11c11,m/ Systemsfor Torsiou. SP-., 5. American C oncrclc lnslitute. 197.\. l -1 O~.
8.30. Avinadav Siev, "Tnrsion in Closcd Scctions:· E11gi11eerì11g Joumal. AISC. J.. 1 (Ja,uiary 196(,), -l{>-)-l.
8.J I. Lewis P. Fclton and M. \V. Oobbs. "Optimum Design ofTubcs for 0.-nding ,md To~ion." Jounwl cfihe
S111,ctuml Divisìo,,, ASCE. 93, ST4 (Augus1 1967). 185-200.
8 .32. Cari L. Shern,cr. 'T on;ional Strcn~th and S1iffne<s of Stcel Structttrcs:· En)!inuri.,g .l,,umol. AlSC. 17,
2 (Second Quan er 1980). 33- .17. -
8.33. Kuang-Han C hu and Anatolc Longinow...Toi;ion in Section, with O pen ,md Cl\lsed l':ins... l 1>1mwl ,f
the Strnc111rn/ Divisilm. ASCE. 93, ST6 (Decelllbcr 1967\. ~13- 2'2ì.
8 .34. Tony Lue and Duane S. Ellifrin...TilC Warping Co11sta111 for thc W-Scction " ilh a Channd Cap:·
En11ineerin11 Jo11m11I, AISC, 30. 1 (First Quancr 1993). :H -'.'3.
8.35. Roben G. Driver and D. J. Laurie Kcnncdy. ''Combined Flexurc and T<>r-.i,,n ,,f l-~h,1p,·d S tl·d 8 camS:'
Canadim, Jnumal oJCì,·il E11gi1weri11g, 16 ( 1989). 124-1:W.
PROBLEMS
'..\.Il design problems are to be done according to che AISC LRFD Method or 1he AISC ASD Method, as indicated by
rnstructor. Ali given loads are service loads unless mhewise indicated. For ali problems assume adequate latera/ ~u the
of the compression flange such rhat !arerai stabili()' does noi control. Assume all standard sections are equally. r PPon
~1~
available in the indicated grade of steel (even though actually they are not). A figure showing span and loading is requtred.
8. 1. For lhe charme! shown in the accompanying figure, 8.3. Repeac the requirements of Prob. 8.1 for the SCc .
11
separately apply Vx and Vy through che centroid of of the accompanying figure. on
the section. For each shear compute and draw to
scale the shear flow rt distribution along each of
the elements of lhe cross-section. On the two sepa-
rate diagrams (one for v,. and one for V,.) of shear r=-
l"
4
tlow distributi.on compute the tota! shear force in
each element of thc cross-section in tem1s of the f- '--- -- x
applied shear Vx or V". Using these computcd shear
forces calculate the · two coordinates of lhe shear
2
-fl 1 . - 1 - - - - - I, " 17.25 in.•
center.
L-.....
/P7
I
/ 1--~-! 4 "----.. .
.,_J /, = 3.91 in.'
I ,.= + 3.25in.'
0.833"
'I' Dimensions refe,
Y to ccnterlines
of elemcms
1- Problem 8.3
1
10· -
,.. 8.4. Repeat the requirements of Prob. 8.1 for the sect'
I . fi 10n
I
3" o fh
t e accompanymg 1gure.
I, = J92.7in.• I I 4 avg
', = 19.14 in.• j
l = l.087 in.
Problem 8.1
8.2. Repeat the requirements of Prob. 8.1 for the chan-

nel with sloping flanges. Comment on the effect of Standard anglt
using average thickness instead of the actual slop- Problem 8.4 L8 X 6 x i
ing flanges for determining shear center on stan-
dard rolled channels.
8.5. Repeat the requirements of Prob. 8. ; for tbe section
of the accompanying figure.
Z section
( = 19.19in.'
I,= 9.05in'
_l
Problem 8.2 Problem 8.5 y
Problems • 409
she.1~ cenler f~r the comhined w and
(I. l))Cllle the
8- ,hannel crane _g1rder secuon. Is there significanr (b) Compure the torsion constant J. thc warping
error in assummg the ~hear center Jies al the cen- constant Cw, and À (i.e., Ila); then use them in
iroid? Use averagc th1ckness and constant depth pans (e) through (I).
for the channel. (e) Compute the combined bending stress. includ-
Cl 2X20.7 ing warping torsion and ordinary flexure com -
ponents, ai ::: = O, 0.3L , and 0.5L unlcss
otherwise instrucled.
(d) Compute the maximum shcar stress in thc
W27 X 94 web, including Saint-Venant torsional shear
and flexural shear, at the same locations indi-
cated in (e).
Problem 8.6 (e) Compure the flange shear force VI due to

warping resrraint at the same locatious indi-
cated in (e) .
_ An MC I 8X58 is to be used on a 24-fi simply su _
81 (f) Compute che maximum shear stress in the
· ported span t~ ca~ry a tolal load of 0.8 kips/ft, wi~b
the toad apphed m the piane of ihe web. Suppose flange., including Saint-Venant torsion, warp-
the f}anges are to have attachments so that the ing shear. and vertical flexure flan ge shear, al
channel will bend vertically about the x-axi.~. the same locations indicated in (e) .
What lateral moment capacity M ,, sho uld rhe (g) Give a tabular summary of all stresses.
a«acbments be capable of resisting? \Vhat pcrcent
of Mx does this represent? 8.9. Develop the torsion differential e.quation solutio n
for the cantilever beam with an cccentric concen-
8 (a) Develop the torsion differential equation solu- trated load at ils end, and compute coostants and
8· · tion for the W section having torsionally fixed stresses as given in items (b) through (e) of Prob.
ends and an cccentrically applied concentrated 8.8. fs there any relationship between this problem
Ioad at midspan. and Prob. 8.8?
Neglecr
bcam de ad
weighr P: 30 kips
1--- -- 20'- 0" _ _ _ _J \Vl4 X 90

/ Torsiorrnl fixiry ., /
~ '---.
~ --==~=-------~
Topvicw
Probleni 8.8
I ~ kips
Neglecl
beam wcighr
- -- -10'-0" - - _j \Vl2X 96
Fi xed ~::::: - - - - - - - - - - - -] Free
Problem 8.9
41 O • Chapter 8 Torsion
8.10. De\'elop the torsion differential equation solution for The ends of the span are assumed to be Ji
the unifonn!y loaded bearn with loadi.ng appJied
.
borh flexure and tors1on.
lf "
exact" solur
IXtdf
°' '
eccemrically to the web. Consil!er the ends torsional1y obtained in Prob. 8.1 L c heck maxirnu ton "'ai
.
using that so!utton.
rn stresI
simply supported. Compute constanL5 and srresses as
given in icems (b) through (e) of Prob. 8.8.
Wo WL Steel ~
ccentricity
w = 1.5 kips/ fr (noc incL bean-i weigh1)
i'Ìlll!!lll!illlI;l -4 !·- 6"
Oead
toad
Live
load
Span
length
yield
stress
Of
loading
----
Case {kips/ft) (kips/ftl (ft) (ksi)
On.)
J
30'-0' ___ _ _
Tors iona! simple Sllppon
===============+t
Probkm 8.10
J
\
IW""" /
, i
2
3
4
0.35
0.35
0 .35
0.35
l.4
1.4
l.4
l.4
26
26
26
26
50
50
50
so
ì
5
3
8.11. Repeat Prob. 8.J O, considering the ends torsion-

8.15. For the case (or case.s) listed in Prob. g_14
assigned by the ins~ctor, select the lightest W:
rion. using the /3 modified flexure analogy app!'l)ach,
al!y fixed.
to c'."1)' unifon~ loading »\ in addition to the Weigln
8. 12. Repeat Prob. 8.8, with the load app!ied in the piane of me beam. The ends of the span are sirnp"· •y sup.
of the y-axis of a chaonel, C 15X50. poned for both flexure and torsion. lf the ··exacr
solution is available (solution ro Prob 8.11), check
8.13. For the case (or ca5es) assigned by the insrructor, stresses using the soluiion.
select the lightest Wl4 section, using the /3 modi-
fied flexure analogy approach, to carry a concen- 8.16. For the case (or cases) listed in llrob. 8.14 and
trated load W at midspan, in addition to the wcight assigned by the instructor, compare the solution
of the beam. The ends of the sirnply supported using A36 and A572 Grade 50 steels. Assume 1be
spanare assumed to have torsional simple support. Grade 50 costs 7% more per pound !han A36. lndi-
Check the stresses in the section selected using the cate the economica! solutìon lo the problem.
"exact" solution for assumed conditions as devel- Assume ends simply supported for t1exure but fixoo
oped in Example 8.5.2. for torsion.
8.17. Given the 40-ft simply supported span carrying two

Fy e symmetrically placed concentrated ìoads, 20% dea.i
Wo WL Steel Eccentricity load and 80% live load, as shown in the accompa.
Dead Live Span y ield of nying figure. If the Joads are eccentric to the web bv
Case
load
(kips)
load
(kips)
length
(ft)
stress
(ksi)
loading
(in.)
5 in., and lhe member is tors:on:ùly simply su;
ported, select the li ghtest W 14 section suitable
I 7 22 24 50 2 using the (3 modified flexure analogy method.
2 7 22 24 50 3
3 7 22 24 50 4
4 10 15 26 50 2
5 IO 15 26 50 3
6 IO 15 26 50 4 S"
7 IO 15 26 50 5
8 IO 15 26 so 6
9 IO 15 26 so 7 - - - 40'- 0" - --
8.14. For the case (or cases) assigned by the instructor,

select the lightest W section, using the {3 modi·
~---------------l<t
-------~-------
fied tlexure analogy approach, to carry uniform
loading w, in addition to the weight of the beam. Problem 8.17
Problems • 411
g (o,
a ')11e J0-ft simply supponed
.
(for M , .) span ..
Ls to
· carrv 1wo symmetncally placed con 8.20. A sirnply supported beam is to carry 0.2 kip/ft
.. , . · ccntrated
Joads of 8 k1ps dead load and 14 kips live load dead load and 0.6 kip/ft live load on a span of 24
.
Mated_ 10 ft from lhe suppo11s. Thc load,s are 6-m. ft. A channel section is to be used, and since it is
).,.,
eccent11c 10 the_web, and full fixi1y is assumed for nut laterally restrained, torsion is to be considered
in the design. Assume rhe member is torsionally
lorsional restraint.
. Select the lighrest · w secuon
. ,.
simply supported. After computing the torsional
using the f3 mod1fied tlexure analogy meihod.
moment, use the generally accepted approximate
tlexure analogy 10 make a seleccion of a channel
scc1ion frnm che A/SC Manual. lnvc•aigate the
L0'-0' stress on the selecced section using the exact solu-
tion based on the stated loading and support
condition. Use A36 steel.
I - 30' Loading in lhe pian<

~ Tors\onal w : 0.8 kip/ft (iocludc. bum wciçh1)
ofthewcb
€:---===== ====='-fixiry J).'""'''"'''"l'i

. . . . - --2-4'-0"___J
problcrn 8.18
~ - ----- --~
_ _ Estimate, using the modified flexure analogy Problem 8.20
8 19
design procedure used for W shapes and crane
girders, the uniformly distributed load capacity
20% dead load and 80% live load, fora Cl5 XS0 of 8.2 l . Assume a single W section is to serve as a crane
A36 steel. The ends of the beam are restrained nmway girder which canies a vertical loading, as
against rotati on ( <P = O), but the ends are free 10 shown. In addìtion, design must include an axial
warp. Ch~ck stresses using the differential equa- compressive farce of 14 kips and a horizontal
tion solution. force of 4 k.ips on each wheel applied at 4 ~ in.
above che top of the compression flange. A~sume
torsional simple support at the ends of che beam.
l Piane of loading Select the lighte,t Wl4 seccion of A992 siecl
using the /3 modified flexure analogy approach.
Note: Ali loads except wcight of the crane runway
girder are live loads.
8.22. Compare the 1orsional consrnnts J for each of the
~-- -- ------ - ~ sections of the acco mpanying figure. lf the maxi-
mum shear stres~ is 14 ksi , compute the ton;.ioual
moment capac ity of each section. Can this be doue
problem 8. l 9 for the W 30X99? Explain.
J; ~ 3k ac1s a1
each 40k
venical
L-- - 40' · _ __.I
-o·~ load
moving cr.1ne
wheel loads
#=--- ------=====~ (wi1hou1 irnpact)
Wl4 sec1ion
Problem 8.21
length of I O ft. At what length Wou.ld .
li I
buck.ling be likely to contro!'? '
LII·-½ (a) MC10X6.5
(b) L4X4X¼
(e) WT7Xl5
L-- 30"-_J WJO X99
(d) Zee scction shown
{a) <b)
y z
I /
Problem 8.22 i / I"
I ·1
~
l-
I ,, = t.62 in.
8.23. Investigate thc possibility of torsional buckling ·: 1·, ./ / · ~ 16
occuning on the following beams: (a) WJ6X31;
(b) W6XJ6; (e) M8 X6.5. For each, plot equivalenl
,--- I --x 4"
/ ,! l ', "=
_
r, 1.33 in,
0.67 in.
,. " 10.51 in.•
slendemess ratio rE against length of column. I .

/
Give conclusions. I
/
y
8.24. Estimate the buckJing load, assuming zero residuai
stress and elastic buckling so that Eulcr's equation
Probleni 8.24
applies, on the following sections for a pfo-end
--
Lateral-Torsional
ckling of Beams
RATIONAL ANALOGY TO PURE C OLUMNS

9.l
Emphasis i n this chapter is on the lateral stabilicy considerations associated v. ich bending
about thc strong axis o f the section. I.n beams. as in axially !oaded columns. it is not possi-
ble lo achieve perfect Joading, i.e., beams are nevec perfectly traight. not perfectl) homo-
geneous, and are usualty not loaded in exactly the piane thar i~ as;;umed for de~ign and
analysis.
Consider the compressi on zone of the laterally unsupported bearn of Fig,. 9. 1. I. \\7ith
the loading in thc plane of thc web, according 10 ordinary beam theory. point:,; A and B are
equally s tressed. Impe rfections in the beam a nd accidcntal e.ccentricity in loading ac1ually
result in different s tresses at A and B. Furthem,ore. residuai stre_ses a.s discu:..:..ed in
Chapter 6 contribute 10 unequal stresses across the flange width at any disiance from the
ne utra\ axis.
L3teral deOcction
Oansc \ l-+1.
of the cornpress,ol\
1
B A
Loading in pia~ of web

~
-j!!lr-nn1mm_ _ 8 A •
-- - _ - -- ---- -
::: :;:- - - _ :::-- A
figure 9-I.I S1dt· vu.•v,, S,dc , ''"'

Ball1 larerally supported (b)
(a)
only ar ics ends.
4 13
414 • Chapter 9 Lateral-Torsiona! Buckling of Beams
l k upon che compression flange of a beam as

In a qualitative way one may oo . , 6 The reçtangular flange . a coJ.
umn, with ali the considerations rreate? 1l1 ~hap~er b~ndino about an axis sue~ a colurnn
would ordinarily buckle in its weak d_1recuon, y ort lO ;event such bucklin as l~I of
Fio-. 9.1. lb. but the web provides cononuous supp P • . , g. ~t h1gher
"' fl nge wi li tend 10 bucklc by bending about ax1s 2 2
compressive Joads the reccangu1ar a . . - · - of
. .. . Id b lù. g of the flange about 1ts strong ax1s m a lateraJ di
Flg · 9 · I · lb · Il 1s th1s sue e n uc m kl' The ana Io 0 y between th . ree_
tion that is commonly reforred to as lateral bue mg. . "' e co~Pres.
sion tlange of a beam and a colunm is mtendcd to present only the generai behav10r for
Jateral buckling. . ,ai· th
In order to evaluate this behavior more prec1sely, one must re ize . at the comprcs.
sion flange is not only braced in its weak direction _by its attach'.nent via_ the web to the
. fl but tlie web also provides contmuous restnunt (rotatJonal and tran
sta bi e lenston ange, . b s-
· . 110
· n ot' the flange and web (assunung the we a. nd flange places ,~0
verse ) a Iong the JUnc . . . _ ~
continuously attached). Thus rhe bending snffness of the web brmgs the ent1re sec11on into
al'.Lion when lateral motion commences.
9.2 LATERAL SUPPORT

Rarely does a beam eX_ist with ics compression tlange entirely free of ali restraint. Even
when it does not have a positive conneccion to a floor or roof SySLem, there is stili friction
between the beam flange and whatever it supports. There are cwo categories of lateral sup-
pon that are definite and adequate; these are:
1. Continuous lacera! suppon by embedmenc of the compression flange in a con-
crete floor slab (Fig. 9.2.la and b).
2. Latera! support at intervals (Fig. 9.2. le through g) provided by cross beams, cross
frames, ties, or struts, framing in laterally, where the lateral system is itself adequately stiff
and braced.
It is necessary to examine noc only the individuai beam for adequate bracing, but also
the entire system. Figure 9.2.2a shows beam AB with a cross beam framing in at
midlength, but buckling of the entire system is stili possible unless che sysLem is braced,
such as shown in Fig. 9.2.2b.
Ali too frequently in design, the engineer encounters sicuations that art none of lhese
well-defined cases. A conunon unknown situation occurs when heavy beams have Jight-
gage steel decking resistance welded to them; certainly providing a degreec: of restraint
aJong the member. However lhe stiffness and lateral strength may be questioned. Other
quesrionable cases are (a) where bracing frames into the beam in question. but it is a1 or
near the tension flange; (b) timber or lighc-gage decking floor systems chat resi on but are
noi solidly attached to che beams; (e) rigid frames that are enclosed in Jight-gage metal
sheathing.
However, it is better to assume no lateraJ support ìn doubtful sìtuations. Allema-
tively, it may be possible in some cases to evaluate it as an elastic restraint. Such an ana-
lytical approach is discussed in Sec. 9.13.
Lateral support must not be ignored; probably most failures in steel structures are lhe
result of inadequate bracing against lateral instability of some type. The engineer is aiso
reminded to consìder carefully the construction stage when ali of the restraints which mav
eventually act are not yet in piace. ·
Section 9.2 Latera! Support • 415
Largc g irder with stud shear connectors 011 1o p flan ge to be embedded in concrete to pro-
vide continuous latend support (sec Fig. 9.2.1 b). (Photo by C. G. Sahnon)
Flange
t'"mbt'.dded
(al
i hl
;\ngk":
OD
i IeI
Or,,n
\\Ch
_Ìt)t, h
1d)
'
\\'ekkd
lt't
~ W ddcd ,,r bohed

Rool vurlin
figure 9.2. I
Typrs ot. detìnite lateral s upport. ( fl
I
I
2-'-=
- j\ 1(tHl
beamor
ngid frn mt
r1,.1('1f
416 • Chapter 9 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Beams
A
A I \
~
\
\
\
\
\
\
'
\
\
I
\
\
\
\
\
\
I
'
I
l
\
I \ I I I I
I I I
\ I I l
\ l
I I I I I
r J r ! '
r I
l
I
I
I
r
'
J ;
J I
J
J '
J
I r l
\
l
\
I J I
I I I I
I J
I J I
B
figure 9.2.2 Il tb) Braccd
Latera! bud.Jing of a roof
(:i) !;nbraced
or floor s:,,stem.
9.3 STRENGTH OF I-SHAPED BEAMS UNDER UNIFORM MOMENT

In the development of design equations. the case of constanl (uniform) moment alon
laterally unbraced Jength is usually used as the basic case for later_al-torsional buck]j! a
Usinoe the analogy of the compression flange as a. column, the uniform moment eauses g.
-
constant compression in one flange over the enure unbraced length. When ther 1.
moment gradient (variation in moment)
· · the compression farce in. the flange ~a
· :,ane~
a ong the unbraced Ieng th , resu Itmg rn a 1ower average compression force over tb
I
length. The lower averaee
- compression force means less likelihood of lateral- tors1ona1· at
buckling.
Lateral-torsional buckling is a limil state that may contro! the strength of a be
Tue gen~ral behavior of a_ beam m~y be represented by Fig. 9.3. l from Yura, Galam:-
and Ranndra [9.1). As d1scussed_m Chapter _ 6 , Pan n_, l~cal buckhng of the plate etc'.
ments (such as the flange or web) m compress1on may ltmll the strength of a section. Tue
maximum strength of a beam will be its plastic rnoment strength Mp as discusscd in
Chapter 7.
. Whether or not the plastic moment strengm is reached, failure will be one of the fol-
lowmg modes:
1. LocaJ buckling of the flange in compression.
2. Locai buck1ing of the web ìn flexural compression.
3. Lateral-torsional buckling.
- -- - - Rotation capadty = R dH - --
dH I ---..l
M" --- ------- ~ -,--

1
I
M_,
a
"oe
~ M,
Figure 9.3.1
Beam behavior (From o
Yura, Galambos. and
Ravindra [9. I )) Deflcction
Section 9.4 Elastic Lateral-Torsional Buclcling • 417
I
I
l
1-- RO - -i
I
I
: I
1__ Required
'°',
1
Onsèl of
s:train
: 1> 1.,.__.....,.......I ro1a.rion
I I hardening
I ~ capacity
Fi ure 9.3.2 . .
g nnation ruiu1remems for
1
I)
8.,1 .,
[)efOI ping plastic strength. Ro1>1ion
deve o A veraic Flange S1rain
Four categories of behavior are represented in Fig. 9.3. 1:

1. Plastic momem strength Ml' is achieved along with large deformation. Deforma-
tton ability, called rotatio11 capacity as shown in Fig. 9.3.2, is essentially the abìl-
ity to undergo large flange strain without instability.
2. I~elastic behavior where plastic momenc strengt.h M P is achieved but little rota-
tion capacity is exhibited, because of inadequate stiffness of the flange and/or
web to resist locai buckling, or inadequate lateral suppon to resist lateral-tor-
sional buckling, while the flange is inelastic.
3. lnelastic behavior where the moment strength M,, the moment above which
residuai stresses cause inelastic behavior to bee:.in. is rcached or exceeded: how-
ever, locai buckling of the flange or web, or Ìat~ral-torsional buckling prevent
achieving the plasric moment strength MP.
4. Elastic behavior where moment slfength Mc, is conirolled by elastic buckling: any
or ali of locai flange buckhng, locai web bucklìng, or laLeral-to rsional buckling.
Most rolled W shapes have low enough slcnderness ratios (h1/ 2r1 for flange and
h/tw or d/rw for the web) such that they are categorized as ·'compact"" as discussed in
Chapter 7. For such cascs, achievement of the plastic moment M" depends on the laterally
unbraced length l1,. A long laterally unbraced length wi li indicate moment strength Mcr
controlled by elastic lateral-torsional buckling.
9.4 ELASTIC LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING

Because structural design requires a thorough unòerscanding of :,tability. the follo" ing
development ìs presented of the basic equation for the elastic l:tteral-tol").i(,nal buckling
strength Mc, of an 1-shaped beam under the action of con~tant (unifom1) n10men! acting in
the piane of the web.
More <letailed trealment of th.is unifonn nrnment case ruc \', ell as othcr , ommon h>ad-
ing cases is to be found in Timosbenko and Gerc J6.67J, Bleich l6 9). de Vri~!'> f9. 2l.
Hechtman et al. [9.3 I. Austin et al [9.4\, Clark ,1nd fombod: 19.5 l. S::ilvadon l9.6l. ,111ù
Gaiambos (9. 7].
Diffeiential Equation for Elastìc La tcral-Tor~iona l Buc~.J1ng
R...:ferring to Fig. 9.4.1, which shows the ucam in a budj ,.;d po~;111,:-,. lt i:. ,1b,t:n 1.:d u,;:l tt,,,
arr,:ied moment Mo in the y: piane will giw rbe 10 mom·~•ll ,,1mr•'1•c··1-, \t, . ~I , :inù
." (· . ahout the x'-, y'-. and z' - axes. re~pet !iv·d_. Tlii~ mean:- t1,.-:r~· w:li t'i<.' 'v~nd l!f! l"ltr\ ,1-
tu:·,, in L,oth the x' z' and y' z' planes "' v d i as tr,r~ion~i en ·, a1 ...1e .1~ •1: ( !he :-.' -,1:,.i,.
y
y'
X
x' <J, r'

__>----
- V
Section A-A
(<)
(a) Top vicw
Direction Co&ines.
X )'
x' _ è_
rl> d,
dv
y' -<J, - d!
z'
-1· du dv
dt d,
Figure 9.4. 1
I-shaped beam in slightly
buckled positi<)n. (b) Side view
Assuming small defonnation, the bending in the y' z' plan~ (considering the direc1ion
cosine is l between y' - and y-, and z' - and z-axes) may be wntten
d 2v
El -
.r dz.2 = M "· = Mo (9.4.1)
where vis the displacemenL of the centroid in the y direction (see Fig. 9.4. lt>).
Also, the curvature in the x' z' piane is
(9.4.2)
as is seen from Fig. 9.4.1 e, where u is the displacement of the centroid in the x direction
The differential equation for torsion of 1-shaped beams was developed in Cbapter
as Eq. 8.5.9, as follows:
3
dr/> d <f,
M., = GJ- - EC - f8.5.IOJ
- dz w dz3
From Fig. 9.4.1 and the direction cosines, the torsionaJ component of Mo when the beam ·
slightly buckled is proportional to the slope of the beam in the xz piane:
du
Ml = - - M 0
dz
Section 9.4 Elastic Lateral-Torsional Buckling • 419
which gives for the torsional differential equation
du d<J> d 3,J>
- - Mo= GJ- - EC - (9.4.4)
~ dz wd~
Two assumptions are inherent in Eqs. 9.4. l and 9.4.2, both of which relate to the
assumption of small deformation. h is assumed that propenies lx· and Il equa! 1, and ly,
respectively; and also the / x is large compared to ly , so that Eq. 9 .4.1 is not linked to Eqs.
9.4.2 and 9.4.4. Thus displacement vin the piane of bending does not affect the torsional
function ef>.
Differentiating Eq. 9.4.4 with respect to z. gives
(9.4.5)
From Eq. 9.4.2,

2
d u Mocf>
d z2 = Ely
which when substituted into Eq. 9.4.5 gives
ECw-
d\p
- GJ-
d2 q,
-
M5
-<f, = O (9.4.6)
dz 4 dz.2 Ely
which is the differential equation for the angle of twist.
To obtain a solucion for Eq. 9.4.6, divide by ECw and Jet
GJ
2a = -- and {9.4.7)
ECw
Equation 9.4.6 then becomes
(9.4.8)
Let
cf> = Ae"'z
d1</> 2 ,.,.
- -2 = Am e -
dz (.9.4 .9)
d4cp
- - = Am e -
4 n, 7
dz.4
Substitution of Eqs. 9.4.9 into Eq. 9.4.8 gives
Aen"( 111 4 - 2am 2 - /3 ) =O (.9.4.10)
Since e"'~cannot be zero and A can be zer o only if no buckhng ba~ occum.:d t,1triviai solu-
tion) the brncket expression of Eq. 9.4.10 must be zero:
4
111 - 2am2 - /3 = o
whic:h gives for the solution
,
,n- = e~ ± V {3 + a·
~
or
420 • Chaprer 9 Laterat-Torsional Buckling of Beams
lt is apparent from Eq. 9.4.11 that m will consist of rwo real and two complcx fOIJls
because
~>a
Let
(bolh real roots)
q2 = - a + "\1(3+ a 1 (real part of complex roots)
Using the four values for m, tbe expression for </> from Eq. 9.4.9 becomes
</> = A 1e"l + A2e-rrt + A3eiqt + A4e- iqr
The complex exponential functions rnay be expressed in tenns of circular functions,
eiq:. == cos qz + i sin qz

e-,q-z == cos qz - i sin qz
}
By using Eqs. 9.4.15 and defining new constants A3 and A4 which equa I ( A 3 + A4 ) aod
(Ai - Ai), respectively. one obtains
The constants A I and A 4 are determined by the end support conditions. For the case
of torsional simple support, i.e.. beam ends may not twist, but are free to warp, the condi.
tions are
d2</>
</> == O, - - == O ar z =O and z == L
dz2
For 4> = O al z = O, Eq. 9.4. 16 gives
For d2q,/dz 2 = O at z = O,
Mulriplying Eq. 9.4. 17 by n 2 and subtracting Eq. 9.4.18 gives
.". A 3 =O
Then. from Eq. 9 .4. 17,
Thus Eq. 9.4.16 becomes
whìch may be written

4> = 2A1 sinh nz + A4 sin qz
At z = L, 4> = O; therefore, from Eq. 9.4.21,

O = 2 A I sinh nl + A 4 sin ql
Also, at z = L, d 2<f,/dz2 = O, which gives
O = 2A ,n2 sinh nl - A4q2 sin ql

Section 9.4 Elastic Lateral·Torsional Buckling • 421
Muhiplying Eq 9 4 22 b 2 · ·
· · · Y q and adding to Eq. 9.4.23 g1ves
2A,(n 2 + q 2 )sinh 11L =O (9.4.24}

Since (n 2 + 2) be
q cannot zero, and sinh nL can be zero only if 11 == O, therefore A I must
be zero:
Finally, from Eq. 9.4.2 l ,

= A 4 sinqL = O (9.4.25)
If lateral-torsional buckling occurs, A 4 cannot be zero, so that
sin ql =O
qL = Nrr (9.4.26)
where N is any integer.
The elastic buckling condition is defined by
NTT
q=T (9.4.27)
which for the fondamenta! buckling mode N = I.

The value of Mo which satisfies Eq. 9.4.27 is said 10 be the criticai moment:
q = V -a + V {3 + a 2 = ~ (9.4.28)
L
Squaring both sides, aml substituting the definitions of a and {3. from Eqs. 9.4.7.
GJ
- - - + (9.4.29)
2ECw
Solving for M0 = Mc, gives
M~, = EC1vfv
2
.
[(r, + - -
2L
2
GJ )
2ECw
2
GJ ) ]
( 2EC.,.
2
(9.4.30)
(9.4.31 l
Factoring 7T / L from inside the root sign givcs
Mc, = ~L J El,.GJ
·
+ (rrE)
L
2
1,·.C 1(,
(9.4.32)
Equation 9.4.32 is the elastic Iateral-torsional buckling streneth for an l-shaped section under
the action of constant moment in the piane of the web~over tl;e Iaterally unbraced length L To
adjust for moment gradient, Eq. 9.4.32 may be multiplied by a factor Cb· Thus. in generai
(9.4.33)
and the elastic \ateral torsional buckling s1ress can be expressed as
El ,GJ
.
+ -L (r.E)2. l,.C 11• (9.4.34)
9.5 INELASTIC LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKUNG
Wh~n 1he moment s1rengrh is base<l on some of the fibers of the cro~-s~rion rcachin
stra111 E (see Fig. 9.3.2) thai is greater than Ey (rhat 1s E_> F/ E), bu~k.Jmg 1s tnore likct ga
occur chan when the strain E < Ey- When eleme~ts are melasuc the suffness as rctaled Ylo
I0
modulus of elasticity decreases; 1herefore. buckb~g srrength decreas~. The larger thc ~
requirement rhe lower musr be the slcndemess raaos related LO the vanous types ofbuc ~
Studies of inclas1ic Jateral- torsional b~ckling have been ~ade b~ ?alambos ~
Lay and Galambos [9.9. 9 .IOJ, Massey aod P11man [9. 11], Traha_ir and K1t1pomchai (g j~J,
Hartmann [9. 13], and Ojalvo and Weaver [9.141. Laceral-1ors1onal buck.ling as lJSCd _1
Load and Resisrance Fac1or Design is summarized by Yura et al. (9.1 ]. lii
Thc strength of 1-shaped beams as rela1ed to laterally unbraced length Lb a~ .
by Nechercot and Traha.ir [9.15] and reported by Yura et al. [9.1] is shown in Fig~
Though 1he torsional stiffness is not greatly affected by residua] stress, the column-rc~
strength is very much affected, as discusscd in Chapcer 6. In the presence of residua]
5
the maximum elnstic moment strengrh Mr is given by 1l'css.
(9.5.l)t
For the same reasons (suc h as unknown residuai stress magnitude and varia1ion, accid
eccentricity, ~nd inirial ~rookedness) as for inelasti~ column buckling, the range
M, and M/J 1s not readily analyzed. Note from F1g. 9.5.1 that when chere is Unit
bet:
mome nt the decrease in strength due to residua! stress is greatest. °""
When the bendìng moment acts wilh a gradient having maximum moment at 0
to one-half that amount al the other end the residuai stress effect is relatively iosi~Cfld
In this ca.~e only a small portion of the span near maximum moment will be inelastic-:
the applied load stress is lower, the addition of residuai stress will be less likely to dause
fiber to reach yield stress. a
------=} M
Wl6 X26
ITITrrrn:nu%5 M
c.= 1.3
M,
II ID
Plastìc-t--t----lnelastic-----l---- Elastic _ _ __ _
Figure 9.5.1
Beam behavior as related to L,
lateral suppon. (From Yura, o 8 16 24
Galambos, 1111d Ravindra (9. 1])
•Note that AISC-F2.2 uses 0.7F_, in piace of (F_, - F,) tocompute M,.
Section 9.5 lnelastic Lateral-Torsìonal Buclding • 423
Lateral Bracing Requirements In the Inelastic Range
To gain an idea of the type of lacerai bracing requirements that are needed to achieve the
Slrength a nd rotation capacity, one may use the elastic lateral-iorsional buckling equation,
4
~ - 9 . .3 i, but redefine the rigidities Elv and GJ to include values in the inelastic range.
. mce generally lateral suppon will be provided at locations where the plastic moment MP
is expected to occur, and the distances between lateral support points will be relacively
short, 11 has been determined [9.10) that the term involving torsional rigidity GJ may be
neglected. Thus, Eq. 9.4.31, neglecting the first term, becomes
1T2E
M"' = - 2 vc:;;iy (9.5.2)
L
Since Mcr must reach Mp, substitute MP = ZxF,. for Mcr· Also, C,,, = l.1h2 /4, /_1, = Ar~.
a nd ~eplace L by Lb representing larerally unbraced length. Equation 9.5.2 then gives the
maximum slendemess ratio L1,/ry to achieve Mp,
Lh
-;; ~ \J 2Fv
/1r2E (hA)
Zx
(9.5.3)
which applies foruniform bending moment. An upper limic lO Eq. 9.5.3 is obtained if one
assurnes perfect elasto-plasric steel without residuai stress. Taking in Eq. 9.5.3 a conserva-
tive (low) value of l.5 for Vhijz; gives (the numerica! 570 arises from E = 29,000 ksi)
(9.5.4)
Experimencal data [9.16, 9.171 show that a lower limir than Eq. 9.5.4 is necessary to achieve
adequate rotation capacity R (Fig. 9.3.2). Thus AISC-F2.2 ha.s set the limit Lp/ r_, a,
Lp = 1.76
ry
F=
\F,, ~
300 . (9 5.5)*
The foregoing is for I-shaped members bent about the x-axis (i.e .. strong axis) where the
lìmit state is achievement of plastic moment strength Mv·
When the abìlity to absorb additional plastic strain i, desired. the limit musi be
lower. Tn tenns of Fig. 9 .3.2, L1,/ r'" at the Eq. 9.5.5 limit will giYe rotation capacity some-
what greater than 8P. When more rotation is required as when plastic analysis. as discu sed
in Chapter I O, is used the limit must be reduced. The A/SC Specificatio11 [ 1.13 I is based on
a rotation capacity factor R (Fig. 9.3.2) approximately 3 when plastic :1nalysis is used.
The elastic modulus of elasticity E iJ1 Eq. 9.5.3 should be repiaced by the strain-
hardening modulus of elasticity E. 1 when the actual strain 1: approaches the strain harden-
ing strain. Lay and Galambos [9.9] suggested that E_,1 can be appro:ùrnated as E/ f~.. When
that is done, evaluating Eq. 9 .5.3 using VhA/Zx = 1.5 and Lb for L gives.
Lb 570
(9.5.6)
- < ----
ry - Fv, ksi
*for SI. wirb F.- in MPa and E = 200,000 MPa.
L1, . ,lf 790

1
-~~- ,.. L,6 V F, = \ /,:;. t-l P:,
. h ni--akes t ie 11m1t
whic - · vary. in· versely 1·0 a Jinear manner wìth Fy instead of inverse!", a.\ lhe
1 •
·
squarc rool o [ F.,. A gam, t..er b e are neglected strength
- . . factors such as tors1onal
. stififn....
"""alld
· ..,.·
end restramt. ,es s y t b Ban.sai [9 · l6J at the Umvers1ty of Texas have estabbshcd lhe 1.
. . . . lll\it
. Ihesame
usmg . ,.
,onn o f Eq . 9 -5 ·6 , additìonally mcludmg prov1s10n for moment gradi'ent,as
Lb 1
-·· s:: I 0.12 + 0.076 M
(~J.)](E) = 3soo +
,_.
2200MiJMp
F. ksi (9.SJj•
ry L P ry -"'
wherc M, = smaller moment at the ends of the laterally unbraced segment (laken
positive when moments cause reverse curvature).
9.6 LOAD ANO RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN-1-SHAPED BEAMS

SUBJECTED TO STRONG-AXIS BENDING
This section considers the full range of strength from laterally stable beams to situatio
where lateral-torsional buckling causes consìderable strength reduction. Loading in ~
piane of the web is assumed.
The strength requirement according to ATSC-B3.3 may be stated
(9.6.1)
where <l>b = strength reduction factor for flexure = 0.90

Mn = nominai moment strength
M11 = factored service load moment (see Sec. 1.8)
Figure 9 .6.1 shows the effect of laterally unbraced length Lb on rhe laternl-torsiona)
buckling strenglh. Of course, locai buckling may result in Iower moment strength M. ìfthe
plate element (flange or web) width/thickness ratio is lOO high.
Case 1: Plastic Moment is Reached (M11 = Mp) Along With

Large Plastic Rotation Capacity (R 2: 3 in Fig. 9.3.2)
The section must be "compact" to prevent locai_ bucklin~; that is, À for the :lrmge (bi/2ri)
and for the web (h/tw) must not exceed AP as d1scussed m Sec. 6.17 (values in Table 9.6.1)
and lateral bracing must be provided such that the laterally unbraced leng;h Lb does not
exceed Lpd, where from Eq. 9.5.7.
lpd
-
ry
~
[
0.12 + (Mi)](E) = - - - - ---..:...
0.076 -
Mp
-
Fy
3500+2200M1/Mp
Fy, ksi
(9.6.2)
AIS~-Appendix 1.7 uses M2 instead of MP; however, M 2 will always be M, underCase 1.

In th1s category, plastìc analysis involving redistributìon of moments 1s discussed in
Chapter IO is an option.
*For SI, wi1h Fy in MPa and E = 200,000 MPa.

lb :s [o.!2 + 0.0?6 ( M1 )](.E_) = 24,000 + 15,200MifM 1,
ry Mp F>. F,.• MPa
Section 9.6 Lo d .
a and Resrstance Factor Beams Strong-Axis Bending • 425
Case1,M.=M
inclastic anaJysit i,ennitted
-.L+i AISC Fonnula (A-1-7)

AISC Formula (F2-5)
":Il..
M, Case 2. M. ~ M, but plastic
-5 analym not used
~
I I AISC Fonnul~(P2·2)
à I I
Eq. 9.6.4
i M, -- -1--~--0_?~---
I
o I
E I
.; I
·€o 'I
z :-_Cue3or4,
mclastic --+-- ~lastic
behavior behavior
Figure 9.6. I AISC Formula (f2-J)
·naJ strength M. of Eq. 9.6.14
Nollll t" sections as
··,ompac o
atrected by lateral-torsional "" L, L,
buclding. Larerally unbraced lenglh L,
TABLE 9.6.1
Slenderness Ratio Limits A for "Compact" 1-Shaped Beams to
Ach' P ~
1eve Plastic Moment Strength MP (AISC-Table 84.1)
Yield Flange
stress Web Latera!-
local local torisional
buclcling buckling buckling
Fv
b,
2t,
= 0.38ft
Fv
-h = 3.76 ,(E
- Lb = 1.76!-f:,
fw \J F.,, ,.,, F.,,
65 640 300
= VFy = VFy = VFy
36 10.8 107 50.0
42 IO.O 98.8 46.J
45 9.7 95.4 44.7
50 9.2 90.5 42.4
55 8.8 86.3 40.5
60 8.4 82.6 38.7
65 8.1 79.4 37.2
'Taking E = 29,000 le.si and Fy in ksi
Case 2: Plastic Moment is Reached (M11 = Mp) But With

Relatively Little Rotation Capacity (R < 3 in Fig. 9.3.2)
The section must be "compact" to prevent locai buckling; that is, A for the naoge (b1/2t.r)
and for web (h/tw) must not exceed Àp as discussed ìn Sec. 6.17 and lateral brac(n~ must
be provided such that A (i.e.. Lbf ry) does not exceed Ap. The three slenderness hrruts for
various yield stresses are given in Table 9.6. l. This laner \imit Àr. frorn Eq. 9.5.5. means
Lb may not exceed LP when Cb = I.O.
Lp (!_ _ 300
r_,.
= l.76\J F.y - .v;-::--:-:
F_,,, ksi
(9.6.3)
- ------- - -- -·
Case 3: Lateral-Torsional Bue kl'mg. O f "Compact"

M > M) Sections
May Occur in the Inelastic Range (Mp > n - r
. , M - oximated as a linear relationship between points I (M

Th1s rnoment strength '.' is appr F" 9 6 I Locai buckling must be precluded i/a1
L.) and 2 (lVJ, = 0.7FvSx at L,) on ig. · · · ,; . . . · lnce
n:1r1 ' ali of the rolled sections are ·'compact, that
' 6.
'> < .
the~ have A - Ay ~ d1scussed in
. J stt.ength '"•t., is a Jinear funcnon of the lateral-tors1onal buckling
) J6, the uornrna
Scc.
strength. Thus. taking M, = O.?F,S,,
r
l LP)]
M" = C1, MP - (Mp - O.?FyS,-) L, - LP
(L1, - ~ M,, (9.6.4j
where M, is the rnoment strength available for service loads when extrerne fiber reaches
the yield stress F,. (including the residuai stress), and may be expressed
M, = O.7 F_,.Sr (9.6.5)

where F. = minimum specified yield stress for the sreel
s: = elastic section rnodulus = !J(d/ 2)
/ = X momem of inenia aboul the x-axis
d = overall depth of the section
The Jength L, is obtained by equating the maximum elastic moment strength M,
(Eq. 9.6.5) to the elastic lateral-torsional buckl!ng stren~th Mc, (Eq. 9.4.3~) and so)vìng
for L Upon perfoiming that operation, one obtams L, (L m Eq. 9.4.33) as g1ven by AISC-
F2.2b,
lr
E
= l.95r,s O.?J\ fil,. J
L
S_,h,, I
I -E- ~sJ 1;
+ \j/ I + 6.76 (O.?Fy e
)1
(9.6.6)
(9.6.7)
e =1 fora doubly symmetric I-shape
e= ho (!i.
for a channel
2 V Cw
h 0 = distance between the flange centroids, in.
lt is noted that r1_, may be approximated as the radius of gyration of the compression flange
plus one-sixth of the web, as stated in the User Note of AISC-F2.2:
b1
r,, = --;:/~=2=(=1=+=.!_=h,=w=) (9.6.8)
V 6 b1,1
Case 4: Generai Limit State Where Nominai Moment

Strength Mu Occurs in the Inelastic Range (Mp > M 2'.: Mr)
11
This condition is relatively uncommon for rolled shapes having Fy s: 50 ksi, because only
eleven sections are in that category, as per AISC-F3 User Note.
Wìth noncompact or slender flanges, the nomina! flexural strengrh M., is the lower \ •
obtained according to the limit states of lateral-torsional buckJing (as discussed for the previolt
Section 9.6 Load and Resistance Factor Beams Strong·Axis Bending • 427
two Cases! and_ compression flange locai buckling. When À p <( A = bi/ 211) < A, ~e
strength w1ll be m this category. These slendem.ess limits are given for various yield stresses m
Table 9.6.2. AlSC has used the symbol A to represent the generai stability slendem.ess:
À =Lh/ ry_when considering lateral-torsional buckling; A = bi/21 when considering flange
1
locai bucklmg; and À =
h/tw when considering web local buckling. .
. The variation in strength with the generalized slende rness ratio À is sho_wn in
Fig. 9.6.2. When À lies between Ap and Ar for either o f the two limit states considere.d
TABLE 9.6.2 Slenderness Ratio Limits A, tor" Noncompact Section" 1-Shaped

Beams to Achieve Fy at Extreme Fiber (AISC-B4.1}
Yield Flange locai Flange local Weblocal

stress buckling budc:ling buclcling
Rolled l-shape
b , = 1 o/ f ,
Welded 1-shape
b, = o .s5.J?.=
-h = 5.70\ ,=
tw
II-
y
Fy 2t, . Fy 2t, FL
(ksi) 970
170 h 162 - V Fy
VFy tw k~ V 0.7F~'/ kc
36 27.7 161.7 0.35 19 .1 161.7
100 0.40 20.4
40 0.63 25.6
42 24.9 149.7 0 .35 17.7 149.ì
100 0.40 18.9
40 0.63 23.7
45 23.8 144.6 0 .35 17 .1 144.6
100 0.40 18.2
40 0.63 22.9
50 22.3 137.2 0.35 16.2 137.2
100 0.40 17.3
40 0.63 2 1.7
55 21.0 130.8 0.35 130.8
15.4
100 0.40 16.5
40 0.63 20.7
60 19.9 125.2 0.36 125.2
15.0
100 0.40 15.8
40 0.63 19.8
65 19.0 120.3 0.36 14.4 120.3
100 0.40 15.2
40 0.63 19.0
90 15.8 102.2 0.40 12.9 102.2
100 0.40 12.9
40 0 .63 16 .2
100 14.9 97.0 0.4 1 12.4 97.0
100 0.40 12.2
40 0.63 15.J
4
*kc = - ~ , where 0.35 s kc s 0.763
h/ t,,,
'"*FL = 0.7Fy
I~--- N MCOl\l,'SCI -~~

..-c-,,,-n-p;-,c-,-...
~-
.
.,.
M,,
,ee1ion
Junih:, - -:
:
~ - Slender
~ec T,ibk 1
96 I :
M, ------~-----------
' EJm.i ic I
: limits. ____ ,:
see I
Table lJ.6.2 :
1
I I
1 lncla!-ilic 1
1 RangC -·- --:
Figure 9.6.2
I
Nominai screngrh M,, vs I
generalized slenderness rntio A () ,--.'..-- - -- ----''-----
for limi! states of flange locai
buckling. web locai buckling,
and lateral-corsionaJ buckling. Gcneralizr:<l .s:lendcmess rauo A
by AJSC (web locai buckling is excluded her~) ( I ) flan ge locai buc~ling, or (2) lareral-
torsional buckling. the relationsbip for nomrnal mome ~t strength is taken linear. For
tb.e limjt state of flange locai buckling, AISC-F3 prescnbes
A - Art .)
M,. = Mp - (Mp- O.?FrSx) ( À rf _ À pf (9.6.9)
where A = h1/2t1
Àpf = limiting slendemess Aµ fora compact flange. AISC-Table B4.I
Arf = limiting slenderness Àr fora noncompact flange, AISC-T:lbie B4.!
For the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling, the linear relationship of Eq. 9.6.9is
used; however, the result is increased by C1, when there is moment gradient. Of course, !be
maximum M,, is Mp regardless of how steep is the moment gradient. The expressKll!
according to AJSC-F3 is identica! to Eq. 9.6.4, except expressed in the fon n of the ra1ios l
A - Àpf ) ]
Mn = C1, [ Mp - (Mp - 0.7F/;x) ( A _ A :s; Mr (9.6.10)
rf 1>J
where
12.5Mrnn
Cb = R,,, :s; 3.0 (9.6.ll)
2.5Mmax + 3MA + 4MB + 3Mc
where Cb = a modification factor for non-uniforrn bending moment va1iation fora

beam segment laterally unbraced except at the segment ends. based on
absolute values of bending moments (Cb can always conservatively be
taken as I .O)
Mmax = maximum moment in the unbraced segment
MA = moment at 1/4 point ofunbraced segment
M8 = moment at midpoint of unbraced segment
Mc = momenl at 3/4 point of unbraced segment
R,,, "" a new tenn in the 2005 AISC Specification to account for possible mono
symmetry in the cross-section. The va1ue is I.O for doubly symmetric
sections and for singly s-ymmetric sections in single curvature bending:
reverse curvature of siogly symmetric sections uses a reduction expreM
(given in AISC-Fl)
Section 9.6 Load and ResIstance
. Factor Beams Strong-A x1s
· Bend.Ing • 429
Equation 9.6.11 (AISC-Formula F 1-1) was introduced in 1993 (without the maxi-
mum value of 3 .0 and without the factor R ), replacing the following equation which had
bee n uscd to ·ad.JUst for non-umform
· m
momem since 1961 ,
cb == 1.75 + 1.os( ~J + o.3( : : )2 s 2.3

(9.6. 12)
The newer equation, Eq. 9.6. 11, based o n the work of Kirby and Nethercot [9. 18},
allows a more accurate determination of the modification factor C1, when the unbraced seg-
~ ent has a nonlincar moment variatio n; however. when rhe precision with which thc load-
mg, t_he structural model, and the materiai propenies are known, the more detailed
equatton, Eq. 9 .6. l I. seems questionable.
T he AISC Commentary-Fl says, "lt is still satisfacto ry to use C1, fro m Equation
C-F 1_- 1 for straight-line moment diagrams within the unbraced length." (Author nore:
thai 1s, _text Eq . 9.6. 12.) In Eq. 9.6. 12, the ratio M i/Mi is negative when the mo me nts
c~use single curvature; rhat is, the most severe loading w irh constant bending moment
gives C1, == 1.0. A comparison of Eqs. 9.6.11 and 9.6. 12 is shown in Table 9.6.3 ao<l
Fig. 9.6.3.
According to AISC -FI, C1, is permitted 10 be raken as 1.0 for ali cases: consistent
with assuming the most severe Joading (constant bending moment). For cantilevers or
overhangs where the free end is unbraced, C b is prescribed to be taken as I .O.
For laterally unbraced segments having a parabol.ic moment variation. Eq. 9.6.11 is
superior (and more co nservative) to using Eq. 9.6.12. Table 9.6.4 gives the 2005 design
values from Eq. 9.6.1 l for severa! situations of parabolic unbraced segments.
Case 5: Generai Limit State Where Nominai Moment

Strength M11 Equals the Elastic Buckling Strength Mcr
(i.e., M11 < Mr, where M , = 0 .7FySx)
T here are two subcategories for this case: ( I) slende mess ratios À for flange or web locai
buc kling do not exceed >.,. : and (2) slendemess ratios exceed À, . When À excecds À,.. locai
buckling will occur prior to the extreme fiber reaching tbe yield stress and the efficie ncy of
the cross-section is reduced. Such eleme nts are known as '·stender"' compressio n eleme nt:;.:
a subject treated in Sec. 6.18.
TABLE 9.6.3 Comparison of Cb tor Linear

Moment Variation
cb cb
M1 20 05 1986
M2 Eq. 9.6.11 Eq . 9.6.12
-1.00 l.00 1.00

-0.75 I.I I 1.U
-0.50 1.25 uo
-0.25 1.43 1.51
0.00 1.67 1.75
0.25 2.00 2.03
O.SO 2. 17 2.30
0.75 2.22 2 .., 0
1.00 2.27 2 >0
2.5 c.= 23
/
------------- ........ ... ...
2.0
e•
J.0 . ------
0.5
Figure 9.6.3
Comparison of Cb equations o-1------___.1.._ _ __ _ _ .___ _ _ _ _~-- - - -__j
for tinear variation of 0.5 O - 0.5
-l
moment over Jaterally M iJM 2 (+ for double curvature )
unbraced length.
TABLE 9.6.4 C0 for Parabolic Segments

Using AISC-Commentary-F1,
Formula (C-Fl-2). Eq. 9.6.11*
cb = 1.14 (I.OOJ
Case I Laterally braced at ends; points cb = 1.30 c1.1s)

I and 5 only; Mmax at 3
Case 2 Laterally braced at ends and cb = 1.06(1.13)
midspan; points I, 3, and 5 only;
Mm.x at3
cb = u2 (1.75) ) cb = 1.03 (LOOl
Case3 Lateraliy braced at end and I st

quarter point; bracing at points
I and 2; Mmax at 2
Case4 Laterally braced at 1st and 2nd
quarter points; bracing at points
2 and 3; Mmax at 3
Case 5 Laterally braced at I st and 3rd
quarter points; bracing at points o 0.25 0.5 0.75
2 and 4; Mmv. at 3 2 3 4
"Values from 1986 LRFD, Eq. 9.6.12 shown in parenthesis.
Ali rolled 1-shaped sections bave À < À, for locai buckling; therefore beams (as
opposed to plate girders) having À > À, are not treated in this text. When A < A, forlocal
buckling (see Table 9.6.2), the nominai critical stress Fcr is given by Eq. 9.4.34 (Also
AISC-F2.2b),
(9.4.341
Sictlon 9.7 Allowabl s
• trength O.aign Subjected 10 St,ong•Alllt Bendffli • 431
c.1i1,
--------,-.,
' ',,, "',• c.
l"',-<"', -"'.>(LL:= LL:)] 'è "',
' , , , . / llq.\i.6.4
",
''
"'· r---~::-------~
--------1 -----
1
I
I
I
M,
--~-------------
•I
I
I
I
I
I
L,
L,
figure 9.6.4
Nominai momcnt strcngth as affccted by Cb.
Using the propcnies r, 1 and h 0 , defined in Eqs. 9.6.7 and 9.6.8. Eq 9.4.34 becomes
(9.6.13)
and the nominai moment strength is g)ven as:
19.6.14)
Note that Mcr cannot logically be great.er than Cb M,. nor grcat.cr than M,,; lhcrcforr.
Eq. 9.6.13 has those as the meaningful upper limits. Fig. 9.6.4 !.h(lw~ the nomina.I ~trcngth
M n variation with Lh, emphasizing the effect of e,,.
97 ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD-1-SHAPED HEAMS

SUBJECTED TO STRONG-AXIS BENDING
The generai philosophy of Allowablc Srrcngth Oc.~ign (ASlll for ocam, w:" )'rt'-\'.Oltd 1tì
Sec. 7.5. Thc nominai si-rength exprc~sion, foi- M. may I\\' ,Il\ 11k,I hy thl" llc:., ural i-nfct~
factor O.i,, to dc.termine the availahlc ~,renglh. TI,e i,.atm· 1in111 ,1ot,·, dcfiru•i.l 111 thç pn.•vì•
ous section for the LRFD Mcthod are ab.o 11,c.d for 1h<- A~T) Ml'.lhl'd TI\\· l)l:11111 dè,,gn
tables and chans in thc ncw AISC Mnmwl (200~) olk1w IM u,-111H1b~ 1"ct1tut'ç(l l\l(lilJem ''"
based on ASD load comhination in 1hc facuw of ~011."ty.
9.8 EFFECTIVE LATERALLY UNBRACED LENGTH

. f AJSC-F2 are based on the assumption of torsio 1 .
Design equations, such as those o · · · • " . na s1111•
. _ 'i 4 , id 8 7 2) a t the ends of ,he unbn1ced se.,ment.. Th1s means th·
ple suppor! (see F1gs. 8 -- · ,u · · _ 1 h KL a1
'or ·onional behavio,· only the cffective laterally unbraced e ngt b equals the ac1ua1
· . h ff -1ive tenl!th factor K = LO.
J' ' -
laterallv unbraced •1ength L1,: th at 1~, I e e ec: _
~ . ,
, 'P" of lateral brace or end co11nectt0n w1ll prevent rotauon (that is )(...
Nea.r1y ,my t} -
_ ' · d. - · "-P
the angle <,h of twist equal to zero; see Fig. 9.4.l e) abo~l r_he long,ru rna1 aJ(Js of lhe bea!ll.
Howcver, only rarely will therc be much resr~amt_ aga1~st ~otallon ~~ th~ flanges about a
verrical axis as discussed in regard tn F,g. 8.).7 (1.e., warpmg restrarnt), thus K "" I.O is
reasonable for most cases.
Nonuniform Moment
Tue moment gradient does noi directly affecr laterally unbraced effeccive le~gth; however,
it does affect ]ateral-torsional buckling strength and is accouoted for by the 1actor Cb when
there is non-constant bending momcnt.
When a beam has transverse loading (not just end moments) the. strength in lateraJ.
torsional bucklin" will depend upon whether the load is applied at the top flange, the cen-
troid, or rhe bott;m flange. The weakest situation will be when the load is applied at the
top flange , and che strnngest when the load is apphed at thc botto~ tla_nge. The SSRC
Guide I6.8, pp. 192-208] provides for adjustmeni to the moment grad1ent ractor eh to pro-
vide for these effeccs.
Continuous Beams
A continuous beam has lateral end restraint rnoments develop as a resuJt of continuìty over
severa] spans. When the adjacent spans are shorter than the span being considere<l. or ai
Jeast braced laterally at closer intervals; or the adjacent spans are less seYerely loaded.
some lateral moment restraint may develop.
Typically, however, such end restraint about the y-y axis should not be as\ume<l P~ l
since allemate unbraced spans could buckle in opposite directions. For tre.atment of la1tral
buckling on continuous beams, the reader is referred to Salvadori [9.6, 9. I9], Hanmann
[9.20]. Trahair [9.21, 9.23], Powell and Klingner [9.22]. Roeder and Assadi [9.24]. and Fuku-
moto, Itoh, and Hattori [9.25]. The SSRC Guide [6.8, pp. 192- 208] presents a mcthod forevaJ.
uating the strength of a continuous beam span having intem1ediate points of latcral suppon.
In coniinuous beams, the point of inflection has often been treated as a braced point
when design equations did not provide for the effect of moment gradient. In current desi2n
using the AISC Specification [ l.13 l, the cffect of moment gradient appears in ali equa1io~
except in the requirements to establish the ability to qualify as a "compact section", Tot
requirements of AISC-F2.2 where L,> is prescribed and do not include the moment gradi-
ent When applying these provisions one may wish to consider the inflection point as a
possible braced poim.
The authors· present opinion is that whenever moment gradient is cxplicitly pro-
vided for in a design equation (no matter how approximately), the intlection point shollld
not be considered a braced point. However, when provision is not made for the effect of
moment gradient, generally the intlection may be considered as a braced point. Tbe com-
bination of torsional restraint provided by the floor system attachments and the continuicy
at the support point of maximum negative moment will normally be adequate to justi~
treating the inflection point as if it were ac1ually braced Jvr the 1mrpose of el'Cllua1m_,
whether or nor Lb exceeds LP. The important factor is the amount of torsional res-
provided by the floor system at the inflection point.
Section 9.9 Examples: Load and Resistance Factor Design • 433
Regardi~.g _en~?rsement of this suggestion, AISC-Symbols defines Lp as used i_n

Al~C-F!·2 as Limiting lalerally unbraced length for limit state of yielding." Thus, there 1s
no 1mphcatton in AISC for the use of the mflectton
. . pomt . as a braced pomt..
Cantilever Beams Without Latera! Bracing
Un.like th e flagpole column where the effective pinned-end length is twice the acrual
length, the lateral-torsional buckling of a cantilever beam is not even as severe as the
unbrac~d segmenc undcr uniform moment. lf one considers the analogy to a column as dis-
c_ussed _111 Sec. 9.1, such a result is logica!. Since the momen1 al the free end of the can-
t1lever 15 zero, the compression force in 1he flange decreases from a maximum at one eod
10 zero at the free end; thus. the loading is less severe than if 1he compression force were
constant over the entire Je ngth.
Clark and Hill [9.26) and SSRC Guide, 3rd ed. [6.20] reported that it is conservative
to use l~e full length as the effcctive Jaterally unbraced length for la1eral-torsional buckling
~f cantilever beams. However, the conserva1ivcness of using the actual lengrh for a can-
tilever depends in large pan on having fixed w rsio,wl restraint at the supponed end. as
well as having 1he loading applied al the shear center or at the bottom flange. Sincc such
torsional fixity rarely exis1s, the authors recomme nd usiog the actual cantilever length as
the effective laterally unbraced length.
Furthermore, the moment gradient factor Cb, Eqs. 9.6. 11 and 9.6.12. is 110 1 applica-
ble for a cantilever; thus Cb should be taken as unity. Obviously. moment gradient has
some effect; however, a cantilever inherently has moment that varies from maximum at the
support to zero at the free end. The use of the actual length as the effective leng1h already
recognizes the moment gradient.
When a more detailed design treatment of lateral-torsional buckli.ng of cantilevers is
desired, the SSRC Guide, 5th ed. [6.8, pp. 192- 2081 provi<les (from a recomrnendation by
Nethercot) effective length faccors K in arder to use KL instead L in Eq. 9.4.32. Kitipom-
chai, Dux, and Richter [9.271 have an excelle nt overall review of tbe subject. Again in that
method, Cb = 1 would be used. For nonuniforrn cantilevers. referto thc work of Massey
and McGuire [9.28].
9 EXAMPLES: LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN

9-~_::::.._:__- - -- - - - - -- --- - - -- -- - - -
Several examples of I-shaped bearns are presented to illustrate the Load and Resistance
Factor Design Method to include the effect of Jateral-torsional buckling. Other considera-
tions, such as deflection, shear. and web locai yielding and crippling were treated and illus-
trated in Chapter 7.
EXAMPLE 9.9.1
A simply supported beam is loaded a~ shown in Fig. 9.9. l . The uniform load is 15% dead
load and 85% live load, and the concentrated load is 40% dead load and 60'7c live load. The
beam has transverse lateral support at the ends and every 7' -6" along the span. Select the
lightest W section of A992 steel, using ATSC Load and Resistance Factor Design.
Solution:
(a) Determine the factored moment Mu at midspan and the required no minai
strength M 11 • Using ASCE 7-Section 2.3 [ 1.2],
Wu = 1.2(0.1 5)( 1.4) + 1.6(0.85)(1.4) = 2.16 kips/ ft

,;/ w = 1.4k / ft (superhnposed)
_)J
-t
7' -6'" -·-- L" eral su_ppon of
compres~mn flange
Figure 9.9. l
Exampies 9.9. l and 9. 10.1. - O" -~·-- - ---- Vcnk .al support
w,, "' J.2(0.40)(48) + 1.6(0.60)(48) = 69 kips

69(30)
M 11 = ½(2.16)(30) 2 + ~ = 761 fl-kips
Since the LRFD requirement is

[9.6.l]
where <Pb '"' 0.90, the strength reduction factor for flexure, the required
strength is
Required M,, = Mu/</>b = 761/0.90 = 846 ft-kips
{b) Estimate whether or not lateral supports are dose enough Lo design the beam
using plastic analysis (AJSC-Appendix 1.7) orto use the full plastic moment strength M
(AISC-F2.1) without plastìc analysis. To use either of these provisions t.he sectìon musi~
"compact" for locai buckling in accordance with AISC-B4. Since the beam is simply sup-
ported, plastic analysis (as described in Chapter IO) does not apply. Assume the beam will
be in Case 2 (see Sec. 9.6) where Mn = Mp- The maximum laterally unbraced length Lbis
given by Eq. 9.6.3,
{E 300 300
L.,
y
= l.76rn1-
-~Fy
= .VF_v.
r.: r\. = . r:;: r,. = 42rv
vso· .
If one assumes that r>, <::: 0.22b1 (text Appendix Table A I),
. Lp 7.5(12) ,
Mm bf = 42(0.22) = ~ = 9.7 m. ìf Lr = 7.5 ft
Assuming the flange width is at Ieast 9.7 in., the strength can reach the plas.tic moment MP.
(e) Select from A/SC Manual Table 3-2. "Selectìon by z_;·. This is ao efficientpro-
cedure when the designer is certain that the section is "compact" and that Lb < L . The
required plastic modulus Zx is P
Required M., = Required MP = 846 ft-kips

Required MP 846( 12)
Required Zx = ____. :. . = - -- = 203 in.3
Fy 50
The lightest section that ha<; Zx 2= 203 in.3 is W24X84 havìng Zx = 224 in.3; in additionb
is less than the required minimum of9.7 in. The next lightest sectìon found in AISC M
Table 3-2 (p. 3-16) is W18X97 wìth Zx = 211 in.3 and b1 > 9.7 in.,
(d) Check the sec1· Th · · · Id h

b . . •on. e dead we,ght of 1he beam must be mcluded; Il cou ave
een est1ma1ed at the beginning of th d .
e es,gn.
M,,(dead load) = 1.2(0.084)(30)2/8 = 11 ft-kips
Mu = 761 + 11 = 772 fl-kips
M,. = M,, = z_,F)' = 21l(S0)/12 = 8791"1-kips

L,, = 42r,. = 42(2.65)/12 = 9.3 ft > (L 1, = 7.5 ft)
th
The o er requiiemcnts (see Table 9.6. J) for "compact section" are satisfied.
[<t>,,M,. = 0.90(R79) = 791 ft-k.ips) > [M,, = 772 ft-kips] OK

th
In lhis cas~ e Slrenglh provided is nearly 3% high; however, the Wl8X97 is the lighteSl
secuon_~atisf~mg the requiremems. The flange and web of this section sati~fy the '·compact
secl!on reqmrements 10 prevem loca! buckling; that is, A ,:;; AP as given in Table 9.6.1.
Use W18X97
•
EXAMPLE 9.9.2
~elect the lightest W section for the simply supported beam of Fig. 9.9.2. The super-
imposed load is 0.4 kip/ft dead load and 1.0 kip/ft live load. Latera) support is provided at
th
e ends and at midspan. Assume deflection limitations need not be considered. Use A992
steel and AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design.
Solution:
(a) Determine the factored moment M at midspan and the required design strength
" .
cf>bMn · Estimate lhe beam weight about 90 lb/ft. Using ASCE 7-Section 2.3 [ 1.21,
w,. == 1.2(0.4 + 0.09) + 1.6(1.0) = 2.19kjps/ ft

M,, == 2.19(50)2/8 == 684 ft-kips
Required </>1,M11 == M 11 == 684 ft-k.ips
(b) Use the AISC Manual beam curves. Table 3-1 O. ''Available Momenl vs.
Unbraced Length." These curves are plots of the design moment strength <1>1,M" \'S later'.1 ll y
unbraced length L;, far rolled W and M shapes for F,. = 50 k:si. The curves are the nommal
strength M,, relationship shown in Fig. 9.6. I multiplied by the strength reduction foctor
<P1, ( = 0.90 for flexure ). The moment gradient factor Ci, = I .O, the most severe lo.ld1~g
case (except for loads applied at the top flange in laterally unbraced loca1irn1s). is used lor
the curves.
w; 1.4 klf1 (supcrimpo,cd)
g 11111 11 111 11111 111111
-.l~
- 's- o·
P-
L:\ler.,I su_pport of
coonpre.ss1on nange
50 ' - O" Venical
support
~
figure 9.9.2
Data for Examples 9.9.2.
9_9.4, 9.10.2. aml 9. 10.4. .........,..,,.....,,,.,.w..u.uw.. B(!nding moinem
e- th.is examp e. C,,, WJ.11 be greater than J ·ocomputed in accordance with Ph 9 ,

'-'-I· ·6· 11 uir
ror 1
the unbraced half-span segment,
12.5Mmax
[9.6.Lt]
C:, = 2.5"'
w1max + 3MA + 4MB + 3Mc
where Mma."\ = 684 ft-kips ' maximum at midspan

MA = 300 ft-kips at 1/4 point ofunbraced segment
Mo = 5l3 fc-kips at midpoint of unbraced segment
Mc = 641 ft-kips at 3/4 point of unbraced segment
_ J 2.5( 684) = 1.30

cb - 2.5(684 ) + 3(300) + 4(513) + 3(614)
The same result can be obtained from Case 3 in Table 9.6.4. This is significantly more con.
servative (i .e., lower) than using Eq. 9.6. I 2 from tbe I 986 LRFD Specification, which
gives eh = l.75.
Referring to Fig. 9.6.4, for situacions where Lb > Lp, the nominai strength M. is
proportional to Ci, up to che maximum strength Mp. To use the A/SC Manua/ bearn curves
based on Cb = I.O for Cb greater than 1.0, divide the Mn equations by Cb. The inomem
ordinate in the AISC Manual beam curves is the design strength <PbMn , which must equa)
or exceed the factored moment M 11 •
The significance and applìcation of Cb in design is discussed in detail by Zuraski
(9.29].
For the example.
Required <l>bMn = Mu = 684 = 526 ft-kips

eh eh 1.30
Entering the curves with factored moment M11/Cb = 526 ft-kips and Lb = 25 ft, find
Wl8X97, <PhMn ~ 569 ft-kips
This may well be too conservative; M,, increases linearly with Cb - When Lb :s L, and
MrCI> = Mp no further beneficiai effect of increasing Cb is possible.
Determine the value of Lr (see Fig. 9.6. l) for W l 8X97 using Eq. 9.6.6.
Lr = l.95r,5 - E-
O.?Fy
Hfc ~~
--
Sx:ho
J
+ I + 6.76(0.?Fv S h
- -.-· 2-..!!.
E le
)2
where r,s = 3.08 in. and h 0 = 17 .7 in. as properties given in the A/SC Manua/.
Also, e = 1, fora doubly symmetric 1-shape. Thus,
29,000 0.7( 50) 188( 17.7) ) 2 I

Lr = 1.95(3.08)-( -)
0.7 50
I+ + 16.76 ( - --'- - - - -
29,000 5.86( J) 12
= 30.3 ft
The value of L, for a rolled section is also available for F. = 50 ksi in AJSC Ma
Table 3-6, "Maximum Tota! Uniform Loads". Y
Sectìon 9.9 Examples: Load and Resistance Factor Design • 437
Since Lb in this ex I 2
Setting MC = 0 . amp e ( S ft) is close to L,. determine the maximum effective Cb.
r b .?FySxCb = M p = zx Fy g1ves
.
0.?S,Cb = Zx
Max effective Cb = ~= 1.43 Z:r

0.?S, Sx
Since Z /S ~ 112 .
. · as an average, the maximum effective Cb for A992 steel will be about
1·60· Thxus,".1n th1s example h e h
M If 11 . w ere b = 1.30, the nominai strength M n will not likely reac
U \'. th
Loseemed at M p would be reached AISC Manual Table 3-6, "Maximum Tota!
ni orm ads" could be used to select the s~c~ion.
(e) Check the Wl8X97 section. lncluding the new dead weight of the beam,
M., = 2.20(50)2/8 = 688 ft-kips

lr = 29 ft > [ Lb = 2S ft]
MP = ZxFy = 211(50)/ 12 = 879ft-kips
. From th e prev10us
· example, Lp was computed to be 9.3 ft. Thus, Lp < Lb < L,,
which means M,, should be determined using Eq. 9.6.4 which includes Cb as fol\ows:
{9.6.4]
25 9 36
Mn = l.30[10,550 - [10550 - 0.7(50)188)( - · )]_]_ = 822ft-k.ips
' 30.3 - 9.36 12
Since computed Mn of 822 ft-kips does not exceed MP = 879 ft-kips; then
Mn = 822 ft-kips
[ 4>bMn = 0.90(822) = 740 ft-kips ) > [ M., = 688 ft-kips] OK
The W18X97 is the lightest section satisfying the requirements. In addition to what has
been check.ed, the section must be "compact'' to assure that the computed strength is
correct. As are nearly ali A992 sections, this section is "compact'' for locai buckling:
that is, it satisfies the limits for web and flange given in Table 9.6. l .
Use Wl&X97. •
:XAMPLE 9.9.3
Select an economica! W section for the beam of Fia. 9.9.3. Lateral support is provided at
the vertical supports, concentrated load points. and
at the end of tbe cantilever. The 76-
kip load contains 16 kips dead load and the 40-kip load includes 12 kìps dead load: the
remainder is live load. Use A992 steel and the AISC Load and Resìstance Factor Design
Method.
Solution:
(a) Obtain the bending moment envelope resulting from factored loads. The
moment envelope will include two loading cases: (I) dead load plus live load on the 52-ft
! 1)50 ft-k.ips
LL on 52 fi span. nol cm c.anrilcvt:r
/
F•c1ored t>.:nding
momenl M, cnvelopc
due 10 ,uperimposed
loads
U.. on canùlevcr, not on 52 ft span
Figure 9.9.3
Data for Example 9.9.3.
span and no lìve load on the cantilever; and (2) dead load plus live load on cantilever and
no live load on the 52-ft span.
wu, = + 1.6(60) = 115 kips

l.2(16)
Wu2 = 1.2(12) + 1.6(28) = 59.2 kips
For loading case l, the maximum factored moment under w, is
M,. on cantilever = 1.2( 12 )21 = 302 ft-k.ips

M11 at W1 = 115(24)(28)/52 - 302(24/52) = 1350 ft-kips
For Joading case 2, the maximum factored moment at the cantilever support is
M11 = 59.2(21) = 1240 ft-kips
The factored moment envelope is shown in Fig. 9.9.3.

(b) Segment A. Three laterally unbraced segments must be examined since eac
length is different and is subject to a different maximum factored end moment M•. B
inspection, segment A controls aver segment C; both the moment and the unbrac
length are larger on segment A, and the moment gradient is the same; thus Cb is t
same. From the approxìmate Eq. 9.6.12 of the 1986 LRFD Specijìcation, Cb = t.75 b
inspection when the moment atone end of che segrnent is zero. Using the more accura
2005 Eq. 9.6.11, or from Table 9.6.3, Cb = 1.67.
M11 = 1350 ft-kips Cb == 1.67 Lb = 24 ft

Required <PbMn = 1350 ft-kips
.....
th
. UE se eA/SC Manua/Table 3-10 chans. "Allowable Moment v~. Unbraced Lenglh.'"
As m xample 9 9 2 1h e
· · , e b factor may be combined with the factored momenl Mu,
Mu 1350
- -=
eh = -
1.67
808 ft-kips
·
th
Enter e charts with required <PbMn = M,./Cb = 808 ft-kips and Lb = 24 ft; find
W24><117
<PbM,, = 912 ft-kips for C 1, = I.O
For Cb = 1.67,
<hM,, == Cb(c/>1,Mu for C1, = I.O) = 1.67(912)

= 1520 fl-kips > (c/>1,Mp = 1230 ft-kips)
<PbMn = 4>1,Mp = l230ft-kips < (Rcquired<f,1,M,, = 1350ft-kips) NG
Determine Lr = 30.4 ft for this section from Eq. 9.6.6 or more easily from AISC Mtm-
ual Table 3-6, "Maximum Tota! Unifonn Loa<l.'' For segment A where Lb = 24 ft tbe C1,
st
mu be considerably less than the maximum effcctive value of 1.6 obtained in Example
99 2
- - in order for the nominai strength, modified with Cb. not to exceed lhe pla,tic momem
MP ._ Fort~e given unbraced lenglh and a Cb value larger than 1.60, it is more lìkely thac the
section w11l have its available nominai strength capped at M p· Therefore, use of ALSC
Manual Table 3-2 "Selection by Z/' seems appropriate.
Required M
Requircd Zx = P (1350/0.90)12 = 360 i.n.3
F)' 50
The lightest section having Zx ~ 360 in. 3 is W30X 116 which has Zx = 378 in. 3 Because
1his section has L, = 22.6 ft, lower than the L, for the W24X li 7, the streng_th wiùi
Lb = 24 ft may not be adeguate.
Check the adequacy of the selected W30X 116 section. For C1, = 1.67.
<f>bM11 = Cb (<l>bM11 forCb = I.O) = 1.67(786)
= 1310 ft-kips < (</>bM,, = 1420 ft-kips)

<PbM,, = 1310 ft-kips < ( Required </)1,M11 = 1350 ft-kìps ) NG
The design s trength is less than the required strength (though margi.nally). Hence try
the next heavier section from W30 or W33 series. Exarnine W33Xll8 with
</)1,Mp = 1560 ft-kips and ,p1,M11 (at Lb = 24 ft) = 873 ft-kips.
Again for C1, = 1.67,
r/>1,M,, = C&(cf>bM for Ch =

11 I.O) = 1.67(873)
= 1460ft-kips < (c~ 11M,, = l560ft-kips)
r/>1;M11 = 1460 ft-kips > (Required cp1/1111 = 1350 ft-kips) OK
When l1, is near or larger than L,.. the best way of selecting the lighlcst scction
will be usi ng the charts (A/SC Mw111af Table 3-10). "Available M o ment vs. Unbraced
1800 .,. A 992 s1eel
q,M. = 1560'k
'''
'
1500
"'c.
~ 1200
s
:;_"
~
900
i.,
" W33X 118
~ c.~ 1.0
-~ 600
o"
300r = 23.5'
I
Figure 9,9,4 L,
Comparison of design L. = 22.6' W33X I 18
streng!hs 4'b M,, for I W30Xl 16
W33Xll8 and W30XIl6 for
Fy = 50 ksi-Example 9.9,3. o LO 20 30 40
Length", To help understand the strength relation.ships, examine Fig, 9.9.4, where the
W30 Xl16 and W24X117 design sliengths <f>bMn are shown for Cb = LO and 1.67,
(e) Segment B. This segment has a steeper moment gradient than segment A, i.e,,
Cb > 1.67; however, the maximum Cb usable is I .60 for A9_92 _steeL The laterally
unbraced length is the longer 28 ft. indicat.ing thai segmenl B w1ll hkely concroL Using
Eq, 9.6. 11 ,
12.5Mmax
[9.6.11]
or for the ratio M 1/M2 = + 302/1350 = + 0.22 the eh can be obtained from Fig. 9.6.3 as
eh = 2.0. Or linearly interpolating the values in Fig. 9.6.3, gives e h = l.96. Such precisioa
is unjustified. Use eh = 2.0.
An entry to the A!SC Manual Table 3-10, ''Available Moment vs. Unbraced Length"
charts would use Mu/Cb = 1350/ 2.0 = 675 fi-k.ips at Lb = 28 ft and fi nd W24XJ04 for
segment B, which is not satisfactory for segment A. Try a W33X 118.
(d) Check the W33Xl 18. From the A/SC Manual, p. 3-43, find
L, = 23.5 ft 'PbMp = 1560 ft-kips
For segments A and B, Lb exceeds L, indicating elastic lateral-torsional buckling is the con-
trolling limit state. Thus, Mc, must be computed for both the 24- and 28-ft unbraced lengths
(segments A and B). Usìng Eq. 9.6.13 multìplied by S.r, to give Mcr,
The properties needed are Sx = 359 in.3; r,x = 2.89 in.; J = 5.31 in.4; and h,, = 32.1in.
For the two possible controlling segments A and B <PbMn = <PbMcr, as follows:
Section g 9 E . .
· xamples: Load and Res1stance Factor Design • 441
Segment A, Cb '"' l.67 and Lb = 24 ft,
'PbM = _o.90(1.67)(359)1r2 29,000 / 5.31(1.0) (24(12))2 I

cr ( 24( 12) )2 \) I + 0.078 359( )2.1) 2J$9 12
2.89
== 1510 ft-kips
which is less than <PbMp.
Segment B, eh == 2.0 and lb == 28 ft,
bMP.
Segment B controls;
(c/>bM,. = 1390ft-kips) > (Mu = 1380 ft-kips) OK

th 3
:rnus, e W 3X ll 8 is acceptable. The section satisfies the limits for flange and web gi\'en
10
Table 9.6. l to preclude locai buckling, and therefore ìs "compact"; i.e .. A :s; A,,.
Therefore, the lateral-torsional buckling limit state controls, as assumed. The W30XI 16
has <f>bMn only 131 O ft-kips for segment A; thus, it is not acceptable.
Use W33X l 18.
•
•XAMPLE 9.9.4
Repeat Example 9.9.2 (See Fig. 9.9.2) except use A572 Grade 60 steel.
Solution:
(a) Obtaiu the factored moment M,, at midspan and the required design strength '1>bM".
From Example 9.9.2, including the beam weight now estimated as 90 \b/ft (For A992 steel. the
beam is WI8X97).
w,, = 1.2(0.4 + 0.09) + 1.6(1.0) = 2.I9kips/ ft

M,, == 2.19(50)2/8 == 684 ft-kips
Required <f>&M,, = M,, = 684 ft-kips
(b) Select tria! section using beam charts (AJSC Mwwal Tab\e 3- 10, "Available
Mome nt vs. Unbraced Length".) Since there are no LRFD tables or charts for F_, = 60 ksì. a
more genera] approach must be used. \Vl1en reaching tl1e plastic moment strength M p is
expected lo be tl1e control\ing limit state, that strength is proportional to the yield stress. 11nis.
when Lb < L,,, use AISC Manua/ Table 3-2, "Selection by Z_, ." When L1, Ì$ expccted to
exceed L,,, adjust the required design moment in the ratio of the yield SU'èSS used to
Fy = 50 ksi for whìch there are charts. Thus, for this example.
Adjusted M,, for F,. = 50 ksi = 684(50/ 60) ,:= 570 ft-kips
Tbe C1, factor may be combined with the ìactored mom~ni M 11 •
Adjusted M 11 for F,, = 50 ksi 570 . .

- -- - - - - - -- =- = 4W tt-k,ps
e,, 1..ì
Entering the chans with requited <f,òM,, = M,,/Cb = 439 ft-kips and Lb == 25 ft. fin<!
Wl8X86 q>1,Mn = 484 ft-kips

W)6X89 </>1,M,, = 467 ft-kips
W24X94 <!>bM,, = 454 ft-kips
The sections are all located in the charts above and to the right of the entry point. Fro
= 50 ksi:
A!SC Manual Table 3-2, "Selection by Z,:'' find for I-~,. m
W J 8X86. L, = 28.5 ft, 'PbMp = 698 ft-kips

<j,i,M, = 436 fr.-kips
Wl6X89, L, = 30.2ft, <f>bMp = 656 ft-kips
tPbM, = 407 ft-kips
W24X94, L, = 21.2 ft. 4>,,M,, = 953 ft- lcips
<f>bMr = 583 fi-kips

Try the moderately deep Wl8. Since Lb is moderately lower rhan L, of 28.5 ft f!l
Fv = SO ksi, and
realizing that L, will be lower for Fv = 60 ksi, the controlling latera).
torsional buckling strength Mcr could be either elastic or inelastic. The variarioo of L, with
Fy for WJ8X86 is shown in Fig. 9.9.5; the two AJSC Manual tabulated values are marked
as points A and B. Typically, as the yield stress is higher, the L, is Iower, bui there is Iess
deciease than if the relationship were linear. For this example, becausè L, is higher but
close to Lb = 25 ft, the section could either fall in the transition domain or iJl lhe elastìc
buckling domain.
(e) Check Wl8 X86. Compute Mp,
MP = ZxF_v = 186(60)/12 = 930 ft-kips

<PbMp = 0.90(930) = 837 ft-k.ips
40,--------- ------ ------ - - ---

L, = 28.5 ft
F-', = 50 ksi
30
-.i' 20 L,, = I I.O ft

a
-..i..
IO
Figure 9.9.5 Wl8X86

Variation in L, and L,, for
various yield stresses- 40 45 50 55 60 65
W I 8X86. Yield stress f'.v (Jesi)
s = 166L,· for
Compute F,, = 60 ksi from Eq· 9 .6 .6 below usmg
3 . .:_
· r,, -- 3.05 ·m., J -- 4 . I m.
· 4,
·• m. ' ( - I, and ho= 17.6 in. for Wl8X86
L, = l.9Sr,,~ [ k f, + - - -Sxho)
I+ 6.76·(0.7Fy ~
2
O.7F). '\J SA, \J E Jc

= 25.2 ft > Lb = 25 ft
Since Lb = 25 ft for lhis exampte does not ell.ceed L the inelastic lateral-t.orsional buckling
stre th be " ·
. ng mu st computed to male.e the check ofthis seaion. Using Eq. 9.6.4 with Cb = 1.30
g1ves
M,. = C1, [ lb -
Mp - (Mp - 0.7F)SX) ( L, _ Lp
LP)]
25 - 8.5 ) ]
= l ·30[930 - (930 - 0.7(60)(166/12)) ( 25.2 _ 8.5
= 761 ft-kips < 930 ft-kips OK

[4>M" = 0.90(761) = 685ft-kips) > [ M,, = 684ft-kips1 OK
lf minimum deflection ìs desired a deeper section could be selected. Consider the alter-
nallve section W24X94. Compute L, for F,. = 60 ksi from Eq. 9.6.6 below
using r,, =2.4 in., J =
5.26 in. 4 , Sx = 222 in 3. ; = I, 110 = 23.4 in. for W24X94
= 18.9 ft < [Lb = 25 ft ]
Fcr
Cb1T
2
E/
= ( Lb ) 2 \V, I + 0.078-S)1
Jc (L- 1, )2 = 35.6 ks1.
0 r,.,
r,s
and the available moment strength is
= 0.90(35.6)(222)/ \2 = 593 ft-kips

il>Mn = it,F,:rS, < [<t,Mp = 837 ft-kips]
[.PMn = 593 ft-kips) < [Mu = 684 ft-kìps ] NG
The next heavier section is W24X 103. giving L, = 9.4 ft and

[t/>1,Mn = 691 ft-kips} > [M,, = 688ft-kips.adjustedforbeamweight) OK
ln,estigatiag the W2 I series does not give a lighter section.

The Wl8X86 is satisfactory with less than I% overstrength. The section also sat-
isfies the "compact sectìon" requirements ,\ s ,\P for flange and web as given in
Table 9.6. l.
For the lightest section, Use Wl8X86 if detlectioo can be tolerated; or use
W14 X I03 if minimum deflection is desired. •
EXAMPLE 9.9.5
Whac W section e.in be used for the beam of Example 9.9.4 if lacerai support is provide;J
every 5 ft?
Solution:
In this case. since the lateral-lorsional stability has been improved by reducing lhc
unbraced Jength. the deeper sections can carry greater loads. The deeper sections wil! also
be the lighter ones.
(a) Factored moment M., . From Example 9.9.4 and assuming a lighter section ~
the 103 or 86-lb/ft sections used in Example 9.9.4,
Wu = 1.2(0.4 + 0.07) + 1.6(1.0) = 2.16kips/ft

Mu = 2.16(50)2/8 = 675 ft-kips
Required <f>bM,, = M,. = 675 ft-kips
(b) Select a tria! scction. Assume the section will be adequately brnced to achieve its
plastic moment strength M P.
Required Mp (675/0.90)12 ,
Required Zx = - - - -- = 60
= 150 in.·
F,,
From AISC Manual Table 3-2, " Selection by Z/', the lìghtest sec-tion that ha.
Z., 2:. 150 in.3 is W24X62 having Zx = 153 in.3 Note that Lp = 4.87 ft for Fy = 50ksi.
and will be Jower for F;, = 60 ksi. Thus, a section having somewhat larger musi bez.,
used. The next lightest section is W21 X68 having Zx = 160 in.3.
(e) Check the section. Note that the 5-ft laterally unbraced segment adjacent I.o
midspan will have Cb very close to 1.0 (actually it is l.02 for M 1/ M 2 ;;; -0.96); if th(
check shows the strength to be slightly low, the correct Cb can be obtained from Table 9.6.3
(or it can be computed). Assume Cb = LO for the check. The dead weight assumed is
almost egual to the actual weight of the beam
Forche W2 I X68, using S x = 140 in.3, r,s = 2.17 in., h 0 = 20.4 in., and J = 2.45 in_l
(E 300 300 I
LP = l.16rv\ /7 = . r.:-;--:',· = -(l.8)- = 5.8 ft
. Fy V Fv, ksi . 7.75 12
0.?F,, S h ) 2
L, = l.95,,, __!_ (]e
o.7Fy vs;;;:,V
Il + I + 6.76 - -· ....!.~
( E Jc
= 16.8ft
Since Lb is less than LP
r/>Mn = </>Mp = </>Z.J_v = 0 .9(160)(60)/12

= 720 ft-kips > [Mu = 615 ft-kips) OK
Use W21 X68 (F" = 60 ksi) with about 7% overstrength. I
EXAMPLE 9.9.6
Given the welded 1-shaped section of Fig. 9.9.6 used as a 45-ft simply supported beam lai·
erally supponed at the one-third points. Detemùne the service live load the beam may bt
Piange•-~ x 16
8
Weh- ftx 26 w
Fi urc 9.9.6 Vertical

g 'or
[)alBI'
Example 9.9.6. Wclded section supporu
permined to carry if the dead load is 0.15 kip/ft including 1he beam weight. Use Load and
Res1stance Factor Design. The steel has Fy = 65 ksi.
Solution:
(a) Compute cross-sectional properties.
Area, A = 28.1 sq. in.
lx= / [ ( 26
2
+ ¼+ ¼)3(16) - (26)3( 16 - t6
) ] = 4003 in.
4
S = ~ _ 4003 _ . 3
;r d / 2 - 13.625 - 294 m.
ly = 2( / 2 )<16}3(0.625) == 427 in. 4
ry = {!;_ = [427 = 3.90 in.

\/-;;. \Jru
1
= 3
+ 26(0.3125}3) = 2.87 in.4
J
3(2(16)(0.625)
2
lyh 427(26 + 0.625)2 .
Cw =-
4
= - - -4- - - = 75.670 m.6
v427(75,670) = 4.40 in.
- - - --
294
h0 = 26.6 in.
(b) Investigate the locai flange buckling and locai web buckling limit states. Check
À s Àp according to AISC-B4; the limits are givcn in Table 9.6.1.
For flange locai buckling.
(
À = bJ/2 = 16/2 = 12.8) > (' A,, = 0.38 {E = 6;.;- =
IJ 0.625 \} f.. V fy
s.o) NG
For web loca! buckling.
(
À = !!._ =~ = 83.2) > (A,, = 3.76 ~f;·, = \6-;}F,. = 79.4\) NG
rw 0.3125
Thus, the section is not "compact" with regard to eìther the flange or the web. N
check whecher the flange ,md/or the web must be c.lassi"fited_ as " sIend er" elemenis; lhatC~t ii
determine whether À exceeds A, (AISC-B4.l and Table 9.6.2). '
For flange loca) bucklillg,
h 4 4 >0.35
- = 83.2; = --- = - -
lw
k
e Vhjr: \/812 == 0.44 < O. 763
Fl = 0.7f~ = 0.7 (65) = 45.5 ksi (Note b of AISC Table B4. I )
_ /kcE 162 162 = 15.9

A, = 0.9), I F = .. ~
V l V Fif kc v'4s.5/o.44
b /2 )
( A = ~/ = 12.8 < (A, = 15.9)
For web local bucklìng,
(A=,:= 83.2) < ( Àr = 5.70~ = ~ =120) OK
Thus, the slenderness ratios A for both the flange and the web lie between Ap and >.,;
the section is "noncompact" with regard to both the flange and the web, and two of the pos-
sible controlling Jìmit states for nomina! strength will be locai buckling of the flange ori.be
web in the inelastic range as shown in Fig. 9.6.2.
(e) Compute the plastic moment strength MP and the moment strength M, at the
elastic limit (see Fig. 9.6.2).
Mp = Z,Fy = 319(65)/12 = l 728 ft-kìps
M, = (0.7~v)S_. = (45.5)294/12 = I I 15 ft-k.ips
(d} Compute the nominai strength Mn based on the lìmit state of locai bucklùig of
the flange. Using Eq. 9.6.9,
Mn = Mp - (Mp - 0.1FyS,,J (
A- Àpf) [9.6.9)
À,J - Àpj
12 8 80
Mn = 1728 - [1728 - 0.7(65)294(..!_)]( ' - · ) = 1355 ft-kips
12 15.9 - 8.0
(e) Compute the nomina] strength Mn based on the limit state of locai buckling of
the web. Using Eq. 9.6.9,
83 2 79
Mn = 1728 - [1728 - 0.7(65)294(_!_)](
12
· - .4 )
120.4 - 79.4
= 1671 ft-kips
(t) Ex:amine the lateral-torsional buckling limit state. Compute Lp using Eq. 9.6J.
Section 9.10 Examples: Allowable Strength Design • 447
15
Since_ Lb = ft exceeds L,.. the lateral-torsional buckling limit state must be
:xa~med forther. Compute L, using Eq. 9.6.6, with, Sx = 294 in. 3, r,. = 4.37 in.,
o - 26.6 in., J = 2.87 in.4, and Fy = 65 ksi
L ' -- 195 E
· r1,--
0.7F_,,
[jfc ~
--
S~h,, 'J
/
I+ ,/1 + 6.76(0.7F, S h )
- - · 2-2.
E le
2
= 30.4ft
Tht, _the nominai strength M,. based on the limit state of Jateral-ronio1111/ buckli11g is lin-
;ar ~ mterpolated between M,. and M, = 0.1F\'Sx according to Eq. 9.6.4 using Cb = I.O
or t e center l 5-ft laterally unbraced segment Òf the 45-ft span of this example (computed
cb == 1.01).
M,. = cb[ M,, - (M,. - 0.?FySx{ :: =~:)] ~ M,. (9.6.4]
M,. = 1.0[1728 - [1728 - 0.7(65)294(_!_)]( 15 - 12.1

12 30.4 - 12.l
)lj
= 1630 ft-kips
(g) Final evaluation. The nominai strength M,. is the lowest value among the possi-
ble control~ing limit states: 1355 ft-kips for flange locai buckling: 1671 ft-kips for web
locai bucklmg: and 1630 ft-kips for lateral-torsional buckling. Thus.
M,. = 1355 ft-kips

<l>bM,. = 1220 ft-kjps
Maximum Mu = <PbM., = 1220 ft-kips
M ,, = l.2Mo + 1.6ML
Mo= 0.15(45}2/8 = 38 ft-k.ips
M _ M" - l.2Mo 1220 - 1.2(38)
l - 1.6 - - - - -- = 734 ft-kìps
1.6
&ML 8(734)
uil = - 2- = - -
L 2
= 2.90 k.ips/ ft
(45) ' •
9.10 EXAMPLES: ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN

Severa] examples are presented to illustrai.e the Allowable Strength Design tvktlwtl to include
latera..1-torsional buck.Jing as a factor detemùning the allowablc stress. Othrr tonsidl·mtions.
such as deflection, shear. :md web crippling were treatcd and illustrntecl in Chaptcr 7.
EXAMPLE 9.10.1
A simply supported beam is loaded as shown in Fig. 9 _<)_ J _Thc- beum has trnnswr~t· lntt·ral
support at the ends and every 7'-6'' along the span. Sel<::et thc ligh tcst \V ~l't'tinn ,1f N )()~
steel, using Allowable Strength Design.
448 • Chapter 9 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of Bearns
Solutùm:
(a) Calculate the service load moment.
M 11 = i(l.4) (30 )2 + ¼48(30) = 518ft-kips
The ASD requircment is

nM,, è ,'via
where O = 1.67, the safety factor for flcxure. Therefore, the required nominai strengtl-,
M,,i~
Required M,, = OMa = 1.67(518) "" 865 ft -kips
(b) Assume the selected section will be in Case 2 where Mn = MP. As io

Example 9.9.1, for Lb :s Lµ, and the minimum bf must at least equa! 9.7 in. Se!ectfrom
AISC Manual Table 3-2, "W Shapes Selection by Zx''
Required M 11 865( I 2) . ~
Required Zx = = = 208 m.··
F_, 50
As in Example 9.9.J, the lightest section would be W24X84, but it ha br below the
minimum required to att ain the plastic moment strength M1, . From AÌSC Manua/
Table 3-2 "W-Shapes Selection by z_;•, one can find W18X97, as i11 thc LRFDexam-
ple, to be the lightest suitable section, with z.,
= 211 in.3 and Lv = 9.36 ft.
Include the beam weight and check the allowable strength,
Ma = !(1.4 + 0.097)(30) 2 + 148(30) = 528 ft-kips

From AISC Manual Table 3-2,
(Mr/O = 526 ft-kips) .:,;: (M" = 528 ft-kips ) sayOK
Locai buckJing !imits for compact section are also satisfied.

UseWl8X97 I
EXAMPLE 9.10.2
Repeat the selection of the lightest W section for the simply supported beam of Fig. 9.91
designed using A!SC Load and Resistance Factor Design, except here use Allowable
Strengtb Design. Latera! support is provided at the ends and at midspan. Assume deflec-
tion limitations oeed not be consìdered. Use A992 steel.
Solution:
(a) Detennine the required nominai moment strength Mn at midspan. Assume me
beam weight to be about 90 lb/ft.
M0 = !(1.49)(50) 2 = 466 ft-kips

Lh = Laterally unbraced length = 25 ft
Cb = 1.30 (as in Example 9 .9.2)
Section 9.10 Examples: Allowabte Strength Design • 449
The ASD requirement (with n = 1.67) i~
The required allowable strength is,
. Mn .
Requ1red O = Ma = 466 ft-kips
(b) Use A/SC Manual Table 3-10, ''Available Moment vs. Unbraced Length".
These curves are plots of the allowable flex.ural strength vs laterally unbraced length l1,
for W shapes having Fy = 50 ksi, the same curves used with the LRFD Method exam-
ples. Wìth the ASD Method, the green columns in tbe tables are used for the allowa.ble
strengtb values.
Entering the curves with
Ma 466
C1, = l. 0
3
= 359 ft-kips and Lh = 25 ft
Find Wl8X97,
(M,,/fl = 379 ft-kips) > (Required Mn/0. = 359 ft-kjps)

Note that the WJ8X97 is within the linear transition portion of the strength curve.
Check W 18X97 having Zx = 21 I in.3, Sx = 188 in.3, L1, = 9.36 ft. and L, = 30.3 ft.
The nominai moment strength M., computed above is less than the upper limit.
M P = 879 ft-kips. Thus,
M,, 822
= -- = 492 ft-kips ) > ( M 11 = 4 6 6. 1,t-,.;.1ps
,.· ) OK
( -fl 1.67
Use Wl8X97 with only 6% ovcrstrength. •
EXAMPLE 9.10,3
Select an economica! W section for the beam or Fic. 9.9 ..t Lalcral supp<.lfl i~ providcd al
the vertical supports, concentrated load points. ami ~a, the end of the cm1tilewr. A9')2 u~e
steel and the AlSC Allowable Strength De.~ig.n Method
Solutio11:
Three cases must be considered sincc cadi of the thrcc btcrally t111bran'd kni:th~ i~ ùifkr-
ent and is subject to a different maximum t,cnding m0111cn1. A~,umc tll(' ~c~m.:111 c-,mtaìn-
ing the largest moment governs.
As discussed in Ex.ampie 9.9J, start by considerit1g scf:_men1 A. whi,h ha~ th~·
largest maximum scrvice load moment ,,f 866 ft -kip~. a, ,11,m n ì11 Fìg. •) .IO.I . hu,·r ·\IS( ·
24',ff" I 28'-0" _ , -- ~ : : __
1
-@- - -+- 18-66-fl--k,p--~- - 1"'~~
U on 52 fl span. noi on cantilever
181
Figure 9.10.1 LL on cantìlever, not on 52 f1,pan
Bending Moment Mn
envelope due to superi.mposed
ASD load combinations.
Manual Table 3- lO, "Available Moment vs. Unbraced Leng1h" wilh the modìfied required
allowable strength, the length of segmenl A (unbraced length). and C1, = 1.67.
-M,, = -866 = 519ft-k1ps

. L
b = 24 1I.,
cb l.67
Two solid lines close to each other are above and to the right of thìs point, nameJi,
W24 Xl04 and W21 Xli 1. Examme the lighter W24X 104. For an unbraced length of 24ft,
this section is within inelastic lateral-torsional hucklìng domain with a M,,/ n. = 526 ft-kips.
The allowable strength with Cb = l.67 is
Mn =
O l.67 (Mn
i l for Cb = LO ) = l.67(526) = 878 ft-kips
Mp Mp
i l = 721 ft-kips < 878 ft-kips; i l controls!
(,:; = 721 ft-kìps) < (M0 = 866 ft-k.ips) NG
Must choose a deeper section with comparable weight or may use a heavier ,ection with
the same depth. Try W33Xl18 with M,,Jn = 602ft-kips at Lb = 24 ft.
nMn = 1.67(M,. )
0 forCb = I.O = 1.67(602) = 1005 ft-kips
M,, M
i l = 1040 ft-kips > 1005 ft-kips; computed ~· controls!
( ~n = 1005 ft-kips) > (M0 = 866 ft-kips) OK
Use W33Xll8. I
Section 9.11 Weak-Axis Bending of 1-Shaped Sections • 451
MPLE 9.10.4
E.P.
lnvestigate using Ali
was acceplabl b Lowable Stren_gth Design the Wl8X86 section of Fy = 60 ksi steel thai
The simply s e y oact and Res1stance Factor Design in Example 9.9.4 (see Fig. 9.9.2).
upponed span of 50 ft has lateral support a1 the ends and midspan.
So/utio11:
(a) Detennine the . .

serv1ce load rnomenc M a1 midspan.
2
Ma= Wl /& = 1.486(50)2/8 = 464 ft-kips
(b) Check the allo . bl . . I
val . wa e Slrength. M., /fi agamst the rcqu1red strength M 0 • Al thc
ues assoc1ated with the · 1 I 994
with the LRFD nomma strength of the beam. as determined in Examp e ..
d d~ Melbod are valid for the ASD Method. So. the following values are
a opte ,or ASD verification
L, = 25.2 f!. > Lb = 25 ft.

5t
TMhe inela ic lateral bucklìng is the controllino limit state (as in Example 9.9.4) with
n = 761 ft-kips <>
The allowable moment slrengrh is given as:
M" 761 ]
[O = T:67 = 456 ft-kips < Ma = 464 ft-kips
Tue beam is underslrength by only 1.7%; thus it is acceptable.

•
9.11 WEAK-AXIS BENDING OF 1-SHAPED SECTIONS
The treatment thus far in this chapter has dealt with lateral-torsional buck1ing where insta-
bility might occur in a direction pcrpendicular to the piane of strong-axis bending (that is,
the buckling occurs in the weaker di.rection). When an 1-shaped beam is bent about il,;
~eak axis (y-axis), that is, bending in a plane pe,pendicular to che piane of the web, mak-
mg the y-axis the neutra! axis, lateral-torsional instability is no longer of concem. The
beam will tend to deflect only in the direction of the loading since that is the principal axis
orie.ntation offering least resistance. Since !arerai instability will not occur on doubly sym-
metric I-shaped sections bcnt about their weak axis. the only factor that might prevenl
them from achieving lhe plastic moment condition would be locai buckling of the com-
pression ponion (unsciffened ele ment) of the flanges.
The lateral-torsional buckling limit state, defined in AISC-F2, applies only to mem-
be rs subjected to bending about the major axi~. In addition. the web will not be a com-
pression element when the loading is in a piane parallel to the flanges. Thus, the lim_it
states for 1-shaped sections in weak axis bending are (I ) developme nt of the plast1c
moment strength and (2) flange local bucklìng. AISC-F6 defmes the nominai tlexural
s trength as follows
.1. Yielding
(9.ll.l)
For sections with compact flanges this limit state applies.

2. Locai flange buckling

(a) For sections with noncompac: fianges
(9.1 l.2)
(b) For sections with slender flanges
0.69E
Fcr = ·(-~(. )2 (9.11.3)
.t.!,r
9.12* LATERAL BUCKLING OF CHANNELS, ZEES, MONOSYMMETRIC

I-SHAPED SECTIONS, AND TEES
The basic development of lateral buckling strength-related criteria has assumed that loads
are applied vertically through rhe shear center. Furthermore, ù1e resistance to lateral buck-
ling assumed that tbe shear forces which developed in che flanges were eqnal and the cen-
ter of twist was Iocaced at mid-height.
Channels
Unless loaded through the shear center, a channel is subjecred to comb;ne<l bending and
corsion. Since the shear center is not in the piane of the web (see Fig. 8.5. l), usual Joad-
ings through the centroid or in the plane of the web give rise to such combined stress. for
loads in a piane paraIlei to the web, lateral buckling must be cons idered. eveo if the tor-
sional rnoment may properly be neglected. The 1976 SSRC Guide [6.20) states ''if an oth-
erwise laterally unsupported channel has concentrated Joads broughc in by ocber members
that frame into it, such loads can be considered as being applied :n the shear center,
provided that the span of rhe framing member is measured from the chcmne! shear cenrer
and the framing connections are designed for the moment and shear a: the con11ection."
Por design purposes, Hill [9.32] indicates that lateral-torsional buckling equations
for symmetric I-shaped sections may be applied for channels. Such a procedure is stated to
err on the unsafe side by about 6% in extreme cases. AISC 2005 adopts this approach.
Equation 9.4.33 can be used to represent the elastic lateral-torsional buckling strength of a
channel loaded essentially in the piane of its web. The torsion warping constant Cw fora
channel has a different expression than the expression for an 1-shaped seclion; the expres-
sion is available in text Appendix Table A2. The torsion properties for rolled channels are
available in the AISC Manual [ l.15].
EXAMPLE 9.12.1
Determine the nominai strength M" fora channel, Cl2X20.7 of steel having F" = 50k5i.
used on a span of 24 ft with concentrated loads at the one-third points as shown in ·Fig. 9.12.l.
lt is assumed that the loads act at the shear center of the channel.
Solution:
(a) Detennine whether or not the section satisfies the "compact section'' require-
ments. Por locai buckling limit states the flange and web must satisfy 1he same requÌlt-
ments as for 1-shaped sections; i.e., as given in Table 9.6. l. For the flange .
s-ct10" 9. 12 Lateral Buclding of Chennels, Zees, Monosvmmetric 1-Shaped Sections. andTees • 453
912,l
~ 9.12. 1.
(À= b1
I
= 2.942 = 5.9)
0.50) f
< (Àp = ~
VFy = 9.2) OK
For the Web, À must not exceed Àp as given in Table 9.6.1, as follows;
( A== .!!__ == .!:'..I_= 9.75 = 34.6) < (AP = 640 = 90.5) OK

lw fw 0.282 VFy
Note lbat neither b1/11 nor h/ tw is given in thc AISC Man11al as a property for channel
sections. Thus, for h the authors recommend using the dimensionai property T to c~m-
pute the ratio. The webs of channels usually have Jow ratios h/t,,, so that one m~g~t
5t
almo assume À < Àp- This channel is a ··compact section" for the loca.I buckling hmll
states.
(b) Examine the lateral-torsional buckling limit state. Plastic moment strength can
develop when Lb .s: Lp, where according to Eq. 9.6.3.
300 300(0.80)/12 = 2.8 f•

LP =. ~r,, = . r;--;: ,
V 1\, ksi . V 50
Mp = ZxFy = 25.4(50)/12 = 106 ft-kips
Using the properties /Y == 3.86 in.4, Cw = 112 in.<>. S x = 21.5 in. 3• r,., = 0 .983 in..
h0 = 11.5 in., J = 0.369 in.4, one obtains
M, = 0.7FySx = 0.7(50)(21.5)/ 12 = 62.7 ft-kips

h0 {7;'
e = 2 \j e;;, = 1.07
L, = l.95rrt- E-
· 0.7 Fy
Hfc
- - )
S..h 0
I + Ji + 6.76(0.7EF,. SJxlc,0)2= 9.5 ft [9.6.6]
Thus,
(Lp = 2.8 ft) < (L1, = 8 ft ) < (L, = 9.5 ft)
-....C- • ---- - -
. . . - -- . ·---
.
. -·-·-- '-- ... .. .
. .
454 • Chapter 9 Lateral-Torsional Buckling or Beams
Thc nominai su-enl!Ch Mr. is a linear interpolation between 1~1p and M, according to Eq. 9_6_4
The governing lai~rally unbraced segmenl in Fig. 9. l 2. 1 15 th~ center one where the ma.,i:
mum moment occurs with a consumt moment; therefore, Cb - I.O for that segmem. E.va\.
uatin,g ù1e nominai strength gives
•
r
M 11 == I O! 107 - (!07 - 62.7)
L
(s.o - 2.s)] = 70 r .
9.L - 2.8
.4 t-k1ps 1
Zees
The zee-section Latera! buckling strength is complicated by the fact Lhat loading in the
piane of the web causes unsymmetrical bending, resulting because a principal axis does
not Jie in that piane. The generai creatment of buckling under biaxial bending is found
in Sec. 9.14. The effect of biaxial bending on zee sections was fou nd by Hill [9.32] 10
reduce the crirical moment Mx to 90-95 percent of che value given by Eq. 9.4.33. In
addiciou, che torsion-bending constant C~1,, is differenc than for c hannels or 1-shaped
seccions.
For design purposes, in view of the fact that unbraced 2.ees are relatively rare, A(S('
does not provide for them. The authors have Jong suggested using one-half the qJues
obtained using Fcr from Eq. 9.6.13, which is AISC Formula (F2-4).
Monosymmetric l-shapes
1-shaped sections symmetrical about the y-axis, but unsymmetrical about che x-axis, are
summarized in the SSRC Guide [6.8] and by Clark and Hìll [9.26]. Tbc add itional variabk
involve<! is )b, the distance from the centroid of the girder cross-section to the shear center
(positive if the shear center lies between Lhe centroid and compression flange, otherw~
negative).
The LRFD 1999 Specification for flex.ure of single symmetric 1-shapes. as wa~ gil'en
in LRFD-A-FI .1, is replaced in the 2005 Specìfication by a new method based on the work
of White [9.75]. These new provisions are in AISC-F4 [see AISC-Table in User No1t
FI.I ]. Four possible fai Iure limit states are defined for singly symmetric 1-shapes with
tlanges thai could be (a) compact, (b) noncompact. or (c) slender, and webs thai could be
either compact or noncompact. The categories are (I) compression tlange yielding (CFY).
(2) lateral-torsional buckling (LTB), (3) compression tlange locai buckling (FLB), and
(4) tension flange yielding (TFY). The possihle locai buckling of the web is taken in10
account by using the factors Rp,: and Rpt. These two factors can vary from I .O to 1.6. Con·
servatively these factors can be assumed to be unity (1.0). The nominai tlexural strength
for each limil state is as follows:
l. Comwes.sionjlange yieldìnK (CFYJ. The nominai strength from AISC-F4.I is
(9. t!.11
where Sx,: is the section modulus lx/Yc referred to the compression flange. This limit st#
occurs only wben Sx, > Sxe·
sec:tion 9.12 Lateral Buckling of Channel .
s, Zees, Monosvmmetric 1-Shaped Sect1ons, and Tees • 455
2. Lateraf-tors · lb .
tono uck/ing (LTBJ. 'The nominai strength from AJSC-F4.2 1s
(a) b1etasric LTB w·th L
I p < L,, < L,.
M,. == C[R
b p,:Myc -
( Rf><..M,-, - Fv<iu.-
)(Lb - Lr)] ~
L, _ L,, - Rp,:My, (9.12.2)
(b) Elastic LTB with L > l

b ,.
(9.12.3)
where
Fc, = Cb7r2~ /1 + 0.078- J. -(Lb)2 J =

l"
O if -'- s 0.23
b) V( ~ Sxch r, 0 ly
1
FL = 0 .?Fy when Sx,fSx, ~ 0.7
= FyS,:rf Sxc but not less than 0.SFy when S x /S,c < 1
0.7
LP = l.lr, H. = ~ (9.12.4)
L, = l.95r,~ / J /1 + /1 + 6.76(FL S,)10)2

Fi \Js:;;:,\j \J E J
(9.12.5)
(e) Web ':/asti.fication factor (as defined by AISC) Rpc, which accounts for
premature fa:ilure due to web bucklìng, is
(aa) When hc :S (,\ • = 640 )

l P"' · • ~ •
w V F, ksi
(9.12.6)
(bb) When hc > (Àpu, = 640 ),

'w ~
(9.1'.!.7)
where MP = F)'Zx :S l.6F,.Srr
The values inserted for ,\pw and À rw apply to doubly symmetric l-shaped secùons
bent about their major axis.
(d) I-shapes having rectan.gular compression .flange. The effective radius of

gyration r1 for lateral-torsional buckling is
(9.12.&)
hclw
where a = --
w bjc1jc
br,· = compression tlange width
t1, = compression flange thickness
For cases having channel caps and cover plates, properties are as defined in AISC-F4.2
(p. 16.1-51).
3. Compression Flange Locai Buckling (FLB). The nominai strength from
AISC-F4.3 is
(a) Noncompactflanges "rf < A < "rf ·
(9.12.9)
The va)ues inserted for Àpf and A,1 apply to flanges of rolled 1-shaped sections
and channels, and flanges of tees.
(b) Slender flanges A > À,J,
(9.12.10)
4
where k = --
e ~-
4. Tension Flange Locai Ytelding (TFY). The nominai strength from AISC-F4.4 is
(9.12.11)
(a) When hc s
1w
(Àpw = ~ ) ,
F, ksi
MP
Rp1 =M- (9.1112)
)Il
(b) When hc
1w
> (Arw == ~F, )
ksi
.
section 9.12 lateral Buckling or Channel .
2
s, ees, Monosyrnmetric 1-Shaped Sect1ons, andTees • 457
R,_ • [ : ; - ( ~ _ I)( A - _ A,• ) ] ~ M,

R,"
YI
-~M,,)l
Jl:, -(:, -1)(\ ~ My, 970 640
s Mp
M )I
(9.12.1 3)
V¼ - ~ ksi
The values insen d f . ped ·
ben I a bout <heir
. ·maJor
: axis.
e Or Àpw and A,"' apply to doubly symmemc 1-sha secuons
Tee Sections
A T-section may be th h . . th e
.. . oug l ot as a monosymmetric 1-shaped secuon that has e momen
ot men1a / of on f1 FD M I od
Y e ange equal to zero. Tradirionally both thc ASD and LR et s
have been vague ab t h , . . ' al •Il 1 Jv
ou ow a r-sect1on 1s to be treated. Rolled structur tees v. 1 rare ,
have s1rength controll d b . . . . Wh . s -
. .
15 e Y the lateral-tors1onal bucklmg l11ru1 state. ene1.er a tee ec
llon loadeci in the piane of its web (moment about the x-axis anci r x is less <han r y • th ere
shouJd be no limit on laterally unbraceci lengrh. Previously 1999 LRFD-Fl stateci. "The
lateral-torsional buckhng limit state is not applicable 10 members subject 10 benciing aboul
th
e mmor axis · · · " This cioes nor seem to appear in the 2005 AISC Specification or Com~-
mentary. However, lhe authors belicve the statemen1 is stilJ valici. A significane number <J I
rollcd tees are in this category. Ellifrin, Wine, Spmo, and Samuel [9.74] have discussed the
flexural s trcngth of WT seciions.
.
1
The lateral-lorsìonal buckling (LTB) streng1h of a tee with che s1em in compression
s _another matter. According to the AJSC Commentary-F9, '" ... the LTB strength of a tee
th
wJth e stem in compression may be only abour one-fourth of the strength for the stem in
tension." The portion of the stem in compression 1ypically controls 1he slrcngcb for T-sections
havmg reversc curvature. The rnoment gradient factor Cb is always to be taken as I .O whe.n
st
the em is in compression. AISC-F9 identifies three possiblc limi! sta1es:
l. Yielding (plastic moment strength is reached). The nominai strength is
(9.12.14)
where Mp = F;,Z., s; l.6My for stems in tension
MP :s My for stems in compression
2. Elastic lareral-torsional buckling. The nominai strength is
M
"
= M cr = 7TVLb
EI,.GJ (
. B
~)
+ \I\ + B· (9.12.15)
where
B = ± 2.3 (d) \JÌ~
Lb (9.12. 16)
The plus sign is used when the stem is in tension. and the minus sign applies when the stem
is in compressi on. AISC-F9 states. "lf the tip of the stem is in compression anywhere along
the unbraced length, the negative value of B shall be used.''
3. Flange locai bucklhtg. The nominai strength is
(9. 12. 17)
-- __~
.....,.
-
-
-- --
--·
~~ ~~-- ~ :; -. ; .
• • I • •• • •• ,. ' ' ., \,. ~

. --
•
- ---~
~
----· -- - --
• • • !: • • ,, : "t • ' •
458 • Chapter 9 Latera!-Torsional Buckling of Beams
where s.,, = the elastic section modulu~ refcrred to che compression flange
f~, = Fy J.19 - 0.50 hl \j E
(
M-) fornoncompact sections (9_ 12_18)
211
for stender sections (9.12.19}
EXAMPLE 9.12.2
Invescigace che moment strength of a scructural tee section WT7 X 19 both whcn used Wilh
its flange in compression and with the flange in tension. Use AISC Specification and A992
steel. Show how the strength is affected by laterai bracing.
Solution:
Case 1: Flange in Compression.
(a) Maximum strength. The flange must satisfy that À ::;; Àp to preclude the flange
locai buckling limit state from reducing the strength.
_ __J_
b _ 6,770 _
66
) < ( À = 65 = 9 2 \\
( À - 211 - 2(0.515) - . P VFy .) OK
Since che stem (web) is primarily in tension, À for the web does not have to satisfy any
limit Thus, AISC-F9.I indicates
Max Mn = 1.6My = 1.6S,.Fy = 1.6(4.22)(50) / = 28.l ft-kips

2
Also, the plastic moment strength cannot be exceeded,
l
Mp = FyZ,- = 50(7.45)
12 = 31.0ft-kips
In this case, the shape factor is 31(1.6)/28.l = 1.77. Because of conceni about inelastic
deformation at service load, AISC limits the usable ìncrease above first yield to 1.6M,
ratherthan Mp, which is l.77My, ·
(b) The lateral torsional buckling strength controls the nonùnal strength, ifa limit-
ing unbraced length, sinùlar to lp, is exceeded. The limìting length can be determined by
equating the nominai strengths defined by AISC Formula (F9-2) and Formula (F9-4) and
so)ve for Lb,limir, as follows
(e) Determine the nominai strength expression for Lb > Lb, limìt.
1T VEipi . r.--:-::,;
Mcr = Lb [B + V l + B2] s 1.6My AISC Fonnula (f9-4)
where B = ±2.3(:Jvt AISC Formula (f9-5)

section 9.12 Latera! Buclding of Ch
annels, Zees, Monosymmetric 1-Shaped Sections, andTees • 459
36 \
\
\
33
,.,_ .. 31.o" \ '
30 ------------~
]:_ Max M., = l.6M,. ~, 2H.1~',
... 27
é I
I
-;;_• 24 I
~ I
I
~ 21 I
i;; I
I I AISC-For!"'ul~ (F9-4)
:-: :
-~'
I~ I
: Il
I -~
I ~
I
'I._,,.;
I
I
I
6 I
I
I
re 9 12.2 3 I
figli .1131 moment strenglh I
1111 I
)'10
1 iuallY unbraced o
I
)I. vs la {or WT7X 19 IO 20
..th b . 30 40 50
fell~~- flange in compress1on. 60 70 80 90 JOO 110
,1ia\'1118' Late rally unbraced length Li, (feet)
The plus sign applie h h . . . . 1· · ~ th

WT s w en t e stem 1s in tens1on as for th1s case. Eva uatmg ,or e
7XI9, taking E/G:: 2.6 gives,
1TEYl3.3(0.398/2.6)
Mc, '"" - - --'---'---'-[B +
Lb
130,000
Mcr == - -- [ B + ~ ]
Lb
where
B = + 2 _3 (7.05) {TIT = + 93.7

Lb \Jm Lb
Th~ nominai strength Mn variation with Lb is shown in Figure 9.12.2. The value of Lb at
which_the_nominal strength ìs governed by both yielding and lateral torsional buckling limit
Slates 1s dictated by the maximum nomina] strength value of 28.1 ft-kip.
By tria! one gets

28.J (l2) = l ~~-;~=[ L:~;:,, + ) I+ ( ~~::,it)2]
Lb.limit = 39 .4 ft
Case 2: Stem in compression
(d) The maximum nominai strength when stem is in compression for the yielding
limit state ìs capped by AISC-F9. I at the yielding moment, My- Locai buckling_ of ~he
stem, when it is in compressìon, is not considered by AISC. The reason for not cons1denng
the stem slendemess is attrìbuted to the significant reduction of the nominai strength when
the stero is in compression.
The next step would be to compute Lr, the value of L1, at which Mcr = M,.
(e) Elastic Jateral-torsìonal bucklìog. AISC Formula (F9-4) for tee sectionr,
used in part (d) above is stil! valid when the stem i~ in compre~sion. However, lhec<>:
stant B must be rnken negative ( - ); thus. the buckhng stress w111 be lower for the tee in
tbi s orientation.
B -
__ -) ~(1.os') @I. __
__j L1; \/ 0.398
93.7
l1;
Thc nominai strengch relationship for the tee having its stem in compression is not
presented in grnphical form; however, M,, remains constant at F_" S~c ro Lb, limi,, thea
decreases according to Mc,- 1
9.13* LATERAL BRACING DESIGN
The questions of what constitutes bracing and how to design bracing continue to be majoi
concerns of practicing engineers. The subject is included in this chapter because a maj<l
item of concern in lateral bracing design is the restraìnt required 10 prcvent lateral-torsional
bucklìng in bearns. The developmem of this section, however. is appli.::able to the bracing
of columns as well as beams. In Sec. 6.8 the concept of braced and 1mbraccd system~ w~
briefly discussed in regard lo the effective length factor K. In the following discussìon, 1be
emphasìs in on braced systerns; thai is, the overall structural system is braced by cross
bracing or :ntachment ro an adjoining system that is braced. Tue bracing rcquirements for
frames are treated in Chapter 14. Bracing for individuai beams or columns may consìst of
cross bracing where the axial stiffness of the bracing elements is ut.i.lized: il may be pro-
vided ar discrete Jocations by flexural members framing i.n transverse 10 the member being
braced, whereìn both axial and flexural stiffnesses of the bracìng mernber are utìlized: or
such bracing may be provided continously by materiai such as light gage roof decking or
wall panels.
AISC 2005 Appendix 6 contaìns provisions for the design of beam and column
poinr bracing. Also point bracing has been treated by Zuk [9.39]. Winter [9.40]. Masse)
[9.41), Pìncus [9.42], Galambos [9.43]. Urdal [9.44). Lay and Galambos [9.45]. Taylorand
Ojalvo [9.46], Hartmann [9.47], Mutton and Trahair [9.48]. Medland and Segedin [9.49).
and Plaut (9.73]. Recent practical treatment has been provided by Yura [9.50]. Lutz and
Fìsher [9.51], Ales and Yura [9.52], Clarke and Bridge [9.53]. and Yura [9.72). Wha1 fol·
lows is largely a combination of the work of Winter [9.40], Galambos (9.43], and Yura
[9.50, 9.72].
Point Bracing for Elastic Columns and Beams
Considerthe ax:ially loaded column of Fig. 9.13.la where the top and bot1om of the mero-
ber are assumed to be supported in such a way that no side movement occurs at one end
relative to the other. Such restraint would constitute a braced system. The bracing to citale
such restraint may be considered as a spring at the top that ìs capable of cleveloping a hot·
izontal reaction egual to the spring constant (3 times the deflection ~- When the brace ~
a large spring constant (that is, the brace is very stiff) the detlection ~ could be d~l\l
zero and yet the spring may provide a large enough horizontal f(m:e to prevent any sili
motion (sideway) at the top. This would be the situation in Fig. 9.13.1 b. The equilit,riull
Sectio11 9.13 lateral Braci11g Design • 461
Jp
1 à p
-
p /3
I~ P._ e /1/J. fì.
' \
\
e /16
I ' \
I à=O
I
L I I
'' ''
''
I
I
I I
I I
I I
ure 9.J3. I tp tp
fig .
jJr:JCIPg
for II single-story
(a)
tp
(h)
colutn"· (<)
requirement
. is sho
· ' wn ·in F"1g. 9.13. lc, wherein a sidesway is shown. I. f one ·1magmes
· th. - as
1s
a shghtly deflccted position, then in order 10 have equilibrium. i.t i!'. required that
(9.13.1)
lf (/3A)L is less than PA, sidesway occurs. lf (/3il)L is greater thau PA, no side-
sway occurs, and the column would be considered brnced. The idea} brace. then. would he
th
one at has jusr enough stiffness {3 to prevent movement (at the top in this example); that is.
p
/3 = -L /9.13.2)
The maximum load for which bracing woukl be required is the elastic bucking load P,.r- or
th
e load causing yiclding or inclasiic buckling if that is lower than the elastic Pt'r · Thus llle
largest required stiffness /3ideat is
Pc,
/3ideat =L l9.13.3)
The concept is shown by the plot of p vs {3L in Fig. 9.13.2, wherein when /3 exceeds
.BideaJ, Per is reached and the column buckles withoul end translation (sidesway}: in other
words, it is a braced system. When /3 is less than .B;cte,I· a sidesway deflectìon will occur
such that P = {3L; in other words, a so-called 1mbraced system. The major treatment of
unbraced systems is in Chaptcr 14. devoted to rigid frames.
p
I
I
I
,! -- p ~ /JL
I
I
I
: r
/
I
'
I I
figure 9.13.2 .
:1!
I '1 -
,'!
ce stitfness relative to
era of "braced" ~,i- it t K ~ to
i ir
conceP'
(K"' r. O) and "unbraced"
(K ;:, I.O) systems for K > IO
coluntn hinged at top and
t,o11om-
/3;,.,,,L {3L
i,...
\
\
I
I
I
I
L' = 2L I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 9.13.3
Mid-height brace fora
t P,, t p"
two-story column. (a) ( b) (e)
Nexc, extend the concept to a two-story column within a braced system, a5 shown in
Fig. 9.13.3. When no displacemenc ocrnrs at mid-heighl. i.e., full bracing is provided, the
column will buckle at a load nearly egual ro
r.2EA
P. = --
cr (L/r)2
In other words, one may imagine thai a hinge exists at mid-heighL BudJing occurs wheu
the column snaps into the two half-wave mode of Fig. 9. I3.3c.
Taking moments about the imaginary hinge location wich the colurnn deflected byan
amount ii, as in Fig. 9. l 3.3b, gives
(9.13.5)
Since Fbr = {3Ji,

(f3Ji)L
P
cr . J i = - - (9.13.6)
2
As in the one-story column, if /3ideat is lhe necessary stiffness to create a nodal point (zero
deflection) at mid-height of the two-story column. then
2Pcr
.Bideat =T (9.13.7)
Por situations with more than lwo egual spans, the same procedure may be used to
obtain .8ideaJ. Examination of Fìg. 9.13.4 for three equa) spans will show that the spring
forces Fb, can act either in the same or in apposite directions. Assuming they acr in the
same direction (Fig. 9 .13.4a), using imaginary hinges at one-third span points, and takiog
momen1s when slightly deflected at the brace points, gives
Per
/3;dea1 =T (9.13.8)
Assuming the forces Fbt acting in opposite directions (Fig. 9. I 3.4b) gives
3Pcr
l3idea1 =T
Section 9.13 Latera! Bracing Design • 463
I
I
I~A~
/
· · ~Fw
-
I
I /-"
~~
·ot1re 9. JJ.4 k hre

f 1e- braced IO ma e t e
- Ft.
t P,.,
I
I
cohlllln
eqLllll spans. (a)
(bi
. Tue_ configuration requìring the highest spring constam is the correct one, that wbich
Ifa \esser stiffness is used, an alternare buckling mode
Wtll penn1t rbe highest criticai load.
will occur at a lower load, accompanied by displacement at the springs.
By lhe sa.me process, l3ide,I may be determined for any number of equa! spans. In
generai,
(9.13.10)
where Il' varies from 1 for one span to 4 for infinite equal spans. The variation is given in
Ftg. 9.13 .5.
T_hus Eqs. 9.1 3.3, 9. 13.7, 9.13.9, and 9.13.10 give the ideai brace stiff11ess to prevent
translatton at the points where the braces act.
. In additi?n to stiffness, a brace musi provide adequate smmgtlt. The strength Fbf
requ1red of an tdeal brace is
Fb, == /3idcal.1 (9.13.11)
? t un~I buckling occurs, a is zero (see Fig. 9.13 .6); therefore there will be no brace force
0
in the tdeal system until buckling occurs.

Compression mesnbers in real structures are not perfectly straight, petfectly aligned
vertically, nor perfectly loaded as assumed in calculations; there is always an initial
crookedness. In other words, d is not zero even when there is no compressive load P act-
ing. Reexamine the single-story column of Fig. 9. 13. J assuming there is an initial deflec-
tion -io that exists even when P is zero. Then, as shown in Fig. 9.13.7. equilibrium requires
(/3d)L == P(d + <io) (9. 13.12)
4
...---
3
,,,..- i--
a= -
f31tte:::.1L
p" 2 V
Figure 9.13.5 . .
, . «·on of requ,red spnng
/
\ana .
consiani for column w1th
number of equal unbraced 2 4 5 6 7
spans. Number o( Equa\ Spans
- - -- ---- - - -- - ---------
PL-----
" I
I
I
I À
Fh
: ,
,1 ~ 1
1 1
Figure 9.13.6 Brace
Brace force relative to torce
colunm load for ideai system. A
rt1 '
I
L
Figure 9.13.7
L
Column with initial
crookedncss .6.o. (a) No load applie<l (b) When load is applied
for P =P 0,,
{3 reqd = Pcr(I + ào) (9.13.13)

L à
Since f3ideal = Peri L, Eq. 9.13.13 then becomes
/3reqd = .Bidca{ I + ~o) (9.13.l~l
which is the stiffness requirement for compression members having initial crookedoess
ào.
The stre11gth requirement is then
Fbr = /3reqdà = /3idea{ I + ~O) 6.
Fbr = f3;dcal( 6. + ào) (9.13.15\
Normal tolerances on crookedness of compression members would vary from 1$

to 1/1000 ofthe length [9.41]. The AISC Code o/Standard Practice* indicates accepllbk
out-of-plumbness to be UlOOO. Considering accidental eccentricity of loacling. W"UIIII
[9.40] suggests taking ào from 1/250 to 1/500 of the length.
*Code of Standard Practice for Stetl Buildil1gs and Bridgts, American lnstitute of Steel Con.\ lnK'lica. ~ Il
2005 (A[SC-Section 16.3).
Section 9.13 Lateral Bracing Design • 465
AISC Provisions St b"J·

- a 1 1ty Bracing Design for Beams
The following a 1· (s· ·1
. . . PP ies to the AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design Mcthod. imi ar
~~~~o~~ ::a•lab~ in AISC-Appendix 6.3.) To obtaìn design equations. Winter (9.401 sug-
gdes1gn _.6.o - L/SOO. Subs1i1u1ion ofthis in Eqs. (9.13.14) and (9.13. 15) g1ves lhe
.· equations.
l. For s11iffi11es\·• /3 <«id•

/3,cqd = 2/3idcal (9.13.16)
2. For nominai l'tre11 gih Fi,,,
Fh, = /3;dc:,1(2<1o)
Fb, = /3ideai(0.004Lb) (9.13.17)
where /3idcal "" Pc,/ Li,.
.tr _AISC-~ppendix 6 (p. 16.1-191) identities two types of bracing tO achieve ~int
reS amt again~t (a) Iateral movement, (b) torsìonal movemem. and (e) lateral-torsional
bucklmg. In !bts section, only lateral bracing is discussed. Latera! bracing is classified as
eltber relative bracìng or nodal bracing. In floor systems. relative bracing uses diagonal
S!ruts, whe_reas nodal bracing uses transverse bracing supported by rigid supports,. as
town m Fig. 9. 13.8. Por !alerai bracing. the brace must be attached near the compress,on
lan~e, except fora camilever, where an end brace must be attached to the top flange. For
contm~ous bcams, braces must be attached 10 both flanges at the brace poim neareSt lhe
mtlect,on poim (AISC-Appendix 6.3.1)
Using Winter's approach, AISC developed the following design equations to obtain
the required nominai strength and stiffness for lateral braciog:
1. Relative bracing. The required brace strength is
(9.13.18)
where
M, =
required flexural slrength (factored service loads) us ing either the
AISC LRFD Method or the AISC ASD Method
Cd = 1.0 for single curvature = 2.0 for double curvature (This value is lo
be applied to the brace point nearest the point of inflection.)
ho "" distance between flange centroids
Assuming nominai strength is controlled by elastic buckling,
I--1
rigid
support
fi ure 9. I 3.8
ì-f;
g s of lateral bracing
n,pe .• nodal
'i
/ relative bracmg,
a, . I-
(b) nodal bracmg (bl
- - -~ - - -~_- _- - _ - - -- - _,___.~:-~- - - - - ~--- _.........:.....--~·--- .. ....-::':""-~ --w~
• • J ' .. • , • ' • , • • • •• < ' • ' ' •• : - -, • • • • •• • ·, • •

466 • Chapter 9 Lateral-Torsional Buclding of Beams
Equate required srrength to availab1e nomina! strengfb and solve for the required motncnt
of inertia /
1T2 El 0.008MrCd
-Lt = --h:--
0.008M,CdLt
Required / = (9.13.19)
The required brace stìffness is
_ J_(4M,Cd)
f3br - <J> L,,ho (9.13.20)
Recognizing that axial stiffness {3 is EA/L which can be equated to the required brace
stiffness,
Solving for the required area of the brace,
(9.13.21)
2. Nodal bracing. The required brace strength is
0.02M,Cd
Il,, = h (9.13.22)
o
Assuming nominai strength is controlled by elastic buckling,
Equate required strength to available nominai strength and solve for the requìred momcot
of inertia /
-n-'lEI 0.02M,Cd
(9.13.23)
The required brace stijfness is
(9.13.2')
Recognizing th 1 · 1 . · d b
sLJ'ffness, a axia Shffness /3 is· EAJL which can be equated to the rcquire race
-EA _--I(IOM,C,1)
- --
L cf> Lbho
Solving for th ·
· e requ1red area of the brace,
.
Requ1red A = - - I L(LOM,C,1)
- - -- (9.13.25)
tf> E L,)1,,
where e/>= 0.75
L = length of brace
Lb = laterally unbraced length
th
The o er terrns are defined following Eq. 9.13.18.
EXAMPLE 9.13.1
f?esign a brace (brace A) 10 provide lacerai support fora W27X84 beam (beam A) posi-
tmned as shown in Fig. 9.13.9. Assume the braces are 7.5 ft long, are attached near lbe
compression
48 flange, and are Iocated along the supported beam at the one-third point of a
-fc span. Use the AISC Load and Resistance Factor Method and A992 steel.
Solution:
S_ince the bracing locations are given, the first step is to estimate the force in the compres-
smn zone of the beam or beams when the nominai strength Mn of the beams IS reached.
Smce '.he braces are 16 ft apan, the strength of the beam could be base<l on Fc, less tban F, ·
For thts W27X84 section, LP = 6.89 ft and L, = 20.3 ft. Thus, when braced every 16 ft
~~~~~~~~-
1
.
This s a case of nodal bracing. Hence, the requi.red brace strength and st1ffness are
determined using Eqs. 9.13.1 O and 9.13.11. The required factored load strength M, = M,.
(Mr is used as a symbol in AJSC-Appendix 6 for requìred jlex11ral strengtlr) ìs asswned to
be egual to che design strength rf>bM,. . Thcrefore.
Vertical bcam suppon
' ,
L - ---1-l----''"'::"'',--t-t- W27X 84
,,
~ x,
''
beams
H_
-----1 i-
'' /
Braces
' , /
, "" '
, / ''
'' _,-, W27X84 _ ._ - -
~•:J
Channel
7'-6" , /
bra.ce.s
26 71
Neutra!
16'-0
Typ. , Typ.
a:xjs
/ ' ,· 7 " 2.49 in.
i=::.,___, l
figure 9.13.9 Venical beam suppon 0.640
()ara for Example 9. 13.1. (a) Pian vìew (b)
468 • Chapter 9 lateral-Torsional Buckling of Bearns
where C1, is taken as I .O. and
MP = FZ
Y ~x
= -50(244) -1\- = 10J7ft-kips
Thus,
M 11 = _
I.O { 1017 - [ LOJ7 - 0.7(:>0)( 213) 12
I l ( J6_ -_ 6.89_ ) } = 748 ft-kìps
20 3 6 89
Required design strength M, = <!>bMn = 0.90 (748) = 673 ft-kips
For the W27X84 with 1,0 = 26. 1 in., requircd moment of inertia l is
2
0.02M cd{f, 0.02(673)(1.0)(16) 3 _
4
Reguired I = 7T 2;ho = ·(3. I4 )229,000(l6 .l) ( 12 )· = 0.8 in.
and required area A is
. 1 L(lOM,C,1) I 7.5(12)(10(673)(12)(1.0) )
Required A = 4,E L,)10 = 0.15 29,000 16( 12)(26.1) = O.O? sq. in.
Use C6XI0.5asthe lightestsectionhaving l y = 0.86 in.4 > 0.8in.4 and A = 3.08 sqin. ::,
0.07 sq in. 1
EXAMPLE 9.13.2
For the l.>eam laterally braced by joists as shown in Fig. 9.13.JO, detcrrnine the amount of
weld required so that the joist will adequatcly brace the l.>eam. The service bendint
moment is 25 ft-kips dead load and 100 ft-k.ips live load. The steel is A36. Use the load
and Resistance Factor Desìgn Method.
Solution:
(a) Determine stiffness required. Whereas in Example 9.1 3. 1 the compression
strength Per of the flange was used, in this example the strength to be accommodated is
computed from the factored Joad force in the flange. The factored moment Mu is
M,, = 1.2(25) + 1.6( 100) = 190 ft-kips
(b) Thejoist bracing system will l.>e assumed to provide relative bracing ìn thiscase.
therefore the required brace stiffness using the LRFD Method ìs:
7
4'--0" Joist
_ _ ___,Il(,:...__ spacing
Figure 9.13. IO
Beam laaer,llly braced by
joists.
Section 9.13 Latera! Bracing Design • 469
.
Il
Il Il
Il " Wl4><J4
Il ~
Il ---- bearne
"Il
4:-r--11
À t Il
Il
..l_ Il
Il B
•
:: i---. In-piane •hear
Il
Il •• deselopcd within
•
Il I ti m,,1al dcck transfctred
9 (3.11 Il Joisu Il IO joists; i.e.• di1phn1gm
f,gure · m action. of
:.:~..i.rag .
metal Il
Il
PI
Il actton
Il
~ --· ched IO JOISIS. Il
Il
,11:Ckarta
Lh = 4 ft, CJ = I .O, M, = 190 ft-kips. and /t,, = 13.5 in. for W 14 X34
/3ix = _ 1_(4(190)(12)(1.0)) _ _
o.75 (4 )( 13_5 ) - 225 kips/f1
. Assu~ing l~e joists have metal deck adequately attached to them. 1here will devel_o p
m _th e deckmg an in-piane shear, known as diaphragm actio11, that will restrain the relauve
axial movemen~ of two adjacent joists, thereby restraining relative lateral mov:ment
between two adJacent laterally braced points on the beam being braccò. such as pomts A
aod B ?f Fig. 9.13.11. Thc adequacy of the attachment of the decking to the joists will
deterrnme the degree to which diaphragm action prevents the relative motion of points.
such as A and B. If there is zero relative motion, thcn the requirement for latei:al suppon
may be based on a = I, i.e., the same as the bracing of a single-story column. ln which
case, th e required stiffness would be
_ 2aPc, 2(1)(181) _
/3rcqd - 2/3ideal = - - = - - -- = 90 kips/ ft
L 4
_ Using diaphragm action can greatly reduce tbe stiffness requicement for poi~t
bracmg. In this case. if diaphragm action can be developed, the stiffness rcquirement 15
one-fourth as much as required without any diaphragm action. Metal deck wirh 2 \-in.
concrete fili would previde many rimes thc required stiffness. Even the diaphragm ac.rion
of the metal deck without the concrete slab is likely to previde more than the 90 kips/ft
required. Treatment of diaphragm bracing is generally outside the scope of this text:
however, a number of references [9.54-9.65] on diaphragm acrion are included at the
end of this chapter.
(e) Determine weld required to att.ach joists to top flange of Wl4X34. The force
required is, according to Eq. 9.13.22,
Required Fb, = 0.004aPc, [9.l3.17]
Conservatively take a = 4 as fora series of point braces.

Required Fb, == 0.004( 4) 181 = 2.9 kips
Using a tÌ-in. fillet weld (satisfies AISC-Table J2.4 for minimum weld size on
~ -in. flange thickness) with E70 electrodes and the SMAW process, the nominai strength
R,,w per inch is
R1110 == f6 (0.707)0.60(70) = 5.57 kips/ in.

Fb, 2.9 .
Required Lw = - - = - - = 0.5 m.
R,,w 5.57
use ¾-in. wcld. E70, L = O' - O¾" on each sid~ o~joist bearing seat. This is needed lo pro.
vide minimum length of 4 times weid size, sat1styrng AISC-J2.2b.
1
Bracing Requirements for Inelastic Steel Beams
Wheo ability to accommodate large pJastic strain is desired at braci~g points, such as when
plastic strength or plastic analysis is used io design, the procedure m the previous section
may not be adequate. Lay and Galambos (9.45] have_ developed _a set of rules for design in
cases where such high plastic strain (roiation capac1ty) 1s requ1red to be accommodaled..
In effect. bracing requirements are based on a rotation capacity R consistent with the
beam unbrnced length slendemess ratio given by Eq. 9.5.7. Il has been fou nct tbat wilhin
the Ja terally unbraced length "local bucl<ling causes a c urtailment of the load capacity of
the member and therefore defines the rotation capacity of the beam" [9.45).
The derivalion of Lay and Galambos 19.45] has determined the maximum lateral
moment that can develop in the compression flange under a uniform moment, Mx == M,
by using lhe strain distributions on the compression flange due to (a) compression due :0
Mx = MP aod (b) the lateral bendiog strains when local buckliog occurs on the "compres.
sion" side.
The design recommendacioos are:
l. For axial strength, the required cross-sectiooal area i~
(9.13.26)
2LLLR
where Lav = LL + L
R
LL = uobraced lenglh to left of braced point
LR = unbraced leogth to righe of braced point
b = width of compression flange
as, = strain at strain hardening divided by yield strain, 1:.s/ev (A value
of 12 may be reasooable for steels up to F_,. = 60 ksi [9.46).)
ae = elastìc modu!us divided by straio hardeniog modu!us ofelasticity,
E,/ E.,1
2. The axial stiffness requirement is satisfied when
lbrare :S O.S?[ a,, - I ] [ actual A brace ] [ L0 ]

(9.13.27)
lav ae - ~ required Abrace b
where La == longer of the two adjacent unbraced lengths.

In addition to the axial strength and stiffness requirements, Lay and Galambos [9.45]
indicated that when only the compression flange is braced there are additional tlexural
strength and stiffness requirements that must be satisfied. These flexural requirements (lllll
given bere) give overly large and deep bracing members. Recent studies [9.47) indicate thai
flexural requirements are unnecessary for lateral bracing locations away from beam vertical
reactio ns. When the compression flange is braced, point restraint giving the necessary ami
s trength and stiffness is sufficient. Latera! bracing at vertical supports undoubtedly ~
need some tlexural strength and stiffness to prevent a beam fro m tipping. but onlillll}
framing at such locations generally provides adequate tlexural strength and stiffne.~~-
r.4PLE 9.13.3
Et.I-
For the beam of E
hìngc rotation · x.ample 9 -I 3. l (Fig. 9. I 3.9) determine the brace size required if plastic
IS requ1re<1 at the bracing points.
Solution:
(a) Deternline th ·
e section required for axial srre11grh. Use Eq. 9.13.26.
Required A . = ( a_,., - I )(~) Acomp

brace _ • ;- 3 (L /b)
a.t.. V ae av
where a. = E /E h"
used f ·" " Y w ich may be taken as 12 for F,. = 36 ksi and can probably also be
· or steels to abo t F. . . . .
a , = 29,000
purpo . F /
450 _
-
64
u )'_ = 60 ksi. For a, = E/ E,,. use E., = 450 ks1. g1v~g
· Certamly, thc use of such values is accurate enongh for design
ses. or A36 steel, o:_" = 12_o, = _
64
a_., -
l 12 - l
a, - ~ = 64 - V64 = 0.2
2( 16)(16)(12)
192 in.
16 + 16
R·equired Abrace = 0.2 (2) Acomp

_ = 0 .007Acomp
3 19219 96
= 0.007(24.8/2) = 0.09 sq in.
Practically any roll d h . . . .

e s ape w11I sausfy th1s small reqmrement.
. (b) Ex.amine the requirement for ax.ial stiffness. Use Eq. 9.13.27, assuming conserva-
uvely the area A 'd .
brace provi ed equals exactly the requued.
L1race s 0 _57[ a_" - I ][ act~al A brace ] L0

av o:e - ~ requtred Abrnce b
s 0.57(0.2)(1.0)(192/9.96) = 2.2
Lhrace S 2.2Lav = 2.2( 16) = 35 > 7 .5 ft for brace OK
As in Ex.ampie 9.13.1, tbe slenderness ratio recommended bmit of 200 for compression
roembers will give a member adequate for bracing purposes.
Use C4X5.4. •
One conclusion regarding lateral bracing for beams and columns is that the require-
menls for such bracing are easily met. lt is more imponant to provide a brace of some size
lhan lo be overly concerned about what the size should be.
Empirica! procedures have long been used in lieu of a rational investigation of the
t
S rength and stiffness requirements for braces. A summary of some of these rules is
given by Lay and Galambos [9.45]. The typical rule-of-thumb has been to use a brace
having a slrength equa! lo or greater than 2 percent of the compressive strengtb of lhe
cornpression element beìng braced. This seems to be a conservative alternative to an
analytical study.
. - -~- ----- - - -=-==

--
-
. - - - -- -
·- - -.. - ~ . .;;;;-~~;:T'~-.--- ~
9.14"' BIAXIAL BENDING OF DOUBLY SYMMETRIC I-SHAPED SECTIONS

- ~ ---------------- - - --------- ------
Wh e n an 1-shaped section is loaded in the piane of its major axis, that is, a moment MJ. cau
weak axis bending, in combinati on wilh ~trong axis ben~in~ Mx from loading in the piane~
its web, the. s1rength Jimjr state may be controlled by y1eldmg under combmed stress or b
- - are roo f purrms anct crane support girde Y
lateral-torsional buckling. Two common situattons
How does the moment My affect lateral stabifoy? When My_acts alo ne lateral-torsional bue~:
ling is noi a possible lù.nit state, and most rolled shapes w1U develop Lheir plastic momen
When Mx acts alo ne, lateraJ-torsional buck:ling may well be the controlling limit state. t.
This subject of biaxial bending. including torsion, has been treated by Dohren-
wend (9.66] , Gaylord and Gaylord [9.67]. Springfield [9.68), Pastor and DeWolf (9_
691
a nd Razzaq and Galambos [9.70, 9.71). Many others, including the SSRC Guide [ _•
68
pp. 344-351; 6.20], have treated the subject in the context of beam-columns, which ar:
discussed in Chapter 12.
From Eq. 9.4.32 for pure bending Mx with respect IO the strong axis.
(9.14.1)
or
EZl1 = ; : [ + (fzY] 1 (9.14.2)
where À = 1/a = YGJ/ECw.

When simultaneously a moment My is applied , Eq. 9.14.2 becomes [9.65]
(9.14.3)
which is applicable to I-shaped sections with two axes of symmeny. Furthermore, il is

appHcable for sections with point symmetry (such as the zee), and is approximatelv valid
for channels when My does not exceed 0.25Mx (9.67). ·
Combinations of Mx and My which satisfy Eq. 9.14.3 will plot as an ellipse, as
shown in Fig. 9.14.1 fora Wl4X74.
Wl4X74
J = 3.88 in.•
a= I/ X= 63.2 in.
figurc9.14.I
Latera( buckling strenglh for
biaxiaJ bending of doubly
o 4000 6000
symmetric 1-shaped sections. M, (in.-kips)
Section 9.14 e· . . .
•axaal Bendang of Doubly Symmetric 1-Shaped Sectaons • 473
The usua] limi1 Id
stress F the siate accep1ed for biaxìal bending is the achievi."ment of thc yae
•· at e:io.treme ,- ..,. · .- h · ·bi ·
· be lhe co b' IU('r
beam may · under i:ombincd s1ress. Therelore. no matter ow !>la e a
· m mai10n ofmomenh musi satisfy
M , + -·
---=- M, .s F,. (9 . 14.·4)
s.T s,.
Since the relarionsh· . ·h . . . . .
may be d •ps s own an F1g. 9.14.1 for Wl4X74 are 1yp1t.·al. cena1n conclusion_"
Id Il hrawn_- ConSader a laterally unbraced length of 30 ft and steel with F,, = 60 k!.,.
ea Y, t e ultimate · d" - · · ' bu •-
rmg controls). con ltlon 1s defined by the lines AB (Yield1t1g
· controls) and BC ( ca.-
st
25 fi1 The mo imponant observation is thai for ordinary la1er..llv unbraced lengths (say
or less) the line BC 1· . . ' 1· · -. r u lÙ>es
. s near1y ven1cal: therefore s1mulumeou.s app 1ca1wn o., ,.,,,
nor apprecwbly ajfecr rhe criticai mome,u Mx.
AISC LRFD Design Method Provisions
Fo~ biaxial bending, rhe first User Note in AISC-F (p. 16. l-44) refers 10 AlSC-H I 10 H3.
wh!ch apply tordoubly symmetric members subjecl to bending and axial force. The inter-
a~tto~ e~uations for combined bending and ax.ial Joad are treated in Chap. 12. When tor-
srn~ is IIlC~uded in the loading, the User Note (p. 16. l-70) indicates to use AISC-H3.
apphes 10 "Members under Tor~ion and Combined Torsioo, Flexure. Shear. a nd/or
which Force."
Ax1al
Without axiaJ load Pu, AISC-Fonnula (H l-1 b) would be applicable, as follows:
(9.14.5)
where
Mux = factored service load moment about the x-axis (AISC uses M, , )
Muy = factored service load moment about the y-axis (AISC uses M,...)
M,.:x. = nominai strength for bending about the x-axis (AISC uses M c.Jd>b)
M,,y = nominai strength for bending about the y-axis (AlSC uses McJ 1,l
</>1, = resistance factor in bending, 0.90
It is logica! to use such an interaction equatìon as Eq. 9 .14.5; however. from discussion at
th
e beginning of this section, such a procedure is conservative. Note that M,,_, and M"'. can
be as high as Mpx and M py• respectively. .
Earlier ASD Specifications did not speci6ca1Jy direct the designer to the combmed
bending and axial load interaction equaùons for bi,uial bending wirho111 axial load.
The authors, and others [9.67] have long recommended the following procedure_lo
0
~ used f~r biaxial bending of symmetric 1-shaped sections subjecl to biax.ial bendmg
wrthout axial compression.
1. For the yielding limit state controlling (li ne AB of Fig. 9_ 14.1 ):
(.1;,,, = :::x + :·:.'') $ <Pbf~. (9. 14.6)
2. For the latera/-torsional buckling limit state controllìng (line BC of Fig. 9 . 14. 1):
</>M11 _1 ?.= M,.x (9.14.7)

where J;in = factored se1vice load normai (compressive or tensile) stress

M,.x = factored service load moment about the x-axis
M,.y = factored service load moment about the y-axjs
M,u = nomina! moment strength fora member loaded only in the piane
ofthe web (i.e., strong axis bending according to AISC-Ft).
AISC-Hl uses Lhe assumption that lhe yielding limit state conrrols; thus, the provj.
sion requires the combined normai (compressive or tensile) stress !un under factored loads
not to exceed </>i,f~ .
A common application of the biaxial bendiug analysis is when the applied loadin
includes torsional Ioading, which contributes to y-'.°'is bending. a~ discussed in Chap. l
Equations 9 . 14.6 and 9.14.7 seem particularly appbcable for that sJtuatwn; though AlSC-
H2 indicates to use Eq. 9. 14.6 alone. Note that AISC-HJ (Eq. 9.14.5) is 1101 applicabk
wben torsion is included.
It is explicitly stated in AISC Commentary-H3.3 that torsional strength for "odd.
shaped" built-up cross-sections can be cornputed using AISC-H3.3. This implies that hot-
rolled sections subject to combined stress and torsion must be investigateci using AISC-HI
and H2.
EXAMPLE 9.14.1
Design a W section to serve as a crane support girder to carry a live load momem Mxof
30 I ft-kips (without ìmpact) from the crane wheels. In additi on, a moment M1 of 30 ft-
kips acts in the plane of the top flange as a result of movement of rhe crane back and
for1h between the support girders. This moment M.r is based on a lateral force acting 00
the top flange equa! to I 0% (the total is 20% with one-half at each end) of thc lifted Joad
and crane trolley weight in accordance with ASCE 7-05, Section 4.10. Thc mmnent M-
about the y-axis is assumed to be resisred by one flange; in effect, 1his is to account r:C
the torsional effect by usìng the flexure analogy (see Sec. 8.6). The approximation of
equivalent systems is shown in Fig. 9.14.2. Assume the simply supported span of24 ftis
laterally braced only at the ends. Use Load and Resistance Factor Design aod
F.,. = 50 ksi.
Pxcauses Mx
R
(!tJ (...!.)
-
.!!.. !:.cv ; P,
_.1._
2
=
2 · TI 1o
(P,)
P1.+ 2 ~ =lP,
/1
- p_\'
P_,
or -
-
p)' 2 C3U,;<:<
rorsìonal momcnl 2
(a) (b) (e) (d)

Ac1ual loading Forces Apply Oellure Force sys1cm
1ransferred analogy for for selec1ing
10 cen1roid torsion SCClÌOll SO thai
s1ress al poini A
is the samc ~s in (e)
Figure 9.14.2
Approximate equivalenl sys1em for biaxial bending and 1orsion.
Section 9.14 e 475
ìaxial Bending of Doubly Symmetric 1-Shaped Sectìons •
Solution:
(a) Compute factored moments. Using ASCE 7 LRFD load combinations.
Estimated dead load moment = IO ft-k.ips
M.,x = 1.2( IO) + 1.6(301) 1.25 (using 25% impact increase)

= 614 ft-kips
M,.f = 1.6(30) = 48 ft-kips
M uy = 2Muf = 96 fr-kips (see Fig. 9.14.2b)
(b) Select a section. Use the approach of Sec. 7.11 with the criterion of Eq. 9.l 4 -6 ,
Required Sx ~ -M.'!!.
c/>bF).
+ -M.,).- ~
bFy
(S)
S>'
.
Requ1red S ~ -614(12)
"
-- + -
0.90(50)
96(12)
-- -
0.90(50) Sy
(s"')
~ 164 + 26( ~ 6) = 320 in.3
Try W24><131: Sx = 32g in.3
.
Requ1redSx 614(12) 2(48)(12)6.2 .
~ ---+ - - --- = 322m.3
0.90(50) 0.90(50)
. . (~) . Check the strength. The yield limit state appears to be satisfied; however. the sta-
bihty brrut state must be checked and a final check of ali criteria should always be made.
Check the yield limit state criterion, Eq. 9.14.6. adjusting M ,u slightly to reflect the
correct beam weight,
'" _ M 1,x M1,y 613(12) 96(12) _ Ik ·

Jun - -- + - - = - - - + - -- = 22.4 + 217
. - 44 . SI
Sx Sy 329 53.0
(f,,,. = 44.l ksi) < [ct,b~v = 0.90(50) = 45 ksi] OK
Check the lateraf-torsionnl buckling limit stare. Eq. 9.14.7
[9.14.7]
For the W24 >< 131,
MP = F_vZx = 50(370)f2 = 1542 ft-kips
E 300ry 300(3.0t) 1 r
LP = l.76r> - =- ---= = --,=-- -; = 10.5 t
F,. ~ VSO 1-
Lr = 3 1.9 fr (from AISC Table 3-2 "Se\ection by Zx'' or Eq. 9.6.6)

Then using Eq. 9.6.4 with C1, = 1.
Mn = e{ Mp - (Mp -- 0.7F,s,{ ~: =~;)] ~ Mp [9.6.4j
r ; , ( 24 - 10.5 ) }
Mn 1.0 { 1542 ·- l 1542 - 0.7(50)( 329 h:l] 3 1.9 _ 10_5 =- 605 ft-kips
q,M,. = 0.90 (605) = 545 ft-kips > M,,, 614

01(
Use W24X131 , Fr 50 ksi I
SELECTED REFERENCES
9 .1. Joseph A. Yura. Theodore. V. G a lambos. aod Ma yas~ndra K. Ravindra. ' ·T he llcnòing Rt sis1anc,
ofSteel Beams," Joumal oftlt~ Structum l D i,,i.rim,. ASCE, 104, ST9 (S e pre niber 1978).
1355- 1370.
9.2. Karl de Vries. '"Strength of Beams as Determined by L11ernl Buckling." Tran.wctions. ASCE. 112
(1947), 1245-1320.
9.3. R. A. Hech1.mann, J. S. Hattrup, E. F. Styer, and J. L Tiedemann. "Late ra! Buck.li.ng of Rolled Slfel
Beams," Tran.<actions, ASCE, 122 (]957 ), 823- 843.
'J.4. W. J. Au~Lin. S . Yegian, and T. P. Tung, "Latera! Buclding of Elas tically End-Resrrained I Beam.s,"
Tra11sactio11s, ASCE, 122 ( 1957), 374-388.
9.5. J. W. Clark and J. R. Jombock. "Latera! Buckling of 1-beams Subjected IO Unequal E nd Momenti_''
Jmmwl nfthe E11gi11eeri11g Meclianics Division, ASCE, 83, EM3 (July 1957).
9.6. Mario G. Salvadori. "La1eral Budling of I Beam~ Under Tbrusl a nd Uneq ual End Mnments,"
Transac1io11s. ASCE. 120 ( 1955), l 165-11 82.
9. 7. Theodore V. Galarnbos. Srructurul Members and Frames. Englcwood Cliffs, NJ: Pr~n.rice-Hall. lnc.. 1968.
9.8. Theodore V. Galambos. "lnelastic Lateral Buckling of Beams." Joumal ojrhe Srn,aural Diliision.
ASCE, 89, ST5 (October 1963), 217-24 2.
9.9. Maxwcll G. Lay and Theodore V. Galambos. ·'Jnelastic Steel Beam, Under U niform Moment:· Jo•rna/
ofrlte Stmcrural Division, ASCE, 91, ST6 (December 1965), 67-93.
9.10. Maxwell G. Lay and Theodore V. Galambos. " lnel&~1ic Beams Under Momem G raditm," Journn/of1h,
Structural Dfrision, ASCE, 93, STI (Pebruary 1967), 381-399. ·
9.11. Campbell Ma,,ey and F. S. Pit.man. "lnelastic Latera) Stabili1y Under a Moment GrJdient," Joumolof
rl,e Engineering Machmiics Divisìon, ASCE, 92, EM2 (Aprii 1966), 101-111.
9.12. Nichola~ S. Trahair and Sritawat Kitipornc,hai. "Buckling of lnelastic 1-Beams Under Unifom, Mo!OOI(
Joumal ofthe Stntctura/ Divisio11, ASCE, 98, STl I (Nove mber 1972). 2551- 2566.
9 .13. A. J. Hartmann. "lnelastic Flex ural-Torsiona l Buckling," Jmmz.al oj 1/,e Engineering f\.fechanirs Diri·
sion, ASCE, 97,EM4 (Augus1 1971), 1103-1119.
9.14. Morr:is Ojalvo and Ronald R Weaver. "Unbraced Length Requirements for Steel 1-Be.ams," Joumaluf
tllL Structural Divi,ion. ASCE. 104, ST3 (Match 1978), 479-490.
9. I 5. David A. Nethercot and Nicholas S. Trahair. "lnelastic Latera! Buckling of Determinate. Beam('
Joumol ofthe Struct11ra/ Divisian. ASCE, 102, ST4 (Aprii 1976), 701 - 717.
9.16. J. Bansnl. ''The Latera! lnstability of Continuous Beams," A/SI Report No. 3, American Jron and Steel
Jn~titule, New York, August l 97 l.
9.17. Peter W. Hoadley. "Practical Signiticance of LRFD Beam Buckling Factors," Jmm1a/ of S1nrcru,a/
Engineering, ASCE, tt 7, 3 (March I 991 ), 988-996.
9.18. P. A. Kirby and D. A. N'ethen:ol. Design/or Structura/ Stubility. New York.'. WiJey, 1979.
9.19. Mario G. Salvadori. "Latera! Buckling of Eccontrically Loaded 1-Columns." Tra11sacrions. ASCE. Ili
(1956). I 163-1178.
9.20. A. J. Hartmann. "E lastic Latera] Bockling of Co ntinuous Beams:· Joumal of 1l1e Structural Divisi1111.
ASCE, 93, ST4 (Augus t 1967), 11- 26.
9 .2 1. Nicholas S. Trahair, " Elastic S tability of Cominuous B~n1s," Jouma/ ofthe S1mo11ml DMsion. ASCE.
95, ST6 (June 1969), 1295-1312.
9 .22. Graham Po well and Richard Klingoer. "E lastic Latera! Buckling of Steel Beams," Jounm/ of1lit
Strucrural Divisìon, ASCE, 96, ST9 (September 1970), 1919- 1932..
9.23. N. S. Trahair and M A B .
Chapm•n dH · · radford. The Behavior a,id o~si!ln ofStrel Stn,cturr.<. 2nd ed. London.
q •n ali. 1988.
9.24.
Charles W. ROC<ler and Mal · · · S ·· J I if
the Stn,ct11, 1 . . . iyar Assadi. '1..ateral Stabilìty ol 1-hcam, w11h P-.in,al uppùn. uuma 0
9.25. Yush· F k a Divi.non, ASCE. J08,ST8 (Augu&t 1982). 1768-1779.
.J t
t . umoto. Yoshito ltoh. and Ryoji 1-lattori " Latcr~I Buckling on Wcldcd Continuous Bcam~:·
t
of lie Srrucrura/ Di,-isi,J,._ ASCE. 108, STIO (Cktoher 1981). 2245-2262.
9.26. J.uumu
W. Clark and H N H"ll ., o· · ·
p d' · · · 1 · Lateral Buckling of Beam~ " Juunw/ of 1h,· S1,-uc111rnl n ·1.HIH1.
rocce mgs ASCE·· 86•'s1·7 ( July 1960). 175-196. Also.
180-201. .. Tranwaio11s. ASCE . . 127 ( 19621 · Pan Il ·
9.27. Sritawa1 Ki1ipornch· · p · e ·1 · ••
Jorm,a/ . a,. eler F. Dux. and Nc,•clle J. Richter. ··Buck.ling and Bracmg of ann e,ers.
t
of.S ruuura/ E11g111eeri11g. ASCE. I IO, 9 (Scptember 1984). 2250-1262.
9.28. Campbell Masse~ a11d p · . . . · · . ·· J / iftl,,,
E . . · , eter J. McGu1rc. '"Latera! Stabiluy of Nonumfonn Canulevers, mmw 0
·"E'.lll!ermg Mechanic., Division. ASCE. 97, EM3 (June I 971 ). 6 73--686.
9.29. Patnck D Zuraski ··Tu s· ·r,
AISC · .· · e· igm ,canee and Applicati.on o( Cn .,n Bcam Design.
· ·· E -JguJL·ermg
· · J
oumal·
• 2 9, I (First Quaner. 1992). 20-25.
9.30. Joseph A Ynra "'B · 1· . ,- Xlii·
. · · racing or Stab1lily-State-of~the-An" Prucei!Jin~.-. ofStruc1u 1 -e.1,; '--ongre.s.,
Amencan Sociei O re· -1 . ·
Y '"' Eugineers. New York. (Aprii 2-S. 1995). 88-103
9.3 I.
~mes M. Fishcr and Michael A. West. Eru1io11 Brncing of Low-Rise Sm,c111ml Srcd Building.,. Stcel
CSign Guide Scries No. 10. Chicago: Amcrican lnstit~teof Stccl Cons1ruc1ìon. 1997.
9.32.
H. N. H,ll. "Latera] Buckling or Channels and Z-Beams," Tm11.wc1i,ms. ASCE. 119 ( l'l5 4 ). 829-8 41 ·
9.33.
John M. A nderson and Nicholas S. Trahaìr. ··s1ability of Monosvmmeu-ic Be.am~ and Caot.ik,ers:·
Journa/ 0 /the Structura/ Division, ASCE, 98. ST\ (January 1971). 269-286.
9.34. Srnawat Kit"ipornc·h31· aod Nicholas
· · 1-Beam,. · ··
S. Trahair. '"Buckling Propertie, of Monosymmetnc
Jotmw/ 0 [ rhe Stmcrura/ Division, ASCE. 106, STS (May 1980). 'l4 l-957.
9.35.
D. A. Nethercot. ''Elastic Latera\ Buckling of Beall)s." Beoms and Beam Cn/11m11.s-S1obilil)' in Sr,-eng1l1
(e~. R. Narayanan). Barkìng. Essex, England: Applie.d Scknce Publishers. 1.983.
9.36. Sntawat Kitipornchai, Chien Ming Wang. and Nicholas s. Trahair. "Buckling of Monosymmetric l -Brcams
Uucter Moment Gradiem."" Joumal of Strucrural Enginee ring, ASCE.112, 4 (Aprii 1986). 78 1- 799-
9.37.
Chien Ming Wang aod Sritiwat Kitipomehai. '"Buckling Capacitics of Monosymmetric 1-Beams:·
Journal of Struc111ro/ Engineering. ASCE, 112 (November 1986), 2373-2391.
9.38. Sritawat Kitipomchai and Alain o·. Wong-Chung. "lnelastic Buckling of\Velded Monosymn1ctric 1-Beains:·
Jouma/ of S11-uc1um/ Engineering. 113, 4 (April \ 987), 740-756.
9.39.
William Zuk. "Latera! Brac ing Forces on Beams and Columns."' Joumol of1he Er1gi1,eeri11g Afrclumics
Division, ASCE, 82, EM3 (July 1956). Proc. Paper No. I032. 16 pp. .
9.40. George Winter. '"Latera\ Bracing of Columns and Beams." Tran.rncrions. ASCE. t25 (1960). 807 - 84 5.
9.41. Ca.mpbelt Massey. "Latera! Bracing Force of Steel l-Beams.'' Jo11m11I of 1/ie E11gineeri11g M<'cl1miio
Division, ASCE. 88, EM6 (December L962), 89-113. ·
9.42. George Pincus. "On the Latera] Support of Jnelastic Columns.'" E11gi11eeri11g Jo,mwl. A.ISC. I , 4
(October 1964). 113-l 15.
9.43. Theodore V. Galambos. "Latera! Support for Tier Building Frames."" E11gi11eeri11g Jo11mal. AISC. 1, l
(January 1964) 16-19; Disc. I, 4 (October 1964), 14 l.
9.44. Tor B. Urdal. "Bracing of Contio.uous Columns:· Et1gi11eeri11g Jo11mol. AISC. 6. J (.luly 1969). 80-83.
9.45. ~axwe\l G. Lay and T.V. Galambos. "Bracing Requìre me.nts for lnelaqic Stecl Bc.;uns:· .lnurrw/ of rlle
Structura/ Divisìon, ASCE, 92, STI (Aprii 1966), 207- 228.
9.46. Arthur C. Taylor. Jr. and M.orris Ojalv0. '"Torsional Restraint of Latt·ral Budding.'' Joumul of tlic
Strucrura/ Divisio11. ASCE, 92, STI (Aprii 1966). l 15- 129.
9.47. A. J. Hanmann. "Experimeotal Studv ofFlexura\-Torsional Buckhng:· Jorrmal of1lie S1r11ctrrral
Divisio11. ASCE. 96, ST7 (July 1970). 1481- 1493.
9.48. Bruce R. Mutton and Nicholas S. Trahair. '"Stiffness Requirement& for Lateral Braciog:· Jo11 mnl o( ili,·
Srruc111rnl Dil'ision. ASCE. 99, STIO (Octobcr 1973). 2167-2181.
9.49. Iau C. MedJand and Ceci\ M. Segedin. "Brace Force, in lnlerbred Column Struc111res." J{)lmllll vf tlw
Srructural Division, ASCE. 105, ST7 (July 1979). 1543-1556.
9.50. Joseph A. Yura. "Fundamentals of Beam Bracine," ls Yo,11· S1r1101..-~ S11ira/?I_,, Brnn•,f'. Structural
Stabjlity Research Council, 1993 Conference. tvli\waukee. Wisco nsin. Aprii 6-7.1993. 20 PP·
9.51. LeRoy A. Lutz and James M. Fisher. '"A Unilied Approach for St:1bi\i1y Brac ing, Requirement,:'
Engineering Journal. AISC. 22, 4 (4th Quar1cr 1985). l63-l 67.
9.52. Joseph M. A les, Jr. and Joseph A. Yura. ·'Bracing Design for lnclas1ic Structures:· ls Y()t1r Stnic ture
Suitably Braced?. SSRC 1993 Conference, MiJwaukee. Wisconsin. Aprii 6-7. l 993. '.!9-37 ·
9.53. M. J. Clarke and R. Q. Bridge. ··Bracio.g Force and Stiffness Requirements 10 Devdop _1he Design
S treng1h o(Colunms." ls YourS1ruc111re Suitablv Bmced?. SSRC 1993 Conference. Mi\waokee.
Wiscoosin. Aprii 6-7.1993. 75-86. ·
478 • Chapter 9 Lateral-Torsional Buckling o'f Beams
. . s •nd Gordon p F"isher ··Behavior of Dinphragm-Braccd Columns and Beam, ,, ,.

9.54. George P mw. " ., · ·· . _ · · '"""'•lcf
tiw S1r11cmral Dii·isio11. ASCE. 92, ST2 (Apnl 1966). 323-3.50·
9.55. Samuel J. Errcra. George Pincus. ami Gordon P. Fisher. "Columns and Beams Braced by Diaphrae ..
Jo 11 mal ofche Sm,cmml DivisùJn. ASCE. 93, STI (February 1967). 295-3 !S .rn,,
9.56. Larry D. Lutlrell. '"Strength a nd Jkhavior of Liglu-Gage Su:el Shear Diaphragms," Come/I Engin"ri•i
Research 8ulfotin No. 67- l, July ! 967.
9.57. T. v. s . R. Apparao. Samnel J. Errera, and Gordon P. Fish~. '"Columns Braced by Girts and a
Diaphragm.'" Jounwl of thè S1ructural Division, ASCE. 9:,, ST5 (May 1969). 965-990.
9.58 Ai1hur H. NiJson and Alben R Ammar. ·'Fìni1e Elemcnl Analysis of Met~I Oeck Shear Diaphragm,:·
Jo1mw/ 0(1he Structuml Divisim,, ASCE, 100, ST4 (Apnl 1974), 711-726.
9.59. David A .. Ne thercot and Nichllias S. Traha.ir. '·Design of Diaphrngm-Braced 1-Beams,'' lnun,a/ ofrh,
S1rnc111ral nivisio11, ASCE. 101, STIO (October 1975), 2045-206!. .
9.60. Amir Simaan and Teom:m B. Peko-1. ·' Diaph.ragni Braccd Members and Desi gn of Wall S1t1ds," Jou'7ll!l
ofthe S1ructural Divisiv11, ASCE, 102, STl (January 1976), 77-92.
9.61. Samuel J. Errera :md Tamìrisa V. S. R. Apparao.. "Oesi~ Ml-Shaped Beams with D.iaphragm B13Cinf
Jo11rnf/l of the Sm,cn,ml Di1•ision, ASCE. J.02-, ST4 ( Apnl 1976), 769-781.
9.62. J. Michael Davics. ·'Calcul.itì(lll of Sted Diaphragm Be havior," Jormwl f.!f1/1e Strnctum/ Division,
ASCE, 102, S17 (July !976) , 141 l- 1430.
9.63. Samuel J. En-era and Tami.risa V. S. R. Àppara,,. "Design of 1-Shaped Colurnns w ith Dìaphr,1gm Bnt-
ing," Jo11rnal afthe S1n,c111ral Division, ASCE. 102, ST9 (September 1976). 1685-170 l.
9.64. fohn T. Easley. "Strength and S1iffness of Corrugated Metal Shear Diaphrag.rns."' Journal of1he51,.,,.
11m1/ Divi.iio11, ASCE. 103, STI (J:maary 1977), !69- 180.
9.65. SDI. r,,,,,a,ive Recon1111t•11dillio11sfor rhe Desig11 of Stecl Deck DfophMgms. Westch~,1er. ll: Stecl (l<d
lnstilute, Octobcr 1972.
9.66. C. O. Dohrenwcnd. "Action ofDcep Beams Undcr Combined Venical, La1eral ;m d Torsional Loads,"
.lo1m1al (if Applied Mechanic.t, 8 (1941 ). A-130.
9.67. E. H. Gaylord, Jr. and C. N. Gaylord. Design 0JS1ul Struct1m:s. New York: McGraw -Hì ll Book Com-
pany. lnc., 1957 (pp. I 69-1 70).
9.68. John Springfield. ··Design of Columns Subject 10 Biaxial Bending/ ' E11gi11cering .lounwl. AISC. ll,)
(Third Quar1er I 975), 73-81.
9.69. Thamas P. Pas1or and John T DeWolf. "Bcams wi1h Torsional and Flcxural Lo:ids.'' Jmmial ofth,
Strucrural Di.visim,, ASCE. LOS, STJ (Mar-eh 1979), 527- 538.
9.70. Zia Ranaq and Theodore V. Ga\ambos. "Biaxial Bending of Beams with or withom Torsion." Jou""11it
1/1e Struciuro/ Division. ASCE, 105, STI l (November 1979), 2 l 45-2162 .
9. 71. Zia Razzaq and Thcodore V Galambos. "BiaxiaJ Bending l'es1s with or wi1hot11 Tors ion," Jouma/ ofltil
Siniciurol Division. ASCE. 105, STI I (November 1979).1163-2185.
9.72. Joseph A. Yura. "Winter·~ Bracing Approach RevisiLCd," Prouedi11gs, 50th A111ri,wsmy Canferrr.a.
Structural Stability Rcsearch Council, Lehigh University. 21-22 June 1994. pp. 375- 3S2.
9.73. R. H. Plaur. "Requirements for Latera! Bracing af Columns with Two Spans,'' Jmir11,1/ of Strucmrnl
EngirrcerinR, ASCE, 119, 10 (Octob<:r 1993). 2913-29.3 I.
9.74. Duane S. Ellifriu, Gregory Wine. Thomas Spulo, and Samosh Samuel. " Flexural Srrength of Wì s«-
tions.'' Engineering Jm,mal. AlSC. 29, 2 (Second Quartcr 1992). 67-74.
9.75. Donald W. White. "U11ified Flexural Resistance Equa1ion, for S1ability D~.sign of Steel 1-Sccti~n Mem-
bers Overview," Sm,cturnl E111:incering. MedumicJ and Materì,il.,· Report No. 24a, School of Ci,il &
Environmental Engineering, Georgia lns1irute ofTcx,hnology. Atlam:i. GA. 2005.
PROBLEMS
AII problems are to be done according to the AISC LRFD Method or the ASD Method, as indica1ed by the instrucltl!.
Ali given loads are service loads unless otherwise in<lica1ed. Assume lateral support consists of translalional restraiDl
bui not moment (rotational) restraint, unless otherwise indicateci. Assume ali standard sections are equally readilì
available in the indicated grade of steel (even though actually they are noi). A figure showing span and loading ~
required, and after making a design selection, a final check of strength (c/>Mn compared with Mu for LRFD) or (M.:ll
compared with M,, for ASD) is required. Note: Live load must always be applied (or not) such that il caus~s ma,imlllll
(or minimum) effect.
Problems • 479
r the case (or cases) assigned by th -
Q I. fo . h -'- e instnictor
· plot design strengt '4-'bM" (ft-kips) for the AISC 9.2. For lhe case (or cases) as~igned by the instructor.
LRFD Method ·vs laterally unbraced length L b (ft) determine the maximum concentrated service load
ShOW the porttons controlling <l>bM
·
.h
" wn sohd
.· P lhat can act at midspan on a simply supponcd
lines and th e noncont~olling pans with dashed span. Latera! supports exist only at lhe ends of the
linCS- For any case ass1gned' show relat·1onsh'1ps span. l11e service load is 65% live load and 35%
{or 1,oth cb -- I. o and 2.3. dead load.
Section Fy Span Fy
case (ksì) Case Section (ft) (ksi)
Plate girder: 5/8XJ2 llanges·
5/16X30 web ' I W21X62 20 50
36 2 W24X84 24 50
2 Plate girder: 7/8X)6 flanges ·
3 W30X99 30 50
3/4X26 web '
36
3 Wl6X26
50
4 Wi4Xl45
50 9.3. For the case (or cases) assig.ned by the instructor.
5 W21X62
50 select the lightest W section as a beam. Assume
6 W24X84
50 only flexure must be considered: i.e., omìt treating
7 Wl6X26
65 shear and deflectìon. The dead load given is in
8 Wl4Xl45
6S addition to the weight o f the beam.
9 W24X84
65
Wo
WL
Dead Lìve
load Span
load length Fy
Case (kip/ft) (kìp/ft) (ft) (ksil lateral support
0.9 2.0 20 50 Continuous
2 0.9 2.0 20 50 Ends and n\.idspan
3 0.9 2.0 20 50
4 Ends only
0.7 1.4 28 50 Ends aud midsp:111
5 0.7 1.4 28 60 Ends and rnidspan
6 0.3 0.9 35 50 Continuous
7 0.3 0.9 35 50 Every 7 feet
8 0.3 0.9 35 50 Ends and midspan
9 0.3 0.9 35 65 Contit1ul1Us
IO 0.3 0.9
ll
35 65 Every 7 feet
0.3 0.9 35 65 Ends and midspan
12 0.3 0.9 35 100 Continuous
13 0.3 0.9 35 100 Every 7 feet
14 0.3 0.9 35 100 Ends and midspan
15 o I.O 35 50 Every 5 ft
16 o I.O 35 50 Ends only
17 0.7 2.8 48 50 Every 16 feet
18 0.7 2.8 48 60 Every 16 feet
9.4. Select the lìghtest W sections for che situation 9.7. A floor beam, laterally supported at the Cnds
shown in the accompanying ftgure, under the fol- and supporting vibration inducing heavy lllachiOlll~
lowing conditions: is subject to the loads shown in the accomi>an)'~.
fioure Select the lightest W section of A992 lllg
(a ) A992 sleel; continuous !atemi support o . - SteeL
Compare the result ":be~ 1?ere is no deflection lilllÌl
(b) A992 steel; latcral support at ends only with th~t when Ud 1s lt~~ted lo _a nùxìmurn of2(}
(e) A992 steel; lateral support at ends andar pointA under tull load, a trad1t1onal hmit to mini .
percepub · d ue to ped estrian traftìc. nuze
· Ie v1·b rat100
(d) A572 Grade 60 steel; Iateral support at ends
and poinc A
28 k ip; dead load

7 kips live load ro·-j
14 k
! ---
14 k ~ -
Gravitv
~7'-0":}livc lo~ds
f.ll
_,,/ O. 7 kips/ft dead load

3.5 kips/fl live load
(not including beam
1---- - - 25'-o·-- -- -i
weight)
Problem 9.7
> - - - - - - - 3 0 ' - 0 "- - - -- - j 9.8. For the case (or cases) assigne.d by the instructor.
select the lightest W section \O serve as a uni.
Problem 9.4
formly Joaded library floor bemn on a simply sup-
ported beam. Latera! support occurs at the end,;
9.5. Selecc the lightest W section for the situation shown and at U4, U2, and 3U4. Live load dellection ma,
in lhe accompanying figure using {a) A572 Grade not exceed U300 (not an AISC LRFD Method~
50 steel and (b) steel with Fy = 65 ksi, assuming an ASD Method limit but a design limìt for thì,
lateral support al the ends and at pointA only. design). Gìven dead load mornent does 1w1 include
beam weight. Assume Cb = I.O.
W = 15 k dead load Mo ML
= 11 k live load Dead Live
w = 0.2 k/ft dead load load load Span
(noi including beam weight) moment moment length Fy Deflection
= 0.8 k/fl live load Case (ft-kips) (ft-kips) (ft) (ksi) limit
49 98 28 so UJ(fJ
Problem 9.5 2 49 98 28 60 IJ3(1J
3 o 240 48 50 /J300
9.6. Select the lightest W section for the conditions 4 o 240 48 65 U300
shown in the accompanying figure. Assume there 5 50 190 48 50 U360
is no deflection limitation. Use (a) A992 steel and 6 50 190 48 65 IJ3(JJ
(b) A572 Grade 60 steel. 7 80 750 60 50 U400
8 80 750 60 60 U400
w w
1 I w
J I I I I i li ii il il ti i 11 i il li li I ii ili W = 15 k dead load
w = ~~~~~~~~oad
9.9. A beam is to serve as a floor beam on a simpl}
supported span of 20 ft. Tue li ve load consists ofa
movable concentrated load (no impact) of 50 kips.
Live load deflection may not exceed JJ360.
b
(including beam)
= I.I k/ft live load (a) Select the lightest W section of A992 stttl
_ _ 1_5_'-0 1s_·-0_·_
_ " _,.__12_' -_O_"_.__ _ I.arerai suppon
-
Problem 9.6
_ _4_2_'-_
0_" - - - ---t- Venical suppon
when continuous lateral support is provideJ.
(b) Repeat (a) if lateral support is providrd onl} •
the ends.
Probl..-na • 481
l,\'IOX33 is IO be USed ~ a ,;imp( .
._,o.~ on a span of 25 fl with lateral suppo"cd .J 9.13. Selccc w h ghte1>1 w ~on for cach of lhc ,cua-
- only. The beam is required 10 s:p::o" at «he tion~ l>bown in the accompanying figure. TI'C oon-
rered ceiling. lf the dead load i~ 0 , ; a__Plas- cent.nued load W ii, S lùps dead load and 15 kipl
·nc=Juding beam weighc). what is «be. kipli/ft li, e losd. A~~ume laieral ~uppon i" prondcd lii lhc
(I ·forni service live load llCrmiued ll'laX.ih mum
un•·ng A992 sc.e e 1·?. W hat percentag on. t e beam · reacllons and lii 1he conccntrated loads. U-c A992
us• . .. e increase in steel.
1
rvc
1oad c an be gaaned 1t the beam ii: A572 • .
9 . 14. Sdect the lightest W ..ection for the bt-am of tbc
,., Comment Gradc
65 stee . . accompanying figure. La1eraJ uppon is pr0\ ided
,...,i,,.,:jgn for loading Cases I and/or
2 ' s ass1gned a · . _. at concentratcd load point,-, reactions. and a1 end
"Il ~ 98 h
.,. . o(J>rOb· . w en I_ateraI supPon is provided on( . of camilever. Use (a) A992 steel and (b) A57l
die epds and at nudspan
.
In addinon
. ·. ·
· 10 the u Y at
360
Grade 65 steel.
---,1ilional deflecnon hm11 for a plastered .. 9 .15. Detennine the nominai strength M,. for 1he Al.SC
o- . · th be ce1hng
die a,ch1teet requ1res e arn to be no d • LRFD Method for the c hanneJ l>C-.ction and loading
. al W I? eeper lhan
nomtn -· in Prob. 8.19 if lateral suppon exists only :il w
fi ends. N eglec ting torsio11. how much largcr. if any.
lllvestigate the beam of the accompany·
d h 'f . mg igure
9. ]2- for 1,endmg
.
an s ear ' the secuon is A572 Graùe
sec tion would be required? U se A992 stecl.
.sosteel. Extemal lateral suppon for th be

. e
.
am 1s
9 . 16. Select for 1he LRFD Method a channel for the
provided only_ at the venica l suppons and at the conditions of Prob. 8.20. assuming latcral sup-
U·p of the canttlever.
'd d
If one additional lat
era1 sup-
port ac the ends only. C ons idcr torsion in accor-
port were provi e at the 12-kip Joad h dane.e with Chapter 8 . Ui.e the safcty criterion
. , ow much
lighter, 1f any, could the W 14 section be m d ,, thar the factored load i:tress f.m may not excee.d
a e.
'Pb F>•·
w
110·-o·- j
~~=====~~:f;~~=====~
; 'F~=====~W~l;;X~48~=~==~dj ,.. 4 W = 2 k dead load
I O k live load
11
I- - - - - 20'-O"
m1T-
I
I = 0.3 k/fl dead load
(including beam we.i~h1 )
= 1.1 k/ft live load
- - - - --i- s·-o·-·-
Problem 9. 12
w
w w 21V w
j l \-1s·-o·-l
' ,ffr
1_0·-'-0_·lt----.::.30~·-~o· --I~
1-I
( a)
mf
(b i
,.;;. \
I ,o·:!r-l
Problem 9.1 J
W = IO k dead load
20 k I ive load
.., = 3.0 k/fl dcad load
(noi including bc..·un wc ìgh1)
Lucrai suppon s
Problem 9 .14
482 • Chapter 9 Lateral-Torsional Bucl<ling of Beams
9. 17. Design a built-up 1-shaped beam with different sized Maximum momen_ts occuning near midspan .
flanges for tJie conditions of Prob. 9.4, part (b). What M,:(live load plus 1mpact) == 125 ft-kips illt
percent weight can be saved, if any, by using differ- Mx (dead load) == 14 ft-kips
eot sizcd flanges'? Use beam depth and web thickness Mf == 14 fc-kips (assumed live load resiste.d b
approximately ihe same as for the lightesr roBed W tlange using top flange lateral loading in Yonc
shape tbat satisfies loadi11g conditions. A36 steel. dance with the AJSC Specification. i!Cc-Or.
9. 18. For the beam selected for a case assigned from 9.21. Select the lightest W8 section to be Used .
Prob. 9.3, estimate the size of bracing (i.e., select a incline · · sueh lhat th ~ piane of thetnao
· d posltloo \\'eb
section) required. The bracing frames into both makes an angle of 30 degrees w11h Lhe piane of 1
sides and is attached to the compression flange. ing. The beam is to be of A572 Grade 50 steel- -~~-
~.. a
Length of bracing is 6 ft. has lacerai support only at the ends of the 22-ft .
-~ . s1,n.
9. l 9. .For the beam designed in the case assigned in pie span. The Ulllt?ffil grav11y load ÌS 0.3 kiP!ift
Prob. 9.8, estimate che size bracing required. snow load and O. I kip/ft dead load. m addition 10 ~
Assume bracing is 12 tl long, frames into both beam weight.
si.des of the beam, and is attached to the compres- 9.22. ~or the case '.15signed by instructor, design tlie
sion flange. Preferably select channels. hghtest W sect1on to serve as a crane support girdcr
9.20. Detennine the adequacy of a W24X84 (with rail, as shown in the accompanying figure. Assume lat-
20 lb/ft) serving as a crane support girder of A992 eral support at the ends only aod that deflectios
steel. The simple span is 20 ft with lateraI suppo11 at need not be restricted. Assume one-half rhe lateni
the ends only. Use accepted good practice in force on the crane rail. Assume a cab-opera!Q!
accounting for the mrsionaJ effect oflateral loading. crane acts at each runway girdtr. Use A992 s1tt1.
I -L,=•1 d U
l'"'""::~,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,~.:. .: . . :::;;.;:::,;·
- - - - - Crane suppon girder
L,rant. ·e-e of bearmg - - - - ----'·
I
Crane support girder
'-
Trolley
Venical &uppons
Trolley for crane girders
Runway
Crane area /
End,.,.
truck
suppon Section A·A
Problem 9.22
Problems • 483
for Problem 9.22
Maximum
gravity Crane
Crane end-truci( end-truck
capacity w wheel Trolley wheel
Case (tons) loed weight Span spacing
R, (kips) (kips) Lc,ane (ft) L1.n.1c:1< (ft)
15
18
2 20 6 40 9.5
27
3 30 6 36 8.0
36
4 20 6 32 6.0
25 s 6.0
30
Redesign the_ cra_ne support girder of Prob. 9 _22,

using a combmatlon channel and w section. crane is 15 kips, equally distributed to its four
wheel!i. Each crane trolley weighs 3 kips. Use A36
Design the crane runway girder indicate<.! on the steel and (a) select a single W sec1ion and (b) select
accompanying figure. The two cranes are cach 30_ a combinatìon W sectìon and channel. where 1he
ton capacity, with the end~truck wheel spacin~ as channel would have its web flat againsl the lop
given in the figure. The ra1ls are ASCE 60 lb wìth flange of the W section.
c1amps (see AISC Manual). The dead Joad of cach
- -
- I- --I
-" \ 2·-0·[
mrn...L
-
i:: __. Trolle)·
1l r - _...---
u Cranc \
runway
girders
' t--
t---
, .....__,_ Trolley \ "'.,
PL/\N Vll:ìV ~
u
+-- r- - -ì--- I-----l-1
\. 20'-0" ~- 20'-0' ~- 20'-0" + 20'-0" ~
Assume crane runwa~ girde.rs are simply supponed
l~-) (,~3(_·) ( 3
Crane I Crane 2
-
1- 6'-0" ~- '- ~- 6'-0" -1

Variablc wi1h 4 ·-·O,, minimum
\V/ree/ .spacing
Problem 9.24
Continuous Beams
10.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapier brings together theoretical concepts relating to the unjfied design specification
which is the basis for 1he AISC LRFD Method and the ASD Method that have been pre.
sented in Chapters 7 and 9. 1n addition, plastic analysis is introduced for application io con-
tinuous beams; this procedure may be applicable with "compact sections'' having adequaie
lateral brncing. Plastic analysis is pennined under Appendix I of theA/SC Specìfication. Tue
reader is assumed to be familiar with elastic methods of sratically indetermi nate analysis.
Before proceeding into lhe chapter, lhe reader should review Secs. 7.3 through 7.5
where the strengths of the cross-section in flexure and in shear are u·e.ated, and wheri
LR.FD and ASD as applied to laterally stable beams are presented.
The reader is also expected to be familiar with the lateral stabili ty ciiteria 1rea1ed in
Chapter 9, particularly Secs. 9.1. 9.2, and 9.6 through 9. I O.
For the reader who wishes a package study of plascic analysis aud rhe related beam
design, Secs. 7.3 and 7.4 provide the basic plascic moment and shear strengihs. including
the concepts of plastic moment, plastic hinge, and shape factor. Section 7.4 contains the
basic approach of using factored loads 10 obtain the required nominai strength. well ai a,
design examples fora simply supported beam. The plastic analysis and LRFD design sec-
tions of this chapter can then form the body of the study.
10.2 PLASTIC STRENGTH OF A STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAM

In Sec. 7.3 il was shown thai a simply supported beam supporting a concen1ra1ed load
reached its limit state (i.e., collapse condition) when the concentrated load is large enougb
10 cause the plastìc moment M P to develop; that is, ca.use a plastic hinge to develop under
1he concentrated load.
Refening to Fig. I 0.2. l, as the concentra1ed Ioad increases loward the vah.1~ thai w.
causes the collapse condìtion, lhe portion of the beam where the moment does not mec-1
My is ela..~tic (meaning straight line fJ). In lhe region near the plastic moment Mp 1here iua
484
Section 10·2 PIast1c
· S trength of a Statically Ind etermmate
· Beam • 485
w.
1-- 1- - -1 / Plu1ic hingc
M
•C
M
ç-~~~~~~~~L::::~~~-•11t,,
M,
1-- - - - - L.- - - - ---<
Bcnding
M , momcnt,M
o
re J0.2. 1
figU ,-curvature
?,(ofllen bips fora plasric
relaaons
tiiJIJ!C·
st
inela ic length jL, and the midspan curvature is large. For practical purposes the beam
may ?e ':I"eated as two rigid pans (straight lines) connected by a hinge at B. known as a
plasr,c hmge, and having a concentrated angle change, or hinge rotation, 0u · .
nd Tue actual length of a plastic hinge is dependent on the shape of lhe cross-sectlon
a can vary from about one-tenth to as much as one-third of the span. As an example,
consider the relationship between the bending moments and the beam segments AB ao<l
AB' in Fig. 10.2. l:
AB AB' L/ 2 L/ 2 - JL/2
-= - - or (10.2.1)
Mp Mv M_,
Solving for j,
Mv I
j = I - - · =I ( 10.2.2)
MP ç
where ç is the shape factor as discussed in Sec. 7.3.
XAMPLE 10.2.1
C ompute the length of the plastic hinge for the beam shown in Fig. 10.2. l for (a) a
W l6X40 and (b) a rectangular beam having a wìdth band a depth d.
Solution:
(a) For W l6X40,
M,, z 72.9
ç=- =- =- - 1.1 3
My S 64.7
Fro m Eq. 10.2.2,
1 1
jl = L(t - - -) = L(I - - - ) = O.I 15L
g 1.13
486 • Chapter 10 Continuous Beams
(b) For rectangular section,
bd2
Z 4
t = - =- = 1.5
S bd 2
6
jl = L(l - __!_)
l.5
= 0.333L
Even though the distane.e JL may be as much as one-third of the span, as show .
. h. . n1n
Example I0.2.1, thc simp)e. assumption o f. a Pl asttc Jnge at a pomt has been am ~-
demon-s trated by tests. Beedle [l O. I] and ~asso~net ~nd S~ve [ 10.2_) have extensive
cussions of rheoretical and experimental ven fication ot plasoc analys1s procedures so indi.
!~
vidual research references are not included bere.
PJastic Limit Load-Equilibrium Method
At the collapse condition with the plastic hmic load Wn acc_ing, th~ requiremems of equilib-
rium are stìll applicable. Consider first a statically detennmate sunply supported beam,
shown in Fig. l0.2.2. A collapse condition is achie~ed ~hen _lhe load W,. is large enough:
cause che plastic moment Mp to occur atone locauon (in th1s case under the Ioad). \Vhea
the sufficient number of plastic hìnges have been developed to allow i.nstantaneous bi.ii
rotations without developing increased resistance, a mechaoism is said co bave occun!
EXAMPLE 10.2.2
Determine che collapse mechanism load W,, for the W21X62 beam ofFig. 10.2.2. Assume
Fv = 50 ksi.
Solution:
Using equilibriuim,
4MP 4(FvZ) 4(50)(144)

Wn =L = -L- = 24(12) = lOOkips
Using the simplified procedure of considering the behavior as ideal]y elastic-plastic, tht
detlection occurring when Mp is reached is based on the elastic equation, whicb is
w.
112'-0'"+ W21 X62
I M M p = 433 ft-kips
i - - -- 24'-0"- ----l
M,
real h i n g e s ~
CollaJ15C
mechanism
plas1ic hinge
Collapse mechanism
Figure 10.2.2 bending
1.14 in.
E.umple l0.2.2. moment
Midspan detlection ~
Sectior, 10·2 PIa st'1c S trer,gth of a Statically Indeterminate
· Beam • 487
strictly valid only .

momcnt of M_,. unul M,. (neglecting residuai strei.s) i s reachcd. At a mall.imum
2
~. = WL
3
= M1 L 2 = 0IL 2 _ F,L
. 48E/ 12E/ c(l2)E/ - 12cE
50(24)2 (144)
1.14 in.
12( 10.5)(29,000)
Assuming a linear cxtension unti! M = M
p•
~ P = 1.14¾ = 1.14 ~~; = 1.14( 1.14) = 1.30 in.

The de~cction wbcn M p is acbicved will be higber I.han this. Howcvcr. it is thc service load
. is corrcctly computed by the usua J e 1asuc
deflect1on that is normaJI Y o f concem. and th1s -·
procedures.
~ote that tbe collapse mechanism moment diagram for this statically detenninatc
~m the same sbape as that wbich occurs if the maximum moment is down in tbc ser-
15
vice load range. At whatever load leve! from an infinitesima\ Joad lo collapse mecbanism
load, th e bending moment at every poi~t rcmains in a constant proponion to the load. •
e)(.AMPLE 10.2.3
Deterrnfoe thc collapsc mechanism load W forthe fixed end W16X40 beam ofFig. 10.2 .3.
Assume Fy = 50 ksi. "
Solution:
Since t~e bea~ is statically indeterminate, three plastic hjnges are required to fonn a
mechamsm. Ustng equilibrium,
2M = WnL
p 4
= 50(72.9) rt = 304 ft-lcips

Mp == FyZ-
Wn = 8Mp/L = 8(304)/ 24 = 101 kips
I~ order to determine the load-<leflection diagram, it would be oecessary to know the l~i~g
htSlOry up to the collapse condition. In this case the elastìc bending moments. as shown u, Fig.
10.2.3, give equa! positive and negative bending moment; ù,erefore the three plastic hinges
form simultaneously. Moments will increase simultaneously in dire.et proportion unti! the col-
lapse condition is reached. Again. as for the statically determinate ca..<;C. as load is applicd the
bending moment at every point remains in a coostant proportion to the load. For this special
s tatically indeterminate case, plastic analysis has no advantage over elastic analysis.
WI} MyL2 F,L2

lly - 192EI = 24E/ = 24Ec
50(24 )2( 144)
= ------ = 0.75 \n .
24 (29,000)8
Assuming a linear extension unti I M = M".

a P = 075
•
-z 73.0
S = 015-
85 .
. 64.7 = o. rn.
w.,
~
f-- 2'-O"
t :! Wl6 X 40
~ M
I
1---····- 24'- 0" _ _ _ ... I
-=======a"':!!;'! Collopse
Jfr~-Jm- meeha,1i<m
M,
Plasric hinges
t., = 0.85 in.
Collapse mechanism
beoding mo1nen1
t., = 0.75 in.
diagram
Midspan deflection A
Ela<1ic bending
moment diagram
Figure IO. 2.3 WL WL
Examp!c 10.2.3. 8 8
EXAMPLE 10.2.4
Determine the load--de~ection diagram for the W 16X40 beam of Fig. 10.2.4 for loading
up to the collapse condmon. Assume Fy = 50 ks1.
Solution:
The collapse mechanism load W,1 can be found directly without knowing the sequenceo{
plastic hinge formation. In this case. since the elastic moments are different at the thret
locations where plastic hinges will form, the plastic hinges will not form simultaneously.
w,
~10·-0·1- ---20·-o- - i
A~ ~C
B
I 30·-o"----l
Collapse
mcchanism
W (kips)
Collapse mecltanism w. = 91.2 kips
bendìng
momen1
87.9
diagram
68.4
Mr SOW1
27
M,
3 .,
I
I
Srage~
~
I
Elastic I
[jY' '¼.l.QlJ bending moment 0.78 1.33 2.34
40W, 20w diagram-Stagc I Dcflcction undrr the load A (inchfil
-9- T1
Figure I0.2.4
Example l0.2.4. (a) (b)
Section 10 2 PI . .
· ast,c Strength of a Statically Indeterminate Beam • 489
The equilìbrium re - .. .
quuement at the collapse mechanism cond111on g1ves
M _ W,.(10)(20)
P - 30 - MP
- 3
W,, - 2MP20 = 0.3MP
MP = 304 ft kips (from Example 10.2.3)
W,, = 0.3(304) = 91.2 kips
The load-deflecri d" . . . - .
on iagram, however, reqmres exammat1on of the loadmg stages.
t 1
S age · From the elastic bending moments, lhe first plastic hinge will form at point A,
40W1
-9- = Mp = 304 ft-kips
W1 = 9(304)/40 = 68.4 kips
3
~ = W,(10)\20) = 68.4(8000)(1728)
1
3 = 0.78 in.
3(30) El 3(27)(29,000)(518)
t
S age 2- With Wi = 68.4 kips one can consider that part of the avaiJable momenl strength
at points Band C has been used up. The strength remaining is
MB = MP - 80(68.4)/27 = 304 - 203 = 101 ft-kips

Mc= MP - 20(68.4)/ 9 = 304 - 152 = 152 ft-kips
As the load is increased above w1 = 68.4 kips, the added load acts on .:i different elastic
st
sy em. Tue moments caused by the additional load are not distributed over the span in the
sarne manner as moments caused by the ftrst 68.4 kips: thus the tenn ··redistribution of
moments'' is applied. Figure 10.2.Sa shows the elastic system and mornenls for stage 2. ll is
apparent that the next plastic hinge will fonn under the load.
140W~
- -- = 101 ft-kips
27
W2 = 27(101)/140 = 19.5kips
2 3
W 2a b (3L + a) 19.5(10)2 (20) 3(90 + 10)(1728)
.:12 =- -- -,---
3
= _ __:___:___:_~-'--- - - - - - = 0.55 in.
12L EJ 12(30)\29.000)(518)
Stage 3. With a tota! of w1 + w2 = 68.4 + 19.5 = 87.9 kips applied, the strength avail-
able are is
Mc == M" - 152 (Stage I) - 40(19.5)/ 9 (Stage 2) = 65.3 ft-kips

20W3 == 65-3 ft-kips; W3 = 3.3 kips
3
W 3b 3.3( 20 )3( 1728) _
ai, == - - = - -- -- - = 1.01 m .
~ 3EI 3(29,000)(518)
The complete load-deflection diagram appears in Fig. 10.2.4b. The tota] load to cause the
collapse mechanism to forrn equals
W,, "' W 1 + W2 + W3 = 68.4 + 19.5 + 3.3 = 91.2 kips

lii2
! Stage 2 Stage)
,i; JB t; loading loading
L-10·- O" - ~ 20'-0" _ _i

140W,
27
ElaSlic Eiastic
momenrs- mollltn1$-..
stage 2 stage 3
20111,
Figure 10.2.5 401112
- 9-
Stages 2 and 3 for
faample 10.2.4. (Il) (b)
Note that this statically indetermioate case, unlike the previous special case, exh·•·
the multistage load-deftection diagram typ1ca· I o f stalle
. ali Y m
. determmate
. systems. A.s 1lutts
is increased moments vary in a different ratio for each ~tage of loadi~g. Thus the
me~hanism mom_ent diagram is not equa) to a c.onsc~t tunes the ela_snc moments. Onlyf~
cou:
staucally determmace cases, and a few special staocally_ m~etermmate ones can the C·:il-
Japse mechanism moment diagram be obtained by multiplymg the elastic momems by
1
constant.
I
EXAMPLE 10.2.5
Using the equilibrium method for the continuous beam of Fig. 10.2.6, derermine the COl-
lapse mechanisrn load W,,. Assume Fy = 50 ksi and that the controlling limit state is ~
achievement of plastic moment strength.
W16X31.Z =54.0in.1
~
l------24'-0" _.,___ 30·-o·--'
Real hingc
I
r,\~ t
• - - ~ - - ~ . . . . - - - - - - - - • Mccbanism I
t
Plasli€_ binge5:1
t -----\,/ t t
••-----'-.,..-~.,_..,__ _ _ _ _ _ _, Mechanism 2
, ____ t
t -.---
Mechanism 3
t
Bend.ing moments
M $ M, (showing negative momeni
~L!?...-~~----- an<1 individuai compo~nl
W.(8)16 16 2.S W.(6)24 simplebcammoments)
M,1= - - -
24
= -W.
3
M
,J
= --=-.;_;__-
30 =12W
"
Figure 10.2.6 _ 1.5 w. 16(8)
Ma--_.;;._ _ = 8W
Example I0.2.5. 24 •
------~- --------------- ----~-.-..
SectiOl'I 10.2
Plastic Strel'lgth of 8 Statically Indeterminate Beam • 491
Solution:
Whcrcas in thc p · b ·
rcvious examples only onc mechanism was possiblc. and therefore O vi-
ous, 1h ere are many · . . Ea h f h
.
three poss1ble mcchansituauons
· . whcrc. the collapse mechanism is not obv1ous. e O t e
isms w11l be mvestigatcd for this example.
Mechanism J · p · · . .
. h' · os nave moment plastic hingc under the load W" w1th a negattve momem
p1ast1c mge at the cemer suppon,
MP = Ms, + ½M,2 - ½MP

4 16 I
3 Mp = 3 W,, + 2 (8W")
MP = 1W"
Mechanism 2 · Po · 1· . · · t
. . • SI ive momcm plastic hinge al 1hc load J .5Wn , wnh a negauve momen
plasuc h1nge at the center suppon,
MP = ½M,1 + M,2 - ~MP

5 8
3MP = 3W. + 8W"
MP = ~ W" = 6.4W"
~ ec~anism 3: Po$itive momcm plas1ic hinge al the load 2.5W,, with negative momem plas-
t1c hmges at the ends of lhe 30-ft span,
M,, = M,3 - MP
2MP = 12W"
Mp = 6W"
Since the plastic moment capacity required is Jargest for MechanisDl I, it controls:
M,,
50(54.0) .
W,, = - - - = 32kips
=-
7 7(12)
In this case the collapse mechanism occurs in the 24-ft span while the 30-ft span
remains stable and elastic. A different section in each span may be a more economica\
solution. •
Plastic Limit Load-Energy Method
Tue principle of vinual work may also be applied 10 obtain the plastic limit \oad w. in an
analysis of a given Structure, or to find the required plastic moment M P in a design problem.
Consider that as the collapse mechanìsm (i.e .. plastic limit) load is rcached the beam
moves through a virtual displacement 5. For equilibrium. the external work done by the
load moving through the vinual disp]acement must equal the intemal strain energy due to
the plastic moment rotating through small angles (hinge rotations).
EXAMPLE 10.2.6
Detennine the plastic limit Joad Wn in Example 10.2.2 by the virtual work principle. Refer-
ring to Fig. 10.2.7,
w,
L/ 2 J L/ 2
Figute 10.2.7
w,nple I0.2.6.
~+--i~ ,J
fJ M,
External work = Internal work

W,,S = MPW
0
W,, ( ~ ) = 2Mµit
W,, = 4Mp/ L
the same as previo usly obtaìned.
•
EXAMPLE 10.2.7
Detenni ne the p lastic Iim it load Wn in Example 10.2.3 by the virtual work principle. Refernng
to Fig. I 0.2.8,
External work -= Internal work
fJL
wn2 = 2Mp 0 + Mp(W)
Wn = 8Mp/l
which agrees wirh thc previous solution.
Figure 10.2.8
Ex.ampie 10.2.7.
I
EXAMPLE 10.2.8
Detennine the collapse mechanism (i.e., plastìc limit) Ioad W,, for Example l0.2.4 by lhc
virtual work method. Referring to Fig. 10.2.9,

WL
Wn--
3
= Mp(W + (J + 30)
3
Wn = 2L (6)Mp = 9Mp/L
For L == 30 ft, Wn = 0.3MP as before.
Figure I0.2.9 Mpl:_7

--.._,. ---.. -- (.1tM
Example I0.2.8. t 28 Mp --..t38
8 p
Section 10.3 Plastic Ana1 .
vsis-Load and Resistance Factor Design Examples • 493
pJIPLE 10.2.9
E'I>
Detenninc the plastic li . I .
ro Fig. 10.2. IO, mn oad Wn for the cominuous beam of Example 10.2.S. Refernng
w, i.sw. 2.sw.
~ l i l
2
~ Planie hinge,
Mechani~m I
Mcchanism 2.
Mec-hanis.m J
figure 10.2.10
BxaltlPJe ]0.2 9.
Mechanism J:
Wn(W)(8) + I.SW,, 8(8) = Mp(38 + &)
28W., = 4MP
MP = 7W,.
Mechanism 2:
Wn(8)(8) + l.SW.,2&(8) = Mp(30 -t- 20)
32W,. = 5MP
MP = 6.4Wn
Mechanism 3:
2.5Wn(4&')(6) = M,,(4e' + se' + e')
60Wn = IOMP
M 1, = 6W,, •
The equlìbrium and energy procedures are equally applicable for frames where
degrees of freedom in sidesway must be considered. In mul1js1ory braced frame , . the
design procedure is 10 cause the plastic. h1nges to form in 1he girders rather \han in lhe
columns; thus the girders are treated as continuous beams. Where bracing contributes an
axial force lo the girder. the beam-column principles of Chapter 12 apply.
1O.3 PLASTIC ANALYSIS-LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN EXAMPLES

An elementary example ofthe design of a simply supponed beam thai achieves its collapse
mechanism was prese nted in Secs. 7.4 and 7.5. Prior 10 the adoption o f AISC Load :md
Resi stance Design Specification in 1986, plastic am\lysis was used in plastic desig11 as dis-
cussed in Sec. 1.8. For addi1ional eleme n1ary materiai on the. philosophy. procedure. and
ex peri menta I verificali on of plastic de.s ign. Refs. I 0.3 through IO. IO are suggested.
The factored load plastic analysis option wilhi.n Load and Resiw mce Factor Design
is the most rational approach and is the authors· recommended procedure for continuous
beams. Alterna1ively, fac1ored load elastic analysis may be used eve n whe n lhe conditìoos
for plastic analysis are satisfied.
Whcn elasric analysis is used under eiùier LRFD or ASD, adjustments to th

analysis bending moment diagram may be made under conditioos specified b Cef~
Appendix-1.3. Thcse adjustmcnts attempt to bring the result close to the AISC ~ AIS(:.
design and ùie LRFD plastic analysis resull. nela11~
TI1e use of plastic analysis to evaluat.e the moment strength limit.
state doe•
., Dotp
elude other limil scates, such as sbear, flange and/or web locai bucklmg, lateral-to . re.
. . 1. . f d f1 . f rs1on,1
buckLing, and particularly the serviceabI1Jty 1m11 state o e ect1on, rom controlJing.....
EXAMPLE 10.3.1
Design the lightest W section of A992 steel for use as th~ rwo-span contìnuous beam
Fig. I 0.3.1. Latera! support is provided at the ends and m1dpoint of each span. U o/
and Re~istance Factor Design utilizing plastic analysis. requiremems under~~
Appendix-1.7, even though the unbraced lengths lb are relatlvely long. SC.
Solution:
(a) Compme the factored loads, Wu and W,, . Temporarily neglecting lhe Wei ht .
the beam, g °'
w,, = 1.2(1.5) + l.6(5) = 9.80kips/ft
Wu = 1.2(30) + l.6(60) = 132 kips
The required nominai strength is the factored Ioad divided by <f>b. In thìs case,
Required Wn = w /<l>b = 9.80/0.90 =

11 J0.89 kips/ fr
Required W11 = Wu/<l>b = 132/0.90 = 147 kips
. As indicated in the_ probl_em ~tatement, plastic analysis is to_ be used. Evaluate 1hr
poss1ble collapse mechamsms; m th1s case there are two, as shown m Fig. 10.3.lb.
"'
pl I I 11 I 111 I I
r -O"'W
11..L
20' Service loads
W = 30 k dead load
60 k live Jcad
~ ?ffi- .4,. w = 1.S k/ft dead load
~
~~~~
- 30'- 0"---1-- - 40'--0" _ ___.,
X
(a) Moment diagram

when MP occurs
at inJerior
suppon (mowing.
pans)
Mccbani5m I
Mechani5m 2
I Ae1ual mèchÌnism
t 0.414l = 12.4 f1 f t (Mechanism 2)
(e) [-~ 780 MP = 980
Figure 10.3. I
WillID& ~ Collapse
mechanism
moment diagram
Example I0,3. I. ~=980 (ft-kips)
Sectioo 10.3 PlasticAnalysis-Load aod Resistance Factor Design Examples • 495
(
b) M ec,,amsm
, · / : Fora span with uniform load. simp
. 1Y ~up.,.,,- · end.
. ~.-M4 at .onc and
momcnl
10
expecied
18 devclop a plastic hinge at the other the Jocation of max,mum po11,iuvc ··
· not self-evident.
· ·
Al an unlcnown distance x from ·
1he disconlJliuoui, end • lhe nel· poi.1nvc
moment is
w,,
Mx==
2 x(L - x) - LXMP (a)
Taking d M ,jdx = O and solving for x, the locaùon of maximum moment is

L M,,
(b)
x = = - - --
2 w,,L
Substituting Eq. (b) into Eq. (a) gives
Mx(max) = -w,,(L
2
-- - -MP-)( L
2 w,,L
- -L
2
Mp)
+- - -
w,,L
Mv(!-:__~)
-L
-
-,
"
w L (C)
When a plastic hinge develops, M..(max) = MP ; thus Eq. (e) becomes
Mp == _w n_L2 _ _ M_ iP_ __
M,, + _Mi
_? (d)
8 2wnL2 2 w,,L-
Substitute M, = w,,I}/8 into Eq. (d), giving
M 2p - 24Mp Ms + l6M .7 = O (e)
Solving the quadratic for MP gives
Mµ = 0.686M, (10.3. li
and the location of the plastic hinge is at
The results of this development are shown in Fig. 10.3.2.
J.~j I I I I 11
j 1 I I I I I I~~~)
j i MP
---- ....... -----
Nominai moment M"

J0.3.2 diagram
figure condition for
co11a~y Joaded span
IJlllf()(!ll s at one end and
Cl)llllnuou Ported at the other.
~ysup
For thc specific example. Mechanism I (Fig. 10.3. lb) requires

w L2 10.9(30) 2
M,, = 0.686M, 1: M
.<I
- - "--
- 8
=
8
= 1225 ft-kips
Mp = 0.686(1225) = 840 ft-kips
(e) Mechanism 2: For the 40-ft span,

WL 147(40)
M.o = - "- = ~ = 1470ft-ldps
'" 4 4
Equilibrium requires
Mp Mp
MP = M 52 - --
2 = 1470 - 2
M,, = 1470/l.5 "' 980 ft-kips
The Jaroest
e •
M requirement obtained from the possil>le mechanisms determines •'-e
p . . "' C(lft.
trolling condition. Thus Mechanism 2 govems. A check ~y determm111g the complete coJ.
lapse mechanism momem diagram should be made to m~ure that M,, is the maximurn
moment. Ifa location is found wher_e the computed nominai moment exceeds Mp , !hc
mechanism used is not correct. 1n th1s case, F1g. 10.3. lc shows M p = 980 ft-kips ìs the
max.imum, so that Mechaoism 2 is the correcl one.
Tue maximum positive moment on the 30-ft span using Eq. (a) is
10 9
Muf<j) = · ( 12.4)(17.6) - 0.414Mp
2
= 1190 - 0.414(980) = 780 ft-kips < 980 OK
(d) Select section:
. Mp 980(12) .
Reqmred Zx =- = - - - = 235 m:3
F,- 50
Try W27X84 with Zx = 244 in.3 as indicated by the A/SC Manua/, Table 3-4, ''Selectioa
by Z,.". Because of the relatively long laterally unbraced lengtbs, a sec:ion having larger r
may be required. '
(e) Check !alerai support. When plaslic analysis is used, more rntation capacity a
the plaslic hinges is relied upon lo develop lh<! mechanism. AISC-App~ndìx l.7 requim
that Lb notexceed Lpd given by Eq. 9.5.7 [AISC Formula (A-l-7)).
-[
L pt1 - 0.12 + 0.076
(Mi)](~)· _3500 + ,,. ,)' -
2200(MtfMv)
F. ry [9.SJj
Mµ ry y
M,, is used instead of M2 as in AISC-Appendix l.7 because when lhe formula applies. Mi
will always be M P. In the region of the last hìnge lo fonn, and in regions not adjacent to a
plastic hinge, Eq. 9.5.7 does not apply.
At unbraced segments adjacent to the last plastic hinge to form, the laterally
unbraced length Lb may not exceed Lp if Cb is 1.0; however, when the moment gradie111is
favorable (i.e., Cb > 1), M,, may stili be achieved even though Lb > Lµ, L,, is give11~
Eq. 9.5.5 [AISC Formula (F2-5)l,
{E 300rv
L,, = l.16rY\J Fv = .V~ 19.5.Sl
Fy Fy, ksi
Section 10.3 Plastìc Anal .
vsis-Load and Resistance Factor Design Examples • 497
For this problem f

1. ft • our scgmcnts must be considered. as follows:
. 15 at left end· L d . . . h"
Smcc thc maxim · 11d ocs not apply for segrnents contammg no pla,;uc mges.
segmcnt wil[ be c~n ;omeni of 780 ft-kips is less than M P. Lh can be grcater than Lp . This
lSfi cc cd last srnce il is noi expected to contro! the design.
2• 1 ad;ace111 t ·
o mterior support:
M, = 780 ft-kips; MP = 980 ft-kips

L d == 3500 + 2200(780/ 980) _
P ry - 105 r_.
50
M" . LI> 15(12)
m1mumry = - =- - = 1.71 in.
105 105
3. 20 ft adl)·a cem to mterior
· .
support:
M1 :e 980 ft-kips; M P = 980 fi-k.ips

L pd -_ 3500 + 2200(980/ 980)
_ _ __ _ :.,_~_..:. ,,. = ll4ry
50 - ·
M. . Lb 20( 12)
m1mum ry =- = - -- = 2.1 \ in.
114 114
4 • 20 ft ai right end: Since the maximum positive moment plastic hinge is lhe last
one
d to form · Lpd does not apply. However when Lb exceeds Lp. e1ther · the srrengt.h
ecreases due to inelastic lateral-torsional buckling limit state or the strength stili may
reach Mf! because · 0 f a .favorablc moment grad1ent.
. '
When L d does ·
not apply, the secuon
muS! sat1sfy AISC-F2. In this design, the moment gradient gives Cb == 1.67 from Table
9.6.3.
Assume the minimum r y required is 2.11 in. for segment 3; in which case the
W27X84 (rY -- 2 •07 ·m. ) 1s· not acceptable for the segments ad3acent
· to t h e mtenor
· . sup-
port. Increase size to W27X94 ( rv = 2.l2 in.) .
Investigate further for the W27x 9 4 ,
MP = ZxFy = 278(50)/ 12 = l 160 ft-kips
= 1.76(2.11 )V29,000/ 50 ii = 7.5 ft

Lp
M, = 0.7F_vSx = 0.70( 50)243/ 12 = 710 ft-kips
L, = Eq. 9.6.6 = 21.6 ft
(f) Check strength for Lb = 20 ft at the right end of the 40-ft span. M,, is con-
trolled by inelastic lateral-torsional buckling since L b < L,. The strength lies between
MP and M, when C0 = I.O; however, in this case with e,, = 1.67. AISC Formula (F2-2)
or Eq. 9.6.10 g ives
M 11 = t.6{1160 - (1160 - 710)(:i\-_7;\ ) J

= 1.67(760) = 1270 ft-kips
Since computed M,, exceeds Mp, M,, = MP . Thus. the 20-ft segment at right end is satis-
factory for lateral bracing.
(M11 = M/J = 1160 ft-kips) > (Required M1) = 980 ft-kips) OK

(g) Check strenoth for Lb = 15 ft segmenl at left end of span I. Since L .

between Lp (7.5 tì) a~d "' L, (21.6 ft), Mn 1·s concrolledbY me
. Iasuc
. Iateral-torsionaJ bue
bh•
;
hng. For th1s case. C1, 1s
J2.5Mmax
C1, = 2.5Mma, + 3MA + 4Mn + 3Mc [9.6.111
The moment gradient is parabolic- thus, from Table 9.6.4, Cb is 1.30. To illustrai
~ ' e tbe
calculation.
Mnm = maximum moment in the unbrace.d segment
MA = moment at I /4 point = 0.4375Mrna,
M 8 = moment at midpoint "" 0.75Mm:ix
Mc = moment al 3/4 point = 0.9375Mm,x
12.SM,nax
cb = 2.5Mm,LX + 3(0.4375Mm,uc ) + 4(0.75Mmax) + 3(0.937~
12.SM,na_,
1.2987 :. cb = uo.
9.625Mma.,
Using Eq. 9.6. JO.
Lb - Lp)l
M11 = Cb [ MP (
- (Mp - 0.7F,.S.• ) L, _ LP J 5: MP
Mn = l.30[1160 - (1160 - 710)C /

1
6 -_7;\)]
= 1.30(920) = 1200 ft-kips > (Mp = 1160 ft-kips )
=
= M P 1160 ft-kips.
The segment is satisfactory with M 11
(h) Check moment strength, Note that the factored loads were divided by ,t,0 kl
obtain the required nominai loads that can be carried when the co!iapse mechanism
(required nominai moment strengths Mn) is reached. Alternatively. thé' factored momem
M,. diagram could have been obtained; that would be appropriate when elastic analvsis ~
used. However, when plastic analysis is used it seems more approprinte to use the -~. dia-
gram involving the collapse mechanism, since only al the coltapse mechanìsm do the p1as.
tic h.inge and MP bave meaning. In this case, after the beam weight is adde.d. a
recalculatioo of required MP for Mechanism 2 gives
0.094(1.2/0.90)(40)2 .
1470 + 8
= 1495 ft-kips
Mp = Ms2 - 0.5Mp = M,2/1.5 = IOOOft-kips
{Provided Mp = 1160ft-kips) > (Required Mp = lOOOft-kips) OK
lt is clear that the beam weight has little effect.
(I) Check shear. At the interior end of the 40-ft span the factored load shear v. is
980
Vu = 73.4 +
40 = 97.9 kips
-h = 49.5 < [ 2.24 -

tw
#. = .
F>, V
382
r::::-:-:
Fy , ksi
= 54.0] ~ rJ> = I
\'• • 0.61-'.A. ~ O.t.{~ ) llt> 9)0 ,t~ • '\95 up.
(•W., • I.Ol'.l 'ìS) • 39H.1p.J ~ 97 U ,1p..
As CXl)e(."ted, Cllcq,l on abcw, ~ ~ •tb hcav)' loadtni, tobcai' doc• not ()()llll'OI.
.
1
(J) lktlectioq_lf Cli.ce.,..~ dd\oetioo app&-,an. to tw a pr<ihlcm. am-ic, klOII dc&,c,
'. °'.° m~ be 1.'C.l fflpwed_ ~n«-tioo when l,\Olllll*' ì• 1mnuncnt 1~ aot eawl~ ddc:munad. Dl!lf
11
lii &eoendly of intetts1. In dùs ca.e,
L 4002)
a; - - = li.~
- -
d 27 _
lbough Lld is ooc any llllnntee ~prdiog def\ection. it doa provide ~ LAdicaOOn ~ dd·
ficulty u diw..°'IWe,d io Sec. 7 .6. In this ~ detl«-ùon is I\OI likel)' a pmblem.
Uu W27X94, F, = SO bi •
~ 10.3.2
Design lhc ligh1es1 consun, mo~nl of inenia i.cciion rcquired for 1he continuous bcam of
fig. I0.3.3. l.ateraJ suppons are providcd al thc venical suppons and at cach concentnl~
load. The stecl has Fv -= 60 k:si. u~ Lo.ad and Resist.ance Factor Dei.ign utili1-ing pliu.t1.c
analysis undcr AISC~Appendix I.
S0l11tion:
(a) Detcrmine fac1ored loads Wu and assocìatcd nominai loads W" thai musi be car-
ried when a collapsc mechanism is imminent.
w, w' .. 3 k ClellCI 1'*1

12 k livc IOMI
W , • 7 kllced lo.-!
18 k live load
~ w--0· ---4--
L.l.Q' 1 10·..ui_i__o·
- 30'--0'
1
--j
20·
W , • IO k clead loed
· 40 k live lotod
f Pla$1ic hinges
t Mechanism 2
____ _
t
f -- ·--- t
,
t Me.:hanimi 3
V1riablc. <i Mr
~---'---'--"'!'----'---- - - ~/ ·Ultlma,e tTu,mcnt (haJr•m

•h<•wintt ,·ornroncn1,
122
~
à
M,,,. 2112
.+ c,,llap~ n1e<:han,,m
momr nt dl~ r·am
(fl klpJ)
~10.3.3
Es,11111*10.3.2, M , ,. 282
1
ovv • Chapter 10 Continuous Beams
w,, 1 = I.2(3) + l.6(12) = 22.8 kips

W.,2 = 1.2(7) + 1.6(18) = 37.2 kips
w,13 = t.2(10) + 1.6{ 40) = 76.0 kips
Using <Pb = 0.90, the required nominai ultimate loads Wn to be carried a.re
Required W,, 1 = WuiNb = 22.8/ 0.90 = 25.3 kips
Rcquired W,, 2 = W,,2/<l>b = 37.2/ 0.90 = 41.3 kips
Required w,,3 = W,,3/</>b = 76.0/ 0.90 = 84.4 kips
A s ìndìcated in the prob!em statement, p!astic analysìs is to be used. Evatu
possible collapse mechanisms; in this case there are three, as shown in Fig. 10.3.3. ate ~
25.3(l0)15 .
Msi = - - -- = 152 ft-k1ps
25
41 .3(20)5
M.., 2 = - -25 - = 165 ft-kips
84.4(10)(20) .
M
.<3
= - -30-- = 563 ft-k1ps
(b) Mechanism I: Assume moment under W1 load equals Mp,
I IO
Mp = Ms1 + 2Ms2 - 25Mp
~Mp = 152 + ~ (165) = 235
Mp = ~(235) = l68ft-kips
(e) Mechanism 2: Assume moment under W2 load equals Mp,

_ I 10
M 1, - 3 M5 1 + M.,2 - 25 Mp
~MP = !(152) + 165 = 216
MP = ~(216) = 120 ft-kips
(d) Mechanism 3: Assume moment under W3 load equals Mp,
Mp = M_,3 - Mp
2MP = 563; MP = 282 ft-kips (Controls)
lf a section is selected that has M P = 282 ft-kìps, the resulting moments under the w, and
W2 loads are
Mi = Ms1 + !Ms2 - ~MP

= 235 - ~(282) = 122 ft-kips < 282 01
M2 -_ j'Msl + Msz - p,Mp
20
= 216 - ~(282) = -lOft-kips < 282 OI

(e) Select beam.
. 282(12)
Required Z_.. = = 56.4 in.3
60
Sectìon 10.3 Pl st
a ic A.nalysis-Load aod Resistance Facto, Design Examples • 501
Try W1&x35 having Z - . 3 .

locai buckling, x - 66.5 in . This section is compacr for Fy = 60 ks1: for flange
( À ~ ~
;~ 7.06) < (AP = 0.38R.,_.. = VFy-
65
ksi
= 8.4) OK
For web locai buckling,
(A a,:• 535) < (A, 376/f;

a a
OK
3500 + 2200( Mi/Mp)

Lpd = - - - -- - - --ry l9S7J
Fy
Since the moment grad'1ent ·m th'1s segment 1s
. one of reverse curvature. wtt •., p -- + I ·
· h M 1.Jw,
Lpd = 5700ry/60 = 9Sry

which means for Lb = 20 ft, the ry required would be
Required ry = 20( I2 )/95 = 2_5 in.

The WJ8X35 having ry only 1.33 in. is not acceptab\e_ None of the W shape~ in the range
35 4
to 5 lb/ft have ry any higher than 2.0. Since a realiscic design having a section with r,.
greater than 2.5 in. cannot be achieved, additional bracing must be provided.
lf one additional lateral support is provided at l O ft from the right end of the struc-
ture, determine the W shape that will be satisfactory. For the resulting two IO ft segments
that replace the 20-ft segment, Mi/ M P = O; consequently,
= 3500r_vf60 = 58ry
Lpd
Requiredry = 10(12)/58 = 2 .1 in_
This would require Wl6X67 or Wl8X76. the same sections needed for maximum strength
when L1, was 20 ft. Assume lateral bracing at 5-ft intervals in the 30-ft span. Then at the
rnost criticai location near the right support.
M1/ Mp = - 141/282 = - 0-5

= 2400ry/60 = 40ry
L pd
Required rr = 5(12)/40 = 1.5 in.
The lightest section, Wl8X35. for the M/J requirement has "Y = l :22 in. ~nd still will
not qualify. However, W16X36, the next lightest section has r>. = 1.52 m. and 1s also com-
pact with Fy = 60 ksi.
Use 5-ft spacing of lateral bracing on the 30-ft span.
On the 25-ft span, check the Jaterally unbra~ed lO-ft segmeni at the lefi end.'%
segment does not have a plastlc !unge assoc1ated w1th tL The strength of the w1_ 6 XJ6ha,,.
ing Lt, = 10 ft rnust be detennmed.
Mp = Z.Jy = 64(60)/12 = 320 ft-kips
Lp = [300(1.52)/ W ]/1 2 = 4.9 ft
M, = 0.7F:,Sx = 0.70(60)56.5/12 = 198 ft-kips
L, = Eq. 9.6.6 = 13.7 ft
M~ = J.6{320 - (320 - 198)c~~7 ~-:~9 )] = 4l6ft-kips
Since computed Mn exceeds M1,, Mn = M p · Since Mn = 320 ft-kips exceeds 122 ft-ki
under the W1 load the I 0-ft segment is satisfactory. PI
UseW16X36. f} = 60ksi.
1
EXAMPLE 10.3.3
Redesign the beam of Example I0.3.2, using either cover plates or two different secti
butt-spliced together. Use plastic analysis in Load and Resistance Factor Design un:
AISC-Appendix 1. Use Fy = 60 ksi.
Solution:
Assume that the change of section occurs near the ioflection point to the right of the cen-
tra! suppon, giving rise to different plastic moments Mp1 and Mp2 at thc two restrained
Sùpports (see Fig. 10.3.4.).
(a) Consider first the 25-ft span supporting the W1 and W2 loads. Assume the posi-
tive moment under the W1 load reaches M pi ,
I 10
M pi = M!l + 2M,2 - uMpt
= 152 + 82.5 - 0.4Mpt
Mp1 = 168 ft-kips
Pio.stie hiuges
Failurc mechanism
Collapse mechanism
moment diagram
showing componcnts
ABCDEFGHIJK
Unbraccd S-ft
segments
Collapse
mechanism moment
Figure 10.3.4 diagram
Example 10.3.3.
Section 10.3
Plastic An 1 1- .
a Ys s-Load and Resistance Factor Design Examples • 503
Under the W2 load lhe .
moment 1s
M = !M
3 >I
+ M,·2 - 20M
E pi
= 50.7 + 168 - 0.8(168) = 84 ft kips < 168 OK
~ Latera] suppon requirements. Examine the 10-ft Jater.ùly unbraced length bctween
che W 1
d W2 loads, where the ratio Mi/ MP = -84/168 = -0.5. Using Eq. 9.5.7.
L _ 3500 + 2200(-0.5)
pd - - - -- - -- - r).
60
= 40r".
fs'::c ~b ~ IO ft, lhe required ry is 120/ 40 = 3.0 in. which cannot be achieved b_y any real-
es1gn. lncrease the lateral suppon to be every 5 ft. This will be necessary m the 30-fi
span a~o, as ~hown in Ex~mp\e 10.3.2. . .
s~ummg the plas11c hmge ( +M ) between segments Band C (see Fig. 10.3.4 ) 15
lhe last h1nge to form, Eq. 9.5.7 is not :e_quired by AISC-Appendix 1.7 to be satisfied for
lbose segmenrs. However, in order for the nominai moment strength Mn lo reach Mp. Lb
ma~ not exceed LP when Cb = I.O. In this case segment C has the flauer rnoment gradient,
havmg MifM2 == -126/168 = -0.75. Thus, from Table 9.6.3, Cb = I.Il; this would
th
mean at Lb could exceed L by a small amount such that 1.llMn could stili eq_ual Mr.
even lbough M,, might be les:than Mp. lt will be conservative lo require Lb to not exceed
LP for thìs segment,
Lp = l.76r~ = ~ = 3
00 ry = 38.7ry
Fy Fy, ksi V60
. .
M m1mum Lb 5(12)
ry = -- = - - = l.55 in.
38.7 38.7
Referring to text Appendix Table A I, r y "" 0.22bf to 0.25bf. Thus,
. . 1.55 1.55
M immuro b
I required ~ - - to - - .
.
= 6 __,., to 7 m.
· 0.25 0.22
This requirement applies for segments B and C adjacent to the Last plastic hinge to fonn. .
. For segment E and F, rotation capacity rnust be assured by satisfying AlSC -Appendix
7
1. ; i.e., Lb may not exceed Lpd · Segment F has the flatter moment gradie nt and controls;
MJ/Mp = O. Thus,
Lpd = 3500r~./60 = 58r,.

Required r y = 5( I 2 )/ 58 = 1.03 in.
(e) Select section for the 25-ft span.
Required MP 168(12)
Required Zx = - - - -- 33.6 in.3
F_,. 60
Required br ~ 6.2 to 7 in.
Required ry = 1.55 in.
Using the AlSC Manual Table 3-2. " Se lection by Z.," find several sect.ions that satisfy the
required Zx:
Wl2X26, Zx = 37.2 in.3
Wl4 X26, Z,. = 40.2 in.3
Wl6X 26, z., = 44.2 in:ì
These sections ali have I\ < 1.55 in .. though WI2X26 is close with , ,, = 1.51 in.
Try Wl2X26. ,~" ;, 1.51 in.• and investigate segment C:
3500 + 2200( -- 126/168 ) .

l;pd - -- - -,,.· = 30.Sry = 3.8 lt
= - - -- 60
L "' 300 r . = _300(1.51 ) = 4.9 ft

P '\IP_)'' ksi Y V60( 12)
C1, = I. 11 from Table 9.6.3
Mµ = ZxFy = 37.2(60)/ 12 = l86ft-kips
M, = 0.7FySx = 0.70(60)33.4/ 12 = 117 ft-kips

L,. = Eq. 9.6.6 = 13.3 ft
Since Lb is berween Lp and L,, inelastic lateral-torsional buckling controls.

AISC-Formula (F2-2) linear rclacionship applies:
4
Mn = 1.1{186 - (186 - ll7)c:.3- _ : .9)]
= 1.11(185) = 205 ft- kips > Mp
Si.nce computed Mn exceeds Mp, M,, = M1,. Thus segments Band C are satisfactoryfor
lateral bracing.
Use Wl2X26, F>' = 60 ksi, for the 25-ft span. For the 30-ft span, top and bottom covei
plates will be added. An alternative would be to use a heavier section having the samepro-
portions and buujoin them by welding or by splice plates.
Since the secLion used has a greater plastic moment strength than required, lhe momeri.
diagram under loads Wu/ 4'b is as shown in Fig. l0.3.5b. The diagram a'>sumes the first plastic
25r k 41{ k--- Rcquircd nominai ul1ima1c loads. : :
....b.. ====== =,====71/tr:::;;=1

;::::,
1111T '--._ _ _ Wl2 X 26

- - -- - 25'-0"- - -- -I MP = 37.2(60)/12 = 186 ft-kips
M"= 168
~ 4 Design condition.
(a) ' \~ I assuming rcquired MP = ac1ual M P
'\J (ft-kips)
MP= 168
Figure 10.3.5
Comparison of design
condition and actual
(b)
~r.f7'\J
~ Momcn1undernominaluhima1eload, W.
when M r = 186 ft-kips
condition for 25-ft span of
Example 10.3.3. M,= 186
Section 10.3 Plaatic Ana1 .
Y•••-Load end Rasi11tance Factor Deaign Exampln • 505
hinge is at thc .
loads W.J4>i,. ~ ~ t h a i i1 ~ fonn wkJc:r !be :i.pplication of thc rcquircd ulumaac
span. pi I 86 ft-k1p~ ib provided i~ then used in the làlW)'i.l\ or thc 30-fl
In thc ac1ua.1 con<f .
tion. However it · . . . tlJon, ~gnJcn1 E is mor-e scverely loaded than in the c:ksign oond1-
1s su11 nO( as ,
(d) De . . severe1y loaded as seg_rnent F
ternune plas1 -
under the w,
-
IOad . . ~e momem requirement on lhc 30-ft ,;;pan. When Mp~ 1omb
. cqu1hbnum requires
.
M,
r-
= M•3 _ 1(
3 Mv2 - MPi) - M , 1 (long cowr ph1.les)
1
iJ Mr2 is developed ai th . .
pon lf the e filled end. Th1s would requ1re cover plales IO utend to thc sup-
. cover plates are n .. .
ot ex:tended to the suppon, equ1ltbnum requ1re
Mp2 = M,3 - MP 1 (shon cover plates)
If long cover plates are Used,
Mp2 == 563 - !M
3 p2
+ !(186)
3 - 186; M,,z = 329 ft-kips
lf shoner cover plates are used.
Mp2 = 563 - 186 = 377 ft-ki.p s

Sìnce there ìs little d.ff
I .
·bi erence m requiremems, the cover plates will be made ai- shon as
poss1 e. Tue cover pi t
a es, top and bottom. must provide
MP (cover) = 377 - 186 = 191 ft-k.ips

. (e) Select plate sìze. For an area A repre~enting the cover plate at one flange, and a
dtstance d cente t0 1' ·
r- -center of cover plates, the plastìc modulus Z becomes
Z = 2A p (~)=Ad
2 p
.
ReqUtred A"= -Z = -
191( 12)
--
382
= - ·-
382
= -· -·- = 2.9 sq io.
d 60d d 13.0
assumìn~ d ~ 12.5 + 0.5 (½-in. plates ). If the plate width is somcwhat Ics~ th~m thc
flange width of Wl2X26, say 6 in.. the area Ap provided will be. adequate .
. Check locai buckling on plate as a stiffened element welded along two sides. accord-
mg to AISC-Table B4.1-Case 7;
(7= -0~5 = 12) < (>..r = 1.12\}F,

/EFE_,. =
~
190 = 190
V60
= 24.5) OK
Use - iX 6 plates. top and bottom. These wou.ld probably be welded c0ntinut\usly along
the sides in the length directìon. Discussion of weld sizes and other rcquircmc nts i~ ~-on·
tained in Chapter 5.
(t) Detem1ine plate leogth. Referring to Fig. 10.3.6 showing the collapsc conditio_n
for the 30-ft span, the distance L 1 is the theoretical length required for cover pl:itcs.; tht~
distance may easily be scaled from the diagram. For this straight line momcnt diagram. ù,c
distance L1 is easily c omputed,
186 186
L1 =(I - +
186 + 377
)( 10 + 20) = 0.'.\4(30) = 10.2 ft
84.4 k ·
Required ·
nornmal ·
ulumate I oa·d w.
i;
5'-4" I lt,<- _I_ x 6 x 13'-0'
i---·--j f / 2
:~J/l;r~: : =,_:
: ~__: _ : : : : : : : : : : .. :::~~;J' Bose ,cc1ion, Wl 2 x 26
~ 10 0 20 0
5 MP, = 186 ft-kips
Collapse condition
Provid~d by assuming required
Wl 2 X 26 M,2 = actual M,,
~ +-+-.1--+-~"""~-, (ft-kips)
Figure 10.3.6
Collapse condition for 30-ft
span of Example 10.3.3. 186 !86
Extension of the plalcs in each direction musi develop the cover piace'~ propottion ol tbc
strength required and satisfy the requirements of AISC-Fl3.3. The tenston or compressioo
strength required from one plate is
377(12) _ . 1
Rcquired Z = - - - = 15.4 111:
X 60
A 1, 3.00
%Z from plates = AP + AJ (100) = 3_00 + 2 _47 (100) = 55%
neglccting the web effect. Tue nominai tensile force T" required to be developed is
0.55Z F, 0.55( 75.4 )60

T.11 ""' - - - = - - -- = 196 kips
d 12.22 + 0.5
Assuming no weld across the end of the cover pi ate and continuous fiJ let wc.Id along Lhe
sides, detcrmine the number of inches of weld necessary to devclop the desired force in
the plates. As treated in Sec. 5.14, the strenglh per inch of~-in. fill et wcld madeby lhc
submerged are process using E70 electrodes is (using subscript v for the shear resistance
factor),
</>vRnw = 0.75(3/16)(0.60)(70) = 5.91 kìps/in.

Equating the design strength of Lw inches of fillet weld to the design tensile strength @l,
required to be developed,
Lw(5.91) = ef>bT,, = 0.90(l96) = 176 kìps
Lw = 176/5.91 = 30 in. (2 lines of 15 in.)
Tue length of plates required is
Length = L1 + 2(15 in. on each end) = 10.2 + 2.5 = 12.7 ft
Use -! X 6 plates, 13 ft Iong, beginning 5' --4" from support as shown in Fig. 10.3.6.
In this example, the member was not spliced; however, butt splicing the memb<I
might be a more economica! choice to the use of cover plates. A compromise solUU(II
would be to use a section having a Zx larger than the minimum for the 25-ft span. bulDL1
as large as would be required lo omit plates entirely. The cover J>lates could then be dlilllf
and shorter. Splices are discussed in Sec. L0.6. I
Section 10.4 !;lasticAnalysis-AISC LRFD Method • 507
4
~E_L_A_ST_I_C_A_N_A_Lv_s_r_s_A_IS_C--=LR:..:.:F~D::..:..:.M~E~T~H~O~D=---------- - - - -
Within. Load
.
and _Re81·Stance
. Factor Design,
. .
e1ther .melas11c
· anaIys1s
· . under AISC-Appendix
. I
~:oelas11c .~na_lys1s under AISC-F2 may be the appropriate procedure. When secuon~ are
•rnpact Wtlb ~spect I.O locai buckling and the laterally unbraced length l~h. does not
exceed Lpd, plasnc analysis ù permiued to be used. Plastic analysis is rrot r-<,qmred 10 be
used. Elastic analysis is always permirted.
f)(AMPLE 10.4.1
R~~esign the _beam of Example L0.3.1 using Load and Resistance Factor Design l>ut
Ull/izrng plasuc analysis. Use A992 steel.
,w,
Solution:
(a) The factored loads Wu and w ti were computed in Example 10.3.1. as follows:
w,. = 1.2(1.5) + 1.6(5) = 9.8 kips/ft
W,, = 1.2(30) + 1.6(60) = 132 kips
(b) The elastic analysis bending moment diagram under factored ~ervic~ loads mu~t
be computed using a method of statìcally indetenninate strucrural analy5is. 1lus appears tn
Fig. 10.4.1.
_ Thdour separate Iaterally unbraced segments and theLT
· corres ponding C I> ,·alues and
maximum factored moment<; M., are sbown in Fig. 10.4.1.
()
e S elect a sectìon based on the maximum negative moment. Assummg
· ..e ompacl"
section for locai buckling, the required plastic modulus Zx would be
M,, = cf>bMp = </>1,ZxFy

l038(12)
= 277 in,3
0.90(50)
20·
--l
i W,. =132kips
A=15' B=l5' e= 20· D = 20'

,br
30'-o· 40'-0"
64S R!ll
5g3
at midspan
+ +
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
'1038
67
.,._ _ 1_ 2._49_ ~ - ~ ___
. 1_7_ _ _ l.__ _+-- c. values. Eq. 9.6.11
figure I0.4. l
Exàmplc I0.4. I. 645 1038 ~ SOi Factoredmoment.s M.(ft-kips)
Using AISC Manual Table 3-2, "Selection by Zx" fi nd !O

W30X99, Z_. = 312 in.', ry = 2. 1 in. /
(d) Check !atemi support. In order to obtain the plastic rnornent strength M th 1
e =lo p, e at.
erally unbraced length Lb cannot exceed Lp w hen b · ·
,7t 300 300(2.l)
LP = 1.76r1 -J,;;
= :_li,., ksi ry = V50(1
2 ) = 7.4 ft
At first it may apoear

1
that L is Jess than 15 fc and therefore, M,, rnust be less than M . T
P · th L t' th d P ra-
diti onally since rnoment gradient does ~ot appear II~ e P eq~a ·10_11 • e . esigner wou\d
evaluate the rotational restraint at the pou1t of mflect_,on (which m thts c~se is at 7.l ft from
rhe interior support). If the ?esigner decided thai rwISt of the c~oss-sectmn was adequaieiy
prevented the inflection pomt could be treated a_s a braced pomt. Under AISC-F2.2c, the
full momeOl gradient across the inflection pomi. ro the next actual lacerai suppon: is
accounted for by cb. Thus, even when Lb exceeds Lp, the Cb greater tban I .O may bring
the available strength to MP anyway.
(e) Evaluate the available strength for the W30X90 near the interior support. Using
Eq.9.6 .11 forCbwith M 1/ M1 = +801/ 1038 = + 0.77, UJ.
cb "" 2.23
Mp = ZxF,- = 283(50)/12 = l1 80ft-kips
Lp = 7.4 ft [ computed in pare ( d) 1
M, = 0.7F,Sx = 0.7(50)(245)/ 12 = 715 ft-kips
L, = Eq. 9.6.6 = 20.9 ft
Since Lb is between Lp and L,, inelastic lateral-torsional buckling conlrols. Tue AISC-
Formula (F2-2) linear relationship applies
Mn = 2.2{ 1180 - ( l 180 - 715)c~~ - _ \ \ ) ]

9
= 2.23(746) = I 660 ft-kips > Mp
Since computed Mn exceeds Mp, Mn == Mp. Thus, segments 8 and Care satisfacrory for
lateral bracing.
[cf,bMp = 0.90(1180) = 1060 kips] > (Mu = 1038 kips) OK
(f) Check segment D. As in segments Band e, Lb ìs between L,, and L,: thus,M. is
obtaioed for this ioelastic buckling ca,e by linear interpolation, this time using Cb = l.67
with AISC-Forrnula (Fl-1),
Mn = 1.67( 746) = 1246 kips > Mp

Since computed Mn exceeds Mp, Mn = M,, = I 180 ft-kips. Thus, segmentD is sarisfact(X)'
for lateral bracing.
(g) Check segment A. In this segment, the maximum moment occurs between lhe
braced points; thus, eh could be conservatively taken as I.O. When computed using F.q.
9.6.11, eh = l.17. The linear interpolated value of Mn using AISC-Formula (F2-2). with
Lh = 15ft is
Mn = 1.17(918) = 1074 kips < M,,
[<f>bMn = 0 .90( 1047) = 967 kips] > (Mu = 645 ft-kips) Ol
When using plastic analysis with these long laterally unbraced Iengths, the design 'lii
impossible. 1
Section 10.S Elastic Analysis-Allowable Strength Design • 509
OS ELASTIC ANALYSIS-ALLOWABLE ST
!..-:--- RENGTH DESIGN
The design of usual .
should b d . contmuous beams having relatively close spacing of lateral suppons
I l do e one u~ing plastic analysis under the AISC LRFD Method. AISC-Appendix
· es not permtt the f · f
comin b . use o the melastic analysis with che ASD Method. However, or
I 7 th
uous eams wnh th b .
. · mom e und raced length requirements as defined ·m AIS -Appen
e d.
· , e negative · b1x
redu d b 10 ent un er the suppon, computed using elasllc analys1s. can e
ce Y % accord l · · · · ·
ted f 0 b th ' ing Lo A SC-Appendix 1.3. This moment red1stnbuuon 1s permu-
is l"1 \I ~ LRFD and ASD Methods. So, using the ASD Method for conti.nuous beams
to ela5tic analysis. The ASD procedure for design is similar to the LRFD
Met hmod.e Allowable St h D · · · d.
· d" rengt esigo uses ad1ustments of the elast1c moment 1agram to
m trectly account far plastic behavior and redistributìon of moments. Such adjustmeots
cannoc reflect truc beh · Oc li b d
1 avior. casionally, for designs involving long latera y un race
englbs where lateral-torsional buckling is the limit state instead of plascic moment
strength, Allowable Strength Design rnay be a practical alternative to elastic analysis
under Load and Resistance Factor Design.
e)(AMPLE 10.5. 1
Redesign the beam of Example 10.3. 1 (Fig. 10.3.1) using lhe Allowable Strength Design
Method with A992 steel.
Solutìon:
st
The ela ic bending mornent diagram (see Fi g. 10.5.1) under service loads rnust frrst be
computed using a method of statically indeterminate analysis.
~he four separate unbraced segrnents with their Cb values and design moments are
show~ m F1g. I 0.5.1. If lacerai bracing is sufficient to pennit a moment redistribution che
negative moment will multiplied by 0.9 and lhe positive moment will be multiplie<l by 1.1.
~fter the_selection of a section, AlSC-Appendix 1.7 should be checked to verify if the sec-
uon qualtfies for moment redistribution.
(a) Determine required plastic section modulus assuming L,, < Lp which allows. a
reduction in (-M). Assuming M = M
n p,
and
z = M0 = 0.9(692)(12) =
250
in.3
x,req Fy/D 50/ 1.67
which is the minimum plastic section modulus required assuming the most favorable condi-
tions. The laterally unbraced length Li, is 15 ft for segment B which is sufficiently large that
ic ìs likely to exceed both Lp for any practical choice ofbeam.
(b) Whenever L,, exceeds Lp the s.uitable approach is to use AISC Tab\e 3- 10,
'·Available Moment vs. Unbraced Length". For segment C. enter with.
Lb = 20 ft aod modified Ma = actual MafCb = 692/2.23 = 3 IO ft-kips

Section W l8 X76 is the lightest that satisfies the above requirements.
From the charts, the allowable strength is
M,.
== 316 ft-kips at Lb == 20 ft
0
51 O • Chapter 10 Continuous Beams
20'-0"
i----· -··- -1
6.s k/f, I i 90 k Scr,dce loads
1ilr
i,1
~ ! !l li l ll! i 1]
, t ,j
I ilJfr
.
±
b
D _ 20• Lareral suppan
A = 15'- +-B = 15' C= 20 - - -
- --JO'-O- ---+-- .JO'-o- - - ·- · Vertical suppon
Ser\lice load momenls

(ft,kips)
692
Figure 10.5.I
Example 10.5.1.
-~:·--1~~:-1---~~~ -J-~;: -
e,, v:1lues. Eq. 9.6.11
De, i.gn momen1s (fl-kip~)
and [c,;; 11
= 2.23(316) = 705 ft-kips] > [ ~{ = 407 ft-kips]
< 0.9(692) = 623 ft-kips NG
Since Cb is very high, a W section can be detennined using the z., reqHired, as shown in
pan (a). From AISC Table 3-2, "Selection by Zx ," tìnd
W30X90 wìth Lp = 7.4 ft, Lr = 20.9 ft, and Mp/flb = 706 ft-kips
Sìnce Lb is between Lp and Lr inelastic lateral-torsional buckling controls.
The AISC- Formula (F2-2) linear relationship applies
7
M,, = 2.2{ 1180 - ( 1180 - 715)c~~ -_ / )]
9 4
= 2.23(746) = 1660 ft-kips > MP = 1180 ft-kips
Since Computed M,, exceeds M P' The allowable strength for segment C is:
[Mn/0 = Mp/0 = 1180/1.67 = 708 ft-kips] > Ma,adj11ired

= 0.9(692) = 623 ft-kips OK
(e) Check segment D
M,, = 1.67(746) = 1246 ft-kips > M P = 1180 ft-kips, So
[M,,/0 = Mp/0 = 1180/ 1.67 = 708ft-kips} > Ma,adj,med
= I.I ( 554) = 609 ft-kips 01

(d) Check segment A, It should be noted that with an Lb = 15 ft ., M" must be recai·
culated using AISC Fonnula (F2-2), which gives M,, = 1.26(918) = I 157 ft-kips < M1
= 1180 ft-kips, so
[M,,/0 = ll57/ l.67 = 693ft-kips ] > M a.adjus,ed = 1.1(426) = 469fr-kips Ol
Use W30X90, Fv = 50 ksi.
Section 10.6 Splices • 511
A compari~o ·h . .
shows lhat , 1 .. · n wu . Example 10.3.1 where LRFD using plaMic analys1s was u~ed
Primarily 1: a~~~.analysis
1 obtained the lighrer section. W30X90 compared to ~27X9~-
needed . e_ erence re!iults from lhe minimum requiremem on ,·, of 2.11 m. that 1s
to sa11sfy L H . . · - · . h
fin·.iIdes1gn
· could be ,.,,.iheowever.
same. the rcsults. are ex1remely dose
. and m othcr ,11uations t e
10.6 SPLICES
While the design 0 f . . .
str . connections 1s outside the scope of this chapter, thc locat1on of and
· ength requ1rements t b · · · ·· · I 'f
a sp1ice
. 1s . des1gned . ~ th
.or eam sphccs are appropnate!y d1scussed here. Il· 1s ob,,wus I t ,ar · 1
·e · .
1 Y 1s mauuamed and . or e moment
. ·, and. shear capat'ity for thc member sphccd, fui contmu-
. . ·h
sp I.lces at pomts . of cono special
11 I fl
precauuons are necessary. Some des1gners - prefer lo use s ear
There ,are two reason · ra exure and thus introduce a real hinge at a po1nt of zero momem.
· h h' d
· . • s w Y t ts should be avoided: (I) rhe point of contraflexure un er ~er-
v1ce 1oad 1s not at the - I · . · · h· ·
..
condu1on)· (2) m
same ocauon
. that 11 occurs under factored loads . (1.e.•· at lls mec· -amsm d
Hart and Milek ' oments obra1ned assuming continuity are invaliJ 1f real hmges are- msene ·
[IO Il] h . . . .
rd · ave prov1ded a gooJ d1scuss10n of tlus problem.
. loads
ax1al Acco to ing wh·loh AISC-J6,
h conneccions must be dcsioned 0
for the momems. shears, a 11<l
. . •e I ey are to be subjecred.
lt full continuity is assumed when determining moments. either under service loads
or under factored loads, th en sp1·1ces should prnv1de · · · · i · ·n-.
. that contmu1ty. A red ucei · I
.\l[ulless a
a sphce may pr . d . . . · d · ifi
. evenr 01 re uce 1ransm1ss1on of moment across 1/wt seu1011 liii s1gm ·
cantly chimge tlie . 1 ·
· 1''su l,ng moment diagmm,
E)(AMPLE 10,6.1
th
Examine c effect of a shear splice at the point of cootraflexure in 1he 40-ft span of the
two-span continuous beam of Example I0.3.1. Use A992 steel.
Solution:
(a) Full dead load plus live load . lf full continuity is maintained. partial loading in
some spans to account for live load in various locations is unnecessary. Note that the
moment Mp = 978 ft-kips (see Fig. I 0.6.1 a) can develop even wheo the adjacent span has
a r_educed load. In other words, each span may be treated separately, as loog as continuity
exists so that the negative moment may be assumed to reach M ,.
1
(b) Effect of hinge al inflection point. Use of a shear splice in effect creates a hinge
for ~Il Slages of loading (i.e., transfonns the system into a sta1ically detenninale one). The
n~axunum negative moment lhat can develop is limited to the shear at the hinge times ~he
dtSlance lo the suppor!. When load on the span with the hinge is reduced, the negauv_e
mornent that can develop is reduced. As shown in Fig. I 0.6.1 b . when only the dead load is
on the 40-ft span, the nominai ultimate load acting is
W,, = W,,/<f>b =
1.2(30)/0.90 = 40.0 kip~
= 40(20/30) 26.7 kips
Shear at splice
Moment at support = 26.7( 10) = 267 ft-kips
With the full factored dead plus live load (w., = 9.8 kips/ft from
Example 10.3.1)
acting in the adjacent span, the maximum required nominai positive moment stre ngth in the
30-ft span ìs
(9.8/0.90)30 267
V,,AB = - - -- - - '163 - 8.9 154 kips
2 30
,,,,..
l--20'-0''
I
-1 w For service loads
sce Fig. 10.3.1
A 8 71hr
t--- 30' -0" - - - 1 - 40'- 0" ----4
Collapse mechanism
mornent diagram,
requircd M.
(a) Full DL + LL
( ll-kìps)
9ì8
I
Nominai ultimate
moments M11
1095 > M,.
if shear splice
267 ,s used
+ ~ DL+LL (spanl)
( bl '{;;.llP I (ft-kips>
I 267 Shear sphce (i.e., = real hinge)

I
I
1
I .
M <>p requircd at sphce =
I Nominai ultimate
1 moments M.
(Splice Cap. = 242 ft-lcips)
Figure 10.6.1
,,.~it..J DL + LL (span I)
(fl-kips)
Example 10.6. l.
( 154 )2
Required M,, = 2 ( 9_810_90 ) 1095 ft-kips > Mp NG
Since the originai design required MP = 978 ft-kips, the 30-ft span is now inade-
guate as a result of the inability of the negative moment to exceed 267 ft-kips with the
reduced load on the 40-ft span.
(e) Minimum strength required for splice. lf the splice design is to provide Iess than
full continuity, Fig, l0.6.1 e illustrates che minimum capacity needed. If the section being
spliced provides M P = 978 ft-kips, the positive moment in the 30-ft span may not exceed
that value. Thus, referring to Fig. 10.6. lc, and assuming the maximum occurs at approxi-
mately 0.45L 1 ,
(9.8/ 0,90)(0.45)0.55
= (30)2 - 0.45M8 = 978 ft-kips
2
1213 - 978 235
Ms = 0.4 = _ = 522 ft-kips
5 0 45
In order to have this moment develop, a nominai moment strength must be provided at Ibe
splice point:
(36/ 0.90)30 Ms
M2 = 4 2 = 300 - 261 = 39 ft-kips
-
. dM , 522 + 39
Requ1re n at sphce = - - - - 39 = 242 ft-kips
2
Problems • 513
lf the splice in th' L , . .

determined f . is RFD melastic analysis problem 1s des1gned for thc shear as
will not caus:om Fi~. ! - - a, plus the 242 ft-kip momem, the reduced loading of span BC
0 6 1
. unant1c1pa1ed overload in span AB
Fmally, it is noted th . C
Th h at reduced load in span AB has no detrimem.al effect on span B .
percent efauht ors prefer that coniinuity be maintained by the design of splices for 100
o t e momem e - - ·
vidi ng more econom · apac11y d . of members spliced; however, reduced. capacmes . pro-
checked d . tea1 es1gns may be used a<; long as the resultmg des1gns are
ar . u_n er Possible parti.al loadings. Other examples and a more detailed procedure
e given m Ref. 10.J l. •
sf:LECTED REFERENCES
10. 1. Lyon S. Beedle Pia ,- . D - 8
10.2. C E · -' " e.r,gn af Stee/ Fmm,.,. New Yor\c. John Wiley & Sons. \ne .. 195 .
· - Massonnet
Mass· BI - . .
and .M : A · s-•ve. PIas11c
. Analy.11s
. and D~.11gn.
. Voi. I. Beams and F rames.
· Waltham
,
· · aisdell Pubhshmg Company,
1965 _
10.3, Bruce G Johnston "S h . . C .r
· ·
1956 ,pp.7-13. · trengt as a Basis for Strucrnral Design," Pmc. AISC National Enginrumg on, ..
I0.4. Brunolnurlimann "S' I p - ,j 19~6 I' 18

· imp e lasuc Theory," Proc. AISC Nn1ional Engi1ue,ing Con .. • • PP .,- ·
IO.S. Roben.
19-35 _L. Kene, "A 1 .· · - · · e f 1956
· nn ys,s and Design Examples;· PMc. AISC Na1wnnl En~meenng .on .. - , pp·
l0.6. Lynn S. Beed\e "Expe · v · . . .. E · · C ·
1956, PP 35-4 ·_ - nmenta1 enficauon of Plasuc Theory. Proc. A!SC Nariona l ngmuring 0 1!,1..
9
10.7.
Bruno Thtirlimann. "'Modifications 10 'Simple Plastic Thenry· -- Proc. AISC Na1ional Engi11uring C-onf..
1956, pp. 50-57. '
10.8.
Frederick S. Merritt. " How to Design Steel by the Plastic Theory" E>1gi11uri11g News-Record (Apr. 4.
1957), 38--43. - · . ,
10.9.
Bruce G. Johnston. C. H. Yang. and Lynn s. Beed\e. "An Evaluation of Pla~lic Analysis as Applied lO
tru
S ctural Design," Welding Joumal Reuarch Si,ppl. (May 1953). 1- 16.
IO.IO.
Jomt Comm_ittee of Welding Research Council and the American Societv of Civil Eng,incers.
Commf11tary on Pla.<rìc Design in Steel 2nd ed. ASCE Manual and Repons on Practice No. 4 I . New
York. 1971. ' '
iO. I l. Willard H. Han and Will.iam A. Milek. "Splices in Plasticallv Designed Continuous Structurcs:·
E11gmeering Jo1m1a/, AISC 2, 2 (Aprii 1965). 33-37. ·
pROBLEMS
Ali problems are to be done a~co rding to the AISC LRFD Method. Use plastic analysis if possiblc unless oth':r:-Vise indi-
cated. Ali given_ loads ~e service loads unless o_therwise indicated, and assume the loads are alway<; in the ~osino~ sho~n
even though umfonn live load would rarely ex1st that way. Assume ali standard sections are equall~ read1\y ava1\able m
the indicated _grade of ~tee! (even th ough actually they are not). A figure showing span and \oadmg 1s requtred, and after
. g a design select10n a final check of strength' (c/>Mn compared with M,. ) is required ·
1ak1n
0
10.1. I)etermine tbe maximum value for the service Ioad I 0.2. Determine the unifonnly distributed service load
p of the beam in the accompanying figure. Assume (40% dead load, 60110 Iive load) a W24Xl04.
adeguate lateral support such that Lb < LP. The Fy = SO ksi , may be permitted 10 carry as a two-
load p is 20% dead load and 80% live load. span continuous beam having equal spans of 40 ft.
Assume deflection does not contro!, and that lateral
suppon is provided at the vertical suppons and at
3P 1.5P I'
lS and 30 ft from the simply supponed ends.
1 l1 ,M,-
W\6 X 26,F,=50 ksi
10.3. Select the lightest W section for the two-span con-

6' 8' 8'
tinuous beam of the accompanying figure. Use
2A'-0"
Fv = SO ksi. The concentrated loads are 16 ld~s
30•-0"----r--- 24'-0" dead Joad and 24 k.ips live \oad; the uniform load 1S
0.5 kips/ft dead load and 2.0 kips/ft live loa~.
prot,Jern IO. I Specify alternative Jateral support if necessary m
40 k 140 k 2.S k/ft Service loads
1 J_lll!lllillilll)llllllllillllllllll
15'-0" 1s·-o" I 20·-oJ 20·-o" Lareral suppon
l--- - ___:4:,:..
0'_- 0::..'-' - - - +·- -___:40::..'....;-0::...."- - - -J- Venical suppon
JOO' 106' 14 7'
AUi~I--1~~--I~~
A B Cv 53 1
E F
Service load
bending moment
diagram
(fr-kips)
Problem I0.3
order to use maximum plasr.ic strength in the J0.6. Select tbe lightesr W section for the two-span c0n,
design. tinuous beam of the accompanying figure. Use
Fy = 50 ksi. The ~onc~ntrated load is 20 kips
10.4. Select the lightest W section for the two-span con- dead load and 30 k1ps hve load; the uniform load
tinuous beam of the accompanying figure. Use is 0.8 kip/ft dead load and 2.7 kips/ft live load.
}~. = 60 ksi. The concentratcd loads are 12 kips Spccify the uniform laterally unbraced lengths L
d~ad load and 60 k.ips Jive loa<l. Latera! suppor! is 1
to give the optimum design.
provicled ac che vertical supports and uo<ler the
concentrated load. Specify alternative lateral sup-
pon if necessary in order to use maximum plastic 15'- 0"
strength in the design. r-.. :.- --· 50 k 3.5 kips/fl Scrvicc loads
!
72 k Service load
l-- -30'-0"----1-- - - 40'-0''--------l
f jÌ
8.0
I
20·--0"
Problem !0.4
10·-o··
Problem 10.6
10.7. Select the lighccst W section for the three-span

continuous beam of the acompanyìng figure.
Use Fy = 50 ksi. The 50-kip concentrated loads
10.5. Select the lightest W section for the two-span are 30% dead load and 70% live Joad, the 20·
continuous beam of the accompanying figure. kìp concentrated load is ali dead load, and 1he
Use Fy = 50 ksi. The unifonn load is l kip/ft uniform load is 20% dead load and 80% live
dead load and 2 kip/ft live load. Latera! support is load.
provided at the vertical supports and al I 0-ft inter-
I0.8. Select the lightest W section for a three-span (50
vals. Specify alternative lateral support if neces-
ft-65 ft-50 ft) continuous bearn to carry a uniform
sary in order to use maximum plastic strength in
dead load of 2 kips/ft in addition to the beam
che design.
weight, and a unìform live load of 1.5 kips/ft. In
thìs problem, live load is to be treated in its usual
manner; that is, of indefinite length and positioned
3 kips/ft
to give maximum effects. Live load detlectioo
J).IIIOIOOIOOIOOOIIIIO!HIIIIOIIIIOIOIIIIIOOIIO'l
(maximum) may not exceed U360. Latera! supp.wl
is provided every 5 ft. Fy = 60 ksi. After doing lhf
~--- 30'--0"_j-30'--0"_ j design with Li, = 5 ft, give an alternate more eco-
nomica! design prescribing the location of ]a!tf3}
Problcm 10.5 s upports .
Problems • 515
~ 150k lSOk 11'1Nr/t.Ì111 }ok l50k Scrv1<:cload•
±.l j
;Jf; -·-··· I• ilillll'Jç _ ,À!;
L
t -~cr_L>:_t-
- 40'-0"·-
-10·
- - - - \~ --
. _!1,__ J..L.. __ La.teral ,uppun
- -so·- o·· - - -- -30'-0" _ _ Venic•l>uppon
Problem 10.7
9 _ Repeat Prob. 10.8 using steeJ having F = 50 .· 10.12. For the beam shown in the accompanying figure,
I0. and specify lateral bracing for an econom[cal d .h1
. th ft _ es1gn, (a) select the lightest W section assuming the same
jnstead of usrng e 5 - s.pacmg of Prob. J0.8. section extending over ali three span and (b)
Assume one splice is required for th b redesign, using a smaller base section wilh welded
I O. lo· p b . e eam cover plates where needed. For the cover plate,
selected ~or ro · 10.3. Spec1fy its location and the
shear and moment for which it should be d es1gned
. specify the size, length. and location of the plate.
Assume ariy load or_loads may be reduced 10 the~ The concentrated loads are 10 kips dead load and
dead Joad value wtule other loads remain at their 25 kìps live Joad, and the uniform loading is 0 .5
maximum values. kip/ft dead load and 1.5 kip/ft fixed posit.ion live
load. Fy = 50 ksi. Specify the necesi.ary lateral
tOJl. Same as Prob. 10.10. but splice the beam of support.
prob. J0.7 .
15'- 0"N0'-0"
,Sk .
2 kips/ft
,l"""'""'""'"""'':N,;
~- -
j"'1 ,,,,,,00,111000,1,ml-
'"''ff' ''"'~ ,_
~ - 40 '-0" - I 50' - O" ---1---40'-0"
I - --_\
Problem 10.12
Plate Girders
11.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

A plate girder is a beam built up from plate elements to achieve a more efficient arrange-
ment of materiai than is possible with rolled bearns. Plate girders are economica! where
spans are long enough to permit saving in cost by proportioning for the particular require,.
ments. Plate girders may be of riveted, bolted, or welded construction. Beginning with
early railroad bridges during the period 1870-1900, riveted plate girders (Fig. 11.1. I) com-
posed of angles connected to a web plate, with or without cover plates. were extensively
used in the United States on spans from about 50 ro 150 ft.
Beginning in the I 950s when welding becarne more widely used (because of
improved quality of welding and shop-fabricating economies resulting from increased use
of automatic equipment) shop-welded plate girders composed of three plates (Fig. 11.1.2)
gradually replaced riveted girders. During this period also, high-tensile-strengù1 bolt~ were
Cover plates
~
Flange angles
Flange I=
angles
.,,.
lntcrmcdiatc
End
V
s1iffener
angle.,
-"- /Filler
plate
stiffener
angles
Web
I Web
>--
~.,,
F=
Flange angles
Figure I I.I.I
Typical components of t
riveted plate girder. (a) Cross-section
( b) Elevation at end of span
516
Section 11. 1 lntroduct,on and H1storieal Developmenl • S17
rd
Plate_gi ers, showing welded stiffeners in piace. rocker bearings for vertical supports at
lhe pier, tra,1sverse cross bracing between gìrders. and hingcs to provide a smiplt sup-
pon for lhe spans lo the right of rhc hinges. (Pho10 by C. G. Sahno11 )
displacing rivets in field construction. Since the 1960s nearly ali plate girders are shop
welded using two flange plates and one web plate to make an 1-shaped cross section.
. Where practically ali rivered girders were composed of plate and angle components
h~vmg the same materiai yield strength, the tendency now with H·elded girders is to com-
bine materials of different strength. By changing matcria.ls at various loc.ations a/011~ rlie
span so th at higher strength materials are available at locarions of high moment and/or
shear, or by using different strength materiai for flanges than for web (hybrid girders).
more efficient and economica! gi.rders can be obtained.
Because few railroad bridges are being built today, discussion of economic:al spans
nd
a other dimensioning comments in thìs chapter is limited to highway bridges. where
FIMge 11late
.
Bcaring
st iffcncr .......... . .
stiffener -.
platcs ·--....
_
r1a1,· Web
rgure
1
I J. l .2
. , 1components of a
Tvpica .
:eldcd plate g1rder. (a) Cross-sec1io11
l b \ Elev;,tÌt>II :11 l'lld ,,r ~I'""
51 8 • Chapter 11 Pia te Girders
L ..J
Higher -
srrength
flanges
(say. ~ Lo"'er-strcngth
structural web
tee)
Figure 1 i . l .3
Othcr types of welded piace (e) Delta girder
(a) Bo~ girdcr (b) Hybrid girder
gi;ders.
most are continuous over two or more spans; orto buildings where some spans may be
assumed as simply supported but, more frequently, are part of a rigid frame system.
Better understanding of plale girder behavior, higher strength steels, and improved
welding techniques have combined to make plate girders economie al in many situarions for-
merly thought to be ideai for the truss. Gcnerally, simple spans of 70 to ! SO ft (20 to 50 m)
have traditionally been the domain for the plate girder. For bridges, continuous spans fre-
quently using baunches (variable depch sections) are now the rule for spans 90 ft or more.
There are severa! three-span concinuous plate girders in the United States with center spani
exceeding 400 ft, and Jonger spans are likely to be feasible in the future. 1ne longe$t plate
girder in the world is a three-span continuous scructure over the Save Rwer at Belgradt..
Yugoslavia, with spans 246-856-246 ft (75- 260-75 m). 1t is a double box girder in cro,i-
section varying in depth from 14 fl 9 in. (4.5 m) at midspan tO 31 ft 6 in. (9.6 m) at the pier
The scructure replaced a suspension bridge destroyed in World War IL
Three types of plate girders whose design is outside the scope of this chapter are
shown in Fig. 11.1.3: (a) the box girder, providing improved torsional stiffness for long-
span bridges; (b) the hybrid girder, providing variable materia] strength in accordance witb
stresses; and (e) the delta girder, providing improved lateral rigidity for long lengths oflat-
eral unsupport.
Prior to studying the theoretical development in this chapter tbe reader is advised 10 &
review Chapter 6, Part II, where the basic elastic stability of plates is treated. L
Since the design of riveted girders has been extensively treated in older texts [I I.I.
11.2) and such girders are rarely used at present, emphasis is placed on welded girders. No
example of bolted or riveted girder design is given; however, high-streng!h bolted splim.
commonly found in field connections, are treated in Chapter 13.
11.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEAM ANO PLATE GIRDER

A plate girder is actually a deep beam. The limit states treated in Chapter 9 with regard 10
beams are stili applicable for plate girders. Figure 11.2. l shows the nominai flexural strength
Mn vs the slenderness ratio À for che basic flexure limit states, lateral-torsional buckling.
flange locai buckling, and web locai buckling. The relationship for lateral-torsional buckling
in Fig. 11.2.la is valid when a section is "compact" (i.e.• A s Àp in AISC-Table B4.1) wit~
regard to the flange and web locai buckling limit states. When the section is "noncomJ)3l1
(i.e., Àp > A s; A, in AISC-Table B4.1), the nominai strength M 11 must be determinedforall
three limit states in Fig. 11.2. l; the lowest value controls.
The web locai buckling limit state is treated in AISC-F4 and FS. The effect of inela$·
tic b~ck!i~g ~fa ~oncompact web is accounted for indirectly by multiplying the mo~
causing y1eld_ing m t~e compression or tension flange by a "web plastification tàctor' R"
or Ru. Elast1c bucklmg of slender webs is accounted for by the bend-buckling st(tllglb
Section 11.2 Difference Between Beam and Plate Girder • 519
"'·1-----, <•) utenl-tonional

' C,• I
M, • 0,7F,s,
__ ____ .,.''' __ _ bucl<line limn state
(for ,hapes "oompact"
fo, nansc or web
'' locai buckling)
,.-- - - ''
L,
AISC,f'2.2
M,r-----
(b) Range local budding
Campact timit ~tate
-,--- , ---- - '

-- --- - I
: 1 ............
J-- --~' : ',~-

--------1.--,c.~ ---::::!= - -- - - A= _lì
>., = 0.J8 :'X. = •..§1.
'V F,. r,;-F.,
:çr
A, = 0.95\/ìf'fF:: = ~
193 21,
vr. · " y F,/k,
AISC-Table 114.1 AISC-Table 114.1
Noncompac1 ,>JSC-F4
M, r - - - - - ,
(e ) Web locai budding
Campaci limit state
Slendcr
Pla1c girder
r,,s. - - ----~ - - - ~ AISC-F.S
I I
I I
I I
F"gute J J.2. 1
~ . states in flexure. (for r.:-
LU1111 . I h ped .1.,. "' 3.76 jf,E- " MQ.
\ .,. vi;
doublY symrnetnc -s a
sections) "-ISC-Tahlc 114. 1
reduction factor Rpg · This adjusted momem value is then used as the maximum capacity of
the section instead of the plastic moment M P . Thcse R factors are discussed in detail in the
next sections.
Ali rolled W (wide-flan.ge shapes) (with F,. of 36 or 50 k.si) have "compact" webs and
only a few sections have ..noncompact" flanges: this has previously been discussed in
Chapters 7 and 9. lf the flange is "noncompact" or " slender" (and the web is ··compact")
th e nominai strength is the lower of the values from the \a1e.ral-t0rsional limit state and the
flange locai buckling limit state (AlSC-F2 and F'.1).
When the web is "noncompact" or ''s\ender." AISC-F4 and FS give provisions IO
account for locai and bend-buckling of the web. AISC-F4 for "noncompact'" webs allows
such sections to be instead conserva1ively designed according 10 AISC-FS, which is specif-
ically intended for '·stender'' webs. tn generai. plate girder webs are typically "slender."
The flexural and shear strengths of a plate girder are largely related to the web. The
"slender'' we b may cause severa! problems:
1. Buckling due to bending in the piane of the web will reduce the efficiency of the
web lo carry its elastic share of the bending moment.
520 • Chapter 11 Plate Girders
2. Buckling of lhe compression flange in the vertical direction due to inad

stiffness of the weh to prevent such buckling. eqUalt
3. Buckling due to shear.
This chapter is largely devoted to treacment of these problems.
Since the 1961 AISC Specificarion, the design of plate girders has use<l the
strength approach developed by Basler and others at Lehigh University. sarne
The most distinguishing feature of a plate girder is the use of regularly spaccd lr
verse stiffeners. Stiffeners il1crease the strength of the web to carry shear. The elastt1'S·
inelastic buckling strength of a pi ate girder web in shear docs not represent the maxì e Or
strength in shcar. There wiH be significane post-buckling -~trength after buckling (~u:
1
out-of-plane deformation) has occurred when properly des1gned transverse stiffeners g
used. The girder wiJl behave like a truss with ìts web carrying diagonally the tension fo/1~
and the stiffeners carry ing the compre~sion forccs . This truss-like behavìor is referred ,:
tension-field action.
11.3 VERTICAL FLANGE BUCKLING LIMIT STATE
The maximum limit on the web slenderness h/ t w is based on the stiffness needed in the
piane of the web to prevent the cornpression flange from buckling verticaily (Fig. l l.3.Jc).
Note that h, the clear unsupponed height of the web in a rolled section. i:, the depth h of the
web plate in a welded 1-shaped section. Furthennore, some flexural stiffness is needàj
from the web along the tlange-to-web connection to preclude torsional buckling of the
flange (Fig. 11.3. lb).
For the purpose of this development, one may imagine that the flange is a compres-
sìon member ìndependent of the rest of the girder (see Fig. 11.3 .2). Wben the girder is
bent, as exaggerated in Fig. 11.3.3, the curvature gives rise to flange force components thai
cause compression on the edges of the web adjacent to the flanges. When the web remains
stable when subject to those compressive flange force components. the flange canoOI
buckle venically. In the following derivation the flange itself is assumed to have zero sriff.
ness to resist vertical buckling; a conservative procedure.
Figure J 1.3.1
(a) Latera! buckling;
(b) torsional buckling;
(e) vertical buckling.
Flange acts
independently
when h/1•.
is large
S~ngth from web

requiredfor
Figure 11.3.2 bracing is small
Venical buckling of the
compression flange.
Sectìon 11.3 Vertical flange Buckling Limit State • 521
Defonnation. accumul~
/ over 1he dis.tanoe d.r
•rtt ...[~
--- 2
-----L -.
i
h
. ure 11.3.3 2
fig forces arising from
flange
. d r curvature.
gll e dO
Referring to Fig. 11.3.3, the defonnation €_r dx accumulated over the distance dx is
(\LU)
2€ r
de = _. dx (l 1.3.2\
h
As shown in Fig. ll.3.4a, the vertical componenl causing c-ompression is a _,- A_r dO.
After dividing by the area lw dx to obiain the compressive ~tress fc a.~ shown in Fig. 11.3 .4b.
one may substitute Eq. 11.3.2 for dO,
a1Ard8
fc = · ll 1.3.3)
lwdx 1,,.lt
Referring again to Eq. 6.14.28, the elastic buckling stress fora plate,
k-rr2 E [6. 14.28}

F. - - - - - - c - -- - ; -
cr - 12( l - µ 2 )(b/ t ) 2
t .,; wet, thickne~!
I dx dx
. ure I t.3.4
F1g f"
Effe-Cl of flange orce
eornPonenl normai 10
nange pla1e.
i (a) (b)
whcre b = h, 1 = Tw, and k = 1 for ihe case of the Euler plate assumed free along ed
paralkl to loading. and pinned top and bottom. 11rns g'-1
n 2E
Equating applied stress, Eq. 11 .3.3, to the criticai stress, Eq. 11.3.4, gìves
1r2E
01.3.5)
which, lettìng twh = A w, gives
Conservatively assume that u f. mus_t reach the flang~ yi~ld stress Fy to achieve the
strength of the flange. Furthennore. 1f residua_! stress F, ex1sts m the flange distributed as
shown in Fig. 11 .3.5. then the tota! flange stram will be thar due to tht: sum of the residua)
stress plus the yield stress; tl1erefore
e1 = (F, + F_,.)/E 0 L3.7J

lt is the slrain adjacent to the web thai is of concem; in Fig. I l .3.5c the change is from f
in tension (point A) to Fv in compression (point B). '
Substitution of u / = Fv, e f = Eq. 11.3.7, µ, = 0.3, into Eq. 11.3.6 gives
h 0.672E~
(ll.3.&)
VFy(F;, + F,)
a conservative estimate of the maximum h/tw to prevent vertical buckling. Basler (I UJ

suggests A,,,/ AJ will rarely be below 0.5 and that F, = 0.3Fy is rcalistic. lf these substitu-
rions are made,
h 0.475E
- =----;==== = (l l.191
fw VFy{Fy + 0.3~1.)
Equation 11.3.9 has been developed without regard to placeme nt of stiffeners. Thc
effect of stiffeners would certainly be to increase the strength above the e\astic buckling
strength based on Fc, of Eq. 11.3.4. Tests reported by Frost and Schilling [ 11.6] on hybrid
girders having A5 I 4 ( F,, = 100 ksi) flanges indicate that h/t w can con,ervatively be
IF_,
fil I
Comprc~sion F, F, Tension lni1ial
F, F,
~
s1ress
+
= B
Final
stress
(a) Residuai (b) Average (e)
figure 11.3.5 s1ress superimposed
Effect of residuai stress. suess
Sectìon 11.4 Nominai Moment Strength-AISC Design • 523
accepted in desig '> . • .

. of 200 may be
lton n as. -50 tf a/ h :s: I.O, and 200 fora/li between I.O
r=- and 1.5. Tue hmtla-
g,ven for other flange yield stresses as 2000/ V Fy for a//1 :$ 1.5.
Maximum hftw-AlSC Design

Equation 11.3.9 when simplifi.e d be.comes
h 0.42E
(11.3.10)
Which is the AISC Fl3 2 . .

1 h - · maxmmm slenderness limitation (F,, in ks1).
n t ~ presence of transverse stiffeners. higher ratios are· pennitted. Bascd on lhe rec-
~m~endanons of the ASCE-AASHO Joint Commiuee Subcommittee I on Hybrid Girder
esign [I I.IO], AISC-Fl3.2 gives the maximum lt/ 1,,,~s
!!...
tw
$ [11.7 ~ = _~
~F,.
2
000_
_ ] ( 11.3.1 l)
whe ·tl
1 1 3n1Sù en~r spacing a to web depth h does nol exceed 1.5. Values for Eqs. I 1.3. IO and
· - 1 are gtven in Table 1 1.3. 1.
TABLE 11.3.1 Maximum h/tw Limitations-AISC-F13.2
h/ twfor h/ tw for
Eq. 11.3.10 for Eq. 11.3.11 for
Fy (ksi)
a/ h > 1.5 a/ h $ 1.5 Fv (MPa )
36 338 333 248
42 290 309 290
45 271 298 310
50 244 283 34S
55 222 270 379
60 203 258 4l4
65 187 248 448
100 122 200 689
4 NOMINAL MOMENT STRENGTH-AISC DESIGN

11~-- -- - -- - -- - -- - - - - - -- - - - -- - ~ -
Tbe concepts relating to the nominai moment strength M,, have been presented in Chapters
7 and 9 , and reviewed in Sec. 11.2. Complexity in desìgn aiises from using M, and L, .
expre.c,sed by Eqs. 9.6.5 and 9.6.6. respectively. for plate girde rs. For rolled bcams, not
only are the values of M,. (actually <J>bM,) and L, available in the A/SC Mamwl Tables ~-6.
but also ali of the propenies, including the torsion proper1ìes, are available. For plate gird-
ers ali of the prope rties must be computed for e ach girder.
Funhermore, webs of plate girders are typically " slcnder." tbough in a few cases thcy
may be "noncompact." but they are never "compact." The limit states of AlSC-F4 for
shapes having "noncompact'' webs and AISC-F5 for shapes having '·slende r'' webs are to
be used for plate girders. According 10 an AISC-F4 "User Note," shapes having ··noncom-
pact" webs can be conserva1ively designed using AISC-FS.
~-
: .
-· . ·---------- ----
,: . ' "' ,. .
.
~ ! : . .
Sìnce pi ate oirders will usually have "slender" we.bs; that is, A will exceed A f
"' . h' . ' orwcb
locai buckling. the strength cannot exceed that based on reac mg y1eld stress F
. . . . . . bi f d . Y at lhc
extreme fiber. No inelastic behav10r 1s constdered poss1 e or esign purposes.
The nominai momenl strength M 11 of slender web plate girde~s is controlled eitherbi,
the lùnit state of yielding ac the tension flange or that of bucklmg at the compressi~
flange, according to A1SC-F5:
For yielding ofrhe tensionjlange (AISC-F5.4),
M,, = F_,.S::c,R ( l l.4.1)•
For venical buckling of the compression f lange (AISC-F5.2),
M11 = F.,..<;xcR pg (11.4.2)
where Fy = yield stress of the tension flange
Fcr = buckling stress at the compression flange, controlled by lateral-1orsiona1
buckliog, flange locai buckling, or yield.ing.
Sx, = section modulus referred to the tension flange, l:c/y,
Sxc = section modulus referred to the compression flange, I;,jyc
I, = moment of inertia with respect to the x-axis
y1 = distance from the CG of the section to the tension extreme fiber
Yc = distance from the CG of the section to the compression extreme fiber
also
Rpg = I - - - -- -
Gw
- - 5 7 / "ii"
1200 + 300aw t,,, · \ f;.
(hc {E)
=l _ Gw (hc 970 )
. r.::-:-: :S
l.o (l 1.4.3)
1200 + 300aw fw V F'_v, ksi
where aw = A ;/A,rc = (hctw)/(bjc1Jc)

11
Aw = web area
A fc = compression flange area
hc = twice the dìstance from the section centroid to the inside faces oftbe
tlanges less the fillet or corner radius, for rolled sections; or the inside
faces of the flanges when welds are used for built-up sections
= h, height of web plate fora symmetrical 1-shaped piace girder
The factor Rpg is to account for the "bend-buckling effect" on the "slender" web and its
reduced ability to carry its elastic share of the bending moment. The development is pre-
sented in Section 11.6. Equation. 11.4.3 from the original work of Basler (11.5] is revised
from that used in the 1986 LRFD Specification in order to give appropriate RPC values for
aw between O and 10; aw cannot exceed 10 according to AISC-F5.2. The previous equa-
tion was specifically applicable for aw :S 2.0.
The detennination of the "critica] stress" Fcr to be used is obtained by dividing th:
nominai strength Mn by the section modulus S x. For the ..stender" web, the maximum f.,
is the yield stress Fy in the flange.
•Noie that the 2005 AISC Specification does not use R pg in Eq. I l.4.1 rela1ing to 1he 1en~ion flangt. ThisO!lll>
sion seems inappropriale because the reducùon in moment strength R resulling from bend-buckling of lht •!b.
. sed . s pg h ....
as d1scus m ec. 11.6, is not related to a specific nange. bui rather 10 the effective moment of intrti:i. w ~~,~
reduced making both S,, and S« reduced.
Sectton 11.4 Nominai Moment Strength-AJSC Design • 525
Far the limit state of kueral-tomonaJ budlmg, AISC-FS.2 givcs

L ForL,. s Lp,
(11.4.4)
(l l.4.5)
(11.4.6)
(11 .4 .7)
3. For L,. > L,.
( l l .4.8)
(l l .4 .9)
For tbc lirnit state of flange locai buckling, AISC-F5.3 givcs

I. For A s Àp (i.e., "compact" flange),
( À = b1) s (À
2,, p
= o.... [E =
o
~,;;. ~
65 ) ( 11.4.10)
Fcr = F_v (11.4. l l )
2. For A,, < À :s: .\., (i.e.. " noncompact" flange),
(A,= ~ ) < (A =;,) " (A.= o.95Jo.,:,/k, =v'F:~~;J.,)

(l 1.4. l 2)
Fcr = e~{1-03( :, ~ t)] s Fy ( 11.4. 13)
3. For .\ > A, (i.e.. " slender" flange),
( À= ::i) > (À, = 193 )

V Fy, ksi/ k c
(11.4.14)
Fcr =(0.:;k)·,.2 (11.4.15)
2t1
NO(~ lhat 0.35 s ( k, = 4/ ....Ji;j;:) s O.76.
(a) La1eral-torsi<>n i
,.·, 1-------:,-...
R[J-0. (-'L,:i:_L,.)J'
F LT =C,, .l
- LJJ - s F,.
. F,
buckling limi, a
M ll>lt
Fér : --~
I
I
/ R,,Ji,
I
I
I c...2E
F = - - - OSF
--+-------------- I" (L-!-)'
I
y
r0.7F,l -- - - - - - -
I / i
I
I
I
l
b
= Tff .r--r-
-' \ · 0.71'.r
AISC Formula (F4-7) AISC Formula (F5-5)
F, 1-------,~ l',, =
[ 1- 03 ~)]
(>-.,- >-,. Fy
(b} Flange loca\ hucklini
tm111 state
M,
I
I
I
I
/ F" = R -~
- Pf"'x.
I
I
(0.7F,) - - - - - - - - --} - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Figure I 1.4.1 1
I
Limit scates in flexure for I
I
plate girder with stender web I
(AISC-FS) where I
I
kc == 4/ ~ and
0 .3S :S kc ,s 0.76.
The generai relationships of Eqs. 11.4.4 through 11 .4.15 are shown in Fig. I l.4.1.
The provisions for beams having ;•stender" webs (AISC-F5) approximate 1he Al,
vs Lb relationship for rolled beams as shown in Fig. 9.6.1. Note that L1, of Eq. 11.4.4.
Il .4.6, and l l .4.8 uses r, instead of the ry used in Eq. 9.6.3. r, is defined by AISC
Formula (F4-JO) but can be approximated conservatively (i.e., low) as the radius of gyra-
tion of the compression flange plus one-third of the compression portion of the \\eh
taken about the y-axis. Equation 11.4.6 for L, avoids che more complicated Eq. 9.6.6 for
rolled beams; and also avoids the necessity of computing torsion properties for plate
girders. These new provisions for beams having "slender" webs depart from the simpli-
fied relationships given in earlier specifications and adopt expressions analogous 10
those used for rolled beams.
The slender web plate would restrict the maximum moment strcngth to F1.S,1 if lhe
beam provisions of AISC-F5 were used, rather than M P when the web plate is "éompac(
or "noncompact" (that is, when A s; A, for the web). A compari son in Fig. 11.4.2 of tir
lateral-torsional buckJìng provisions of AISC-F5 with AISC-F2 fora thin web (!xIOOÌ
plate girder shows good agreement.
For the flange locai buckling limit state, the J-shaped built up girders limit Àp is i<kn-
tìcal to that used for rolled beams (see Table 9.6. l ). The limit A, for J-shaped built up gin!·
ers the expressìons given in Table 9.6.2 for beams.
Section 11.4 Nominai Moment Strength-AISC 0..ign
• 527
f,ASLE 11.4.1 Slenderness Ratio Un, I·t · 1
---
'(ield
sfr8SS
Buckling Limit State U nds Ap and A, for Flange Locai Buckling and Lateral-Tors1ona
b, =
Àp
0.38#.,
s er AISC-FS For Doubly Summetric 1-GirdersWith SlenderWeb
Flange locai budcling
>.,
m-
Lateral-torsional buckling
Lp L,
c-r
2t,
= 1.1,,Jf.
Fy b, _
65 2r, - 0.95 0.7Fy Lb Lb = :rr, 0 .7Fy
--
V
h 193 187 639
F.,. (ksi) V F.,,. ksi t.., -= - =r,~ = ,,
k"e
~ Fy, ksi ,JFy, ksi
10.8 161.7 1
36 0.35 19.0 31.2,, 106.5,,
100 0.40 20.3
40 0.63
IO.O 25.5
42 149.7 0.35 17.6 28.9r, 98.6,,
100 0.40 18.8
40 0.63
9.7 23.6
45 144.6 0.35 17.0 27.9,, 95.3,,
I00 0.40 18.2
40 0.63
9.2 22.8
50 137.2 0.35 16.1 26.5r, 90.4,,
100 0.40 17.3
40 0.63 2 l.7
55 8 .8 130.8 0.35 15.4 25.21·, 86.2r,
100 0.40 16.5
40 0.63 20.7
60 8.4 125.2 0.36 15.0 24 .lr, 82.Sr,
100 0.40 15.8
40 0.63 19.8
65 8. J 120.3 0.36 14.4 23.2r1 79.3r,
100 0.40 15. l
40 0.63 19.0
90 6.9 102.2 0.40 12.9 19.7,, 67.4,·,
100 0 .40 12.9
40 0.63 16.1
100 6 .5 97.0 0.41 12.4 18.7,-, 63.9r1
100 0 .40 12.2
40 0 .63 15.3
•k == ~ - where 0.35 5:: kc :S 0.76

e VhJtw
!Maximum h/ tw given for each yield stress = 970/ VFy = A, (AISCTable-84. 1 for flwebs in nexural compression") .
528 • Chapter 11 Ptate Girders
Latcndly unbraced le1tgù1 Lb (me1res)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
60
Mc,IS,, A ••-··· L" = 18.8 ft F, z 50ksi
./ ······················-···
···-~ ... Formula (F2·5}
F 3 350
.'
50 ' 8 x JOOweb
AISC·F2.2b I
I "i X 24 flang.es 300
Formulo (f2-2)
: AISC-F5.2 ---
·;;;
40 M, = O.?F, i Formula (P5·3) 250 &
e .../ ............... '........................................ .... ........ B AISC-F2.2c ~
~ f
:
o:: I Formula ff2· 3} & (P2-4 )
200 ~
-
i 30
l'' .'' / ·::l
:.." ' 150 t,,_"
20 L = 48.0 ft
Formula (F2-6) i i
' \ li I 100
IO L1, = 13.8 f1
Formula (F4·7} :
J L,= 47.0 f1
Formula (F5·5) •.....,_____
\ l! -~ :
AISC·FS.2
Formula (F5·4)
50
\ : ~ :\:
'r,..,, : '
00 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68
Laterally unbraced lcnglh Lb (feet)
Figure I 1.4.2
Comparison of lateral·torsional buckling limit state using AISC-F5 for beams wilh slender web wi1h AlSC-F2
for compact beams. Properties of girder: rY = 5 .32 in.. r, = 6.24 in.• M1, = 15.280 ft-kips, and M, = 0.7F,S,
= 9660 ft-kips
11.5 MOMENT STRENGTH REDUCTION DUE TO BEND-BUCKLING O F THE WEB

Since the plate girder web usually has a high h/1.,,, ratio. buckling may occur as a resuh
bending in the plane of the web (see Fig. 11.5. l). The slenderness ratic À, above whi
such buckling may occur is developed in what follows. Furthermorc. afrer this e
buckling occurs there is post-buckling strength. When the plate girder i, proponioned
most efficiently carry load, lhe web will buckle before the nominai momcnt streni::th of
girder is reached. ~
Typical of any plate stability situation, the elastic buckling stres\ is represen1ed
Eq. 6.14.28,
1r2E
Fcr =k , ,
12(1 - µ-)(b/1)-
where for this case b = h.
-i
lr
Figure l 1.5.1
Web plate under pure
momeot. (I ---
::iection 11.5 M0
ment Stre h
ngt Reduction Due to Bend-Budcling of the Web • 529
The theoretical develo

by Timoshenko and W. . pment of the k values for bcnding in 1hc piane of 1hc plalc i!. given
aspect ratio, ci/h (see F oinowski-1<.rieger.* For any given 1ype of loading. k varie., with the
can be considered 10 J·
11 ·5·2>,'.1"d wilh the suppon condition~ along thc edges. lf thc plate
edges parallel 10 the d" ve_ full fiimy (full moment rcsistance against edgc rotalion) along thc
value of k is 39 . trecllon of Loading (i.e .. at 1he edges jnincd 10 the tlanges). the minimum
- ·6 1or any a/II ·
rotation, the minimu k ratio. lf the llanges are a.,sumed to offer no rcsistance to edge
Thus the e . ~ value 18 23.9. The variation of k with a/11 ratio is gh·en in Fig. 11.5.2.
between nuca1 Slress (using E = 29,000 ksi and µ. = 0.3) may be said 10 lie
Fc , = ~ .
( h/ z)2 ks1 for k = 23.9 (simple suppon at nanges)
and
F _ 1,038,000
cr - (h/z)2 ksi for k = 39.6 {full fixi1y ac nanges)
While each panie 1 . .
welded fl u ar g1rder w1ll have a different degree of flange restraint. fully
ange to web conne ·
sonable th t
-11 . -
cuons w1 surely approach the full fixlly c ase. te w1II be rea-
en o arbitrarily I k .
toward the hi h se ecc a value closer co 39.6, say 80 percent of 1he d1ffercnce
g e r value. O ne mighc say that
.,.. 950,000 .
( 11.5. l l
cr = (h/r)2 kst
is representative O f th st
1 f h e ress when elastic bucklino is imminent due 10 bending in the
p ane o t e web. Such "bend buckling" cannot occu~ if
!!__ ::s J950,00?= 970 or 5 _7 {E ( 11.5.2)

rw Fcr, ks1 \J7:.cr \J fcc
where fw = web plate thickness.
1- - -a - - -7
~
~A_._6_.s_.___ ___
v-j
'-_hL~ _J
f
, ....,. R igidit~1 ag:1ln~l
cdgc r<>tation
44 • =z (fi,ed)
39.6
...""o ____ ,. __
, = \00
...
~
::,
(;
> 36
,,
,, ' ........
----- ..... ---------~------
.... E= 10
28
--- - -- _!.:.:..,._,,,.- - -
Figure I J.5.2 .
euckling coeffic1en1s _for . 23.9
' = () (s.s.)
iates subject to bendmg in s.s. = sunplc ,uppMt
~ piane of the plate. (From
Handbook ofStructura/ 0.3 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.9
Stabiliry, Voi. I [6.69), p. 92) Aspect rntio a/li
*Reference 6.66, pp. 373- 379.

KJ
l
I h 910
\
1 = vf;,ni
F :~ksi t = plate thickness

a (h/t)2
Figure 11.5.3
Buckling of plates subject
10 bending in the piane
ofthe web. Web slendemess ratio h /t
Full plastic
moment
Eq. l 1.3.6.
l.O
''
I
I
Fy Fy
I
I
I
'/-. / -.. "' -=
li2000
v, IAJSC-1'),,
._
M, 11 11 :
My
I
Strain
hardening
J No bend-Lcl<ling
ofthc web
I
I
I
I
I
:_
1
Design rcgion for
minimum weighl gìrdcrs
e
Vertical
flange
buck.!~
ma~
occu;
rAISC.Fi:;.J)
o SI 162 320
Web slendemcu ratio, .!!..

'~·
Figure 11.5.4
Nominai moment strength Mn of girders as affected b:,, serength of the web plate re~;5;ing bending
moment in the piane of the web: A36 steel.
Since the web carries only a small part of the total bending moment to which the
girder is subjected, neglect of the transìtion zone arising from ìnelastic bucklìng wi\l noi~
significant.
Buckling of the web does not end tbc usefulness of the girder. Fig. J ! .5.4 shows ttt
relationship between nominai moment strength Mn vs h/ tw, This figure assumes the latetal-
torsional buckling and local flange buckling limit states do not contro!.
When the post-buckling strength of the girder is considered, thè streng1h ì~ raistd
from line BC of Fìg. I I .5.4 to line BD. The actual position of Jìne BD va.ries with AirtA,.
the ratio of the web area to the compression flange area.
Section 11.5 M
oment Stre h
ngt Reduction Due to Bend-Buckling of the Web • 531
~PLE 11.5.1
Using h/rw = 320 d .

of A.,,/ A f · ' etenntne the expression for M~/ My (point D of Fig. 11.5.4) in tenns
Solution:
With h/t = 320 "be
d oes not "'
signify th• nd-buckr
. •ng.. occurs
. .
at a low leve! of flexural stress. Such buckhng
t .mnaJ load lhe fl e maximum be nd'tng moment that can be carrìed· however under add1- .
exural stress O I h . . · . · .
ear. In order 10 reta·10 1h n e compress1on s1de of the neutra! ax1s becomes nonhn-
be used. Tue red d e use of the flexure formula, Mc/1, a reduced effective section must
.
b uckhng uce section enf I . . .__
(out-of- 1 . .i re Y neg1ects much of the web in the reg1on where tue
proPosed by Bast~/[~et1i~) has occurred. The effective section shown in Fig. 11.S.5 wa.,
.
ax1s gives
(a) Determine locai·
ton °f neutra! ax1s.
. . .
Equaung stalle moments ahout the neutra!
A (kh) + 'w(kh)
f -
2 -
2
=
3
A1(l - k)h + - h - li - kh r,
(61 )
32 64 w
Divide by A ih:
k + k2fwh
2Ar
= (I - k) + 2.(~ -
32 64
k)twh
A/
Noting that lwh
= A w and letting a, = Aw/ Ai gìves
k2 + k(~a, + 1-) = ~a, + 16
183
1024
1
J
k = 1;:4 + 1!~, + :; - ( :2 + l~r) (a)
(b) Determine the effective moment of inenia.
I,= A1(kh)2
3
+ -1w(kh)3
l + A1(I - k)2h2 + 3twh ( ~h - kh
32 64
)2'
Using l1,}! = A W and a r "' A ?ti/ A f•
le= A1h
2
[~k + 3
k
2
+ {I - k)2 + ; ; ( : -
3
1.:)2] (b)
A.1
r ==
n- I'°'··-'-•
(l - k)h 11
32
I Neutra! ii 29
J-L_axis :: .1!... = 320
LIJ
h
lw
figute 11.5. 5. . .
Effective secuon in bendm_g
w1ttn vertical flange buckhng
~imminent.
(e) De1crmine the nominai momcnt strenglh Mn. Assuruing the ext
. rerne fìi..
cornprcssion stressed to the y1eld stress F;-. 1
c,:r ii
Mn = (I - k)h
ft1
(d) Detemline the moment strengtb M,, assuming lhe entire section elasr
therefore effectìve) with the extreme fiber stress equal to F_v- In developino th, te (èJld
the flange-area concept is used as shown in Fig. I 1.5.6. The moment stren;th ;fexJlress~
th
approximately (Fig. I I.5.6a) e1Yebi1
which assumes web depth, distance betwecn flange cenrroids, and overall d th
same. The moment strength of che equivalent flange area system (Fig. 11 s.6 b;~s are Ot
Mcquiv = f A.rh
Equating Eqs. (d) and (e) gives for the equivalent flange area, A1.
A.r =¾tu/i= ¼Aw

The tota) moment strength of a girder where thc stress f = F,-then bccomes
My = F_,. [ AJ + 6Aw]h
:e FyAJ'{I + ~)
The vertìcal ordinate of point D in Fig. l l.5.4 is obtained bv dividin Eq
Eq. (h): • g - (e) by
Mn
a,k3 + k2 + (1 - k)2 +
3
3a,(~ - k) 1
32 64
-My =- I -_--:k-:-)(-:-l-+_a_,-"'.""/6-:-)..:..:.__
- - - ; (-:- __:____
(i;
which is plotted in Fig. l I .5.7.
I
[:::-:::Jl
Figure 11.5.6
Equivalent flange area to
replace web.
- - ~~-J
'--- -----·
(a) Accual condirion (b) Equivalen1 condi1ion
Section 11.5 M
t
ornent S rength Reduction Due to Bend-Buckling of the Web • 533
I.O Eq. ì. stnaighr linc
0.9
M,
M,
0.8
0.7
I 1.5.7
figure. n in nominai
iieducuo ·-ngth considering
enl su~ h
rno'11 Jding screngt at
0.6 ---~----::1---...1___ --...J._ ___J
I.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
..osr-bUC h/t for A36 steel.
:;;;.icirnutn w A
a,= A;
for A From
/A tiFig. I 1.5.7, the variation in Mn /MY might be approxìrnated by a straight line
h/ tw =
w 320,
f rom zero to three with a slope of - (1.00 - 0.73)/3.0 = -0.09. Thus. at
M Aw
_ n = I .O - 0.09- (j)
My Af
lr ~ ,a y thb~ observed that the straight line agrees betrer for h/1w = 360, the situation for
;htc~ is ltnear equation was originally developed [11.5]. than it do~s for h/t~,, = ~20.
or hi~her Slrength steels, for which the maximum h/rw to prevent ven1cal buck.J.mg of the
18
flan~e less than 360, more of such a stiffer web panicipates with the compression flange.
causi~g a greater reduction in Mn/ My-
The linear reduction based on Eq. (j) does not seem conservative. but is within sever.il J>C:T·
cent of the more accurate curve using 30tw as the effective depth of web participating wuh
the compression flange.
5t
h/tw =Te360
s [1 l.5] have
as its basis.
verified the correctness of this linear reduction method using
•
Reduced Nominai Strength Mn when h/tw > [ 5. 7 ~,. = 970/ vi:;.)
By reference of Fig. 11 .5.4, it may be reasonably assumed that M,,/ M, varies lin~ly ~om
point B to D. Thus the reduction in M,,/ M_v per A w! A .f per hlt greater than that at pomt B is
Slope per A w! A 1 0.09

- 320 _
162
=
= 0.00057 (say 0.0005)
158
Thus M11/ My for the region frorn poìnt B to D (Fig. 11.5.4) assuming linear variation. is
M" = I.O - 0.0005 A w (.!!._ - .!!_70) (l l.5.3)

My At 1111 ~.
Since My = F_i.Sx , Eq. 11.5.3 may be written
M,, = SXF\'[ l.O - 0.0005 - Aw(

-h - •970
r;: ) ] (l t.5.4)
AJ Tw y Fv
. th devel<}pmenl Eq. t t .5.4 is based on the assumplion that the raiio •

As shown m e ' I 993 LRFD Spec1ficat1011.
In the · · h I · ·
t e re a11011\h1p was
".-/~
. ,
does not excee<l about 3· · . rev,SCd
· d • /A . up 10 10 Thus in piace of the coeffic1ent 0.0005. the c-r~ .
accommo ate ,..,,,,, / · ' ""t1~1en1
'°_
bccomes
. accordance w1·eh the on·g1·nal

111 ' ctevelopmenr
· by Basler ( 11 .51. Thu!- the more generai ,orni
r
of Eq. 11.5.4 is
(I I.S.51
Equation I I .5.5 assumes no intluence_ of 1_he_ lateral-lorsional buck.ling an<l flange 1

bucklino limit states. When the controlhng hm1l state prevems 1he flange tress froin reac,
·mg, F.>'' "'then ihat controllino
"'
limit state criticai stress Fc, should replace F,. in Eq. 11 ,•
, .J .
Thus, Eq. 11.5.5 becomes
M" = S.Fc{ 1 - 1200 :, 300a, ( ,~, - J;)]

M,, = SxFcrRpg
where Rpg
I a,
= - 1200 + 300a, lw
(·!:_ _ 'VFc,
970 ) <
-
lO
.
f l 1.4,).J
a,= A,,.,/AJ ~ IO
A 1 = compression flange area
Au· = web area
This reduction factor Rpg is given in AISC-F5.2.
In summary, whcn h/tw exceeds 970/v'F:r. one may view Eq. 11.5.7 either as (I) tir
full section modulus s.. multiplied by a reduced stress FcrRpg · or (2) a-, :( reduced seciioo
modulus SxRpg multiplied by the full stress Fcr- Philosophically it should l,;: considered lhe
!alter. Tue idea of using a reduccd section when bucklìng ha~ occurred lo cause a non-lil'Q
stress distribution, is the same concept used for the stiffened plate element in Chapter6. Pan
11.6 NOMINAL MOMENT STRENGTH-HYBRID GIRDERS

As discussed in the last section, a girder having large h/ t w may have ìts \, eb buckle due lo
flexural stress. thereby increasing the load-canying requiremenr of rhc comprm ion
flange. This extra load-carrying requirement for the flange also may occur when a hyboo
girder is used. A hybrid girdcr is one in which the flanges are of a highcr strength steel than
the web. The use of a hybrid girder has particular economie advantages in composit~ coo-
struction, as described in Sec. 16.9.
The special behavioral feature of the hybrid girder is the yielding of the lower
strength web before the maximum flange strength has been reached. When the molOOII
strength of the hybrid girder is achieved. the web will bave participated to a !esser ~x,~111
than in a girder using only one grade of steel.
Frost and Schilling [ 11.6), Schilling [ 11.7), Carskaddan [ 11.8]. and Tnprac an<l Natn
jan [ 11.9) have studied the hybrid girder. The state-of-the-art and design rernmmenJatim,
for hybrìd girders have been given by a Joint ASCE-AASHO Joint Commincr [ 11. IOJ.
Section 11 6 N0 .
· rn 1na1 Moment Strength-Hybrid Girdera • 535
The principal cffect ofu,s · -

the onset . . . .
of yieldiog i h •ng a lowcr y1eld stres" web than 1i. ui.ed m the flange ' " that
when the web is A)6 s~
1
t
web w,11 occur prior to yieldiog in the flange!,. For example.
40% of the nomina) ce and th e tlanges bave F.- = 100 ksi. the web may yicld al about
web w,·11 yield e\' Slrength
, •
M ., b··a.s..w,. on yie
. I .- . means thai thc
dmg of che flanges.• Th1h
Th d . e11 li/ .iervice load.
e es1gn of hybrid . d
Committec ( 11 . IOI ·h gir · ers. al·cording to Subcommittee I of ASCE-AASHO Joint
ing. This may be · ~ ould be based on the moment causing the ini1ia1ion of flange yield-
accomphshed
· b Yen. her ol. two procedures:
1. The nominai stre h
equa) to F. i ·/1:.' wh · . n~t Mn may be computed by setting the extreme fibcr !'.train E ,f
Y Js• ere f- J IS !he . Id .
stage much of the _ -~ ytc stress of the flange steel (see Fig. 11.6. lb). At th1s
1
in which case the ~w~r y~el~ Slr~ss web will have exceeded its yield strain E pc = Frn./ E,.
Fig. 11.6. lc. s ess <llSlnbu1ton over the depth of the section is nonlinear. as shown io
2 • The nominal st - h . _.
entirely of the f1 tengt M,. may be computed as a homogeneous elasuc secuon
A reducf an;e Sleel. that is Fy/S:r: , reduced by multiplying by a reduction factor.
stress has bee ion actor to account for yielding of web prior to reaching the flange yield
hybrid girdertre~oved from the AISC 2005 Specification. No funher advice is given for
fication does. tn t e Spe~ification. 1t is the conclusion of t.he authors that the A/SC Speci·
des· · ' no~ recognize designing hybrid girders as a viahle alternative. However. if
. igmng a hybnd gird . h s. -
the web an dd' . er WH
igmficant difference in the yield strengths of the flange and
This pr~ed a ~t,onal r~duction factor given in the LRFD 1999 Specification can be used.
ure 1s descnbed next.
Thus, the mome l
(or Eq. 11 . ~ S!rength Mn of an hybrid girder may be ex.pressed as Eq. 11.4.2
56
to reach· · t.h) multtphed by a reduction factor Re to account for yielding in the web prior
mg e the extreme fiber,
(11.6.1)
where,
12 + ar(3m - m~)
Re = - - - - - - - - ,s; I.O ( I L6.2)
12 + 2a,
where
a, = Aw/ AJ = ratio of the cross-sectional area of the web to the cross-
sectional area of one flange
m = Fyw/ Fyf = ratio of the yie\d stress of the web steel to tbe yield stress
of the flange steel
P,1 "' 1001:.si

) Flangcs. A5 I4 (F.1/ = 1oo ksi)
Tr
I i" __...4)X26 web -~· _ ""= -~
/ :--_,- · 29.000
)O" A36 (~,,. = 361.:s,) ---1/-1
I ~-
X _ _
Figure I l. 6: I .
-~=~'.::==:; ~A - -- 5.39'~
Hybrid secuon show~ng stress
and sirain when Fyf 1s
,eached at extrerne fiber of I '- J6" -J
scction. (a) Section {bi Str:iin (cl Stress
*See 2nd edition, pp. 590-592.

536 • Chapter l1 Plate Girders
R pg = reduction for web instabiliiy when h/rw > 970/'v'i:r (see Eq. Il ,4.3.I
Fcr = criticai compression t1ange stress based on Jowest val~e ohtained from
the lateral-torsional buckling or the flange locai buckhng hmit siates.
The reduction factor R was recommended by the ASCE-AASHO Joint Conun·
I I. I O], and is somewhat <ligrcnt than. the 1986 LRFD Speci ficatioo expression r~!
1
mended by c~ioper. Galambos, and Ravindra [ 11.11 ]. .
In applying the reduction foctor to R1,8 account for bend-bucklmg of the Web,
derivation of thc web slcnderness limit of 970(-v"!r invol:ved the. plate yield stress ;
which means the web. On the other hand, exam1na1.1on of F1g. 1 J.6.1 shows 1hat Wh•0 :"
·
flange reaches Fyf the strain on the portions f the web ad'~acenr 10
?. · the
· fl angcs will' ha;-
ti;:
strain exceedìng thc yield strain E_,·w = F,.,,j E_
, in the web. Log.1cally the slenderness liin~
10 prevent buckling must rhen be lower than 970/~. Dawe ao<l KuJak [l l.12J h.v,
indicate<l that because of the rcstrainjn~ effect of sturdy tlanges th~ web may be expec~'
to un<lergo plastic strain without buckhn_g even when the h/1,,, rano _is 800/~ . ~ n
[ 11.131 has noted that whcn F,1 == 50 ks1 (flanges) and F'_vu, = 36 k s1 (web) the &ame lin-,
iting slenderncss rat.io is obtaìned,
Thus, rather tban have a separate limit eguation relating to ben<l-b~ckling of the "-"eb(t
a hybrid girder using F_,w, AISC concluded (presumably) Il woul~ ~ satisfact.:iry and ,impJer
to use ihe same limit equation for both homogcneous and hybnd grrders. The proper :CSUh
would be obtained by always using thejlange yie/d stress Fyf in thc h/ lu: sle.ndcmess limit
eguation,
9
(:Iw
)t..:nd-hu<Uini
1tm1•
= - ~F,Q
V l'yJ
Thc special fearures of hybrid g:irders relatìng to composite co nstruction are C-On-
tained in Cbapter 16.
11. 7 NOMINAL SHEAR STRENGTH-ELASTTC ANO INELASTIC BUCKLli\JG
Typical of 1-shaped sections, the web carrìes most of the shear. S ince the pla!e girder inher-
ently has a thin web (tr/tw
> 970/~). stabìlity is of primary conc..-ern.
Consider a web plate pane! of length a betwccn transverse stiffeners and having3
clear height h between longitudinal plate supports (i.e.. between t1anges. t1ange and 1~ -
tudinal stiffener, or hetwcen longitmlinal stiffoners). as shown in Fig. l I .7.1. Ln regionsof
high shear and low bcnding momeni. the buckJing strength of the pane! mav be investi2ated
assuming ìt ìs actcd upon by shcar alone (pure shear), as in Fig. 11.7.1. • •
Elastic Buckling Under Pure Shear
The elasric buckling stress for any plate is givcn by Eq. 6.14.28 as
1r2E
Fcr = k 2 7 16,14.181
12( 1 - µ )(b/1)-
Section 11.7
Nominai Shear Strength-Elastic and lnelastic Buclding • 537
- - -
--
10, - ~"'
1 •
1 '--o/ l h
11.7.l . (a) Elemem in

/ / "'
a - --, l
l
l ..i
figlio:: 1shear theory apphed pure shear (b) Principal streis

caassica ifder web pane!. on elemeot in
(~) PrinL"ipll ;çm::s.s
lJf1 pancl in pur-:
,opJate g pure shear
she~r
where for the case of pure shear (see Fig. 11.7.I ), Eq. 6.14.28 may be written (using, T in
piace of F for shear stress and k,, for k)
TT2E
Tcr = k,,---------- --~, (ll.7. 1)
12( I - µ...2 ) (shon dimension )-
t
where for the case of edges simply supponed (i.e., displacemenl prevented but rotation
about edges unrestrained)
1
kV _ 5.34 + 4.Q(short dimension)
.
- ( 11.7 .2 )
long dimens1on
lhe developm.ent of Which has been given by Timoshenko and Woinowsk.i-Krieger.* .

th For design purposes ìt may be desirable to pul Eqs. I l.7. l and 11.7 .2 in terms ot h.
e unsupported web height, and a, the stiffener spacing. When this is done two cases muSl
be considered.
1. If a/h :s; I (see Fig. l 1.7.2a), Eq. 11.7.1 becomes
2
TT E[S.34 + 4.0(a/h)"] (h/a) 2
Te, =
12(1 - µ. 2 )(a/i)2 (h/a)1
I
_, . .
'> <
r-- :-;_.,-:;:.-..,... Stlffoners

..,..,
" ---
f ure 11.1.2
L t,.===v==~ ::::::::j<,..
k a-.[
ig ases of intermedìate - ---- " -----
rwoc . T, '
!!
*Refere nce 6 .66. pp. 379-385.
.. .. . - ·--- ------
. ---
- - -- - - -
.... '
2. If a/h Z: I (see Fig. l I.7.2b), Eq. I l.7.1 becomes
1r 2E[5.34 + 4.0(h/a)2]
Tcr = 12(1 - µ_2)(h/t) 2
It is apparent from Eqs. I 1.7.3 and 11.7.4 that. if one desires to use hlt a~ the stability .
the denominator then two expressions for kv are necessary. Forali ranges of a/I, P~ ratioia
' • '4S li
and 11.7.4 may be written ? • .7.3
1r· Ekv
T
cr
= ----::--''---------::
IZ(l - µ.2)(h/t)2 (IJ.7.5)
where k,, = 4.0 + 5.34/(a/h)2 for a/h s l

01.7.~)
k" = 4.0/(a/h)2 + 5.34 fora/h Z: 1
(I 1.7.7)
These theoretical expressions for k v are replaced in A(SC-G2. I b by the following:
kv = 5 for unsriffened webs having h/rw < 260
kv = 5 + -,½ for stiffened webs

(a/h) o1.,.s,
kv = 5 for stiffened webs when 7> 3.0 or ~ > (
,i h
260 2
)
h/ 1w
Far use in design, Eq. l 1.7.5 has been put into nondimensional form, definin C •
the ratio of shear stress r cr at buckling to shear yield stress r y, g r il!
(I 1.7.9)
which is C,, for elastic stability. Substitution of E = 29,000 ksi. µ = 0.3, 1 ,. = 0.6F
(see Eq. 7.7.9), and using the subscript w for both the yield Slfess F,u, and the pi=
TABLE 11.7.1 Elastic Buckling

Coefficient kv tor
Shear Strength
Ratio AISC
a/h EQ. 11.7.8
0.2 130.0
0.4 36.3
0.6 18.9
0.8 12.8
I.O IO.O
1.2 8.5
1.4 7.6
1.6 7.0
l.8 6.5
2.0 6.3
2.2 6.0
2.4 5.9
2.6 S.7
2.8 5.6
3.0 5.6
7
Section lt Nominai Shear Strength-Elastic and lnelastic Budding • 539
thickness r . Lo iden1·r th. b h · · · b ·

u I Y 1s e av1or as occumng m the "'" , g1ves
2
e = (29,000)k" 1r
'' 0.6Fyw(I2)(1 - 0.09)(h/r,.,) 2

The following simplification of the equation gives Cv as given by AISC-G2.lb. valid for
Te, below tbc proponional limit as shown in Fig. 11.7.3.
C., = l.51Ek,, = 43,SOOk,.

(11.7.10)
(h/rw}2 F,. (h/rw) 2(F_v- ksi)
Inelastic Buckling under Pure Shear
A~ ~n ali stability situations, residuai stresses and imperfections cause inelastic bucklin_g as
cntical stresses approach yield stress. A transition curve for inelastic buckling wa.,<; gi\len
by Basler [ 11.3] based on curve fittìng and using test results from Lyse and Godfrey l l 1.4 J.
In th.e transition zone between elastic buckling and yielding.
T
Cr
= yT-- T IJm..i,
cr(ldul
c.la,,oc)
( 11.7. l l)
The proponional limit is taken as 0.8r,, higher than for compression in_ tlanges.
because the effect of residuai stress is Jess. Dividing Eq. 11.7 .11 by r y lo obtam Cv and
usingEq. 11.7.IOgives
l.51Ek.,
c., = -Te, = ) (0.8) 2
Ty (h/t..,) F_,,
= 1.1 v~
h/tw
= 1s1
h / tw
J k., _
Fv, ks1
(11.7.12)
which is given by AISC-G2. lb and i.s shown schematically in Fig. 11.7.3.
I
I
~ v. = C,,(0.6FY".l A. •.
Shcar yield '\ II
,,
\ I
Eq.11.7.12, 1oi
I Eq. 11 .7.18,
Eq. 11.1.1(). I
I !!_ •
figure IL7.3 _ I.._,
l \ 7 , I')~
~
Buc:kling of piate g1 rder web !!.
r., -
1' 10 ' 'k\IEIF , . It I
,esulting from shear alone--- '--.__•

AJSC-02 W~b slendcmess ra1io 1t / r~,
--==---
Nominai Shear Strength

. . th V of .1 o-irder based on inelas1ic or elastic buckling of lh
The nominai shear streng " ' "' e ll'tlJ
may be cxpressed
O I., 14)
Approximating 7y as 0.6/-~. gives
V,, = C,,(0.6Fy} A w
which is AISC Formula (G2-I ). In Eq. 11.7.15, C v is Eq. 11.7.10 for elas1ic bucklìng Whcn
C,,$ 0.8, and is Eq. 1 l.7.12 when C,, > 0.8. .
Equation l l. 7.15 will apply also to rollcd_beams sinc_e rar_ely would transverse stiff.
eners be uscd. lf one wishes to have an cxphcll_express1on tor h/ 110 corrcspondinii, to
Cv = 1 (i.e., the web yields in shear and no buckhng occurs). Eq. 11.7.12 may be ,oh-ed
forh/ tw whenCv = I, ~
h {[J: kv
- --. = 187 Fk-:-
-l w = I.IO\/~ (ll.7.16i
fy ,,, Sl
When h/ tw does not exceed the value from Eq. 11..7. 16, the nominai shear m ength i,
Vn = 0.6F,,A w
which is AISC Formula (02-1) with Cv = I. This was first discussed in Ch:ip,er 7 (Sec n
The h/t,,, relationship lliac divides elastic and inelastic buckling mJy be obtainedb:
setting Cv equa! to0.8 in Eq. 11.7.10. giving ·
I = 1.37
...:.
tw n _·E
v_ _
F_,.
= 233~ - -.
--''
F,., ks1
The AISC relationship between buçk.ling strength ìn shear and web slendcrness ratio 11 1
( 1l.i.18i
is shown in Fig. 11.7.3.

•
Shear Strength-Allowable Strength Design

In accordance wìth Allowable Screnglh Design philosophy presented ir. Se.::s. 1.8 and 1.9.
and discussed for shear in Sec. 7.7, the strength relationship may be div1<led by thr safet)
factor to put the equatìon in the service load range,
\I
- " 2: V. (11.7.191
n ll r
where !lv =
1.50 according to AISC-G2. Ia
V,Jflv = allowable shear strcngth
V,. = required shear strength
11.8 NOMINAL SHEAR STRENGTH-INCLUDING TENSION-FIELD ACTION

The ela~1ic and inelastic buckling strength of lhe web subject 10 shcar i~ n:prl·stntcJ bi
ABCD in Fig. 11 .8.1 . A plate stiffened by tlanges and transvcrse stiffeners has l'On~•dtt·
able post-buckling strength.
Section 11.8 N
ominal Shear Strength-lncluding Tension-Field Action • 541
Strain hardening, C y:::. I

(usw io ASD only)
__ Po<1-buclding
No strength of girder
.. un: I J.8.1 buckling (crcm-ha1thed pan)
fig ,spacity available, frorn high shear
She~dering post-buckling D
con••
5irength- Web slendernes, hlt
rd
1
Acco ing lo Ba~ler [11.3). the ability of a plate girderto behave in a manner similar lo
a_ ;~s was recognized a& early as l 898. As shown in Fig. 11.8.2. the tension forces are car-
~e ~ membrane action of lhe web (referred 10 as rension-jìeld acrion) while lhe compres-
sion forces are carried by the transverse stiffeners. The work of Basler (11.3) led 10 a
lheory lhat agreed with tests and provides crileria 10 ensure that truss action can develop.
The '.nclusion of truss action raises the shear strength from thai based on buckling (ABCD
1
on Fig. l .8.1) lo approach a condition corresponding to shear yield in classicaI beam the-
ory (ABE of Fig. 11.8.1 ).
The nominai shear strengch v. may be expressed as che sum of the bucklìng strenglh
Ve, and the post-buckled strength v,1 from tension-field action,
V,, = Ve, + V,f (11.8.1)
The nominai bucklìng strength is given by Eq. 1 I .7.14 with Vn = V0 , ,
(Il .8.2 )
where Cv = T c,/T >· and is gi ven by Eqs. l I. 7. I O and 11.7. I 2 for elastic and inelastic buck-
ling. respectively.
Thc shear strength v,1 arising from che tension-field action in the web develops a
band of tensile forces that occur after the web has buckled under diagonal compression
(principal stresses in ordinary beam theory). Equilibrium is maintained by the transfer of
force lo the vertical stiffeners. As the girder load increases. the angle of the tension-field
changes to accommodate the greatest carrying capaciry. Figure 11.8.3 shows a 50 X 50-in.
(approx. 1.3 X l .3 m) panel with a ¼-in. (6.4 mm) web which has buckled under diagonal
compression when subjected to pure shear. lt also illustrates the anchorage requirement
wherein the longitudinal component of the tension-field must be transmitted to the flange
in the adjacent pane!, as shown by the venical breaks in the whitewash at the flange in the
corner of the adjacent pane! where the tension- fte \d intersects the stiffencr and flange.
Fieure 11.8.2
re"iision-field action. l -- -+---lf-----+-- - l - - --1---t---+-- t -- - Stiffeners
...
·
-- ----------- - - ·-
----- . -· .. .. -·-------- -- - .
Figure Il .8.3
Tension-field in resr plate
ginier. (From Rcf. I J .3,
Courtesy of Lehigh
Universiry)
Tension-Field Action: Optimum Direction
Consider the tensile membrane stre~s 0' 1 which develops in the. web al the angle y, as
shown in Fig. ! l.8.4. Jf such tensile stresses can develop over the full t>eJght of the web,
then the tota I diagonal tensile force T would be
(11.8.3)
the vertical component of which is lhe shear force V, given by
V = T sin y = u 1t,,_,h cos y sin y (11.8.4)
If such diagonal tensile stresses could develop a/ong the flanges, verticaJ stiffnesi of
the t1anges would be required. Since the t1anges have little vertical sti ffness and are.actinE
to their capacity in resisting t1exure on the girder. the tension-field aclllaìly can. develop
only over a band width such lhat the vertìcal componenl can be transfen ed at 1he v~nical
stiffe.ners. The stiffeners can be designed lo carry the necessary compressive force. lt will
be assumed 1hat the tension-field (or partial tension-fidd as some may prefrr to cali it) mav
develop over the band width s, shown in Fig. 1 I .8.5a. ·
Figure I I .8.4
Membrane stresses in
ten,\ ion-field acrion.
Section 11.8 Nom·
•nat Shear Strength-lncludìngTension-Field Action • 543
u .
a. =- h = asre,c:1 raho
Y = ang1e or 1ension-ficld
Band
width.r
·..11re I 1.s.5
f1r ~,;sing from
,=orces =·
iet15ion-fieJd. (a)
(b)
The membrane te ·1 f . .
force A V. d nsi e orce Lnbutary to one stiffener is o-,st,,.,. and the pan1al ~hear
'1 eveloped by compression in the stiffener is
A V.J = o-,st,,, sin -y (11.8.5)

and the angle y · . th . . .
tension-field. ts e angle prov1dmg the maximum shear component from thc pan1al
From lbe geometry shown in Fig. 11.8.Sb,
s = h cos y - a sin y (I 1.8.6)

where a = sliffener spacmg.
. S
ubstìtution of Eq. 11 .8.6 into Eq. 11.8.5 gives
A. V,l = IT,fu,(h così' - Il sin y) sin y
= o-,r,,,(~ sin 2-y - a sin 2 y) ( l l.8.7)
For maximum AV,J, il is required that d(A.V,J)/ d-y = O. Tims
d(A.V,f)
~
(h
= a,1111 2 (2) cos 2-y - 2a ,in y cos y
)= O (11.8.8)
O = h cos 2-y - a sin 2y

or
tan 2y = -h = --
l v'I + (a/¼JI ( l l.8.9)
a a/h
a/h
Ftoin the trigonometry of Eq. 11.8.9.
~in 2y = (I l.8.10)
also VI + (a/ h) 2
I-
sin2 y = cos 2y
2
= ½[1 - VI + (a/h? a/h ] (11.8.11)
The maximum contribution 6. v,1 from tension-tield action is then obtaìned by substìtuting
Eqs. 11.8.1 O and 11.8.1 1 into Eq. 11.8. 7 giving
-
flV,1 -u, I
litw [~vi + (a/ h)2 - a/li} li 1.8.12)
2
Figure 11.8.6
Force in stiffener resulting
from tension-field ac1ion.
lt ìs not practical to use Eq. 11.8.12 dircctly, since the shear comribution ftom thc
part of the section (such as M-M of Fig. l_1.8.5) thai cuts l~rough che triang]e~ outside th,
band s must be added. The state of stress tn these mangles 1s unkJ1own, requiring aa al
nate approach to finding tbc tota! shear V,1 when the optimum angle y i~ reached. ltr-
An alternate way, as used by Basler [11.3], i~ to cut ~ f~ee body a\ in Fig. 11.s.6. Tue
section is taken vertically midway between two adJacent stJfteners and hnrizontally at ..
depth. The mid-depth cut provides access ~o the tension-field where the state of stre::
known, and the shear resultant on each vert1cal face equals V,1/2 from syrrunetry.
Shear Strength from Tension-Field Action

Using the free body of Fig. 11.8.6, horizontal force equilibrium rl:!quire~
t::.F1 = (u,rwasiny)cosy
(11.8.1)•
The incrementai web force t::.F,v is not used because the web contribu~, linle to the fh-
ural strength of the girder. Rotational equilibrium, taken about poim O. l'..-:quires
h V,1a
t::.F1 - - - =O (l 1.8.14)
2 2
Solving Eq. 11.8.14 for t::.F1 and substituting into Eq. 11.8. f 3 gives
V,_f(l tu.a .
- - = a,- S111 2y ( 11.8.151
1I 2
Solving for v,1 and using Eq. 11.8.1O for sin 2y gives
V,/= CTr-
htu, [ I ] (11.&,161
2 VI + (a/h)2
Failure Condition
The actual state of stress in the web involves both shear stress 'T and normo.I stress (T.: tlwl
the failure of an element subjected to shear in combìnation with an inclincd tension 1~usttt
considered, as shown in Fig. I I .8.7. Two basic assumptìons are involved: first. rcr l\'11\'1111,
Seetion 11.8 N
Oll\inal Shear Strength-lncludingTenslon-Field Action
• 545
~----
---+g+-____ _
fìgure l 1.8.7s Princ·ipal Slttsst:s

siate of scres .
( a ) At imminent buckling
(b ) At ultirruuc shear
at cons~ant value from buckling load to ultimate load and tberefore the tension-field Slress
u, act~ in addition to the principal stress 'Tcr: second, the angle ì' in Fig. I I .8.7b will be con-
servattvely taken as 45° even though il will always be less than that value. .
. : ,he generaJly accepted relationship for failure in piane stress is the ..en~rgy of dts-
to~on
wntten lbeory (discussed in Sec. 2.7) shown as the ellipse in Fìg. 11 .8.8, which may be
crf + u~ - o-iu2 = F~, (l 1.8 .17)
w~ere a I and <r2 are principal stresses. Point A represents the case of shear alone and
8
pomt represents tension alone. The actual states of stress in plate girder webs fai\ on the
ellipse bctween
segmentAB, points A and B , and a straight line is a reasonable approx.imation of lhe
(11.8.18)
and for the stress condition thac a 1 = r cr + a, and u 2 = --rcr. Eq. 11.8.18 becomes
( 11.8.19)
Slope=-(v.f"- 1) u,
a,(fi- 1)
u 1= - u , \
(pure shcar) ~A _ _ _
Ellipsc
figure 11.8.8 . .
E,iergy-of-distortton fa1lure
criterion. ( a) (h l
Force in Stiffener
Using Fig. l J.8.6. vertical force equilibrium requires the force P, in the stiffener lo be
Ps = (cr,1, .asiny)siny
0
Then, substituting rhe trigonometrie identity,

I - cos 2-y
sin2 'Y = 2
gives
P.
s
=a
'
(alw
2
)[i _VI +a/h(a/ /r) ] 2
Substituting Eq. I J .8.19 inro Eq. l 1.8.21 gives
F_v(l - C.v)atw[ a/ h ]
P. = - - -- I - • ;:--:- - 2
s 2 VI+ (a/ lz)
which is the force in the stiffener when nominai shear strength V,, is reached. includinr
tension-field action.
More recent work as discussed in the SSRC Guide [6.8] bas shown that Eq. 11.8 , 1
may be simplified by using a/h = I; in which case, ·-·
f'.5 = o.sr:it - c1,)a1.,~( 1 - ~) ( 11.8.23)
Ps = 0.15Fil - C.,)atu· (11.8.24)
Nomìnal Shear Strength, Including Both Buckling and

Post~Buckling Strengths
Since thin-web plate girders exhibit some strength in shear before diagon,d buckling occurs
(V,, from Sec. 11.7) and additional strength in the post-buckling range (\~J from Eq. 11.8.16).
their actual strength is the sum ofboth components. Substituting Eqs. 11.8.2 ar.d 11.8.16 into
11.8. l gives
(11.8.25)
Substituting Eq. 11.8.19 for cr, and using r .,· = F,,/V3 gives
I - Cv
V,. = Fvhtw [ -.Cvr-,:. + -,= ==:: : :; ] (11.8.26)
- v3 2\/t + (ajh)2
A summary of studies of tension-field mechanisms is presented in 1he SSRC Guidt
[6.8, p. 221 ).
AISC Design
When tension-field action is developed by us ing appropriately spaced and siz~d trans,-~
stiffeners, the nominai strengrh in shear may be expressed by Eq. 11.8.26. Factoring V'3
Section 11.8 N0 . . . .
minat Shear Strength-lncludingTens1on-F1eld Act1on • 547
from the denom· • r..

•nator, and then approximating F;./ v 3 as 0.6Fy, gives
V, :: 0.6FyAw(C.v + 1 - Cv
I.ISYI + (a/h)
2) (11.8.27)
whi~h
F.
y -
is ks1
50 A!SC Formula (G3-2). Curves for Eq. 11 .8.27 are prcscnted in Fig. 11.8.9 for
steet.
. The force P., in the intermediate stiffeners when tension-field action is utilized is
given by Eq. l l .B.24 . Thc Stiffener area A required is
SI
Required A SI 0.15Fy(l
= - p'- = __ .;__ -___
C,,)atu,
_ (l 1.8.28)
F~-" Fys,
th
When e panel has more shear strength ,f, V than is needed to carry the factored shear V.,·
the stiffener area ASI may be reduced by "m~ltiplying by (Vu/<f>vVn)- Also. the derivation
th
assumed_ e stiffener was aligned with the center of the web; when stiffeners are used only
on one
st side or if angle stiffeners are used there is an eccentric effect and the Sliffener area
mu be increased. In addition, the area'( l8rw x r ) of the web tributary to lhe s~ffener
111
ma~ be subtracted from the required area A,,. Thus, AISC-G3.3 gives the requirement
(using the LRFD ratio Vuf <l>vVn) as
Requ1red
. Asi = - Fy[
0 .15D,hrw(I - C 0 ) -Vu- -
2]>0
I 8rw - ( 11.8.29)
Fysr cJ>vV,,
where D_, = factor to account for eccentric loading on stiffeners
== 1.0 for stiffeners in pairs on each side of web
= 1.8 for single angle stiffeners
= 2.4 for single plate stiffeners
30
28 200
26
180
24 ,....
.,,
-
~
160 ?
22 Max!!.= 283 Q..
~
• '~for ~
";;.' ;
,,.
..e
20
,,
;
Il
h ~ 1.5
140 ~ '
_,,,,
'::,.'
00
e
..c:
~ 18 00
lii
"
..e 16
120
I
Cl)
5
..c:
V,
Figure 11.8.9 14 100
Nominai shear strength .V., , 12

a
h =
( 260}
h l ,,..
jneluding tension-field action,
80
divided by web area Aw for IO F, =50ksi
rJate girders having F,. = 50
l;Si (J45 MPa). according to 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
AISC-G3. Web slendemess h I t,..

F;,_.1 "' specified yield stress for stiffener sieel

v. = factored service Joad shear at the Jocation of the s1iffener (AISC
" the required srrength rn . shear) uscsv,a,
v,, = nominai strengù1 in shear, as defined in AISC-G3.2
'Pv = re.~istance factor for shear
.-1,, V. has Jono been called the design shear strength in LRFD and ·,s ali
The term 'l'v ,, · o . . . . . e ed \I
available shear strength rn AISC-G3.3. To the authors, the addmonal symboJs
O1
,the
confusion, but apparently were decmed necessary for the Allowable Strengrh ~ ~
Metho<l. sign
Note that Eq. 11.8.29 uscs h iJ1Stead of a, a reasonablc approximation and a . .
cation that makes the stiffener area A.,., required proponional 10 the web area A Sttnphfi.
Sometimes stiffeners are aJtemated on each side of the web to gai n beu:t,
or thcy are placed ali on one side IO improve esthetics. Refening to Fig. l 1.8. l 0a ~on_orai
metrica! pair of stiffeners reaches its yield condition with the force pJ ,
1
· e ~,!l -
Ps = 2wtf~w, = As1f:1,, 1 ( for concentrie load )
On thc other hand, an eccentrically loaded s1iffener becomes plasti~ with a , 1 .

tributi on as shown in Fig. 11.8.1 0b. For this case, force equilibrium requires · rcss dis-
P_, = (w - x)rF,.,, - .rtFy.,

(ai
a.nd momcnt equilibrium requires
(
xtF_,.,, w - lX) = Fys,( W - X )t (W- --- X)
2
Solving the quadralic gives x = 0.293w. Substitution for x in Eq. (a) gives
P. = [ (w - 0.293w)r - 0.293wt ]F,,s,
= 0.4l4wtF,s, = 0.414A_:1.r:,·s, (foreccentric load) (ll.8.3})
If single plate stiffeners are used on one side only. equating Eqs. I l .8.30 and
shows 11 ·8.31
A,,
A.~, = 0.414 = 2.4As, (11.8.31'
- - ..----;!
figure 11.8.1 O
lntermediate stiffeners a1
nominai shear strenglh V,,,
including tension-field
ac:tion. (a) Axially loadcd stiffener
(b) Eccenrrically loaded stiffcncr
Section 11.9 Strength in Combined Bending and Shear • 549
To corree, for e . . 2 4 ,.
· ccentric loading of stiffencn. 1hc factor D is u!,CCI in Eq. 11 .8.29 ; · ,or
smg1e plate stiff. · b the
. . cners. For a single anglc whosc ccnter of gravi1y i, clo'-1:r 10 thc wc •
mu IUp1ter D reduces to 1.8.
Il .9 S_T_RE
:,;--- _N_G
_T_H
_ I_NC_O_M
_ B_IN_:E:.:D:...::_B::EN:..:._D~lN~G~A:::N~D~S~H~E~A~R:.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
th s
In _e va i majority of cases the nominai strength M in bending is not influenced by shcar.
nor 1s th · , " .
· e nominai shear strength V influenced by moment. Particularly. m very stender
webs where "bend-buckling" may C::cur, the bending stress is redistributed as discussed in
11 5
Sec. . · · so th at the flanges carry an increased share. The shear strength of the web, how-
;;er, ts not reduced as a result of "'bend-buckling" becausc mos1 of the shear Slrcnglh_is
st
om ten on-field action with only a small contribution from the portion of the web adJa-
10 th
cent e flange. Since plate girders are usually designed using slender webs. AISC
Commentary-02 explicitly statcs that the effect of bending on shear is decmed negligible
311d
n~ed not be considered. In stockier webs 110 "bend-buckling" may occur. but high web
shear tn co~1bi~ation with bending may cause yie lding of the web adjacent to thc flange:
agam res ulttng ma transfer of pan of thc web's sharc of the bending mo menl lo rhe flange.
Th~ Slrength of girders subject ro combined bending and shear is the subject of ibe third
maJor paper by Basler [ l 1.171 .
. Since ìnstability is precluded, a plastic ana lysis may be used. When subjected to high
bendmg moment, the web yields adjacent to the flange and is. therefore. unable to carry
sheru:, In th e mid-depth region of the web the shear causes yielding; thus this pari of the
web ts unable to carry bending moment.
Referring to Fig. I l.9.1 , the nominai shear strengch v ;, in the presence of bend,ng
moment may be expressed as
(11.9.1)
When no bending moment is present, that is Yo = h. the nominai shear strength V,, would be
V,, = T/w/J l I t.9.2)
Eliminating ry from Eqs. 11 .9. 1 and 11 .9.2 gives
Yo = (v:,)
Vn lt
li l.9.3)
The no minai moment strength M ;, in the presence of shear from Fig. I 1.9. I a is
( l 1.9.4:
",
h
--[Il-·
:;gure J 1.9.1
tticar and momenl str~ngths
Nonna( stress Shear stress Normai stress Shcar sir,·ss
nder combined bendmg and
( a) Simple procedure ( b ) More <1rcura1c prcx·cdurc
IW·
which upon substirution of Eq. 11.9.3 into Eq. I 1.9.4 and letting A ", = htw gives
{ 1 (V~) 2
M~ = FyA_rh l + 4 Aw[
AJ I - Vn
]}
The nominai strength M,, equals My when tbe extreme fibcr reaches the yield stress F
with the web fully participating, is, according to Eq. (g), Exarnple 11 .5.1, Y• ar,d
01.~.6}
As the percentage of the shear strength Vn that is utilized increases, 1he no . •,

.
moment strength M~ decreases. In the absence o f msta b·1· b . h "11ndi
L1ty, ut m l e presence of hi•h
shear, the nominai bending moment strength may be expressed as "'
(l l.9.iJ
where a,= Aw/ A 1 .

Wlten M~ = Mn, V:JV,, =
0.577, or approximately 0.6. When more Lhan 60 perce
of the maximum shear s~rength V,, is used, the a~ailable nom~nal strength ~ ~ becomes ,;
than M,,. Table I l.9.1 g1ves some values for M ,,IMn for vanous values ot a, in the practi-
cal range, with graphical iUustration in Fig. 11.9.2.
' The relationship in Fig. 11.9.2 may be expressed:
For V~/V,. :s; 0.60,
(11.9.81
For M;JM,, :s; 0.75,

(11.9.9)
When Eqs. 11.9.8 or 11.9.9 are not applicable. the interaction relationst· p must be used. lf
one uses a conservative value of a, = A w/ AJ = 2.0 and considers the str.:ngth reductioo
from points A to B of Fig. 11.9.2 as a straight line, the slope of AB wouk. be
-0.25 5
Slopeof AB = - - = S
0.40
TABLE 11.9.1 Values of M',/ Mn in Accordance

with Eq. 11.9.7 for V~/Vn ~ 0.6
For For
Aw V' V~
8
r
=-
A, v"n = o.a Vn = 1.0
o 1.0 I.O
0.5 0.965 0.923
I.O 0.934 0.857
1.5 0.908 0.800
2.0 0.885 0.750
Section 11.10 lntermediateTransverse Stiffeners • 551
I.O A
I
I
0.8 I
I '
I ll,z 0.5
I 0,75
0.6 8
M.' I
I
I
""· 0.4
I
'II
I
0.2 I
I
I
o 0. 2 0. 4 0.6 0.8 LO
figure J 1.9.2
Moment-shear !rren~th v;
. aciion relat1onsh1p.
1nltf v.
The reduction equation then becomes
M~
-
Mn
'=
s(v:,
I - - - - 0.6
8 Vn
) s: 1.0 (11.9.1 O)
or
M~
Mn +8 s(v~) (
V" s
s
1.0 + 8(0.6) = 1.375 ) (I l.9.11)
where M~ = nomina! flexural strength in the presence of shear

V~ = nominai shear strength in the presence offlexure
M" = maximum nominai flexural strength
V" = maximum nominai shear strength
11.10 INTERMEDIATE TRANSVERSE STIFFENERS
Plate girders wìll usually be designed to have intennediate stiffeners as shown in Fig. 11.1.2
and the photo on p. 652. The two stability parameters for the web are h/ 1.,, a.nd a/11 as dis-
cussed in Secs. l l.7 and 11.8. Buckling resulting from shear can be avoided when these sta-
bility parameters are kept low enough; alternatively, 1he shear stress can be kept below the
criticai buckling stress T cr· Since rolled beams have low h/ t1r ratios, buckling resulting
from shear will not occur. When the spacing a of stiffrners makes a/ tw low eoough. and
their size is adequate to allow them to act as compression verticals in a truss as discussed
in Sec. 11.8. post-buckling strength (tension-field action) is available and may be utilized
in design.
Requirements to Omit Intermediate Stiffeners-AISC

Stiffeners need not be used when the flexural strength of the section can be achieved with-
out diagonal buckling resulting from shear. Stiffen;rs would oot be requin:d. according to
AISC-G2.2, and shown in Fig. 1L7.3. when
( lf. = /kv)
1.10 -
'vE
Fr
187\/ ~ Fk.
y· s1
fl l.7. l6)
552 • Chapter 11 Ptate Girders
Whc n stiffene rs are not used. the buck.ling coefficient k,,, given by Eq. I 1.7.8. i~
· va1u e would be approached when a/h becornes la rge · 'When k·~10"'be
ta kc n as 5. TI11s
5
Eq. 11.7.1 6 becomes h ( ~ ) '
419
- ,s; 2.46 - = . r::-:-: (I
r,., 0· V Fy, ks1 l.!O,J)
which i.~ the limit given by AISC-G2.2. Wben the limit of Eq. 1 I · I O. l is noi cxceeii..A
maximum nomina.I shear su-ength V,, .ts ach"1evea bie , WUJ, lht
11 l.7.n 1
which is AJSC Fonnula (G2- I).
When lcss tha n the maximum shear strength cf>vV,, is required. interrncdiate Stiffencri
a re not required when
V,, :S (c/>-vV,, == J.O(0.6F.,}AwCv) (I l.l0.lJ
unles.s h/tw > 260. Jntermediat.e stiffeners are required when h/tw cxcecds 260.
The expre.~sions for C,, to be used ~or un~tiffoned g irde rs are Eqs._11.7.12 for inelil,
tic buckling and 11.7. IO for elastic buckhng w1th kv = 5. as follows ( w1th E = 29.00ok.
ìnserted when using Fy in ksi): ~
419
J. When --=-= :S -
/J:S _
521
r::-;-; . me
(1.e., . lasuc
. buc kl mg
' )
~ fw v F., ks i
419
e=----=== (I l.lOJi
V (h/ tw)~
where lhe limir containing the 521 arises from A1SC-G2. I w hen J.. ,. ::.: 5. as follow):
-
h limit = ff.vE = Ji:Sv = - = = = -
1.37 - 233 - -. 233V5 s.:1--=
r.,. F;- F_,.• ks1 ~ \ rr, h i
2• When -h 521
> •~ (1.e . buek.l'mg)
. .. eIasuc
1w V l'y, ICSI
7.55E 219,000
Cv= , =-----=----
(h/ rw)-F_,. (h/ rw>2 F_,.• ksi (I I. I 0.4)
In summary, intcnnediate stiffeners are not required when both uf thc following
requiremenrs are satisfied:
h
I. - > 260
fw (I l.l05)
V.
2. </>: S 0.6f; A111Cv (11.10,61
where C,, is given by Eqs. 11.l 0.3 and 11.l 0.4. Equation I I.I 0.5 was re<.·ommc nded bi
Basler 111 .14) as a practical limit. He recommended thai fabrication. hnndling, and rn.-c1i(~
Section 11.10 Intermedi ate Transverse Stiffeners • 553
are facilitated when th . . . . .

eners are used h. e smaller pane! d1mens1on. a or h, does not exceed 2601,.,. When wff-
' 1s less than a.
Placement e ·t -
LRFD Metho~ ena lncluding Tension-Field Action-AISC
When the factored 5h V . . . .

,f> = l O _ ear 11 (called by AJSC rhe requ1red strength V,) exceeds <J>,Vn wnh
hj, >. 2; d _vn given by Eq. 11.7.17 with
5
kv = 5, stiffeners are required. When
alhwrauo. ' hffeners are always required. The use of intennediate stiffeners reduces the
and increases th · . - ·
.
uattons . and w ·,h
w11h e· nominai. strength
. Vn . Equation 11.10.6 log1cally
•
appbes for slt-
.
1
. from shear. our mtenned1ate suffeners when the objective 1s to prevent buckhng
resu Itmg
nd
Th U er AI_SC-G3 hoth buckling strength and post-buckling strength are recognized.
st
h e po_ -~cklmg behavior, known as tension-field action, is similar to trUss action a,
s own In Figs. l 1.8.2 and l 1.8.3, and the tota) nominai strength Vn is given by Eq. 11.8.17,
Vn = 0.6FyAw(Cv + 1 - Cv ) [ 11.8.27]
1.1sv1 + (a/h) 2
which is AlSC Formula (G3-2). Since Cv is a function of h/tw, Vu is a function of both
nd
h/l~ a alh, making evaluation difficult without a design aid. In "stress" fonnat, tlle
design Slrength <f>vVn/ A w for piate girders is given in AJSC Tables 3-16 for F,. = 36 k.si
and 50 ksi. ·
. While theoretically the only upper limits on h/ rw are those of AJSC-FI 3.2 to prevent
vert1cal buck.ling of the flange, practical considerations relating co fabrication, handling,
and erection [I 1.14) give riseco the traditìonal ASD restriction
* 2
s (:;::) s 3.0 (11.10.7)
AISC-G3.l does not allow the use of tension-field when Eq. 11.10.7 is exceeded; it also
requires using kv == 5 when the above a/h limit is exceeded. The Pmposed Criteriafo,· Load
and Resis1ance Factor Design of Steel B11ilding S1ructures [ 11.15), the source for the AISC
LRFD plate girder provisions, indicates Eq. 11.10.7 as a limit. The AlSC Tables 3-16 also
use Eq. 11.10.7 as a limit. The authors recommend not exceeding the alh limit of Eq. l l.l 0.7
even if the Specificatìon may pemùt it.
End Panels and lnterior Panels Having an Opening ìn an

Adjacent Panel
Figure 11.8.5 shows that at the junction of intermediate st.iffener and flange, equilibrium
requires an axial tension to develop in the flange of the adjacent pane!. When no such
tlange is available, as in an end pane). the tension-field cannot adequately develop. AlSC.
therefore, considers that only buckling strength (no tension-field action) is available in thai
end pane!. Thus, for end panels (that is, panels having 110 adjacenr pane/ and interior pan-
els having a significant hole in an adjacent pane!:
l l l.7.17]
where Cv is given by Eqs. 11.10.3 and 11. l 0.4.
Stiffness Requirement
lnrem1edia1e sriffcners musi be s~fficiently r'.gid lo k~p the _web at the .Hi/fe11e, Froin
detlecring out-of-plane whcn bucldmg_ o_f the ~eb occur~ Th2e strffener must h~vc a ti!!ld1;
El_,, that i~ related w rhe web plate ngtdny Et a/[ I 2(1 µ. ) J. AISC-G2.2 g1ver, ~
/.<r 2: jati,,
whcrc I,, = moment of inertia of the cross:sectiooal area of a _rransverse sli.ffener 'akcu
about the center of the web thtckness when che suffener consist~ of a .·
'f" . .h Pair
of plates. or about the face of the so ,cner m contaci w11 th.e web when
single plate stiffeners are used
j = ~2 _ 2 ,s; o.5 which is AISC Formula ( G2-6) 111. I0. ,

9
(a/h)
Various lhcoretical relation:ships ha~e- been ~eveloped for the ratio ,o
of the Stiffoocr
rigidity El." 10 one panel ofweb plate rigtdtty, wh1ch may be expressed
2
E/51 Els,[12( I - µ. ) ]
'Yo = Da = Ett.l, (l l.J0.10)
where I_., = optimum stiffener moment of inertia

D = E13/[ 12( I - µ.2 )] = flexural rigidity perunit length of weh plate
Equation 11.10.8 is essentially the following proposed by Bleicb [6.9, p. 417j
'Yo = 4(-~ -
(a/h)~ 5) 01.10.l!i
According to Eq. I I. IO. !O with µ. = 0.3,

'Yot]i,a = 'Yod,.a
Rcquired 1$1 = 12 (1 _ µ 2) 10_92
(11.10.1~,
Substitution of Eq. 11 .1O. I I into Eq. 11.10.12 gives
I,, 2: 2.56 - 1.83 ) atj1

· ( -(a/-li)-
2 0 ( 11.10.131
which was simplified by Vincent fl 1.16] for use in AASHTO Lo,ld fa.:: t0r Design lor
bridges to bccome Eq. 11. I0.8 used in AISC-G2.2.
Strength Requirement
Jntcrmediatc stiffeners carry a compression load only after buck.li11g of the web 00
occurred. As thc post-buckling truss-like "tcosion-field actìon" increa~e,. the ~titTrner
force increases. The maximum forcc P,, in the stiffencr. reachcd sìmultaneou~ly wi1h read1·
ing thc nominai shcar strength Vn, i~ gìven by Eq. 11.8.22. Tiu~ stiffencr area required 11-ìll
be thc force P., divided by the yicld stress f;,,., of the stiffencr stccl. us folhm s (using LRFD
ncrminology wìth Vu and 4'vVn instead of AJSC V, and Vr).
Required As, = Fy [0.l5D,htw(I -

F,,,s,
C,.) l
4>1,V,,
- l81~1.] ~O
Section 11.10 lntermediate Transverse Stiffeners • 555
Connection to Web
When tension-field · . .
·f· . action 1s used, the force P . which equals the required area A_., umcs the
st 1 ,ener y1eld stres · p ·' · B I
[11 3) · · s y.r, musi be transferred between the web and the suffener. as er
· recommended th f ·d h ·d
h · h O e orce P, be considered transfcrred over one.-lhtr I e g1r er
cig t. n that basis B I [ · · ,.__ d · ed
I0 provi'de a shea •fl· • (k'
as er . 11.3] recornmended thai in1ermed1ate sllffeners uc: es1gn
r ow 1ps/m.) s1reng1h /,.,, given by
f,,,, = 0.045h!t (11.10.14)

There is no 2005 AISC s · · Id
E . pec1fica11on shear flow requirement, tbough one cou use
. q. 11: 10. 14, considering fnv as </>R , ' for fillet wclds (see Chap. 5). In generai, when
mtermttte f I Il "' · . .
b nt et welds are used, the mi.nimum segment Iength and mm11num clear
etwe~n segments will likely be sufficient (AISC-12.2).
For calculation, h is in inches and f is in kips/in. As with the area requirement,
when panels adjacent to the stiffener are ;~t loaded to their full strength. the shear flow
th
used as e connection requiremen1 may be reduced in proportion 1ha1 the strcngth required
is less than that provided.
Connection to Flanges
lntennediate stiffeners are provided 10 assist the web; 10 stiffen and create nodal lines during
buclchng of the web and to accept compression forces transmined directly from the web. At
lhe compression flange, welding of the stiffener across the flange as shown in Fig. l l . IO. I
provides_ stability to the stiffener and holds it perpendicular to the web; in addition. such weld-
mg provides restraint against torsional buckling (Fig. 11.3. lb) ofthe compression t1ange.
On the tension flange. the effects of stress concentration inerease the farigue or brit-
tle fracture possibilities, i.e., welding in no way helps the tension flange. Since the work ot
Basler ( 11 .17] has shown that welding of s1iffeners to the tension flange is unnecessary for
P_roper functioning of stiffeners, AISC-G2.2 permits stopping stiffeners "shon of the_ ten_~
sion flange provided bearing is not needed to 1ransmit a concentraced load or reacuon.
The weld by which the stìffener is attached to the web "shall be terminated not closer than
4 times the web thickness nor more than 6 times the web thickness from the near toe of the
web-lo-flange weld."
For situations where the stiffener serves as the attachment for lateral bracing. the
we]ding to the compression flange should be designed to transmit 1 perl~ent (rule-of-
thumb) of the compressive force in the flange. For imponant lateral bracing design in situ-
ations involving long unsupponed lengths. the strength of lateral bracing connections
should be designed using the principles of Scc. 9.13.
Compressi on
flange
In1ermi11en1 weld
segmeors
Tension
Figure I I. IO. I flange
-i---~ 6 'w max.imum AISC-G2.2
lniennediate stiffener ~ -=:::....::=:::~-1 4 r..., minimum
connection to flange.
\
1 l. 11 BEARJNG STIFFENER DESIGN

Concenlrated loads ' such .
as at unframed
.
end reactions, must
.
be carried bv•.s1ifteneR~
in pairs. Whenever concentrated loads, such as_ end reactmns or columns suPPol1ed bv tt-0
1
girders, ex.ceed the locai web yielding, web cnpplmg, or s1desway web ?uckling s~/ ~te
bearing stiffeners must be prov1ded. Locai web y1eldmg and we.b cnppling wcre d. gth.\
' !SCII.I~
in Sec. 7.8 since they are also of concern on rolled b~ams. Locai web yielding is prov ·
1
for in AISC-J I0.2; web crippling is in AISC-J I0.3. S1desway web buckling oener 11 ~
o a Yl!of
concero only on narrow flange plate girders and is in AJSC-JI 0.4. These three phe
ali are related to the strenglh of a thin web in the vicinity of concentrated loads. nolllena
Bearing stiffeners. unlike intermedia_tc stiffeners'. shoul~ be close fi!l.ing ai the btilf.
ing end, and when the concentrared load 1s compresswn agamst the flange, the stiff
may either be connected to, or bear agamst.· thfl · · · lhe concentrdled enc1
e ange transnuttmg 1
When the con~enlrated load is a tensi_on pull on the fla~ge. t_he s~iffener must be atiach:
t.he flange bemg pulled. For plate g1rders the usual snuat1on 1s compression aoai
· · . • L • . . I> hS( !be
flange. In generai, compress10n load 1ransm1tt1ng oeanng .stiJleners should e
. fl I " d' . X!end
"a~prox.1mately ro the edge o~ the ange p a1~s . . . ~ccor mg lo 1he 19'.8 AlSC Specifi.
cat1on (ASD-1.10.5). There 1s no such requ1remenL m the currem Spec1fica1ion, bui the
authors believe it to be good practice.
Column Stability Criterion
Bearing stiffeners transmitting compressìon loads are desigued as columo:. under !he
vi_sions of AISC-JI0.8. The column consisls of the sti~feners. plus a pl'""tion of the : ;
tnbutary lo them, as defined m AfSC-J I0.8, and sbown m F1g. 11. l l. l .
Tue effective length KL of the "column" is less than the depth h of the web pia
because of the restraint provided by the {langes. The effective length f.L, according ;e
0
AISC-Jl0.8, is to be taken "egual to O. 75h".
The .s lendemess ratio is computed,
KL lt
- = 0.75- (11.11.l)
r r
where h = web plate depth

r = rad.ius of gyration of the shaded porti on show a in Fig. l I.. 11 I raken aboui
the mid-rhickness of the web
The effective area Ae required is then computed using the colunm strength p in
accordance with AISC-E3. "
Bearing stiffener
cross section .....____
r--'--'--,..:....,.<--,. 1r-::::::-----------..
Endof
girder .___
Web
r
w X 1...
_...--, Flange
O<x< f - - - - 2 5 ,•.---...J
Figure I I.I I. I "approximately lo
Bearing stiffener effec1ive edge of flange ..."
cross-sections. fa) End sriffener (b) lnterior stiffener
Section 11.12 Longitudinal Web Stiffeners • 557
The strength requirement for the AISC LRFD Method is
(11.11.2)
where 'Pc = resistance factor = 0.90

pn = FcrAe
P,, = factored concentrated compression load
Fcr = column buckling stress according to AISC-E3
A~ = c~lumn area; i.e., the shaded area of Fig. 11.11.1 which includes the
snffener plates plus the tributary web area.
Thus, thc required effective area A e is
(I l.J l.3)
Loca] Buckling Criterion

8
!nce che wìdlh w of the stiffener plates is governed by the plate girder flange width (see
Ftg. 11. l l. l ), the minimum thickness to prevent locai buckling is
Min r = w w (11.ll.4)
0.56'\IE/Fy 95/ ~
as govemed by ,\ s; À, for a unifonnly stressed unstiffened compression elemenl accord-

ìng to AISC-B4. When the thickness exceeds the tinut of Eq. 11. 11.6, the ··stender" com-
pression elemem will bave reduced efficiency (i.e ., Q < I as discussed in Sec. 6.18) and
must be treated in accordance with AISC-E7. Because a bearing stiffener is an important
element of a plate girder, the authors recommend satisfying Eq. l l.l 1.4 so that Q = l.
Bearing Criterion
In order lo bring bearing stiffener plates tighl against the flanges. one corner of each stiff-
ener plate must be cut off so as to clear the flange-to-we.b fillet weld. The remaining area
of direct bearing is less than the gross area of the stiffener plates. The strenglh in bearing
under AISC-J7 must be satisfactory.
The AISC LRFD Method requirement is
(11.11.5)
where q, = 0.75
Rn = nominai beari1,g strength = I .8F,A pi.>
P,, = factored concentrated load (which AISC calls the ··required strength")
A pb = contact area of stiffener bearing against the flange
11.12 LONGITUDINAL WEB STIFFENERS

Longitudinal stiffeners, as shown in Fig. 11.12.1. ' Can increase the bending. and she:u·
strer;gths of a plate girder. In generai, the; are not as ef.fective as trans versi: stiffenL'r:-: h0w-
ever, they are frequently clesired on h.igbway bridge girder.- for es,hc rir. re:1sm1s. Studi~·s l)f
Longitudìnal SI iff'ener "-.

/
,/
h
I
B
Figure I 1.12.1
Effcct of longitudinal stiffener
i..----a ----1 (b) Cros,-&e<:lion (e) Bucklcd shap,,
on plate girder web stability. fa) Sìde view
lonoitudinal stiffener effectiveness, as related to stiffener size and location. have been
" . Th
by Cooper [ I I. J8, I 1. J9] and others at Lehigh U n1vers1ty.
.
e~e srud',es and others are lnade
sum.
marized in t.he SSRC Guide [6.8. pp. 211-22~1 and by Bl_e1ch [6.9, pp. 418-423]. Tue
ASCE-AASHTO Task Committee [11 .20] prov1des a full rev1ew of the theory and design or
longitu<linally stiffened plate girders.
The principal use of Jongicudinal stiffeners is _in highway bridge design. where tran.,.
verse stiffeners are used on both sides of a st.eel gU'der except _on r_he e>.t~rior ,ide of the
exterior girder for more pleasing appearance. Rarely are long1tud111al snffeners use<l ,lo
both sides of a web as shown in Fig. 11.12.1.
The primary function of longitudinal stiffeners is to contro! lateral web deflectio
[ 11.20], and hence improve the bend-buckling strength as discussed in Sec. I 1.5. ~
As discussed in Sec. 11.5, the elastic bucklìng strength of the web plate in he.nding
(Fig. 11.5.1) may be written '
-rr1 Ek
F. = - -- - - - -2 (11.12.IJ
cr 12(1 - /./)(h/1)
If the plate is stiffened by a longitudinal stiffener. as shown in Fig. 11 . I ~-1, thc value of k
will be significantly greater than for the. uns1iffened case. The stiffener u~ed ~hould be
stiff enough so that when buckling occurs. a nodal line will be formed ;:long thc line of
the stiffener.
Under bending alone, the value of the bucklìng coefficienl k has been found to be as
high as 142.6 for the case where rhe tlanges are assumed to provide fu ll ri-t·aim Lo rolation
at points A and B of Fig. l I .12.1 e and 111 = h/5. For the case where the flange, provide ao
moment restraint at A and B (simply supported) the siìffener located at m == h/5 is also lht
optimum Iocation. Such stiffener placement in the compression zone serve\ the purpose of
maintaining the full effectiveness of tlte web in resisting bending stres~. which is reallr the
sliffener's principal function. ·
For webs subjected to shear alone. the longirudinal stìffener shoulJ. be located :u
mid-height. For combined shear and bending the stiffener should be iocated so that
h/ 5 < m < h/2; because of its principal function, however. il should prefembly be closer
to h/5.
For design there are two requirements: ( I) a momenl of inertia 10 insure adequate
stiffness to create a nodal line along the stiffener. and (2) an aren adeguale to carry axial
compression force while acting inlegrally with the web.
The design requirement for sriffncss can be expressed as a function of 1hr rigidit~ of
the web, using the same approach as discussed for transverse stiffeners. Substituti11g the
web height h for the transverse stiffener spacing a in Eq. 11 .10.12 gives
. ì'ot3 ,h
Reqmred /_., = _;
10 2
Section 11.13 Proportioning the Section • 559
The AISC Spe ·r · . . · · 'ffi

For h"ighway bndges
. tcation L1.13] g1ves no infonnation regarding long1tudmal sii eners.
ciAASH .
• TO has given the following expression for Load Factor Design:
Required /51 = ,?,;i[2.4(*Y- 0.13] (11.12.3)
The moment of i · - . .
1 nenia 1sr 1s to be that of the stiffener plate(s) combmed wllh a centraHy
ocated web strip not more lhan l81w in width.
. The locaiion of the longi1udinal stiffener shall beat m = h/5, and 1he locai buckJing
requ1rement as from AASHTO,
Mini = - - - - -
w
(11.12.4)
82/VF;,, ksi
In addition the rad· O f - . - - I I d b
. · ius gyrauon r of the sttffener combrne<l w1th a centrai y ocate we
Slnp not more th an l 81w in width shall beat least
Min r ?o a ( I l.12.S)
727/ ~
th
Note e AASHTO coefficients have been converted frorn che ir sta.ced values to acconu110-
d ate using Fy in ksi as used throughouc this text instead ofpsi as in AASHTO.
1.13 PROPORTIONING THE SECTION
~he cross-section of a girder must be selected such that ìt adequately perfotm s its func -
tto ns and requires m inimum cost. The function requìrements may be summarized as:
1. Strength to carry bendìng moment (adeguate section modulus SJ .

2. Ve rtical stìffness to satisfy any deflectio n lim itations (adequate mo me m of
inertia /,;).
3. Latera] stiffness to prevent lateral-torsional buckling of comprcssion flange (ade-
quate lateral bracing or low Lb/r1).
4. Strength to carry shear (adequate web are a).
5. Stìffness to improve buckling or post-buckling strength of the web (related to lt/r
and a/h ratios).
To satisfy these function reguirements at minimum cost. it will be as~umed in what

follows thai minimum cost is eguivalent to minimum weight.
Flange-Area Formula
For simplicity in design it is convenient to replace the real syste m of Fig. 11 . 13 .1 a w ith a
substitute system, Fig . 11.13.1 b. which allows the mo ment 10 be re placed by a couple with
the forces of the couple acting at the fl ange centroids. Thc forces can then be treated as
axial lo ad si1ua1ions. lf r.he d istance between flange force.s is approximate ly (h + d )/ 2.
the forces of lhe couple are
M
C = T = - - - - (l l.13 . 1 l
(h + d)/2
The effective a rea on whic h these force s acl is equa] ro the flan ge plate arc a A J plu~
'r
additional area A to represe nt the effectìveness o f the web in resis ring moment.
}~.. ~~··(\:/)
r 1 m
A/ A1
!ZZZZZlA-.-===:i---
I
e = _(/, !!___
I
r I
r.ul + d)/2
I \\
I\ I
I ' :
::;
h +d \1
h d Arm - ~ ~\
L
I \
I \
I '
I
I \
I \
16=:1
Figure I l.13.1
Flange-area formula
(bi Flange-ar~ systcm
development. (a) Actual ,ystem
The average stress on the total effective area is
Force M ( I )
favg = Area = (h + d)/2 AJ + Ai
I
Tue area A muse be taken such that the bending moment canie<l by thc web is tbc
same for both the real and substituce systems:
Mrea1 sys1em = /owr. (d 6

h)zh 2
Msubstitule sysiem = /max h+ d) A'(h- 2+ -d)

(~ f 0 l.13.4)
Equating Eqs. 11.13.3 and 11.13.4 gives

2 2
h (ih ) ( 2d )( 2 ) th ( 2h ) (11.13.5)
Aj- =d 6 h + d h + d =6 h +d
which if Aw = th, and the squared factor is neglected, becomes
, Aw
A1=6 (l 1.13.6)
Next, solving Eq. 11.13.2 for Af gives
AJ = M - At
' ( 11.lJ.7)
[(h + d)/2]/avg
which, using Eq. 11.13.5 and/avg = fmu(h + d)/2d, gives
( l 1.13.8)
Letting the squared factor equal unity overestimates slightly the value of A1 . while lening
d/h = 1 underestimatcs the value. For preliminary design purposes these simp\ificatioos
are justified to give a simple expression for the required area of one nange plate.
M A111
A1= - - - (I 1.13.9)
fh 6
lntheuseofEq 1 1139 . . .
be nearly · · · , if f is taken as the average stress on the flange. the d/h term w11l
accountcd for· Wh e~ e heck"mg a scction, of course, the corree! momenl o f men1a
must be obtain · ·
ed ao d thc ma,umum strength.
Optimum Girder Depth

The variation in gi d .
det . h r cr cross-sec11onal area is to be examined as a function of web depth lo
beeermmc. t e depth wh· h ·11 . .
ic w1 g1ve mmimum . subJect
area. Extended treatrnent of rh1s . has
Sch711i~ve~ !by Shedd [I I.I], Bresler. Lin. and Scalzi [11.21] and Blodgen (11.221.
r .d dg [ ·231, Az.ad {11.241, Fle1scher [11.25], and Anderson and Chong [11.26) have
P ov, e extended treatm t f · · · · · the hyb n·d g1r
· d er h avmg
·
aw b . en o optimum proport1onmg. mcludmg
e of lower y1eld strength than the flangcs.
The average gross area A II of the girdcr for the enti re span may be expressed
(l 1.13. 10)
whcre
Cl = fact~r to account for rcducing flange sizc at regìons of lower I.han
maximum moment
C2 = factor to account for reducing web thickness at regions of reduced shear
Substituting Eq. 11.13 .9 into Eq. 11.13.10 gives
Ag M
= 2C1( -fh -
hr) +
- C2ht (l J.13.) l)
6
To find the minimum average gross area,
ilA 8
- =O (I l.t3. I 2)
a11
(a) Case 1. No depth restriction; desire large h/t. Assume
f3w = constant = h/ r; t = h/ f3w- Equaùon 11.13.11 becomes
A = 2c (Mf h - _!{_)
R
1
6/3,,,
+ e,±.
- f3w
(11.13.13)
iMg = O= - 2C1 Mf _ 4C1'1 + 2C2/i (11.13 .14)

ah J21t2 6/3w f3w
O= - 6C1 M/3 w - 2C1h3f + 6C2h3f (l 1.13.IS)
from which
(ll.13 .\6)
and if one neglects the section reduction in rcgions of lower stress, e, = C 2 = l,

Eq. 11 . 13. 16 becomes
(l 1.1 3.1 7)
where M = M,,/ q> = factored service load moment divided by </> = 0.90 for the
AISC LRFD Method
f = average stress on flange us ing Fcr as extreme fiber value when
nomina] moment s trength is achieved according to A1SC-FS or in
some rare cases AISC-F4
Usl·ng Eq. l l.1 3 .l 3 with c 1 = c2 = I and substituting for M/ffrorn ~- 11

'-A.I· -13.11
gives
4h2 h2 ..!!_ - 2h2
A =-----+ -
g 3f3w 3{3,,,, f3w f3w
f rom w h1·ch the girder weight per foot can be 2/estimated using the fact th
. at steci
weight is 3.4 Jb/sq in./linear ft ( 0.00784 kg/mm hnear mecre ).
6.8h 2 3/ti2
lb/ft = 3.4A g = - - = 8.9 \j -r2i:..
2- (l l.13.19jl
f3w f f3 w
using inch units for ihe variables. Stiffeners will generally increase this value by S1o
1O percent. M and J are defined for the AISC LRFD Method foUowing Eq. l l. J3. n
(b) Case 2. Minimum web thickness; I = cons1. Differentìating Eq. 11.B.ii
cìA g/iJh = O, gives ·
-2C1Mf - C11 + C 21 =O
f 2h2 3 (11. 13.201
J
6C1M
h =j,(3C2 - C,) 01.13.21,
(I l.13.22)
where M and J are defined for LRFD following Eq. 11.13. 17. The weight per foot
can be obtained using A g from Eq. 11.13.11,
{Mi
lb/f1 = 3.4Ag = 4.53ht = 7.85VJ ( I l.1 3.23)•
using inch units for the variables. Again, an estimate for the weight of stiffeners
should be added to the equation valuc.
(e) CaJe 3. Heavy shear which govems web area: Aw = constant ""web
area, ht. Equation 11.13.11 becomes
A M-
= 2C1(-fh -
Aw) + C2A ( 11.13.24)
g 6 w
from which it is apparent thai minimum A g resul1s from maximum depth h. This
ca~e usually does noi govern.
lf the same kind of steeJ is used throughout, the valuc of C 1 may vary from 0.7 lo 0.9
when used with the maximum positive moment 0.85 to 0.90 is the usual range. The value
of C2 is nol as likely 10 vary excepl on conlinuous su·ucture~ where it migh1 be 1.05 when
used with maximum positive moment. or 0.95 when useù with ma,x imum negative momem.
*For SI unirs. rhc mass per metre is

I Ml
kg/m = 1.72 3/-,- -
\/ / · f. 11,
(lW.l9\
{Mì
kg/rn = 0.0181 v ~i:·· (11.1.ì.1.lì
using mlii units for the variables.

Because of the complexity of evaluating e, and c2 for continuous slructures. il nùght be

well 10 lake them as unily.
Flange Plate Changes in Size
lt is. usually economica! to reduce 1he size of flange plates in the region of low moment.
Whtle no specific rules can be made lo help the designer to deternùne when it is desirab~e
to chan~e flange plate size. cenain simple relationships are possible if only one change m
flange s1ze is desireu.
(a) Case l. Linear variation in moment-two flange plate sizes. Consider the
situation of Fig. l l .13.2a. and assuming both plates are fully utilized for bending
moment. lhe flange-area formula can be used for each plate.
M
Ar = -hf - -Aw
6
(I l.l3.25)
M(x/L) Aw
Af I =~ - 6 (11.13.26)
The tota! flange volume in 1he length L is
Voi = Af(l - x) + Ar1x
=
M(L - x)
hf
A,,.,
- 6 (L - x) +
M
hf
(xL
2
)
--x
A ,,_,
6
= M
hf
(L 2
-
L
2
xl + x ) _ AwL
6
(11.B.27)
For minimum volume.
a(Vol)
- - =O = 2x - L:
òx .
figure 11. 13.2 . .

common moment vanau? ns
for detennining changc~ m
(a) (e)
flange plate size.
. --- . . --- --------- - - . .

. . . .
.
564 • Chapter 11 Piste Girders
which means
0 1.!3.28)
(b) Case 2 . Parabolic variation as for uni~ormly loaded simple bearn (see
Fig. I I. 13.2b). The tota! volume in the length L is
M
Voi= hf ·
(L 3
- L2x + 2Lx
I}
2
- x-') _ A,,,L
6
2 L
il(Vol) _ 2 _ _il . + L . = -3
~=0 - x 3 .l 3· .t
and
(I I. l3.29J
(e) Case J. Parabolic v;;iiation as for uniformly loaded cantilever (see

Fig. l l.13.2c). The tota! volume in the length L 1s
_ M
Voi - hf
(l'~- 2
L x
L2
+x
3
) _ A ,,,L
6
ò(Vol) 2_ L
-;;;- = 0 = 3x2 - L • X = \/3
and
(11. 13.301
Tue foregoing developments can provìde a guide for change of plate sizes. Since
making a change ìnvolves a groove welded butl joint of the flange plates, enough materiai
musi be saved to more than offset the welding cost.
As a rule of thumb. unless 200 to 300 lb of materia] ar~ ~aved in a flange plate per
added splice the added cost of the butt splìce (considering a pl::il~ about 2 ft wide and 2 in.
thick) is not justified.
Flange Plate Proportions

According to most of the theory devcloped earlier iu thi s ct.api,·r. the flange plate can be
any width and thickness as long as it contributes 10 the gird,~· the properties necessary to
salisfy the functional requirements. However. nearly ;iii te,òng has used flange platt
dìmension.~ which were considered reasonable.
In order 10 assisi the engineer who il- unsure of wh,11 ,;,,n:;titutes such reasonable
dimensions. the following guidelines are suggested.
J.. 1ypica11y the ratio of girder flange width to girdrr cteµi.h, bfid. varies from aboul
0.3 for shallow girders 10 about 0.2 for deep girders.
2. Plate widths should be in 2-in. incremenL~.
Section 11.14 Plate Girder Design E>eample-LRFO • 565
3. Plate thicknes . ·
s incremems should be as follow~:
I , 9
Hi In. r :S Ri in.
~ in. is r s I½ in .
I , I
4 m. 1 > I 2 in.
4
· Where lateral stability is of concern. the flange plate width-to-thickness ratio~
br/211 shou~d be kep1 at about the Àp value of AJSC-B4. in the maximum
mo1:1em regrons. This will permit reducing 1he thickness of flange plates in
regions of low moment. For such cases. flange plate area reduction should be
made by reducing Lhe thickness ra1her than rhe width.
5
• For laterally stable girders. the flange plate area re<luction in regions of lower
mom~nt may be accomplished by reduciog the thickncss. reducing the width, or
reducmg both thickness and width. A slight advamage in fatigue strength accrues
by reducing lhc width rather than lhe thickness [l l.221. The transition slope
should 1101 exceed I in 2 { for either width or thickness, and is usually I in 4 to l
in 12 for the transition in-width [ 11.221.
11,14 PLATE GIRDER DESIGN EXAMPLE-LRFD
Parti~lly design a two-span continuous welded plate girder to support uniform load w of
0. 8 kips/ft dead load and 3.2 kips/ft live load. plus two fixed position conce.ntrate.d loads \V
15
of kips dead load and 60 kips live load in each span as shown in Fig. 11.14.1. Latera!
SUpport is provided at each support and every 25 ft betwecn supports. Tbe girder is to have
constant depth web plate for the two spans. Use A36 steel in the positive n101nent zone and
A572 Grade 50 for lhe negative moment zone. Use Load and Resistance Factor Design.
Additional specifications and generai comments:
1. The live load is to be applied in its correc t manne.r: that is. applied as nece~sary to
ohtain the maximum and minimum moments and shears at every location along
the girder. This will mcan two live load cases for lhe factored bending momenl
envelope as shown in Fig. 11 . 14.2. For the she.ar envelope. the maximum values
at the exterior and interior support.s are obtaine.d from the two bending moment
loading cases. Forali other shear envelope 11alues. thc live load was placed using,
pania! loading in the manner dictated by the shear influence lincs.*
2. Assume ~ in. is minimum practirnl web plate rhickne,s.
3. Assume no depth restriction; also. 1J1at tmy deep thin-wcb girder thai is sclected can
be feasibly fabricated. transponed 10 the construction site. :md erected without
excessìve difficuhy or cost.
\V W IV 11·
25'- 0" 25'- 0" 2:-·-o· ~5'-<r
p,11111111ìi1111111,t:111111i11111111111L111111111111111111t:::
. ,ltJr . 7h7r
Figure 11.14 -l
Girder loading and support
for design ex ampie.
1---- ioo·~~ S(!Ì' 25'-0" = 200'- 0" I OO'- O' __ _-=-j .
*Scc Om-Kia Wang and Charlc, G. Salrnon. /111md11001:v S1n1c111rril A,wl~•.,is. En):k,-c10<I Cliffs. NJ: l)!"l"IIIÌl'l'· l-hlll.
!ne.. 1984. pp. 258- 275.
Sym. about
w w <i
i1111111111111111111111111l111111111111111111111111111W1111111111111111111111111l111111111111111111111111¾u•
- 25'- 0" ___j I- 25'-0" ---i

I
~---- - -- - - - -100·-0·-- - - -------<
Assumed girder weighl "' 0.300 lcJfl
7900
/ 7550
8 72 10 :.---.-----1 / LL-span l + DL
6 /
/
,/
8. 4 , /
.Q ~ ,, +
"~
> c.
2
/
fi ~
/
-=~::: o
/
~§ -2
E-
.,, +
ls ~· -4
~ -6
6710
--s
LL-spans I + 2 + DL
- 10
I 1260
369
300
200
.,c.
o 100
.;
i:~ o
"a
!. ;.;;;
"
~~ ' - 100
] :,.•
- 200
*
il: - 300 - 300
Figure 11.14.2 -400 -39ì

Factored moment and
factored shear envelopes for - 500
- 549
Lwo-span continuous beam of
-600
illustrative example. o 2.~ 50 75 100
Solution:
(a) Factored Loads. Using the basic factored gravity load combination of ASCE 7,
Uniformliveloadw" = 1.6(3.2) = 5.ì2kips/ft

Uniform dead load w" = 1.2(0.8) = 0.96 kips/ft
Concentrated live load I.\~, = l .6( 60) ::· 96 kips
Concentrareddead load W11 ~ l.2 ( 15} ;.;;, 18 kips
(b} Struc!Ural Analysis. Any method of sta,;_-ally iMieterminate structural anah-

sis can br! osed !o obtain the elastic moment and shei!r enw.lores under factored loads. Tbc
resu!u: a::.: ;:,rescnted in Fig. 11.14. 2.
Section 11.14 Plate Girder Design Example- LRFD • 567
(e) Estimate 0 ·'" w. · h

imposed load. h . J • eig t. . The maximum factored moments due to the super-
mornent reg· s (l at is, wuhout guder weight) of Fig. Ll. L4. l for the positive and negative
1ons are
+ Mu = + 7640 ft-kips
-M. = -I0,800 ft-kjps
Since there is no d h I' . .
AISC-F! 3 2 r . ept llnt~auon, the depth based on maximum h/tw may be desired. The
· im1ts are obtained, referring to Table 11.3.1,
Max. h/tw = 322 (332 when a/h s 1.5) A36 steel

Max. h/tw = 243 (282 when a/h s 1.5) A572 Grade 50
There will be stren th d . .
970/ ~ g . re Uctmn from the bend-buckling limit state when h/tw exceeds
Fcr, ksi accordmg to AlSC-F5. For this design those limits are
h/tw > 162 A36 when Fcr = Fv

h/iw > 137 A572 Grade 50 when Fcr = F_.
M =Fora we~ht estimate, try f3w = lz(tw = 300 and use Eq. 11.13. M = Required L?,
n M 11/<Pb - 7640/0.90 == 8490 ft-k1ps and J = R F. :::: 34 ks1 (somewhat less
than Fv): ' pg cr
Wt/ft = 8.9 3 (Require\M")2 = 8.9 3 [8490(12) ]2 = 276 lb/fl

(RµgFcr) /3,,, (34) 2300
AsSuming the gitder weight is 300 lb/ft gives the maximum factored positive moment
M,, = 7900 ft-kips. Recomputing the above formula gives
Wt/ft ""' 280 lb/ft (from formula)
The negative moment will require a slightly heavier section even though the ratio of maxi-
mum positive lo maximum negative moment is approximately the same as tbe ratio (i.e.,
50/36) of the yield stresses for the materials used. The web of the Grade 50 region of the
girder must be thìcker than the A36 region.
Allowing somelhing extra (I 0% is a reasonable estimate) for the stiffeners would
give a value slightly above 300 lb/ft. Use w = 300 lb/ft as the estimated girder weight.
The factored moment Mu and factored shear V,, envelopes are given in Fig. 11.14.2.
(d) Derem1ine Web Plate Sizes. For +M11 wilh A36 steel assume C 1 = C2 = I
and use Eq. I 1.13.17. Evaluate the optimum value for h using various 11/tw values. for
example, using h/lw = 320 gives
h =
3(Required M,,)/3w
· - - - - -- -
.ì 3(7900/0.90)( 12)320 =
114 in.
2(34)
Based on the posìtìve moment requirement. the economica! depth appcars at first to be
114 in. from the formula. However, if the lightest weight girder is desired, the web area musi
be used efficiently. Once the ~ in. thìckness is obtained from the 114 in. depth. the max-
mum depth fora ~-in. web should be dete1mined, which gives an h of 120 to 124 in. This is
considerably deeper than the fonnula value. Also. there is considerable reserve shear strel\gth:
Formula
h h
Actu~1
t: _____________________~
= f3w
.:__.:__ (in.) (in.) (in.) (sq in.) (ksi)
320 I I 4. l I 14 3/& 42 8 8.6

304
333 115.7 114 3/& 42.8 8.6 304
Max for 3/8 in. 125.0 using h/rw = 332
124 3/8 46.5 ì.9
331
Max for 3/8 in. 120.8 using h/tw = 322
120 3/8 45.0 &2 320
Max for 5116 in. I 04.2 using h/1,.. = 332
104 5/16 32.S I 1.4
333
Max for S/16 in. 100.6 using h/r,,, = 322
100 5/16 31.3 11.8 32()
V,,/ Aw will typically be satisfactory as high as 12 to 16 k~i. Note th~t <f>Vn/ A 111 can be about
18 ksi for h/tw = 320 according to AlSC-Table 3 -16. W1th the design facrored shear s
only about 8 to 9· ksi with the ~-in. web. it isprobable that a lighter girder will result u,ino
.~a
thinner (say fi; in.) web. The fi;-in. web would indicate a girder shallower than 114 in. e
around 100 in. • say
Evaluate optimum h for the negative momenì region initially using Eq. l l .13.1? With
M = M,,/4> = 11,260/0.90 and lt/ tw = 240.
On the basis of these preliminary computations, a depth of 100 in. is chosen. Thet .
m~la indi~ates_ somewhat de~per; however, the low shear indicates that lhe web can:
thmner. Smce mrermediate st1ffe ners are to be used, the reader may note that when l,fr
ratios are larger the stiffe ner spacing requirement over most of the girder length wili;
controli ed by Eq. 11.1 O. IO and wìll not be dependent on the. magnitude of the shear force.
Formula Vu
h h t Aw Aw Actual
h
t
w
= f3w (in.) (in.) (in.) (sq in.) (ksi)
h
240 104.0 104 7/16 45 .5 12.1 238

283 109.9 108 7/ 16 4 7.3 li .6 w
Max for 7/16 in. 123.7 u,ing h/tw = 282
122 7/1 6 5.t4 10.3 279
Max for 711 6 io. 106.2 using h/ tw = '.;4 3
106 7/16 46.4 11.8 242
Max for 3/8 in. 106. 1 using hj r,.. =-- :082
106 3/8 39.8 13 .8 283
Mox for 3/8 in. 9 1.0 using h/1,,. = ·_2.;:1
90 3/8 :tJ.8 16.3 240
Thi.: , 1he- <leepcr the girde r, the !unge r rnust be 1he ~ti ffom:r 1•btcs. with linle advantigt t1,
off<:e1::bt extra wc 1g ht. G ene-rally. multiples of 2 in . shouJd b,: ~l',t'd for the web platc tkpth.
Section 11.14 Plate Girder Design Example-LRFD • 569
the weAllowing for som tl ·b·1· · ·11 h t

. design.· use. h. = 100 in. wh1ch w1 mean t a
b slendemess h/ e · ex1, 1 Uy in the
1
· w 1s near but noi at 1he upper hm1L. Try
~ X 100 (h/tw = 320) for + M, Fy = 36 ksi

iX 100 (h/tw = 267) for -M. F,. = 50 ksi
_ (e) Se/cci Flange Plates for Negarive Momenr. Mu = 11,260 ft-kips. web plate
3
8
- . X lOO ( Aw = 37 .5 sq in.). The lateral-torsional buckJing limii state must be examined
~llh regard lo th e 25-ft distance between lateral supports. The slendcmess parameter À
mvolves the radiu - Of · · I ·
b _ . s gyrauon r,, as discussed following Eq. I I .4.15. lf a ryp1ca rauo
25 15
. 1/d_ - o.
Jts m1d-depth,
assumed, then b1 = 24 in. Using the radius of gyration of a rectangle about
r = br/V12 = 0.289h1
which gives r, "" 6.9 in., say 7 in.
Check LP for lateral-torsional buckling using AISC-F4.2,
Estimated LP = fE 187
l.lr,'VF = r1 _ r::-:--;
)' V Fy, ks1
7(187) I
= \/so 12= 15.5 ft < (Lb = 25 ft)
.E .
stnnated L, = 'TTr 1
R,iJ =
- - r1 •
640
~
7(640) I
= _ r.:; = ·' tt
s~ .
0.7F_, VF,.,ksi 50 12
v:,u
Thus, LP < Lb < L,. Lb is significantly lower than L,; thus. it is antìcipated that
the plate girder will be govemed by inelastic lateral-torsional buckhng obtaining Fcr
according to AISC-F5.2. However, note is made lhat the moment gradìent is favorable gìv-
ing a Cb greater than I.O. Referring to the 25-ft laterally unbraced segment adjacent to the
interior suppon in Fig. 11.14.2, where maximum M,, occurs. the moment gradìent is
closely a lìnear one varying from 11,260 ft-kips to zero. Thus, 1, = 1.67 for that segment c
when maximum moment is acting. lt is highly probable that the lateral-torsional limit state
does not affect the strength of this girder.
The high web s lenderness hc/tw, will. however, reduce the momeut strength. To
obtain an estimated reduction from the bend-buckling limit state. use Eq. l l A.3 (AlSC-
F5) with estimated hc/ lw of 267 ancl a 1v = A.,,/ A f "' 1.5
RN! = I - - ---"'
Ow - - - -
1200 + 300a,u lw
- 5.7 -
F,.
(hc f-f:·)
::: 1
- 1200
Ou: ("e
+ 300aw -;;;. - -~
970 )
~l -
1200 +
l.S
300( 1.s)
(267 -
970
v~ 4& ksi ) = 0.90
which makes Rpg Fcr ~ 42 ksi. (based on an estimated f~, value of 46)
Using the flange-area formula, Eg. I 1. I 3.9' gives the requirement for one fl
angc ai
M,,/<l>b Aw _ 11,260(12)/0.90 _ 37.5 = I .
29
AJ = RFh
pg cr
- 6 - 42(101) 6 . sq tn.
Some possible choices considering 42 ksi to be a low estimate:
i¼ X 22, AJ = 27.5 sq in., b1/211 = 8.8

li X 24, A1 = 27.0 sq in., b1/ 2t1 = 10.7
Ii X 26, A1 = 29.25 sq in., b1/2t f = l l.6
Try plates- 1¼ X 22: A1 = 27.5 sq in.

In this selection, the width-to-thickness ratio À = b f /21 f should be kept near the
value (9.2 for Fy = 50 ksi from Table 11.4.1 ). Some strength reduction may be tolerj
from the flange locai buckling limit state, but preferably not.
Check Fc, for the lateral-torsional buckling lirnit state (AISC-FS), Eqs. I1. _
44
through I l.4.9:
100(0.375)
= 1.36
22( 1.25)
Flange l y È (22 ) 3( 1.25) _

= .:..:..--- -=
27.5 + 37.5/6
5.73 m.
AJ + Aw/6
187 5.73(187) l
Lµ = r, -V r:::-:-: = - r.::50 12 = 12.6tì < (Lb = 25ft)
Fv,ksi V .'.lU
640 5.73(640) 1
L = r - -- = - -- - = 43ft
' ' -VFy,
r:::-:-:
ksi -V50
r::-:: I 2
Since L P < Lb < L, , Fcr may be below Fy. However. in this case at the negative mome111
zone, Cb = 1.67 from Table 9.6.3 assuming moment varies linearly over the 25-ft segmem:
thus, CbF,r is quite likely above Fy (the uppcr limit). Check Eq. 11.4.7 for the lateral-torsiooaJ
buckJing Limit state.
F..~. = CbFy[ I - 0.3 \L, _ Lp( Lb - Lp)]

= 1.67(50) [I - (2543 -- 12.7)]
0.3
12.7
= 73 lesi > (F'" = 50 ksi)
-
Tln15, f ~r bm,ed on the lateral--torsional buckling limit st::.r~ is F,, = 50 ksi.

Compuic Fc, for the flange locai buckling liinit ~1a1~ {AlSC-F53) when, accordinero
E."[- I t.4. l O, •
/ I
I\
= b f_) '-. ( \
/ /\ p
o= ___ ?.?_ __
- -
\J
-·· .
(
211 \, f .. l~L
Thi~ ,vas rnlisfied in this design when the tlange µJ a.-c-5 wue sekcted: otherwise this limit
s\atc must be treated according to Eqs. l l .4. l O tbrnugh ! .. -i . l3.
Section 11.14 Plate Girder Design E1<ample-LRFD • 571
h /t ~eKt, ev~l~strength reduction resulting from the bend-buckling limit stare when
9 70/
e w V F"_v- ksi, using Eq. 11.4.3,
R =I _ aw (h" 970 ) :,,,; LO

pg 1200 + 300aw fw - ~ [ll.4.3]
37.S
a,,,, = -Aw
Af
=- - = I .36
27.S
~:B)
In evaluating Eq· 11 ·4 ·3 , t he Fc, 1s
a
nd th
· the !esser value from the lateral-tors1ona
·
s, Eq. 11.4.3 1s evaluated using a = J 36 h j r = "67 and F.. = SO ksi. lO obtarn

Rpg = 0.89. W · , e w - , cr
J buc kl'mg
e fl3'.1ge locai buckling (FLB) limit states. ln this design, Fcr = Fy = 50 k~i.
·
The moment of inertia of the cross-section musi be evaluated,
J¼ X 22: 27.5(2)( 101.25/2) 2 = 140,960

~ X 100: (0.375)( 100)3/ 12 = 31,250
I = 172,210in. 4
Sx = 1 = 172,210 = 3360 in.3

(h/2 + IJ) SO + 1.25
Then, using Eq. l l .4.2, the nominai strength M,, can be evaluated,
Mn = Fc,SxcRpg = 50(3360)(0.89)/ 12 = 12,460 ft-kips

</>M,, = 0.90(12,460) = 11,200ft-kips :::o ( M,, = 11,260ft-kips)
Accept plates 1¼ x 22.
(t) Select Flange Pfatesfor Positive Moment. M,, = 7900 ft-kips. web plate fi; =
X 100 (Aw = 31.25 sq in.). Estimate che flange width to be abont 22 in .. the same as for
negative moment region, which makes r, ~ 5.7 in as coinputed in part (e) abovc. In thii-
positive moment region Cb ~ I .O conservatively. which means 1-:, for lhe laternl-torsional
buckling limit state might be a little below F, .
Again estimate Rpg :::::: 0.90 for the effect of the bend-buckling limit state.
Rpg Fcr:::::: 0.90(36) = 32 ksi

Using the flange-area formula, Eq. l 1.13.9. gives the requiremeut for oue tlange as
- M,,/<JJ& _ A w ___ 7900( 12)/ 0.90 31.25 . .

Al - ------ - - - = 27.4 s4 111.
RpgFcrh 6 32( 101) 6
Some poss ible choices:
I¼ X 22, A1 = 27.5 sq in., b;/211 = 8.8

I
1 8 X 24, A.r = 27.0 sq in.. b,-/2t1 = 10.7
I
[ 8 X 26, Af = 29.25 sq in., b1 / 21,r = 11.6 > 10.8 NG
Try plates-1 X 24: ! A1 = 27.0 sq in.

The choìces here are identica! to those listed for the negative moment z
one lt
!
however, the J x 24 may provide eno~gh strength b~cause_A = ~1/211 ,. IO.? d. ere,
exceed A = 10.8 for A36 steel. That hghter plate w11l be mvestJgated in this Ocs~
P . • t • exa111p1 .
however, the pracucal cho1ce would be the same I ;i X 22 used m the negative rn e,
w~ ~m
Check Fc, for the lateral-torsinnal bucldìng limi! state (AISC-F5), Eqs. 11.4.4 ,i-•.
11.4.9: ""l)Ugb
hclw 100(0.3125)
a = - - = - - - - = 1.16
w bI1J 24(1.125)
Flange ly fi{24) 3(1.125) .

r, = A
1
+ A w/6 =\ 27 + 31.25/6 = 6' 34 m.
187 6.34(187) I
LP = r,. ~ = . r,::; l2 = 16.5 ft < (L1, = 25 ft)
V Fy, ksi V jtJ
640 6.34(640) I
L, = r,. ~
v Fy, ksi
= _r,::;
v36
-
12
= 56 ft
Since Lp < Lb < L,, F,, must be computed in accordance with AISC-Fs ~n
1l.4.4
· _ ' '--'jS.
through 11.4.9. In tb1s case, Ch - 1.0,
L1, - Lp)]
Fc, = CbFy[ I (
- 0.3 L, _ Lp
Ì I - 0.3
= 1.0(36'L (2556 -_16.5)]
_
16 5
= 33.7 ksi < (F_. = 36 ksi)
Then Fcr = 33.7 ksi.

Next, evaluate the strength reduction resulting from the bend-buckling limit state whe
h/tw > 9 7 0 / ~, using Eqs. 11.4.2 and 1 l.4.3 with hc/rw = 320. n
Aw 31.25
aw = -- = - - = 1.16
AJ 27.0
R =I _ 1.16 ( 320 _ 970 ) _ 0

88
pg 1200 + 300(116) \ \/36 - ·
The momenl of inerti a of the cross-section inu:,t be -:: \·aluated,
I ! X 24: 27.0(2)(1011 25/ 2\;- = 138.050

ft X 100: (0.3125)(100 ) j/l<' - 26,040
.!' ·~ 164.090 in. 4
I 164.C90
S = - - --- = ------- .. - =- ·1210 in 3
X (h/2 -j- l_t) 50 + j_; ;_; •
Section 11.14 Plate Glrder Design Example-LRFD • 573
Thcn, using Eq I 1 4 2 h
· · · , t e nominai strength Mn can be evaluatcd,
Mn = Fc.Sx<-Rp8 = 33.7(3210)(0.88)/12 = 7930 ft-kips

tf>bMn = 0.90(7930) = 7l40ft-kips < [M. = 7900fl-kips) NG
This Understrength 15
1
= 179 . 4 · nel acceptable. lncrease flange plates to I ¼x 24, with A 1 = 30.0 sq in.•
8
l~al fl • OOburn._ • and Sx = 3509 in.3 The bi/211 = 9.6 does not cxcced Àp = 10.8; thus,
ange ckhng does not contro!. For this section,
100(0.3125)
aw = 24( 1.25) = 1.04
r _ 24
r=;====== = 6.40 ln.
J12(1
I -
+ ¼(1.04))
29
Lp = 1.1(6.40)~ :: = 200 in. = 16.7ft < Lb = 25ft
29
000
L, = -rr(6.40)~ 0.7(36)
• = 682 in . = 57 ft > Lt,
25 16 7
Fcr = 1.0[36 - 0.3(36)( - · )] = 33.8 ksi
57 - 16.7
R pg -_ l - ---=---
aw (hc
- - -970-) :S I.O (11.4.3)
1200 + 300aw lw VFcr
4 970
=l - l.0 (320 - ) = 0.89
1200 + 300(1.04) V36
Thc nominai strength M,. is
M,,= FcrSxcR1, 8 = 33.8(3509)(0.89)/12 = 8800 ft-kips

<J,bM,. = 0.90(8800) = 7920ft-kips > [M., = 7900ft-kips] OK
Use flange plates 1 ¼ X 24.
(g) Intermedia/e Stijfe11ers- Placemen1 in Positive Mome111 ·zone. Web platc = X I00. f6
Aw == 31.25 sq in., F)' = 36 ksi.
Exterior end, V" = 369 kips (Fig. l l. I 4.2). In end panels post-buckling strength
(i.e.. tension-field action) is not permined 10 be used. Equation 11 . 10.5 represents the nom-
inai shear strength Vn of such an end pane!.
V,, = ClJ(0.61\ )Au,
Required Cv = V. /"''l'v = - 369/

11
- -- 1.0
= 0.54 7 ( ll.10.5)
0.6FyAtt, 0.6( 36)31.25
The coefticient Cv is given by Eq. I 1.7. 10 for C1, < 0.8.
43,800k,, 43.800ku kv
Cv = (h/ r,,,) 2 F_,, = (320)236 = -84-.2
Required kv = 0.547(84.2) = 46.1
5
k v -- 461=5+
. •
--
(a/h)2
,,
Max~= 0.35
Max a = 0.35(100) = 35 in.

Use 2'-9".
Frequently, this maximum a/h can be obtained by using A/SC Manua/ Table
which contains 'Pv V,,/ A,,, values as a function of h/ tw and a/h. In this case, ' 3·16-_
Required q,,,V,, =~ = 369_ = I 1.8 ksi

Aw Aw 31.25
Then enter AJSC Manual Tables 3- 16 wirh h/t,n = 320, look for 11.8 ksi, and det--
a/h In this case follow the curve corresponding 10 12 ksi and follow the curve d ---..llll'lt
· ' . OWnl()
x-axis, and the corresponding a/h values that can be read 1s 0.35, which agrees Wilh dit
above calcularion. lht
Pane/ 2: Assume the shear envelope is linear (a conservative assumpti
the 25 ft to the bearing stiffener under the concentrated Ioad. T hus, at 2.75 ft from
On ) 01ci
suppor!, tht
369 - 228
V. 2 = 369 - - - - (2.75) = 354 kips
" 25
Equation 11.8.27 which includes tension-field action is applicable in ali paneJs ofthis .
cxcepr lhe exterior pane! treated above. AISC Tables 3-16b, entering wilh h/ti,, "" ~
3
Required tJ>,,V,, =a ~ = 354 = 11 _3 ksi
Aw Aw 31.25
The curve corresponding 10 12 ksi, is govemed by a maximum limit on a/h for h/

values below 228. This is indicated by the 12 ksi- curve dotted poniori. Following the ;•
line leads to a value of 0.66 for a/h. This means that the upper limit according ~
10
l I .10.10 controls, ·
2 2
a ( 260 ) (260) _
h~ h/tw = 320 = 0.66 ,o:: 3.0
a= 0.66(100) = 66 in. (5.5 fc)

Since latera! _support oc_cur~ every 25 ft and a bearing stiff~n~r i~ required at concentratfd
loads, the st1ffener spacmg 1s usually ananged 10 fit these hm1ta.t1ons. Considering lhe ~
stiffener at 2'-9", 22'-3" remains. Four spaces at rhe maximum of 5.5 ft will be Iess~
22' -3". Thus, five spaces must be used. 1t is preferable to use 3-ìn. multiples for stiffe
. ~
spacrng.
Use sriffener spaces as fo llows staning from the exterior suppon: 2@2'-6", 4@s·-o·
For the region from 25 10 50 ft from the end. rhc a/I, limitation of 0.66 stili gov;;:
UseS ~paces @5'-0".
Por thc region from 50 to 75 ft , the max.imum shear ~tress is stili below the vafut iu
pane! 2, . 0 that a/h maximum stili govems.
0
U se 5 spa,;es @5' -0".

Section 11.14 Plate Girder Design Example-LRFD • 575
_ J
(h) lntenned·ia1e sriiffieners-Placement
in Negative Moment Zone. Web piace
- li X 100, A.,, = 37.5 sq in., F,. = 50 ksi.
lnterior end: ·
V,, = 549 kips

1
Use Eqs. 1.8. 27 and 11. l 0.7 (AISC-G3) for this imerior pane) (there is an adjacent pane!
m the other span):
Required <PvV., v,, 549

=- = -37.5 - 14.6 ksi !!._ = ~ = 267
A,,, Aw ,,,, 0.375
Using_A~SC Manuul Tables 3-16a, again find the maximum a/h is controlled by lhe arbi-
irary hm1t (see also Fig. 11.&.9).
Max~ = ( 260
h h/tw
)2 260)2 = 0.95
( 267
. This pane! adjacent to che interior support on a continuous span ha-; high !.hear and
bend.ing moment al the same location. In previous AISC Specifications. moment-shear
mteract1on was considered in detennining the stiffener spacings. The 2005 AISC Specifi-
cal!?n considers the effect negligible. According to che AlSC Commentary-G2, "Consid-
eration of the effect of bending on the shear strength is not required because the effect is
deemed negligible." It is the authors' opinion that the selected spacing of stiffeners in
zones of high shear and moment should be conservatively closer lhan permitted by the
AISC Specification. Use 4 spaces @ 5 ft.
(i) Location of Flange a11d Web Sp/ices. The location of splices is partìally depen-
dent on the type of splices used; fora bolted field splice joining the A36 wìth the A572 sec-
tions, both flanges and web usually would be spliced at the same location: fora field welded
!;pJice it might be preferable to splice the flanges at a Jocarion offset from the web splice by
as much as 10 ft. Such an offset reduces stress concentration and probably assists in getting
proper alignment at the splice. For ùtis example assume splices for tlanges and web a.re to
occur at the same location.
Frorn previous calculations for stiffener spacing it is apparent that s.plicing could be
done at, say, 26 ft from the interior support, just beyond the bearing stiffener. Perhaps. how-
ever, it can be made closer to the interior support.
Try 5' -6" from the concentrated load (I 9' -6" from interior suppon) which would be
the maxmrnm spacing based on the maximum ajh = 0.66 for the u;-m. web. See part (g.).
Examine a pane! of ~-in. web immediately to the righi of the concentrated load that
is 25 ft froru the interior support. The maximum momen1 of about 3500 ft-kìps occurs oaly
when no lìve load i~ on span I; and it is lowcr tban ,t,1,M,, = 8430 ft-kips l'[rom par1(f}J.
making spLicing at 1his locarion acceptable.
A summary showing stiffener spacing appea.rs in Fig. 11 . 14.6.
(j) Siz.e of lnJermediare Stijfe11ers. Frequently. A36 stiffeners are suitable. with
higher yield stress materiai offering little if any saving. Try A36 sreel forali stiffenen;.
Pane l 2 from exterior support: This is the fir~l pancl in which tension-fie ld acrion is
presumed to occur.
Having reduced the spacing of the fir~t stiffener to 2' -6" from 2' -9", the lllai(
shear force in the pane! will be somewhat h1gher than used for the pane] 2 com l{!Jllni
"•PU!ati .
part (g). Thus, O!\ 1~
V,, = 355 kips

Vu/ Aw= Required ,J,..,Vn/Aw = 355/31.25 = I 1.4 ksi
a/h = 30/100 = 0.30
h/110 = 100/0.3125 = 320
Entering AISC Manual Table 3-16 with the above vaJues, and using AlSC Formula (G
one gets 3-31.
<f>vVn/ Aw "" 15.0 ks i
Asr > 2[0.15D,htw(l - Ci;) ;V.u - l81;,,]

F_,\'SI '+' Il
A.,= ¼[
36
0.15(1)(100)(0.3125)(1 -0.544) ili
469
- 18(0.3125)
2]
= negativenumbcr
Jf the web contribution is disregarded,

A_,, = 1.62 sq in.
The requìrement may be reduced in proportion that the shear strength is underutilized,
v./Aw = ~= 0.76
</>vV..!Aw 15.0
The stiffener area A,, required is
Required A 51 = 0.76( 1.62) = 1.23 sq in.
This area_requirement assumes stiffeners are !O be us_ed in pairs. Furthem1ore. locai buck-
lmg o~ th1s uns1tff~ned element musr be p_recluded: 1.•e .. À :s;: accordi.ng to AISC-B4 ~r:
The w1dth band th1ckness t, as shown in F1g. l 1.14.J, must sa11sfy ·
95
( À= !!.)
t
:s;: (Àr = 0.56~r
V F,.
=
\/F,. ksi
= __2.~ = 15.8)
V36
The requirement for stiffness. Eq. 11 . 10.8 gives
[ I 1.10.8]
where
2.5 2.5
j = ~-, - 2 = 1 - 2 = 25.8
(a/h)- (30/JOO) -
fs, ;?: 25.8(30)(0.3125)3 = 2 3 .6 in. 4
,--
!
S1iffener
pl3ICS
I
Flan,~ wi,t<ll ,.---1
Figure l 1. l 4.3
Cross-sec1io11 of ink m1eòiate L ._____-++--__J
stiffencr plat.cs.
l. .. _.._ ... . ~ . ~ ... - . I. . .... , . : ; .. . : .. . . ~ -... . -. .

Section 11.14 PI
ate Girder Design Example-LRFD • 577
To find minimum acceptable t'fi .
s I ener w1dth (Fig. 11 . 14_3),
Required ,2 = !E_ = 23.6 _

Asr 1.23 - 19.2 in.2
Provided ,2 = tW3 = w2
12,w 12
Required W == Y 12(19.2) = 15.2 in.
This woul_d indicate 8-in. wide plates, and to satisfy b/1 s 15.8 the thickness would be
about O.\'"· Th~e_would be inordinately large and A,, would be abour 8 sq in. Try pairs
of plates 8 X 5, g1vmg b/t == 13.3 which is less than A,.
Check the moment of inertia In,
I = 1W3 = 0.375(!0.3125) 3
<I
12 12
= 34.3 in. 4
T~us, the provided J_.1 exceeds the required 23.5 in. 4 If the M limit of I 5.8 can be
ft
accepted as 16 (i.e., I% high), plate X 5 will be acceptable: thc moment of inenia I., for
tho.sé plates is 28.6 in. 4 The authors prefer the ~ X 5 plates.
' Since the stiffeners for the pane! are about the minimum size based on locai buckling
provisions, thc reduced area required for the more inteqpr panels on the ~-in. web is of lit-
tle consequence.
Use 2Pls-ft X 5 forali intermediate stiffeners attached 10 the ~ -in. web.
Examine the end panel adjacent to the interìor support. Because of thc shear-flexure
interaction requirement the design shear strength 4>,,v,, requi.red is:
Required 4> 1,.V,, = 549 kips [from part (h) ]
Rcquired 4>vVnfAw = 549/ 37.5 = 14.6 ksi
a/ h = 60/ 100 = 0.6

h/lw = 100/ 0.375 = 267
. ·on 10 determine the stiffener spacing. at <1/ /r = 0.60 the panel u~,
['· t' As in the calculall
I 00% of
h th E111ering A/SC Man11al Tablc J-17 "uh thr abme
thc s car streng .
Iess t han . /A = 24.2 ksi. Che~·k by calculating Rcqu,rcJ ,\ " from
values, find Required <JNn w
Eq. l 1.8.29,
,. = s + i , - l k.9
"" . (0.6)·
AJSC-Formula (G2-5) applies.

,JJ.8()()1., .B,!<00( Il< 9)
(::?67)1~o
578 • Chapter 11 Pfate Girders
V,, = 0.6FyAw(Cv + 1.1 ~+C~a/h)2)

5
I - 0.231 )
= o.6(50)37.5( 0.232 + 1.1 \/1 + ( 0 _60 ) 2
5
= 9os kips
<l>vV., = 1.0(905) = 905 kips
Required As, = 2[o.15DAw(I - Cv) ,1.V~ - 18r;;i]

[l l .8.291
Fyst 'l'V n
50 5
= (0.15(1.0)37.5(1 - 0.232) 9~: - 18(0.375) 2 ] = 0.12 .
~ ~~
This value for the required stiffener ar~a is smaH and_w_ill no~control. Thus stiffnes
trols rather than strength. Use A36 suffeners w1th hm1 t A, - 15.8. Try ~ x 5 5 c0ri.
~~ 1 ~
p~
Check required ! 51 using stiffeners spaced at 5 ft (i.e.. a = 60 in.),
l,, ~ jat'tc
3
= 4.94(60)(0.375) = 15.7 in. 4
2.5 2.5
where j = - - - 2 = 2 - 2 = 4.94
(a/h) 2 (60/100)
3 3
J
SI
= -tW
12
0.3125( J0.375)
=- - - ]2
.
- - = 29.0 in. 4 > 15.7 in. 4
f
The 6 x 5 plates are satisfactory for use on the ~-in . web of Grade 50 in th
e neoa ·
moment zone. " li1e
Use 2 PLs-ft x 5 of A36 steel for ali intermediate stiffeners connected l ,
·- o the ~ ·
web. ~
(k) Connections of lntermediate Stiffeners to Web. For the ft-in. A36 Web .
Eq. 11.10.14, , us1ng
f,,v = 0.045h y E
m [I l.J0.] 4]
Even though there is no specific force requirement for connecting intennedi·at .

. · ~ e Sllffe
except the tens1on-field force P., used for the As, requ1Tement. the use of Eq. nel\
11
recommended by Basler ( 11.3] seems appropriate. · IO l4 as
(36) 3
l,,v = 0.045(100) - - = ·S7ki.
29,000 · ps_; m.
·
The stiffener spacing at the first pane! at the exterior suppon was finallv n d ,
instead of the 2'-9" permitted. Thus the J,,v value could logically be reduced. in ~:oe 2 :6"
that the shear is underutilized. Using Eq. I l.7. IO for h/ tw > l.l ~ / F _ pon,on
V \' - 24' .
a/h = 30/100 = 0.30, h/tw = 320, and kv = 60.6 from Eq. 11.7.8 gives - ·1111th
43.800kv 43,800( 60.6)

Cv = (h/tw)-F_y,
, ks1. == (320) 2 (36)
= O·7'l~
Vn = Cv(0.6Fyw )Aw = 0.72(0.6)(36) (31.25) = 486 k.ips
Section 11.14 Plate Girder Design Example-LRFD
• 579
~ = 369
c/>Vn I.O( 486)= O.76
Requiredfnv = 5.7(0.76) = 4.3 kips/ in.
Min weld size a = ~ in. ( AISC-Table J2.4 )
Det~nnine maximum effective weld size (AISC-J2.4 using shear strength on throat
of fillet w1th E70 electrodes) (see also text. Sec. 5.14), Eq. 5.14.9,
_ Fut1 58(5/16)
Omaxeff - 0.707- - = 0.707- -- = 0.183 in.
FExx 70
Try ~ ·in. weld of E70 clectrodes. The nomina] weld strength R nw is
Rnw = a(0.707)(0.6FExx)
= 0.183(0.707)(0.6)70 = 5.44 kips/ in.
Since four lines of fillet welds (Fig. 11.14.3) are to provide 4.8 kips/in., then 4.8/4
1.2 kips/ in. are required along each line.
% ofcontinuous t6-in. weld requircd = ~(100) = 22%

5.44
For intermittent welding, minimum segment is 1.5 in. (or 4 times the weld size. if longer).
according to AJSC-J2.2b; the nomina! strength of this segment is
LwRnw = 1.5(5.44) = 8.2 kips

8.2
Max pitch = - = 6.8 in.
1.2
use ~ in. -1 ~ in. segments @6½~ pitch, E70 electrodes. for connecting ~ X 5 plates to ij in.
web.
For this i·in. A572 Grade 50 web:
Reqtiired l,,v = 0.045( I00)
where the yield stress of the web is used in fnv · . .

Al the interior support, the actual shear strength equals approx,mately tbe. reqmred
strength; thus no reduction in f,,v is appropriate.
Min weld size a = i io.
F,,l1 58(3/8) _ .
== O707- - = 0.707- -- - o. 18~ In.
Umax cff · FEXX 70
·a rs Use Lin. tillet weld with E70 electrodes.

based on the A 36 suuene .· 16
Rn = 0.183(0.707)(0.6)70 = 5.44 kip~/in.
For 1½-in. segments, the maximum pitch is
1.5(5.44) .
Max pirch = _
9 314
= .1.5 10 -
. ous 1.-in. wcld.
which means ncarly cootmu , 16
Use ~ in. co~tinuous weld, E70 electrodes. for connec1ing ì7i X 5 plates ( A.3 ) I-O
6 1
(F;. = 50ks1). . . _ ~
(I) Fla11ge ro Web Connectwn- A36 steel re,:1011. The wclding f
rh~ web musr provide for rhe _t~c1ored ho~izonial shea~ fJo~ Vu~?/ I_, 31 ~:~ llarigt\
rh1s requirement docs noi expl1e.:11ly occur in the AlS~ Specij1ca11on, it is ce J _1111.
,ie ¾ .I(,
in a provision such as AISC-E6.2. I s1 Par. for bu1l1-up members where~oly i'l\pl ì1.
required ro be " .. . adequa1e 10 provide for rhe tr,msfer of lhe required r 0 ri11cc11,..lbJ
•0rces ·, -..
tored load shear tlow is · 1lic r,
~-
V.,Q
Shear tlow =- ,. kips/ in.
where V,, = fac1orcd shear ar sec1ion

Q = statica/ moment of flange area abour x-axis
lx = moment of inenia of section about x-axis
Welding along both sides of rhe web provides a shear tlow srren th
exceeds the VuQ/ lx requirernenl, may be reduced by rhe use of intennitte g · Which_ Ìf
mally fJange 10 web welding is made conrinuous, primarily because auro nt ~elding_ ~ '
procedure.~ usually make ìr more economica) 10 do so. However, for des~tic fabricai.ii,..
minimum percenr of conrinuous weld acceprable in each panel berween-~f~Pu~ :
1
prescribed. Jf it is more economica] for the fabricaror to use more weld 1-1 . ener; 1'·iJI k.
• IS pel"Tl:l. ~
do so. The foUowing calculatfons conservatively assume shielded me~J · 1SSible1.;
(SMAW) is to be used. are "'elclìnt
Min weld size a = i in. ( AISC-Table J2.4)
F,,r, 58( 5/ 16)

amaxeff = 0.707- - = 0.707- - - = 0.183 in
FEXX 70
for E70 electrodes. The shear flow VuQ/ l, is
Q = A1G· + 1) = 24( 1.1 25)(50.65) 1370 in:'
V,,Q 369( 1370) . _

, ; = 164_000 := 3.1 lo ps/ rn.
Equating thc strength of two fillets ro V,,Q/lr gives
2a(0.707)(0.6)70 = 3.1
Required a = 0.05 in. < 0.183 in.
ft
Use in. weld. E70 electrodes (effeclìvc sìze
•
= 0.183 in.). The desio::,O Strenoth
conttnuo us weld on both s ìdes of the web is " 0 R•« fo,
4'Rnu• = 0.75(2)(0.707)(0.183) (0.6)70 = 8.2 kips/ in.

. %
Mm . l l
contrnuous weld = - ( I 00) = 38'7"
8.2
The maximum spacing of weld segments. accordino 10 AISC- E6 2 3 d .
"' · · r par.. 1s
Spacing ~ (o.7:11\/'E-=-0.-7.-5(_5__))--=2=9.=000
~ = ·. )
6 ·6 111 •
F., 16 36 s 12 in.
Section 11.14 Plate Girder Design Example-LRFD
• 581
(m) Flange lo Web Connection-A572 ••te,/ .

, f reg1on.
Min weld size a= fk in. (AISC-Table J2.4)
f~t, 65(3/8)
amaxeff = 2(0.707)FExx = 0.70770- = 0.246 in.
The maximum shear flow strength re4uirement is
VuQ 549( 1390)

lx = 172,000 == 4.4 kips/in.
where
Q ==- Ai(h/2 + l1/2) = 22(1.25)(50.625) = 1390 in. 3

The design strenglh cf>Rnw for continuous ft-in. weld on hoth sìdes of the weh is
<l>R,,w = 0.75(2)(0.707)(0.246)(0.6)70 = I I .O kips/in.

. OJ 4.4
Mm •
,o cootmuous weld = - - ( 100) = 40%
Il.O
The maximum spacing of weld segments, according 10 ALSC-6.2 is
S. ( /
pacmg :S E
0.75t\Fy = 0.75 (3)8 V~
/29,000 = 6.7 in. ) :S 12 in.
Use t, in. weld, E70 electrodes. The minimum percentage of continuous weld required for
each pane! along the i-in. A572 Grade 50 web is summarized in Fig. 11.14.6. AlSC-J2b
requircs at !cast 22% of continuous weld (that is, I !-in. segments @ 6. 7 in. maximum pitch)
(n) Design of Bea ring Stijfeners-lnterior Suppor!. As discussed in Scc. 11.11,
generally are required on plate girders al ali concentrated loads and reactions. Specifi-
cally, AISC-JI0.7 requires a pair of transverse stiffeners extending lhe full depth of the
web "at unframed ends of beams and girders not otherwise restrained against roiarion
about their )ongitudinal axes." On rolled beams il may be possible to salisfy the require-
ments of AISC-JI0.2 to prevent yielding. AISC-JI0.3 to prevent web crippling. and
AlSC-J I0.4 10 prevent sidesway web buckling: however, satisfying AISC-J I 0.2. J I 0.3.
and JI0.4 on a plate girder would be rare. AISC-J 10 provides the specific requirements
for bearing stiffeners.
The interior factored reaction is
Reaction = 2(549) = 1098 kips
Bearing stiffeners should extend approximately to rhe edge of the tlange plate even
though not required to do so by AISC. The widlh b should then be
b 22 - 0.375 = I O.8 .in.

= ------ ( say I Oin.
. )
2
Column strength criterion according 10 AISC-J4.4. (Fig. 11.1-4..1 for cross-section):
r ;:.-; 0.25(20.375) = 5.1 in.

_KL ;,.-; -
0.75(100)
~ - = 14.7
r 5.1
i---:,-i;-=.=-===--,.-.-=-1-.---, 7
I 22" flanse
Figure l 1.14.4 '--1----_j-2_0_¾_"_·-+---~jdlh

Cross-secrion (tria!) of
bearing stiftener at inrerior 25/w ~ 9.J7" -
suppon. Efftclive
Using AfSC ''Available Criticai Stress for Compression Members" Table 4-22 fi
. lnd
<l>r f~, = 32.0 ksi ( for A36 sceel)
1098 .
Required As, = -32.0- = 34.3 sq rn.
34.3 - 9.37(0.375)
Required r = 1.54 in.
2(l0)
Local buckling criterion:
Fy = ~
Vo/-
9
( ,\ = !!_)
r
s (,\, = 0.56
1\, ks1
= . ~
v 36
= 15.9)
Required r = JQ_
15.9
= 0.63 in.
Note rhat the proportioning requirements of AfSC-J 10.8 that referto the "fl ,.
primarily relating to a rigid beam-to-column connection of the type u-eated . ange· art
. JOSec 1
the tenn "flange" in this context does nor mean the plate g1rder flange. · 3,6:
Bearing criterion (AfSC-17) using the comact area A pb:
!098 1098
Reqd Apb = </>(l. 8 )F,. = 0 _75 (1.&)J6 = 22.6 sq in.
Ap,, = 2(10 - 0.5),

/'
est. to allow for fillet \veld
22.6 .
Required t = -(-- = I. I 9 111.
2 9.5)
Column strengtb criterion governs. So as to properly ùistri~u1e Lhis reaction

JX IO to serve as bearing stiffeners. (Alcemative. 2PLs-l 1 X IO.) · try 4PL~...._
Recheck r for columns strength:
r ==
ti
(J.75)(20.375)3
20(1.75) + 9.375(0.375) == 5.7 in. > estimateci 5.1 in.
By inspection. columo strength ìs adeguare.

Use4PLs-l X IOforR = I098kips(A36 steel).asshownìnFig. ll.1 4 .5 _
(o) Conneclionfor Bearing S11ffe11ers lo Web.
. 1098
Requ1red f,w = &( 100) = 1.37 kips/ in.
• « - ~, =< ·~ I .. ~ "" "-- ;,s· à lf
' ...
~~ :.:..
,..
~!Il.
,~
- ·
·1 '\. . .~
..
e.Il' ;::,,t" ~5.
"
:;;.;
ti
\. - """
- ,t: '5". ...
.>,·. - ~ -n
.. .t;q:
.
Sym. about
<t.
Bearing Latera! suppor(
5
siiffener
21t.. -lx
8
10
16
Web
5
j6 xl00
requires a stiffrner
at midsp.,n
/ w~/·"?; x ~,,u I
I
t-- - - - - - , f - : 1 - - - - -- -- -- - - 80'- 6"

A36 s1ecl
/
!{_ - i¼x 24 l I
- - - --i9'- 6'' -·---·-
A0,de 50
1 2@2'-6'
4@5'-!Y' 10@5'- !Y' 5' 6. 4@ 5'-0"

Bearing
stiffener
4L - g7 X IO
]8 , 37 , 35 • 32 29 , 26" , 26', 26°, 26' • 26', 26", 26' • 26" I 26' I 28 I 31 I 4J

Flange•t'r-weh c-onnection-Percent 1. con1inuous. wcld rcquired .
16
•Min. % according 10 AISC - 12.2.b
lntermediate stiffcnen lnlcrmedtatc stiffcners
On
5
web. 2
s x S (A36)
t• - 16 (in pairs)
16
3 S 1 .! - 5.! (E70)
On
8 web. 2 ts - TI, X S (A36) 2 2
For
S
t s - 16 X 5 on
5 we b
Buring stiffcners all A36 stee! 16
Continuous (E70)
For lt.s - f& X S on ¾web

Cui pla1e, l" ,hon
(intemiediale stiffencr. only)
at bonom flange on A36 web
ai top flange on AS72 Gradc SO web
Figure 11 .14.6 Design sketch.
U'I
CO
w
584 • Ctiapter 11 Plate Girders
- Stiffener
pffil C'S
(Cros-s-scc1ion)
1·
J .
g-m.wc b
Figure 11.14.5 8
Cross-section (final) of
bearìng stiffener ai Vari•ble; shouid
interior suppon. marc.h suppon widJh
for eight lines of lillet weld (Fig. I 1.14.5). Use ti; in., with maxjmum eff, _
= 0.246 and E70 electrodes, as detennined in pari (m). The design si.rengch <hRCctive , 1;t
line o( continuous weld is · ''"' 1ur Oti t
<f>Rnw = 0.75(0.707)(0.246)(0.6)70 = 5.5 kips/in.
1.37
Min % conrinuous weld = _ ( 100)
55
= 25%
(p) Bea ring Stiffeners at Concentra1ed Loads 25 _{I /rom Supports. A.
th
tions, check whether or not the intermediate stiffeners will be adequate to serv~ e~e l0c-._
stiffeners. The factored loads W,, are a~ beai;llg
W,, = 1.2(15) + 1.6(60) = l 14 kips

ti" (5/ J6)( 10.3125)3
r = - -----'-=--------.--:--::-:--::-:::-7-.::-:-::-::-::~
10(0.3125) + 25(0.3125)(0.3125)
= 2. 27 in.
Kl 0.75(100)
- = - - - =33
r 2.27
Using AISC "Available Criticai Stress for Compression Members'' TabJe 4. 22 fi
- nd
<A:Fcr = 30.6 ksi ( for A36 steel)
A_,, = 10(5/16) + 25(5/16)(5/16) = 5.57 sq in.
</JcP,, = 30.6(5.57) = 170 kips > (W,, = 114 kips)
The rl; X 5 intermediate stiffeners are satisfactory for bearing stiffeners unde h
rt e n,
centrated Ioads. "COQ.
(q) Design Sketch. Every design must have ali decìsions surnmanzed
sketch. s~ch as Fig. 11 . 14.6. The design of the bearing sti~eners for the exterior :: a de,ign
been om1tted because the procedure has been adequately tllustrated in pans (o) PJlOrt h.,
girder weight, multiplying a plate cross-sectional area by 3.4 to get Jb/ft 1·._ (" anct (p), lb~
· ~ ' " •Or On
e ~Pant
A572 plates: I ¾ X 22 X 20' = 93.5( 40) = 3,740
18 X 100 X 20' = 127.5(20) 2 ..5so
A36plates: 1¾ X 24 X 80' = 102.1(160) = 16,328
ft X 100 X 80' = 106.2(80) = 8,500
Stiffeners: ti; X 5 X 8.33 x 38 = 5.31(8.33)38 = 1.682
tX 10 X 8.33 X 4 = 29.75(8.33)4 = 99!
Tota! = ~ lh
Average weight = 338 lb/fc.
•
~ELECTED REFERENCES
i !,
:110,, i;,< C . Shcdd. Stmelural De.,·ign in Sree/. New York: John Wilcy & Sons, lnc., J 934, Chap. 3.
I L:!. Ed \l•JH H. Gaylord. Jr. and Charlcs N. Gaylord, De.<Ìf:11 of Strel Structure.,. New York: McGraw- Hill
lfoo k Cornpany. lnc .. 1957. Chap. 8.
11.3. l<onrad Basler. "Strcngth of Pfare Girders in Shear.'' Tm11sac1ions. ASCE. 128, Part Il (1963). 683- 719.
l l.4. r. ~-rea,.
I Also Paper No. 2967. .loumal of the Srrucwrol Di1•isio11. ASCE. October 1961.)
and H. J. Go.ifrey. "Jn,esiigation o fWeb Buc kling in S1.ecl Beams... Tronsacrions. ASCE. 100
t !~. 5). 675- 706.
I i .5. l<'.;nrnù B~sler. "Strcngrh of Pia te Giniers in Benòing." Tra11.mc1io11s. ASCE. 128, Part [! (! 963),
1\.15--08(). (1\ lso as P;,per No. 2913. Jo,mwi of1/,e Srruf/uro/ Di,'i.<ion. ASCE. Augu~t 196 l.)
11.6. Ro nal<l W. F ros t and Charles G. Schilling. "Beh avior of Hybrid Beams Subiected 10 Srntic loJds,''
Joumol oj rhe S1rucr11ral Divì.1io11. ASCE. 90, ST.l (Junc 1964). 55-·88. ·
11.7. C:hJrle, G. Scltilling. ''Web Crippling lhrs on Hybrid Girders." .loumal of rhe Srmcrura/ Division.
ASCE. '>3, STJ (Febrnary 1967). 59-70.
l 1.8. Philhp S. Car,kaddan. "Shea.r Buckling ofUnstiffened Hyhrid Beam, ," .!011rnal of1he S1r11m,ml Divi-
sìon. ASCE. 94, ST8 (August 1968). 1965- 1990.
I i .9. A. Anthony loprac and Mun1gesam Natara.1an. "Fatigue Srrength of Hybdd Plate Gìrders," .lrmmol of
1/Je Strur:lurol l>iv1sio11. ASCE. 97, ST4 (Aprii 1971 ), 1203- 1225.
11. l fl. C. G . Schilling. Chairman. "Design nf !lybrid Stccl bcam~.'' Repon o f Sub-committec f on Hybrid
Beams and Girders. Joint ASCE-AASHO Co mmirtee on A exurnl Membcrs. Joumo/ of:/re Stmcrural
Divisio11. ASCE. 94, ST6 (June 1968). 1397-1426.
11.11. Peter B. Cooper, Theodorc V. Galamhos., anù Mayasandrn K. Ravindra. "LRFD Criterìa for Plate Gird-
us," Joumal of rhe S1ruc111ral Division, ASCE, 104, ST9 (September 1978). 1389-1 407.
1 I . 12. John L. Dawe and Gcoffery L. Kulak. "Locai Buckling of W Sltape Columns and Beams:· Jnimur/ of
S1r11cruml Engineering, 110, 6 (Junc 1984), 1292- 1304.
1 l. 13. Cynthia J. Zahn. "Plate Girder Design llsing LRFD." Er1gi11eeri11g Jounwl. AlSC. 24, I (First Quarter
1987), 11- 20.
11. 14. Konrad Basler. 'New Provisions for Plate Girdcr Design;· Pmceedings. AISC Nmional [11gineerirr.g
Conference. Chicago, IL: American IMtirute. of Steel Construction. 1961. 65-74.
11 . I 5. AJSI. "Proposcd Criteria for Load and Resiscance. Factor Design of Steel Building Strucrures:· 8111/e,i,1
Nn. 27. Washington. DC: American lron and Sieel lnsriturc, January 1978.
11. 16. George S. Vincent. "Tentarive Crit<0ria for Load Factor Design of Steel Bridges:· 811/lc1i11 No. I 5. Wa.~h-
ington, DC: American lron and Steel Tnslitute, March I 969.
11.17. Ko11rad Basler. "Srrength of Plate Girder, Under Comhincd Bending and Shear," Jmmral oft/1<• Struc-
tural Divisimr, ASCE, 87, ST7 (Octobcr 1961). 181 - 197. Sce also Tra11sac1im1.<. ASCE. 128 (1963). Pan
Il. 720-735.
11.18. Peter B. Cooper. "Strength of Longitudinally Stiffencd Plate Gìrders.- Jauma/ af 1l1e Sm,c111ra/ Dil-isìo11.
ASCE, 93, ST2 (Apri) 1967). 419-451.
11.19. M. A. D 'Apice, D . J. Fielding. and P. B . Cnoper. "St.itic Tests on Longitudinally Stiffened Pl;ite G ird-
ers," We/ding Research Cmmcil 8111/etin No. I I 7. Octnber 1966. Also. Sm!llgrh o{ Plmc Girders 11·i1h
Longitudinal Sr(ffeners, B11/leti11 N~. 16. Ametican tc:on ~nd Sted ln.stitute. Aprii 1969. Pa~>er No. IIJ.
(Includes historical survey and b1bloography"" longJtudmally suffenc<l plales.)
11.20. Task Committee on Longitudinally Stiffcncd Plate Girders of the ASCE-AASHTO Committce on Flexural
Members of the Committee on Metals of thc Structural Division. 'Theory and Design of Long,irudinally
Sùffened Plate Girders," Journal of 1he S1mr111m/ DMsi,m. ASCE. 104. ST4 (Aprii 1978), 697-716.
11.21. Boris Bresler, T. Y. Lin. and )ohn Scalzi. Desi,:11 of Sree/ S1mc111re.<. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley &
Sons. !ne., 1968. pp. 497-554.
11.22. Onier W. Blodgett. Desig,r ofWeldcd Str11c11m•.<. Cleveland. Ohic : Jantes F. Lincoln Are Wt'lding Foun-
1
dation, 1966.
11.23. Charles G. Schilling. ·'Optimum Proporrinns for 1-shaped Beams," lo11ma/ o.f tlrt· Stmcwml Dfrisi1111,
ASCE. UMI, STl2 ( December 1974). 2385-2401.
11.24. Abul K. Azad. "Omtinuous Stccl 1-Girders: Optimum Proponioning," Jmmwl r!ftl11• Srnu·111ra/
Divisian. ASCE. 106, ST7 (July 19ll0). 154.l-1555.
11.25.
w lt H Flcischer. "Design and Optimizati"n "f Pla1e Girder!< and Wc lll-fahricaicd Beam, for Building
c:ns~~c;ion," E11gi11eeri1111 Joumal, AISC, 22, I (First Quarter 1985). 1- 10.
K h · E Ande rson and Ken P. Choni. "Le.ist Cost Computcr,aid<·,I Des ign of Stecl Girdcl"\,..
11.26.
E::i~~;:;,.R·
Journal. AISC. 23. 4 (Founl1 Quancr 1986), 151-156.
PROBLEMS
Ali problems are to be done according to che AISC Load a nd Resistance Factor Design Method. All gjven 1
· I d I · · · •Ped · II d · oads , .
vice oa s un ess otherwise indicated. A design sketch showing ali decJSJons 1s requu in a es1gn problems.· "'e >et,
Analysis
11. l. (This problem solution is used for Probs. 11.2 to 11.6. Given che data for the 50-ft sìmply .suppon d
I 1.6.) A plate girder supporte<l as shown must having Jateral suppo11 at tbe ends a d e sp<Ùl
centrated loads 10<.:ated 18 ft from ean h at the coq'
carry a dead load of 2 kips/ft and live load of 8 e end· .
kips/ft, not including che gir<ler weight. Jn addi - (a) Investigate the acceptability of the _. '
tion, a concentrated dead load of 100 kips must be 84 1
ing for suffener pane] 4. n. si>ac,
carried at the end of the cantilever. Compute a nd
draw to scale for later use the factored moment (b) Jnvesti~a_te combi?ed _shear and bencti
and shear e nvelopes for this girder. most cnncal locatJon in the girder. ng at it,
11 .2. (Use resuh.s of Prob. 11 . 1.) For the give n plate (e) Investigate the aclequacy of the s·17.e of i
girder designed for the conditions of Prob. I 1.1 . diate stiffeoers. nten-nt.
compure and draw to scale rhe momenr capacity (d) Investiga te the adequacy of the size
diagram, <PbM,, vs location along span. Compare ing stiffe ner ( 2PLs-¾ X 8) at th of the bear.
c apacity with moment envelope requirements - .e supp0n
from Prob. I I . I . (e) Specify che flange -to-web connection ·
l 1.3. ( Use rcsults of Prob. 1 I. I.) For the g iven plate (f) Spec ify the connection for intenn ct·
eners. e iate Stiff_
girder, compute and draw to scale the s hear capac-
iry diag ram <Pv V,, vs locatìon along spa n based on (g) Specify the. connection for che su
location of intermediate stiffene,:r. Compare shear .,., Pport be .
s u II ener. a.r11\g
strength with shear envelope requirements from
Pro b. 11.I.
I 1.7. Using the given information
. conce mino
· lh_
I I .4. (Use res ults of Prob. 11.1.) Compute and draw to tion of the plate gude r, de tennine how "' e JlOr.
ener B mus i be to stiffeuer A in dclose Stiff_
scale the shear strength diagram <f>v Vn vs location or er f
des ign to be accepta ble accordino t 0 or the
along span, for the girder based on tlze .flange-to-
Res istance Fac ror D esign. "' Loact <lJld
web connection.
I J.8 . Using the g iven information conce.mino
11.5. (Use results of Prob. 11.1.) Check che adequacy of
tion of the plate gi1·der, d e ten:ni ne how cto~e JlOr.
~ach of the bearing s tiffe ners, including connec- ener B mus i be to stiffe ner A in d se 51Jff.
t10n to the web. design to be acceptable. or er for the
100k
(dead load)
A36 s1eel
tr
t-- - -- - - J@ 25' -O" = 75'- 0" - - -- --4- - 25'-0" _ j _ La1eral
,uppor1
i----- - -- - - 75'- 0"- - - - - -- ~
Assume girder weight is 390 lb/fl
Proble m I I.I
Problems • 587
,I
Beariog ,11fkne"
12'- f-t
7 Flange plate 1 7 x ., , (bo1h n,nges)
8
2ts -
8
X 10 l - 1 S X22
. ' l I
E7~ lb ~2 ~f
.~111'>
I
I
I
2
Web
7
l6 X 78
.1 4 5 6 7 ~
Pcru:.nt ,-,f ~t I t,0 60 5() 50

:_~-- 40 40 40 50
1.:on1 inuou,
"dd·Oang•
·-- 4
I
10 "-Cb, 3/~iH
fìll<-1 <E701
J , - -- - -- - - - - --10@6~~ - - - -- - - -- -
- - -- - - -- - - - - 75'-(j' N bearing
Bearing <tiffener 6 t s - 5 x 1o
8
5 , I
(E70), 2 @ 6 ,each sidc, each plate
I weld
16 2 I
Web spice Bearing
''
I
I
t- 1 i X 22 .\ 110'-0" I / ~ 19'- 6·
t - 1 X 22 ½ l
stiff~ner
2tsix10
8
li
~Y
9 10
Web
11 \ 12 13 I/ 14 15
Web
16 17 1,
-
1
4 • 2-7
.,
'L
E70
_?_ X 78 I ! X 78 I/
16 2
60 100 100 100 50 50 40 30 \
~
1·-s· k-~1
4 6'-0" 3@6'-4" - 19' O"
5
lntennediale stiffcners - X 5 plarcs, in pairs
16
Problems 11.2 through 11.5

Sym.
Bearing s1iffcners 2 t • - ½x 10 20 k DL
•bout'i.
160
I 0.Sk/ft DL, l.9k/ft LL
k DL
Bearing s1iffeners
I
2ts-2..x4
16
V 2 \'_,-2..x4
/2 ts-½ X8 /
/ 16 "'
3 4
l 2
7'-6·
-1- 7'-6' _j__ 7'-~ _J
- - - -- -- SO'-O" simple span
Lareral support
occurs at ends and 5
I,= 46,500 in. 4 J6 X70
at concentrated loads.
A36 sleel
Problem I 1.6
Given: S1eel, F," SO k.s i

hl/ = 243
B A ~7 / = 157.400 in:
~
R,.,,F,, =-= 48 L:si ac-cord;n~
10 AISC-F5
I
~
[)ecennine
max value - -
J
12.HOO ft-kiJ>'
Facwrrd
momc::nLM,.
7000 ft-kips
10·-o· - -
550 k
c=J"'" Shear
Factoted
she:air V,.
Problem 11.7
I Given: S1ecl. F1 = SO ksi

11/1 = 24S
I = 303.300 in.'
.1 ' 7 R,.,Fc, -= 48 hi aocording
B A IO A ISC-F5
Detcrmine _
- mu.. ~oacinu
20.400 r,.-kips
t - 2¼x 28
I 3,ROO ft-kip< Fac10red
o,omentM.,
- - -- J0'-0" -
Bending moment
Slope 6.5 k/fl
655k [
L
/
__ _ __ s_h_ea_,_ _ _ _
__, ,hear \I"
J 720k
Factored
Problem 11.8
11.9. Given the plate girder interior panel as shown, of

A 36 materiai. W eb
(a) De termine the shear strength V,, (kips) of the 2.,_ X 96

16
given pane!. What percent of the capacity rep-
resents elastic buckling strength and what per-
ceni comes from "tension-field ac1ìon"'? I-- 10 ' - 0 - ~
(b) If M11/<f>Mn = 0.92 al the extreme fiber of the

Problem 11.9
web, what ìs the design shear strength </>V,,
(kips)?
Problems • 589
I I . lO. TI)e cro,5, 1iection near the end t· .
. ;.. ·~. . · o a snnply sup-
po1 ted g .. 0 .. 1 c ons1sts of flange plates, I! X 18 sh~uld be treated as adding IO lb/ft to the avcrage
and a \''èb p.late. ~ x 90 (/ = . ~)
135 .780 m ' weight. (Tius may approxirnate the added cost
. d r' . . The
g1r er tl> 0, .'\36 steel and has lateral support of the effect of such splices.) Web splices in excess of
compre,, {,li flange every 14 ft. one_required per span sbould be considered as
addmg 6 lb/ft to the average girder weight.
(a) Ddt>m1ine the service moment capacity f th'
. . ., ,,, • . . O IS
secti_o., \: tl,e loadmg ts 70% live load and 30% 11.11. For the case indicated by the instmctor, design a
dcao , .,,..i. simply supponed I-shaped plate girder cross-section
(b) Dc,e1ni,;e :he maximum distance from the and specify the location and size of intetmediate
st~ffeners. Omit design of connections and bearing
rea,:,,1•! i0 lh e first intermediate stiffener if the
Sllffeners. Tue cross-section is 10 be constant over
e nd n ·,.~ion ìs ì20 kips dead load and 200
the. enti re length. Use a depth as dictated by the
kir·, ·::,,,, le-ad.
opumum depth equations discussed in Sec. 11.13.
(e) Ur.ini '·'.IO clcctrodes, determine the necessary The g irder must carry a unifonn dead load of 0.5
tJani;<'. ro web weldìng in the end pane!. If inter- k:ip/ft in addition to the girder weight.
milL~,nt wclding ..:an be used, indicate the length
ot \\ l"td segment and the pitch distance.
Span Live loading Yield stress Latera/
Design Case (ft) (kips/ft) (ksi) support
The foJ!owin g requirements apply to ali design l 60 3 36 Continuous

problems : 2 70 3 50 Every I 7.5 ft
3 80 3 60 Every 20 ft
(a) Consider live load to be applied as necessary 4 60 5 36 EVCf)I 20 fl
to give maximum range of internal forces 5 70 5 50 Every t 7.5 ft
(moments and shears). 6 80 5 60 EVCf)' 20 ft
7 90 3 36 Every 15 fl
(b) Mornent and shear envelopes are to be drawn to
'be scale.
(e) For crmtinuous =

girders, use Fy 50 ksi in the I I. 12. For the case assigaed by the instructor. co mplelely
ne gative moment zone and A36 in the positive design a 1wo-spa11 co11rùruous girder. iucluding
moment zone. For statically determinate gird- bearing stiffeners and all connections. In addition
ers use the steel specified in the problems. 10 the unifonn loading. two concentrated loads W
(60% dead load, 40% live load) are located at the
(d) C onsider ~ in. as the minimum web thickness
distance a from each end in each span. Lateral
available. suppor! is provided al ali vertical ~upports. al COLI·
(e) Follow the proportioning guidelines of Chapter centrated loads. and at thc inter\'al~ indicated O\·er
11, unless you clearly indicate that you are the interior of the spans.
doing 01herwise fora specific stated reason.
(t) Use A36 steel for stiffeners ifpossible.

Wo WL Span
(g) Specify intermittent welding for connections if Dead load Live load length w Lateral
any materiai saving results, even though a ~ost Case (kip/ft) (kip/ft) (ft) (kips) a (ft) suppon
analysis may later dictate continuous weldmg.
1 1.25 2.25 140 60 _15 E,cf) 1511
(h) Submit design sketch to approximate_ scale on
2 1.25 2.25 125 (,4) ~5 r,cf) 15 lì
~
1 125 n5 I.'Il 711 .10 Fvery ~5 ft
8½ X 11 paper showing all final decis,ons.
(fo~ Case J. c•nly 0111' -~•Rc'Clltrlllcd lt,:td ~t 10 lì l'n•m e\t,"11<11' ,u,,rx-n,l
-
4 t.00 2.50 100 H)(l 10 E, ,,Q .'O 11
(i) Compute the tota! average weight per foot of
5 O.RO ~.00 100 80 20 E-.·'1 .IO h
the girder. including all stiffeners. (, O.RII J.00 125 O h Cl) !5 h
7 O.MO H )(I 125 Il C, •'I) :!5 ti
(j) For the 1wo-spa11 conrinuous girrler designs. x 1.25 2 25 100 O Conunuou,
. . · ed · each span.
assume one sphce 1s requt~ 111 •
Anv
• 9 1.25 1.25 2()(1 Il bel) -IO fi
extra butt-welded flange splice (two tlanges)
J 1.16. Consider the AISC (AISC-Fl3.2) limita.

Review of Theory clear distance between flanges. honaa,
I 1.13. Explain the physical significance of the following C., (a) Show the stress condiùon on the web
values for shear in plate girders. Describe the limit gives rise to the limitation equation Plaie1liit
state based on shear strenglh in each of che follow-
(b) Jf h/tw equals the limit value, show he
ing categories: (a) Cv $ 0.8; (b) 0.8 < C.0 $ I.O;
tive girder cross-section that might ~ efrtt.
(c)Cv > I.O
compute moment capacity. Usecl1o
11.14. What is the specific behavior that is prevented 11.17. On a plate girder ~ith FY = 50 lesi, if the
when h/tw is kept below 9 7 0 / ~ ? h/tw = _185, what w11l happen to the girdcrbc-.
the nomma_l moment strength is reached? p ~
11.15. Show by a diagram of forces in equilibrium why
stiffener spacing requirements are different for Jarly descnbe what happens in a pane! ~
end panels and panels containing large holes than intermediate stiffeners
. where the mo""..,ent~CCI
1s 1,;..
they are for interior panels of a plate girder. and the shear 1s low. Be specific and u "'lii
se a skctq_
Combined Bending
and Axial Load
12.1 :~•tfRODUCTION
Nearly ali members in a strncture are subjected to both bendino momenr and axial load-
~ither ten~ion or compression. When the magnitude of one or the other is relatively ~mail.
its effect 1s usually neglect.ed aad the member is designed as a beam. as an axially loadcd
column, or as a tension member. For many simations neither effecc can properly be
neglected and the behavior under the combined loading musi be considered in design. The
member subjected to axial compression and bending is referred to as a bea111-colw1111. :md
is the major element treated in this chapter. The generai subject of strength and stability
considerations and design procedures for beam-columns has been cxtensively lre.ated by
Massonnet [12.11 and Austin [12.2), and a reccnt summary is givcn in the SSRC Guide
(6.8]. The history of steel beam-column design has been revicwed by Sputo [ 12.56].
Since bending is involved. ali of the factors considered in Chapters 7 and 9 apph·
here also; particulary, the stabilìty related factors. such as lateral-torsional buckling and
locai buckling of compression elements. When bending is combincd with axiaJ tension.
the chance of instability is reduccd and yielding usually govems 1he design. For bt-nding
in combinauon with axial compression. rhe possibili1y of instability ìs inneascd with alt
of the considerations of Chapter 6 applying. Furthermorc, when axial compression is pre-
sent, a secondary bending moment arises equal to 1he axial compre~sion force times tl)c
defiecrion. . .
A number of categories of combined bcnding ;md axi,11 luad alung wllh thc hkcly
mode of fai)ure may be summarized as follows:
1. Axial tension and bending: failure usually hy yielding. .. .
. Axial comprcssion and bending about onc axis: failurc hy instah1h1y 111 _,h~· !1bnt:
2
of bendino, without twisting. (Transver~cly llladn l bc,ml-l·ol~mms 1ha1 ar~ ~1.1hk
·h ~d Jateral-torsional buekling are an cxampk nf1lm c,ucgol') .)
w1t rega, Io · . .. . .
. · d bcmJinr• ·iboul thi: strong .1,a~: l:ulun· hy la1cral-wr,w11,1I
3. Axial compress1on an "' •
buckling. . . . · - ·1 '- . · t·
· and biaxial hl.·ndin"- tomonallv ~un si.·,·tmn,. 1;u un:") in, .l·
4. Axial
.. . compres.~ion
f h principal dirct·tinns. (W ~hap1.·~ are usua ~ m t 11, , aicgl>~. \
• "' · Il · I ·
bihty m one o t e
591
592 • Chapter 12 Combined Bending and A><ial Load
5. Axial compression and biaxial bending-thin-wallcd open sections· f .

combined twisting and bending on these torsionally weak sections. · ailure bi
6. Axial compression, biaxial bending, and torsion; failure by combined t .
and bending when piane of bending does noi contain the shear center. Wiqjnr
Because of the number of failure modes, no simple design procedure · r
account for such varied behavior. Design procedures generally are in one 0 / 1~ ikely lo
gories: (I) limiration on combined stress; (2) semi_-empirical in~raction forrnuJ: ~ -
on working stress procedures. and (3) sem1-empmcal mteracuon procedures b 'b~
strength. Limitations on combined stress ordinarìly cannot provide a proper ascd °'1
11
unless instability is prevemed, or large safety factors are used. Interaction / tenoii
come closer ro describing the true behavior since they account for the stabilitv ~uat~OJ!I
commonly encountered. The AISC Spec,iJica//011 · formuIas f or beam-columns• snuatioii1
. • - ~~d
1111.eracuon type. q,c:
12.2 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION AND BENDING
In order to understand the behavior, the basic situation of case 2. Sec. 12 1 .·

treated. Failure by instability in the pJane of bending is assumed. Consider ;h~ '
1111
be
case of Fig. 12.2. l, where rhe lateral loading w(z) in combination with any end rn gener.1
M , and M2 , constitute the primary bending mo~n~nt fl!; which is a function of z. ~~en~
mary moment causes the rnember to deflect y g1vrng nse to a seconda1y moment p . pri.
1
ing the moment M, at the location z of Fig. I 2.2.1. gives -· Sia:.
cf2y
M. = M + Pv = - El--··
' I ' d Z2 02.2.1,
for sections with constant El. and dividìng by El gives
M;
El
For design purposes, the generaJ expression for moment A( is of greater illlportanc
the deflcction y. Differentiating Eq. 12.2.2 twi_ce gives · e thaii
02.2.3\
From Eq. 12.2. 1,
d2y M~ d4 v I d 2 M.
d;,,1
= El
and
d::.4 = --
El
--
d/
Hgure 12.2. 1
Generai loadin& of be1lm-
column.
Sectìon 12.2 Diffe IEr .
ren ,a quatton far Axial Compression and Bending • 593
Substìtution in Eq. 12.2.3 gives
2
_J__ d Mz + P (-Mz) I d 2M;
El dz 2 El fil = - El dz2
or, simplifying and letting k2 = p/ El,
(12.2.4)
which is of the same fonn as the deflection differential equation, Eq. J 2.2.2.
The homogeneous solution for Eq. 12. 2.4 is
Mz = A sin kz + B cos kz
as first discussed in Sec. 6.2. To this must be added che particular solution that will satisfy
the right-hand side of the differential equation. Since M; = f(z), where/(z) is usually a
polynomial in z, the particular solution will be of the same fonn; thus the complete solu-
tion may be written
M, = A sinkz + Bcoskz + f1(z) (12.2.5)
where f 1(z) = value of M, satisfying Eq. 12.2.4. When M, is a continuous funcrion, the
maximum value of Mz may be found by differentìation:
dM. . df1(z)
~-' == O = Ak cos kz - Bk sin kz + -d- (12.2.6)
~ z
For most ordinary loading cases, such as concentrated loads. unifom1 loads, end
moments, or combinations thereof, it may be shown that
df1(z)
- - = O
dz
in which case a generai expression for maximum M, can be established: from Eq. 12.2.6.
Ak cos kz = 8k sin kz
A
tan kz = -B
R (12.2.7)
At maximum M,,
A 8
sin kz = VA2 + 8 2· cos kz := ~==
-.-=
VA-+ 8 1
( 12..'.!.8)
. . f Eqs 12 2 8 into Eq. 12.2.5 gives

and subsutuuon o · · ·
2 82
Mz max -- -A + --==:::;=
. ~
+ .f,(~)
\,0\2 + 82 V A- + B-
( 12.2.9)
= -.J;il + B2 + f,(z)
I ?? 6 musi be ~ohed for Az and tht
. ted thai whenever diI( z)Id,~ 'I o• Eq. -·-·
lt is no . 12.2.5.
resuli ·Substituted mto Eq.
594 • Chapter 12 Combined Bending and Axial Load
p ( M , ~ ~ + M i P-"
\m}~--l~--------~1J)f .
~ M,
M, ~-~~====-- PrimarymomentM,
~>~
Figure 12.2.2
Case I-end moments ~ Secondary moment. Py
without transverse loading. Py
Case 1-Unequal End Moments Without Transverse Loading
Referring to Fig. 12.2.2, the primary moment M; may be expressed
M 2 - M1
Mi = M1 + L z
02.2.10)
Since
Eq. 12.2.4 becomes a homogeneous equation, in which case /1( z) = O for Eq. 12.2.5. lbe
maximum momeO!, Eq. 12.2.9, is
02.2.IJ )
The constants A and B are evaluated by applying the boundary conditions 10 Eq. 12_ .
The generai equation is 2.)_
M, = Asinkz + Bcos k z
and the conditions are
l. al z = O. M~ = M1
.'. B = Mi
2. at z == L, M~ = M2
M2 = A sin kl + M1 cos kL
M 2 - M1 cos kl
.' . A= - - - -- -
sin kl
so that
M." __ (M2-sinM,kLcos kL) s111. k z + M·, cos kz (12.2.12)
and
M~niax = (
M2 - M1 cos kL
.
y+ v :t
, 1I
sm kl )
= M /l - 2(Mi/M2) cos kt.. .\.. (M 1/ M2 ) 2

2
V sin: kl.
Section 12.2 Ditte - E .
rentia1 quation for Axial Compression and Bending • 595
Case 2-Transverse Uniform Loading

Referring to Fig 12 2 3 th ·
· · · , e pnmary moment M; may be expressed as
w
M; =
2 z(L - z) (12.2.14)
IV
Figure 12.2.3 p ---J:1111111@@mrn1111111urn1111rn'.l - p

Case 2-transverse uniforrn
loading.
~ - L--.1
Since
f1(z) * O; the particular solution for the differential equation is required. Let
f1(z) = C1 + C2z; i.e., any polynomial. Substitute the panicular solution int.o Eq. 12.2.4,
d 2[fi (z)]
- --=O 2
dz
O+ k2(C1 + C2z) = -w
Thus
C1 = -w/k2
C2 = O
Equation 12.2.5 then becomes
Mz = A sin kz + B cos kz - wjk2 (12.2.15)
Applying the boundary conditions,
1. at z = O,
M, =O
O= B - w/k 2
.·. B = w/ k2
2. at z = L,
M- 4
=O
w w
o= AsinkL + ,?-coskL - k~
w (' - cos kL)

-·- A = k2 sin kL
12 2 9 gives maximum momenl.

Since df1(z)/dz = O, Eq. · ·
Mz max = k2
w
~
(1 - coskL)
1
kL
sin
--
2
+I - -w;
k·
M,mu = i~
k-
(sec kL -
2
1)
2
wL ( 8 )( kL )
= -8- (kL)2 . sec2 - I
magnification facror due

10 ax:ial com.pres-sion
Case 3-Equal End Moments Without Transverse Loading

(Secant Formula)
Consìder thai Mi = M 2 =M in Fig. 12.2.2, in whìch case Eq. 12.2.13 becomes
_ j2(1 - cos kL)

Mzma.,-My ·2kl
sm (1 2.2.17
= M
2(1 - coskL) = M( J )
I - cos 2 kL cos kL/2
kL
=M sec-
2 <12.2.1~
Loading a beam-column with constant moment over its length causes a

· along one enure
compress10n · tes• th e most severe loadinl! con,1o
· fl ange an d cousr11u •.
....,.
00
member. In view of this it would always be conservative to multiply the max in~ s~ 1
. h. . I m Pnm....
moment due to any Joading by sec kll2, w hre 1s excess1ve y consen,ative in m - i
oste~
12.3 MOMENT MAGNIFICATION-SIMPLIFIED TREATMENT

FOR MEMBERS IN SINGLE CURVATURE WITHOUT END TRANSLATION
As an alternate to the differential equation approach. a simple approximate PfOCed

satisfactory for many common situations. 11/t h
Assume a bearn-column is subject to lateral loading w(z} that causes a deflec. .
at midspan, as shown in Fig. 12.3.1 . The secondary bending moment may be assu::~
Y,
Prim:iry bending m<'menl M ,
Py ,, P(ii0 + y 1)
Assu,,,e as ~
sine curve ~ Secondary bending momcn1Py
Figure 12.3.1
Primary and ~econdary
1-- ~ ~
.!, Centroid oi shaded area
bcnùing momenl. 2
Section 12.3 M
oment Magnification-s·
ingle Curvature Without EndTranslation
• 597
vary as asine curve wh· h .
mary be d. ' IC ts nearly correct for m be .
n mg moment and deflection . em rs wtth no end restraint whose pri-
The portion of lhe .d . are i_nax1mum at midspan.
mi span deflection d h
equa1s the moment of lhe MIEI d. Y1, ue to t e secondary bending moment
of Fig· 12 ·3· 1) taken about the s tagram between the ·supporI an d m1'dspan (shaded portion'
. upport, according to the moment-area principle:
or
Y, = :I (y, + oo)(~)3.(!: .) =
2 1r 1r
(yI + 8)
O
PL2
77
2El (12.3.1)
p
Y1 = (;ì + 80 ) -
pe ( 12.3.2)
where P, = 7T2El/ L2_ Solving for Y1,
Y1 = 80[ P/P,_. ] = 80(- 0: )

(l 2.3.3)
I - P/ P, I _ a
where a = P/Pe. Since Ym» is the sum of 80 an<l .\',,
Ymax = 80 + Y1 = 80 + 8o(-a- ) = ~
I - a I - a (12.3.4)
Tue maximum bending moment inclu<ling rhc axial effec1 becomcs
M: max = Mo + Py,nax (12.3.5)
Substituting the expr_ession for Ymax in Eq. 12.3.5 and setting p = aP, = a.1r2EI / L2_
Eq. 12.3.5 may be wnuen as the primary moment Mo multiplied by a maonificaiion .fac-
tor B1 ; thus e
( 12.3.6)
where
-
, ---
B
e,,, ( 12.3.7)
1 - cr
and
.
Cm = I + (1r2EI
- --80
, - )
I a l 12.J.8)
MoL-
which can be expressed as

( l:!.3.9)
For usual cases of si1\gle curvature. the magnificarion factor 8 1 to be applìed 10 the
primary bending moment is equa) to C,,,/ (1 - a). Rigorous differential equation solu-
tions for Cases I to 7 shown in Table I 2.3.1 are available in Timoshcnlm and Gere 16.67.
Chap. I]. Calculation of approximations for 1/, of Eq. 12.3.9 havc bcen m:1dc by Yura.
whose calcularions are presented by lwankiw {12.JJ.
The approximate values for C,., for posirivc mon11:111 shown in Tahlc 12..l I are com-
puted using Eq. 12.3.8 and they are in generai agrccment with Lheorctil·al rc,ul1' cwn
chough Eq. 12.3.8 is derived using a sinc curve dcOcction. The negative momcnt , ·;1h1l'S
have been includcd by AISC beginning wilh che 1980 AISC Manual. lt i, notcJ ehm thc
magnification of negative momcnl is ncccs~ary in ordcr IO maintain ,ero ,loJlC at thc lheJ
11
s~ppo'.1~ when the beam deflects i~ the ~osi_tive moment region: From a praciica( .
v1ew, 1t 1s doubtf ul that zero slope 1s mamtruned; thus, the negative momeot ma _JIOint Of
is probably overestimated. gnifj~
The correct value for Cm will be d ose to I .O for ali cases because a
exceed abo ut 0 .3. For this reason AISC-C2.lb provides that C'" can be dct/arc(y V.in
"rationa l analysis" or I .O can be used for ali me mbers. The authors consider th~hCd
1 ~
Table l 2 .3. 1 wi ll sacisfy che requirement of "rarional analysis." ., frorn
TABLE 12.3.1 Suggested Valu es for Cm for Situations with No Joint

Trans lation 8
Cm C'"
Case (positive) (negative Primary Bencling ~
moment) moment)
M M
I+ 0.2a' - [ +
::J .11.,
l
'+~-----~~
2
p
____,...~
_________
...1111111 ...
111111111111111~~
p
I.O - M., i
/ +~ II
, ~-iQ
2 1 - 0.2cr - M.,
~ 1
3 p p
-~----------~-
4 -
p w i
~.U~llllllifllli!JWIIII ._!,_ I - 0.3cr I - 0.4<1-
M.,
<:::::r:::>
~
-
-
----- I
p • w
...,...
5 1 - 0.4a I - 0.4a
- ) 11au111111111111111.u1J11~ ....!-
_ _ _ _ _ ..,,,. i
v....-:r:::-..~
,½-lQ t...!- M.,
~
6 p 1 - 0.4a l - 0 .3a:
--+-~ - - ____ ,.,,. ..
7 ç L)a i....!-
_.!._ ·__2_ ______ .. I - 0.6a l - 0.2a
~
M,.
B7 ~
q
M~
8
f-~ ~7
M,.
M,. .t M8
M~
Eq. (1 2.3.8) nor
avail;ibtc
v ~
1
8
Adapted from AISC Commentary Table C-C2.1
P,, Pu
rr -• P., = rr'-E/( KL/ r)2
Section 12.4 Moment M -.
agmf1cation-M oments OnlY,. N 0 JointTra .
ns1atIon • 5gg
EXAMPLE 12.3_1
Compare
E the d'ft· .
J erenttal .
q. 12.2.16' with l he approxì
equauon rnagnifiicatton
. factor f
Solution: mate value, Eq. 12.3.7. or tbe loading of Fig. 12.2.3
Fo, the d;ff,reotfal eq,,i;o,, '
81 = magnification factor = __2_ ( kL ) (a}

(kL/2)2 sec2 - 1
where
kL _ L (P 1r
2 - 2'{ii = 2 Va
For the approximate solution,
BI -- cm
-
l-a
5wL4 wL 2
80 = - . Mo=~
384El' 8
2
"o 5L
Mo 48EJ
C.,, =I + ( rr2EJ 5L2 -

L2 48EI J) a = I + 0.028a
I + 0.028a (b)
B1 =
;, I-a
(1 sec kU2 Eq. (a) Eq. (b)
J.137 1.114 1.114

0.l
1.310 1.257 l.257
0.2
1.533 1.441 1.441
0.3 1.685
0.4 1.832 1.686
2.252 2.030 2.028
0.5 2.542
2.884 2.546
0.6 3.399
3.941 3.405
0.7 5.112
6.058 5.125
0.8 10.284 10.253
0.9 12.419
Obviously, there is no significant difference between the differential equation solution d

the ,ppro,;.n,te '°'"';"" fo"h;""'· '"•
12.4 MOMENT MAGNIFICATION-MEMBERS SUBJECT TO END

MOMENTS ONLY; NO JOINT TRANSLATION
for the situation shown in Fig. 12.2.2. which has no transvcrse loac.Jing. 1hc theoretkal
maximum moment is given by Eq. 12.2.13.
~----------
( M 1/ M2) 2 - 2(M 1/ M1 )co~ kl + I
Mzma• == M1 sin1 kL I I:?.:?. UI
M, < M 2 forali values of a
~ M ,
(a) Maximum moment at end• (b) Maximum moment noi at cnds
Figure 12.4.1
Primary plus secondary
bending momem for
memben. acted upon by (e) Equivalenl uniform moment wilh
end momen1~ only. maximum magnific:d momenl ar midspan
For this situation the maximum moment rnay be either ( I) the larger end moment M
braced location (Fig. 12.4.1a), or (2) the magnified moment given by Eq. 12.2 13 ~·h~
. .
2
-~
occurs at various locations out along the span (F1g. 12.4. l b), depending on the ratio M j
and the value of a, since kL = 7T ¼. In order to make an analysis, one needs to 1' M1
know whether the maximum moment occurs at a loc~tìon aw~y from the suppon. and if
the correct distance. To eliminate the need for such mformatton, the concept of equ . so,
- · - t~alern
uniform moment (Fig. 12.4. lc) is used. Thus when mvesugatmg a member at a Iocation
. . . awa\'
from the supported pomt, use of the eqmvalent momem a~sumes M z max to be at mids ·
To establish the equivalent moment ME. Jet. the soluti on for uniform m0Pan.
. · ment
Eq. 12.2.17 with M = ME, be equated wHh Eq. I 2 .2.13. One obtains
(M1/M2 )2 - 2(Mi/M2)cos kL + I
2(1 - cos kL) 02.4.) )
By the procedure used in Example 12.3.1 it may be shown that for uniform mo
the magnification factor is obtained from Eq. 12.2.18: menl
kL I
B1 = sec- = - -- 02.4.2)
2 I - a
and using the eguivalent un.iform moment ME to replace M1 and M2 , the full maximum
moment may be expressed as
M:: max = Mr.C ~ lx) (12.4J)
which when compared with Eq. 12.3.6 rnay be written
(12.4.4)
wherc
j(M1/M2 ) 2 - 2( M i/M~}cos kL +I
V 2(1 - CO:, kT)
Section 12.4 M
oment MagnT .
'icat,on-Moments Only; No JointTranslation • 601
Equation 12.4 .S does not conside I . .

Lllrvature cases where M / M r r ateral-tors1onal buckhng, or fully cover the double-
bent in double curvaturel w. t ;:
between -0.5 an~ - I.O. Tue actual fai Iure of members
··unwinding" thro h fr Il n<lmg moment rat1os -0.5 to - I.O is generally one of
ug om double to singl ·
c:ussed by Ketter {12 4) e curvature m a sudden type of buckling, as dis-
. · • among others.
Austm [ 12 21 has disc ed
approxima1e C .F uss proposals of Massonnel [12.1] and Home [12.5] io
'ippro . . m· or rnany years the AISC Specifications have used the following simple
, x1ma11011.
(12.4.6)
where M1 = smaller bending moment atone end of a member

M2 = larger bending moment atone end of a member
Note thai M1 and M2 use bending moment signs rather than rotational moment signs. Prior
to the 1986 LRFD Specification, Eq. 12.4.6 was noi permitted 10 be less than 0.4; a very
conservative procedure. However, since Cm as used in current design interaction relation-
ships by LRFD and ASD is nor directly related to lateral-torsional buckling in the manner
of the Massonnet and Home equations, there is no reason for the lower limit. A study of
C111 has been presented by Chen and Zhou [12.6), and the inelastic amplification factor has
been discussed by Sohal and Syed [ 12.55].
The earlier 0.4 lower Jimit on C.,, has been eliminated [ 1.13] since the 1993 LRFD
Specification.
A comparison of Eqs. 12.4.5 and 12.4.6 is shown in Fig. 12.4.2. Note that fora given
value of a = p / P,, the curve terminates when the moment M2 al the ~nd ~f the member
exceeds the magnified moment within the span. The most importan1 s11uatwns are t~ose
where the magnified moment within the span exceeds the moment a~ the end. The s~ra.tght
li ne used bv AlSC lies near the upper limit for Cm at any g1ven bendmg moment rallo. and
thus seems-to be 3 reasonable approximation.
I.O
'
lJ
Figure 12.4.2 -I.O

Comparison of 1hcore1ical C.., -OSO --0.7S
o -025
o.s 0.25
wich AISC straight Jine 0.75
+I.O I ,a(IO (postU•C for single cllO'lllltt)
approxima1ion for members ,.,
_! :
.
lkndtng ,nomen
acted upon by end moments ,,,,,
only, w11hou1joint
tran,lauon.
12.5 MOMENT MAGNJFICATION-MEMBERS WITH SIDESWAY POSSIBLE

The unbrnced frame, i.e.. the frame wh_ere joint translation may ~cur ~
ariscs due 10 slcnderness of the compress1on elemenls. does not lend 1tsclf lo th . lahiJny
rclatively accurate treatment presented .m Ihe Iasi two secllons.
. M ore compiere ~1111PIe""' 1.._
of braced and unbraced elastic frames is in Chapter 14 and in the SSRC Guide ~teallntn,
A simple approximation of Cm for this case may be obtaioed by staning With P..q·~I
which applies for the single curvature case, · 12.l.~
e,,, )
Mmax == MoB == Mo ( ~
o2.s.1,
where B = magnification faclor.
Next consider the situation of Fig. 12.5.1 . Whatever the degree of restrai·
. · nt at lh
and botlom of the t wo-story member, the dctlecuon curve, and tberefore the . e top
bending moment (P times deflect.ion). may reasonably be assumed to be a sin s~0ndai,-
which case, thc developrnenr used wben no sidesway occurs (Fig. 12.3. I) is aJso:~une_Ìtl
Since 2L from Fig. 12.5. l equals L for Fig. 12.3. J. Eq. 12.3.7 for Cm becomes id herc.
2
C,,, = I + ( -,,, E!fJ
-2 - 0 - I a
)
4L Mo (12.5.21
The larger effective length (2L instead of L) is also used in tbc computation of _
0
referrìng to Fig. 12.5.1. - t-.;e,l
(H/2)L3
lÌ() = 3El 02.5Ji
HL
Mo = -
2
Substitution of Eqs. 12.5.3 and 12.5.4 into Eq. 12.5.2 gives
[1r4LEI2 (HL ) ( - ~ ) __ I]1a

2 3
C,,, == I +
6El HL
or
Clii = I 12 - I) a = I - O. IR~
+ ( ,,,z u
( 12.5.51
p
r
T~-~
Fil,!Urc 12.5.1
Ltl:··· t,. 2
si.oc curv('
(al (hl (e) Assumrd secondm

Bc.am-<:ofu11,n with sidcsway.
bcnding mon,.,ni ·
Section 12.6 N ·
ominal Strength-lnstability in the Piane of Bending • 603
~ow~ver, !lie 2005 A/SC_Specijìcmion neglccls Lhe effe.ci of a on C,. and uses a value of
m - I.O for frames subJect Lo joim translation.
12.6 '\JOMINAL STRENGTH-INSTABILITY IN THE PLANE OF BENDING
The basic slrength of a beam-column where lateral-torsional buckling and locai buckling
are adequately prevented, and bcnding is about one axis, will be achieved when instability
occurs in the piane of bendi11g (wirhout twixring) (case 2 of Sec. 12.1). The differentìal
equation solution, which includes the second-order P rimes deflection y term, shows that
the axial compression effect and the bending moment effcct cannot be determined sepa-
rately ami combined by superposition. It is a nonlinear relationship.
Furthermore, residua] stresses cause some fibers 10 reach the yield ,tress before oth-
ers, even when the elastically computed stresses due to applied load are che same al those
fibers. This is similar to the effect on axially loadcd compression membcrs discussed in
Secs. 6.5 and 6.6.
An analysis to dctermine the strength ìnteraction between axial compression P
and bendino momenl M for a beam-column is complicated. First. the M-8- P
(moment-c:rvature-axial compression) relationship must be developed. This can be
done by assuming the yield penetration deplh -yh (Fig. 12.6.1) al vanous values. for_each
-yh lhere will be a complete range of M-0 - P, or M/Mp-0/0_,. -P/P,. 111 nondunens1onal
• h ,., ·s the plastic moment O is the curvature when the extrcme lìbcr reaches
,orm, w ere Mp 1• • Y · · ; ., 010
stress J. an y = Ag F.>.. FromtheseM/M11 -0/0J-P/P.,curve.,, ascnesofM, .~-, P-,,
--F. dP
curvcs can be obtained; one for each value of P/ Py. _• . . . _ i
Once MIM -0/0' curves havc becn obtained, a spectftc c.:omb1~auon of P,,; ~\' and
• P .) cted· the moment M / M is then apphed incrementali) to ,ls
sl_endcroess ratio KU:, is ss~;h th,at the deflection i; stili stable. This co1~bina1ion of
h1gh a value ( M,J p) . on a stren<>th interaction relat1onsh1p. such
M / \1 d KL/r represcnts one pom1 · · "' . , ,
P,,/ Py, "., P_' an Various aspects of this procedure have been explamed by Ketkr.
as sbown m F1g. 12.6.2. 7 Galambos and Ketter {12.8], and Ketter [I 2.4). ..
Kammsky, and Beedle [ 12. l,b . . t action relationships havc been presented by Haud
. ·1 edures to o tam m er f I" I , I
S1m1 ar proc d [ 12 11 ) and Rossow. Bamcy. and Lee -· - .
12 1O] Lee and Anan · , .
and Lee [ I2·9, · ' . t' 110 this behavior is the followmg.
An interaction equat1on represen ' "
(12.6.1 l
,.r
{() ~11JIII
td' Sm·,, ,trJtn
Ji.n!1,.U11h•f
(b i As,,umed ),cld
penctr.11100 ,in.ti ,111,Ì~ 11.1I
igure 12.6.1 (a) sec1ion
o;;eric-: vr , 1ttso;
~embcr under axial condi11on,
ompression and bending.
Or Et ~ E 1 •
I.O
0.8
0.6
P,
Figure 12.6.2
P,
Strengrh interaction curves 0.4
(W8X3I, F" = 33 ksi, linear
residuai stress = F, = 0.3~., 0 .2
strong axis bending) fur bmced
frame members. Note: For
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
f~ > 33 ksi, use adjusted IO
M,IM, M, /MP
L/r = (actual L/r)VFJJ).
(b) Momem ra1io = + 0.5
(Adap1ro from Ketter [12.41) (a) Momen1 ratio = - I .O
where P,, = maximum axiaJ compr~ssio~ load when nominai strength is reached bl!Sed
on the interaction relat1onsh1p
P,, == nominai strength of an axially loaded compression mern.ber based on
slendemess ratio KL/r
Mu = maximum moment when the nominai strength is re.ached based on Lhe
interaction relationship, includi11g the seco11d-order effect (the .io-ca/led
P-À effect)
= Eq. 12.3.6 = MoCm/(1 - a)
Mo = primary bending moment •?8
a = P,,L2j-rr2 EI :::--
C,,, = Eq. 12.3.9
M 11 = maximum moment strength = Mr for the laterally stable situation
discussed in this section
Thus, Eq. 12.6. I may be written
P,, + M,, ( ~ ) s
P,, M,, 1 - a (12.6.2)
In studying the interaction curves of Fig. 12.6.2,. the (eader is reminded that the
s~rengt~ P,, wh~n M,, = O is based on the slendern~ss r~uo K 9,-,.: As stated at the begin-
nrng of the sect1on, the member was assumed to fa1l by mstab1bty rn tbe plane of bendino
Other studies of instability in tbe plane of bending have included the effects ofu-dll;:
verse loading ( l 2.4, l 2.13-12.17 ].
12.7 NOMINAL STRENGTH-FAILURE BY COMBINED

BENDING ANO TORSION
The ordinary beam-column unbraced over a finite len g th involves consideration of

instability transverse or oblique to the piane of bend ing, involving torsional eff«h.
This subject is :m extension of lateral-torsional buckling in beams (Chapter 9) and
involves bolh elastic and inelastic considerations. lnteraction curves fora numberoi
elastic buckling situations have been developed, inc!uding (1) 1-section columns IIÌth
Section 12 a N · 1S
. omma trength-lnteraction Equations • 605
eccentric end loads in the piane of the w

momen1s but without restr . . eb [ I2.18]; (2) 1-columns with unequal end
ber f I2 191· and (3) I I ami ro_ rotauon abou1 principal axes at the ends of the mem-
. · -co umns w11h unequ I d ·
abou1 strong axis but eia t" . a en moments-hrnged at ends for rotation
I 12 201 A .• s ica11y res1rarned for rota1ion about ihe weak axis at lhe ends
inciudes. d." exc~llentfsum~ary of the IOpic is presented by Massonnet [12.1] which
iscuss10n o plas11c effec1s.
_A n_umber_of studies ar~ available containing both analytical and experimental treat-
ments of melasttc lateral-tors1onal buckling (12.21-12.26).
!
T~SI~ by Mass~nnet [ 2.1I _and computer studies ( I2.21. 12.22] including inelastic
~fTects_indicate that mteracuon d1agrams similar to those in Fig. 12.6.2 will result when
•~cluding lateral-torsiona~ buckling. The main difference is that Pu/ Py will be lower when
based on K L/ r.r (weak ax1s) rather than on K L/ rx (strong axis). Of course, Mn may also be
less chan MP because of laceral-torsional buckling.
Torsional-Flexural Buckling of Thin-Walled Open Sections
A singly symmelric section subjecc 10 flexure and axial compression will have a torsional
moment acting even withou1 being in the slightly buckled position. This is because tbc
shear center and center of gravity do not coincide (see Chap. 8 on torsion). The differen-
tial equalion development has been given by Pekoz and Winccr ( 12.27), Pekoz and Celebi
( 12.28]. and the topic has been well summarized by Yu ( I2.29]. The AISI Specification
( 1.8] provides decailed rules for design 10 include lhe possibility of torsional-flexural
buckling.
12.8 NOMINAL STRENGTH-INTERACTION EQUATIONS

Strengih interaction equations relating axfal compressi?n Pu lo bending moment MM have
Jong been recognized as the practical procedure for design.
Case t-No Instability
For the braced loc

ation where instabìlity cannol occur (i.e., Kl/r
.
= O), !he uppermost
. apply and may be approx1ma1ed by
curves of P1g. 12·6·2
Pu + ~ = I.O (12.8.1)
~- 1.18Mp
. P. _ A F. and M = maximum moment
< I O In the abovc equauon. " - g Y P
and M,,/Mp - · · . b of axial IÒad (cquaJs the plastic momcnt for aJI cases
strength of the member in the_ a s~ce d) Thc comparison with thc lheoretical result
locai buckhng ,s prevente . . .
where premature i:;,, 1 10 be a good approx1mauon.
12 8
in Fig. 12.8.I shows LAt· • .
·i·ty in the Plane of Bending

Case z-Jnstab 1 1
. b' ations of moments and values of L/ r • may be
. . _2 for vanous com in
The curves of F,g. 12 6
approx.imated by
(12.8.2)
I.O - -- - - ~ -- ~-..-----r---,-r-7
.. E~act" solution
( adap1ed from Ref. 12.4 )
Eq. 12.8.1.
~ . ~ , ; ; I.O
P, l.18M,
x-I-,
Figure 12.8. 1 !:.
,., = o
"Exact" nominai strength
P.,
interaction rclationship for P, \
\
typical wide-tlange secrions
(inclu<ling residua I stress)
compared wi1h in1erac1ion I.O
o 0.5
equation--Case I . no
MJM,
in.,tability.
where Pn = compression nominai strength under axial load based on slendemess rau.0
for the axis ofbendi11g
ME = Eq. I 2.4.1 (or its alternate, CmM2, where Cm = Eq. 12.4.6)
P, = 1r2El/L
2
Massonnet f 12.1) has shown that Eq. 12.8.2 is a good approximation by com .
it with the curves of Galambos and Ketter [ l 2.8]. A compa.rison in Fig. 12.8.2 ofEq ~ng
wich some curves from Fig. 12.6.2a shows the correlation. · ,.S.2
For prima.ry bending moment from transverse loading. Lu and Kama.lvaod [l2
have sbown that when ME is replaced by CmMui• using C,,, as given by Eq. 12.3.9. Eq. iÌ.~i
1.0~-~~-~- ~- -- -- ~-.----,---,
''Exoc:t" solution
(Adop1ed from Ref. 12A)
Eq.12.8.3.
-~ + M., = I.O
P, M,(I - P, IP,)
C.,"' I.O
Figure 12.8.2
~ 0.5
""Exact" nominai strength P_..
interaccion -:urves for typical
wide-flange sectìons
(illcludìng residuai stress)
compared with interaction
equation--Case 2, instability
in the piane of brndìng
X --3:- X
C'exact'' solu1ion frorn Fig. 7

of Ref. 12.4). Note: For
o 0.5 1.0
accual use, use :rdjusted
l / r = (actual L/r)\I F,j33. M.JM,
Sect'ion 12.9 Biaxial Bending • 607
(acrually Eq. 12·· .

8 3 MiliC111 -JQ)'15
Th us, .m generai
' lhe ·tnteraction
- equat'
•
mna!so
maya good representation for the "exact" soluuons.
be Written
P. + CmMu;
~ Pn MP( I - Pu/ P,.) = I.O (12 8
ior ali cases of instabT . . .J)
t ily in ihe piane of bending.
Case 3- Instability by Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Massonnct [12. Il has shown thai with o .

used for this case. pn for h'1s case
, may nly shght error,
be gov ed b the form of Eq · 12·8-2 may also be
1
norma to the axis of bending Furth . ern y the slenderness ratio for lhe a .
1
occur fora momenc less than
defi 't'
M er, s1~ce lateral-torsional bucklino as a bea
P' use M mstead of M . Eq e m mav
x1s
m1 ion_s of Cm from Sccs. 12.3 throu h nl 2 ·. 12.8.3. Using the variou,s
Thus for mstability under Cases 2 or 3glhe
ered IO apply: ' 0
i\ P m
the_ gen_eral no1_a11on CmM,,; should be used.
owmg mteraction equation may be eO ns1·d-
(12.8.4)
where P,, = applied axial compression load

M,,; = applied primary bending moment
p" = AgFc, = nominai stren~th for axially Joaded compression member
(Eqs'. 6.7.7 or 6.7.8 for f cr would be used in LRFD)
Mn = nommal moment strenglh in the absence of axial load cmnputed bv
me_thods of Chapter 9. For adequalely braced members of low sle;dcmes~
. locai buckhng 15 prccluded, M n = Mp·
ratio where •
Cm= factorsd1scussed in Secs. 12.3-12.5
7T2EI
P.e = - L2
Other proposals for interaction equations have been e-oiven

· .; 1· 1
b" Cllt,'On"e-· s·a Mov and
-j
Downs [12.30], Duan and Chen [l 2.31 ], Sohal. Duan. and Chen [ 12.32]. and Cal. Lit;. and
Chen (l2.33).
12.9 BIAXIAL BENDING

The nominai streng1h of membcrs under axial compression and biaxial bcnding has 1>.:en
studied by Birnstiel and Michalos [ 12.34]. Culver [ I 2.35. 12.36]. Harstead. Birnstiel, and
Leu [12.37), Syal and Sharrna [ 12.38). Santathadaporn and Cl1t:n ( 1'.U9]. and Chen and
Atsuta (12.38]. Even with a nurnber of simplifying assumptions. rhe analysis is compi<',.
Some tests have becn perfom1ed [ 12.41] which. though limitcd. havc shown agrecmcnt
with computer studies. Tebedge and Chen [ 12.4.l I have givcn intcraction surface~ in the
form of tables for design. The sta1us of work on biaxial bending of compre~sion mcmtxr-.
is summarized by Chen and Santathadaporn [ 12.42 l ;md nwrc recenti)' by the SSRC
GuideSimple
[6.8]. plastic theory becomes 111adequate
. . abOut two pnn..:1pal
when momcmrs ex1s1 . .
, When only onc moment exist~. plastic behavior (consrant momcnt with increasing
axes.· O) is exhibited no ma1ter what the vaIue o f n~,a
. I comprc~s,on.
. The e11·l'CllVC
- plas-
rotauon
. educcs as axial compress1on ,ncrcase~. ,ut p as11c = 1av1or <oes 01.·,·ur.
. . 1 1 · ...., · 1
uc momcnt r · '
_y
I
I.O
0.8
·-I-· y WJ2X31
Wl4 ><426
M., 0.6
MP,
Figure 12.9. l 0.4
P,
Contours on strength
P,
interaction surface for shon 0.2
members where insu1bili1y
does not occur. (Adapted from
Chen and Santathadapom
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I.O
(12.42)) M.11,..,IM,,.I
Upon applicarion of an additional momenr about the other principal axis, one rni
c_onsider an interaction surf~ce relating P. Mx, ,md My. Even for ideai elastic-plastic rna~'.
rial,_ ?oi:vever, present plasuc analys1s _theorems neglect rhe mfluence of defonnatìon on
equthbnum. For zero lengch compress1on mernbers, the concept of an mteraction su""
. . .
(see Fig. 12.9.1) may be thought of as a first step to o btam mg the strength under bi¾a)
"ace
bending.
. While few desig~ers concem th~mselves greatly a_bout the sequence o~ load apPJica.
110n, nevertheless loadmg sequence affects strength. Th1~ 1s also_true for umaxial bendin
and compression, but it has less effect on that case than tor the b1ax1al loading. g
Figure 12.9.2 illusrrares severa! loading sequences to reach point A, a panicut
value o f Pu, M11x , and Mu_1.. Point A may be reached by the following paths: (1) Apply;
first, then M,,.\., chen M,u (path 0-l-2- A); (2); apply P. firsr. then apply M11 x and ;..,•
proportionally (path 0-1-A); (3) apply P,,, M,,_, and M"-" by increasing magnitude inco~~
stant proportion (parh O-A): (4) apply Mux and M,,y in constant proponion, then apply P.
(paih 0-3-A). •
Oiher combinations are possible and in generai the loading ma~· become applied i·ia
any path through space to gei from Oro A on F1g. 12.9.2. A g1ven sect1on will exhibit a dif.
ferent strength for each parh of loading. Nearly ali investigators 10 date (2008) ha~·e Used
proportional loading (pach 0-A).
The strength of compression members under biaxial bending is not sufficiently well
known to make use of it for plastic analysis of rigid space frames: therefore, plastic analysis
Figure 12.9.2
Paths of loading for bi.ix ial
bending combìned with axial
force. ( Ad,lp,-:d from Cr,en
aud Saor:uh:dap,,rn [ !1 ~2))
Section 12.10 AISC Design Criteria • 609
should be restricted to planar structures or ot . .

sonable approximation. · ies tor whtch planar behavio r represents a rea-
For lack of any contrary · i . .
usually assumed t I f m
~rmat10n: an tnteraction formula, such as Eq. 12.8.4 is
0 app Y or b1ax1al bendmg Com 1 .1 ct· '
that such a procedure is re I" t" f: h · . pu e~ s u ies and some tests indicate
equation would be a is te or t ose cases mvesugared. Thus the full interaction
P,, + M,,xCmx MuyCmy

Pn M11x ( 1 - P.11/ Pt:r ) + M ny ( I - P,,/ P,_,.) :s 1 (12.9.1)
where
. . ali 1erms are as defined following El). 12. 8.4 , e xcep1 t hat now th e quannttes
· · sub-
scnpted x and Y must be evaluated for bending about the axìs indicated by subscript.
12.10 1t:SC DESIGN CRITERIA

Long tradilion in Al_lowable Stress Desig_n of beam-colurnns has used two equations for
dest~n; one for y1eldmg or maximum strength and one for srability. That would correspond
lo usmg Eq. 12.8.1 for y1eldmg and Eq. 12.8.4 for stability. The early LRFD recommenda-
t10ns ( 12.44] used those equations.
According to Yura ( 12.45], Task Group 10 deve loping LRFD design rules for beam-
columns had the following objectives:
1. The rules should apply to a wide range of variables, such as strong and weak
axis bending, effect of residuai stress, braced (nonsway) and unbraced (swa\i
possible) structures, inelastic behavior, ali column slenderness ratios, leaned
column systems, and second-order effects.
2. The second-order effect should be kept separate and identifiable in the criterion
so that the designer could perform a second-order analysis if de sired.
3. Elastic analysis, including elastic second-order analysis if desired. should be the
basis for detennining internal forces, since practical inelastic analysis teclmiques
are not available for office use.
4. The strcngth interaction equation using elastìc second-order analysis should noi
be greater than 5% unconservative when compared with "exac,.. inelastic second-
order analysis theoretical solutions.
5. Mathematically identica! problems should give the same results using the
strength interaction criterion.
These design rules formed the basis for what is now referred to as the traditional
"Effective Length Method." This method has been adopted by LRFD since 1993. The 2005
AJSC Specification provides three allernarives for stability design including an improved
version of the traditional Effective Length Method. Attemp~s over the past few years to
r ·nate rhe use of the effective length factor K in determimng the nominai compression
etum th P. have lead to the developmenl of a new method called the "Oirect Analysis
s reng n• . . . . Id' d b' I' . h
Method." Since 1993. a single critenon Lhat combme~ y1e mg an sia I uy e{Juauo ns as
been adopted. A ihorough rcview of the LRFD prov1s1ons for beam-columns has been pro-
vided by Chen and Lui (12.46]. . . . . .
For design, AJSC-H 1.1 prescrib~s the tollowmg tor compress1on and ben~mg
. the emphasis in this texl 1s on the LRFD Method. the AISC- H I. I equauo ns
mo ment. S mce· the useful LRFD formai. using ,actore r . Ioa d s P.,, .mstead o f the
d serv1ce
are presented m . . . . , ..
P. d the desig n strength tf>,.P,, mstead o l 1he gene rai P., 111 thc r ompress1on-
general r• an d "actored ,nomen!s M and M11> instead of the generai M, , and M,,. IUld
related terrns; an 1' " ·' ·
the design strengths <l>hM,,;x and <f,1,Mn,, instead of the generai M,.., and M .
moment-related terms. Thus. · '.1·· Jq lht
Pu
I. For - - ~ 0.2
<PcP.,
02.10.1)
Pu
2. For - - < 0.2
<PcP.,
- P,,- + ( -M,,x
-- + -Muy
-) s I .O
2</J,.Pn <~1,Mnx <PbMuy
where P,, = faccored axial compressive load

P.
"
= nominai
.
compressive strength considering the member as loaded b
.. . "thAISCE..,( Yaxial
compression only in accordance Wt - -' see Chapter 6)
'Pc = resistance factor for compression = 0.90
M . = factored bcnding moment about the x-axis, i11cluding second-or.d
u., . . . er effec,,
= BixMn,., + B2 xMt,x, if moment magntficallon 1s used in lieu of
computing the elastic second-order moments. (The tcnn 8 2 M ,1 .
• · . x ' ' app1ICS
only for the unbraced frame memb_e~. 1.e., where sway 1s possible. lìus
case is treated in Sec. I 2.1 I.) Prov1s1ons for compu11ng 8 1 and 8 ~• .
2 "'C 1n
AJSC-C2.1b.
Mnx = nominai moment strength for bending about the x-axis, in accordance
with AISC-F (see Chapter 9)
<Pb = resistance factor for flexure. = 0.90
M,,y = same as M,,x except referred to the y-axis
M,,y = same as Mnx except referred to the y-ax_is
Moment Magnifier-Braced Frame

Tue moment magnifier B 1 for members having no joint translation was treated in S
I 2.3 and 12 .4. For this nonsway case , AlSC Formula (C2-2) gives lbe magnifier as ( :
script I refers to the braced case)
Bi = C,,, ~ I.O
(12.IOJ)
I - aP,JPc1
Note that a in Eq. 12.10.3 is unrelated to the use of cr in the generai development of e
tions in thc earlier parts of rhis chapter. ~quation_I2.10.3 leads to confusion when usini:
AISC LRFD Method because a there ,s a dev1ce necessary when using the AISC ASD
Method, where i t has a safety-relaled purpose. For the LRFD Method. a. in Eq. 12.
103
s!10tlld not b~ ~bere. as the development of ~q. 1~.3.7 shows (AISC ~ays take O as t.Ò).
1 lms. for A!SC. LRFD Eq. 12.10.3 ca.n be wntten. ,md used in the remamder of this text. as
81 = Cm ~ I.O (12.10.41
l - P,./ P~1
where C,,, = factors discussed in Secs. 12-3 and 12.4. to be take.n as follows:
I. For braced frame members having trans verse loadi og bctween supports. e,. i~ an
integrai pare of the moment magnifier 8 1, whose value may be conservatively talen ~
Section 12.10 AISC Design Criteria • 611
0
~ ~-· A:·?.· ~ a~~<~~ding 10 lhe AISC-C2.lb definition of C,,, ''shall be determined by analy-
anal} ' 1~ could mclude lhe developrnent in Secs. 12.3 and 12 4 to give the fol-
1
.
lo\\ mg: ·
C,,, = I + I/la= ( 12.10.5)
where P,, = foctored axial compression load

P,., = Euler load using KL/r for thc axis of bending with K s. J.O (for bmced
fmme)
2
TT EA g
P,, = -- - (12.10.6)
(KL/ r)2
Values of 1/1 are available from AISC-Commentary Table C-C2. l in an abbreviated fonn, or
frorn Table 12.3.1
2. For bmcedfmme members without transverse loading between supports bui hav-
ing end moments M 1 (smaller one) and M2 (larger one), e,,, conven s thc linearly varying
primary bending moment into an equivaleni uniform moment M1; = CmM2 ; thus.
(12.10. 7)
Tue moments M 1 and M 2 are rotational moments, rather than bending moments as used in
Sec. 12.4. Therefore, the ratio is negative ( - ) for single curvature and positive ( +) for
double curvature. Since M2 is the primary moment. Cm is really not part of the magnifica-
tion factor.
Tue braced frame (no 1ransla1ion) beam-column total factored moment is
(12.10.8)
where Mni = che primary factored moment (for the no translation case; hence the
su bscri pt nt
EXAMPLE 12.10.1
·
Invesugate ehe acceptability of a WJ6X67 used . as a beam-column in a braced frame under
the Joading shown in Fig. 12.1 0. l. The steel 1s A572 Grade 60.
p p
r
Sgyjçe loada
Il =
P 81.5 kipsdead load
Il 262.5 kips live load
Il
Il
li
Il
M = ISf1-kips dead Joad
Il <4S ft-kips tive Joad
Il
15'-0" Il
Il F, =60ksi
l
Il
Il
Il
Il
Il
Figure 12.10. I
Bcam-column for Examplcs ,. ,.
12.10.1 and 12.141.
612 • Chapter 12 Combined Bending end Axial Load
Solution:
(a) Faccored loads.
P,, = J.2Pv + 1.6Pr. = 1.2(87.5) + 1.6(262.5) = 525 kips
Mn, = 1.2Mn + l.6MI. = 1.2(15) + 1.6(45) = 90 ft-kips
M,. = B1M,.,
Note that the foctored primary moment is referred to using
. the subscript nt ( 110 trans1a110
. )
(b) Column effec1. Calculate the slenderness rauo KL/r, n.
KL KL 1(15)12
Largest -
r
= -ry = -2.46
- - = 73
Since lhe AISC Ma1111al Tables 4-22 are noi available for Fy = 60 ksi, AISC-E3 st
used to compute the critica! stress Fc,. Thus, mu be
( - ,.
KL = 73) < ( 4.71 - /f: = -~
Fy
-- = 800 104 )
which makes it a case of inelastic buckling,
-rr 2E -rr 2(29,000)

F, = (KL/r)2 = (73f = 53.4 ksi
<PcFcr = <Pc(0.658f. )F> = 0.90( 0.658 5 f•) 60 = 33. 7 ksi
</JcPn = </JJc,Ag = 33.7(19.7) = 664kips
Check Pi./</>cPn 2: 0.2,
~ 52S
<PcPn = 664 = 0. 79 > 0.2 Use Eg 12.JQJ_
Note thai for the web A = h/tw = 35.9, which exceeds the Ar limit of l.49~
= 2 5 4 / ~ = 32.7 given in AISC-Table B4.1. However, Q will beless than LO onlv
when h/tw ~xceeds 254/ V f~r, ksi = 4 J.6. (See Sec. 6.18 andAlSC-E7 .2). ·
(e) Beam effect. The laterally unbraced length Lb is !5 ft.
M(' = F_rZx = 60( 130)/12 = 650 ft-kips

M, = 0.7F1 S_, = 0.7(60)(117)/12 = 410ft-kips
'E 300 300(2.46) 1
Lp = J.76r> - = ry, ~ = , r,:-;:: -- = 7.9 h
~ ~ v~.k~ vOO 12
Si.nce Lb exceeds Lp, L, must be evaluated. Using r,s = 2.82 in .. h0 = 15.7 in., J =2.39 in•.
and e= l;
L, = .l.95r/$ _E_ / _ _ r--rc-JI + \ jII + 6.761(0.7Fy S,ho)i

- - --·-
0.7Fy VS,.h 0 \ E Jc
Section 12.10 AISC Oes1gn
. Critena
_ . • 613
2.39( I.O) I
L,. == l.9S(l.S2) 29,000 I+ ~I+ _ (0.7(60) 117(15.7))2 l
6 76 29,000 2.39(1.0) l2 = 35 ft
0.7(60) 117( 15.7)
Thus,
h L P < L b < L ,,. therefore M lies betwee
owever, C& = L.67 using Eq. 9.6.11 or.Table n Mµ and M, for Cb = I.O. In this case,
MP. Check whether or not Wl6X67 is thus. tt ~ proba?le that Mn will equa!
"com9·:-~: 10
Table 84.1 . For the flange, P et for F,, - 60 ks1 according AISC-
b1 10.235 ) OK
( 2tr = 2(0.665) = 7·7 < (Ap = 8.4fromTable9.6.I)
For the web.
À
" = 3.76'V{E
F., = . ;-:;-:-:
Y
MO
V Fy, ksi
-_ -640 = 83
V60
[ À = : = 35.9 from AISC Manual] <[A,,= 83 ) OK

1
The section is "compact". Next use Eq. 9.6.4 to compute M., ,
Mn = c{Mp - (Mp - 0.7Fys,{ ~: =~:)] s Mp

[9.6.4)
- I.67[ 650 - (650 - 410) (15

- - 7.9)] = 980 ft kips
35 ---
7.9 -
Since Mn cannot exceed Mp, M11 = Mp for this analysis.

. (d) Moment magnification. The_slen_dem_ess ratio KL/r involved in moment magni-
fication must relate to the a.x1s oj bendmg, m th1s case the x-axis,
. . KL KL l.0(15)12
Ax1s of bending -
r
= -r_,- == -6.96
-- = 25.9
C,,, = 0.6 - 0.4{M1/M2) = 0.6 - 0.4(0/90) = 0.6

-rr2EA 772 (29,000) 19.7
Pe1 = (KL/r;2 = (25_9 )2 = 8430 kips
B == ~
Cm = ~ 0.6 = 0.6( 1.07) = 0.64
1 1 430
Since Bi is cornputed IO be less than I .O. use I .O. In this case. the mornent varying from
90 ft-kips to zero over the IS ft leng~ is _the same as i_f Cn,M2 = 0.6(90) == ~4 ft-kips were
constant over that length. Tue 54 ft-k1ps 1s then magmtied to 54( 1.07) = 58 11-kips. h,11 ;, is
1
(li /ess than rhe actual va/ue 90 ft-kips at the e11d of rhe member. The use of 8 = I.O is the
:~e as saying the rnagnified value out in the span is less than the value M: at the end of the
member.
(e) Chc<:k AISC formula (H 1-1 a), Eq. J 2.1 O. I, omitting the bending ter,n foqhc
y-ax1s.
~ + ~ (~)::,; I.O
q,, P,, 9 M,,..
'~b
!12.10.11
0 ·791 + 8(0.90(650)
9
90 ) = 0791 + 0.137 = 0.928 <
.
I
Tue W l 6X67 section is acceprnble.
•
12.11 UNBRACED FRAME-AISC DESIGN
As -~hown in Figs. 6.9.2b and e and 6.~.3,_ an u_nbraced _frame must rely on the tlexura)
interacrion of its beams and columns to hmll honzontal d1splacement. Under lateral l
. Oads
a "braced" frame will resist rhe lateral force by sueh components as d1agonal brac· ·
. . . . d . ~~
shear walls so thar lateral d1stor11on w11J be of small magmtu e. Thus secondary be d'
moments P6 from sidesway (the P - 6 effect) may ordinarily be neglected. Howev n ~ng
. . f1 • A d er, ,or
··unbraced"' frames, the relattvely Jarger s1desway de ect1on u ue 10 lateral loact wil! .
rise 10 secondary moments p il (P is the gr~vity load) th~t must be pro:ided for in desT~:e
Thus, an unbraced frame requires an analys1s to accomphsh lhe followmg tasks: ·
t. Provide strength under fac1ored loads 10 resis1_ gravity load, neglecting any side.
sway effec1 excep1 in cases of unbalanced loadrng or unsymmetric structural
fi guration where a "significant restrain.ing force" (AISC-Com~entary C2, p;~~)
would be necessary to prevent sway. Out-of-plumbness can typ1cally be expAa
to have greater effect than sway under grav1ty . Ioad . ""'1ed
2. Provide strength under factored loads to resisl late~al load (i.e., factored wind or
earthquake load). The moments under lateral load include the primary mornent
from first-order elastic analysis plus secondary moments due to P- !::,, effect. s
J. Previde stiffness such that the relative horizonLal defleclion (sway) between act· .
cent floors, and for the entire frame, is within spe~ified limits (usually, say, eq~f
to the height ls divided hy 400 or 500 under serv,ce loads).
Referring to Fig. 12.11.1, first-order equilibrium requires
(12.11.1 )
The first~order sway deflection L\ 111 causes the ~otal gr~vity load 'i, P,, to be acting at the
eccentncny 6 111 . The lacerai load moment H,,L_,. 1s thus rncreased by the amount IP. .:i
Since the tota! mornent now acting is H11l s + 'i-P,, t:. ,11 , the relative lateral defl;c/·
. . 10n
( sway) wtll mcrease to !:1
211 when the struc1ure reaches equilibrium in the final displa d
. . h . F
pos1t1ou, as s own rn ig. 12.1 l.l b. ce
Tbe final (including P - !::,. effect) moment equi librium mny be expressed
Bi(Mcn + Me,2 ) = H11 L, + IP,, j.2u

(12.11.21
in which 82 is the magnification factor, and Me,, and Mt, 2 are p rimary momenrs (c~lled
Me; 1n AISC-C2. l b, with the snbscript ft referring to lateral trans latio n) resulting from a
sway analys1s under factored loads.
Cornparing Eq. 12. l l.2 with Eq. 12. I I. I gives
( 12.1 1.3)
Section 12.ll
Unbraced Frame-AISC Design • 615
A lP,
'"
CD
I
I
I
I
I
I
® ®
lP.
(a) F irs1-orde r analysis: For equil"b .
J num.
M t,1+•n
.,fr2=HJ.s
CD
,
I
I
I
Figure 12. I 1.1

Summation of forces acring
on ali colurnns in one stcry of
®
-r~ lP,.
(b) Sccond--0rdcranalysis: Forequilibrium,B2(Mr,1+Mt,2) =HJ-, + 'ì.P.,A 2,

a rnullistory building frame.
Referring to Fig. 12. 11.1. and using a proportionaliry factor T/, let
( 12.11.4)
which is valid for first-order analysis. The equivalent magnified lacerai load in Fig. 12.11. lb,
that is, the tota! moment divided by L,, may be taken as
IP,, .1.,,,
Equivalenl lateral load == H,. + - - --- ( 12.11.5)
L_.
Thus,
À2u == 11(Equivalenl lateral load)
(12.11.6)
616 • Chapter 12 Combined Banding and Axial Load
S ub~tiruting ~ 1,, for r,11" givcs

A. 1,, 'i l~, A2,,
11,,Ls
frnm whii:h solving for A2,, gives

A,,,
02.11,8)
Ar,,)
1- "i.P,, ( HL
li s
Substituting Eq. 12. 1 t .8 imo Eq. 12.11 .3 gives
02.J 1.9)
Note ihat H in Eq. 12.11.9 is ihe ,oral )aren1l force (shear) acting in che story, called Ì:.H
in ATSc-c/1b. Even though the deflection A,,, and force H., a~e for facto~ed loads in the
derivation, the ratio A,,,/ H,, for factored loads or Ai/ H for serv1ce loads w1l1 be the saine.
since the tirsi-order analysis is to be elastic.
There are two ways in which the magnified end moments B2Me, 1and B2Me,2 may be
obiained:
I. Amplified First-Order Elastic Analysis Merhod (Moment Magnifìer
Merhod) . AISC-C2. l b indicates the required second-order flexural strength, M,, for
use in AISC Formulas (Hl-la) or (Hl-lb). Eqs. 12.10.l or 12.10.2, is obtained as
follows:
(l 2.1 I. IO)
where two first-order eiastie analyses are required; (J} a gravity-only analysis assuming no
sway ro obtain the Mn1 values and 8 1; and (2) a lateral-load-only sway analysis co obtain
the Me, values and B2 . The nonsway magnifier B1 has been treated in Secs. 12.3, 12.4, and
12.1 O. Duan, Sohal, and Chen [ 12.47] have presented a discussi on of the Bi factor and sug-
gested alternative formulation.
The sway magnifier B2 is given by A[SC-C2. l b as
B2 =- ---2: (12.J I.li)

ci'i,P,11
---
LPe2
The authors belicve Eq. 12.11.11 is confusing for those pmticularly interested in Load and
Resistance Factor Design. The term a is necessary in the AISC Allowable Strength Design
Method where a value of a = 1.6 must be used. For the LRFD Method, a = I and could
be omitted from the equation. The a used bere (a one-time use) should not be confused
with the cx used in the earlier sections of this chapter. The lerm /~,, uses the subscript nr to
signify the axial force is the factored axial force P,,, assuming no lateral translation ofthe
frame. Eq. 12.11 . 11 could be written,
B2 =----~ ( 12.11.12)
- -LP,,
-
iPe2
secfion 12.11 Unbraced Frame-AISC Design • 617
when focusing 01) the LRFD

follows: Meth od. The lerm P,2 can he defined (AISC-C2. J b) as
Pc2 = clastic criticai bucklin . . . .

bu kl' . g re.s,stance for the story determmed by s1desway
e mg analys1s
2
~Pci = "'i.~
(K2L)2 (12.11.13)
(Eq.12.IL.l3is d h · . · .
are . use w ere sidesway bucklmg effectwe length factors K 0
determmed for colurnns in moment frames.) -
K2 = effective
. leng1h ( t · h .
ac or m t e piane of bendmg, based on sidesway buckling
(1.e., for the unbraced frame)
'i.HL
"'i.P,2 = RM- -
t:.H (12.11.14)
(Eq. 12.11.1 4 can be used forali types of lateral load resisting system~.)
RM = I.O fora braced frame system
= 0.85 for momen1-frame and combined sys1ems
"'ì.H = s1ory shears produced by the lateral forces used 10 compute t:.H
t:.H = first-order interstory drift rcsulting from lateral forces
2. Sewnd-Order Analy.ris. An alternate 10 compuling the magnificd primary
moments using Eq. 12.11.10 is to direc1ly use a second-order analysis under factored
loads. A second-order analysis is one in which the equation~ of equilibrium are hased on
the deformed s1ructure in~tead of the originai undeformed geometry as in first-order analy-
sis. Tue reader is referred to the methods of MacGregor and Hage [12.48), LeMes~urier,
McNamara, and Scrivener [ 12.491. LeMessurier [12.50, 12.51 ]. Wood. Beaulieu, and
Adams L12.52, 12.53], and Scholz [ 12.541 for ~uggestions on ,econd-order analysis.
Equation l2.ll . ll isoftheformderivedinSecs. 12.3and 12.5,andEq. 12.11.12
was derived as Eq. 12.11.9, replacing l1 1u by rhe symbol t:.H rccognizing that H,, is the
tota! horizontal force acting in the story by using the ~ sign. Furthcr, noting that the
quantity t:.Hf 'I-H may be either for factored loads or for service loads. the subscripl u is
not used.
Tue story stiffness concept of assuming each story behaves indepeodently of 1he other
s tories and tbar the P-t:. effecr is equivalent to the effect of a la1ernl force ~ P,, l!./ L has
been discussed by Chen and Lui [ 12.46l and MacGregor and Hage [ 12.48]. among others.
AISC Provisions for Stability Analysis and Design
The 2005 A!SC Specijication includes significant cbanges in 1he provisi~'.is for stability
· d d ·gn of building structures and their components. The trad1t1onal approach
ana Iys,s an esr . •· . . . . ..
for overall stability design, adopted by prev1ou~ A~SC ~pec1fica11ons'. ,s_ stili accepted by
"fi · b has been subiected 10 modrficallons and restncoons. The updated
the new spec1 1caoon uI , .
.. · h · w referred to as the Effective Length Method. An ahemaove.
rrad1t1onal approac 1s no . . "fi
· al thod of analysis and design has been mcorpora1ed m the Spec1 1c~-
more ration new me .
. ferred to as the Dìrect Analys1s Method. . . .
uon, re ad" . a1 ethod accounted for the effects of geometnc 1mperfec11ons and
The old tr iuon m · · · · h
· · I ct· resi"dual stress effects) only w1thm mtcrnct1on ,trengl
. ·b d yieldmg (mc u mg
d1st '
n ute - 15
- cam'ed out using the nominai structure geometry and
. Th structura1ana1ys1s . .
equahons. e . h ha~ also been included (referred lo a.., D1rec1 Analys1,
. , t"ff ess A new approac . .
e Iasuc; s n · · ·
I . f h A/SC Specification. The D1red Annlys1s Mc1hod
Method) in Append1x 7 o t e 2005 .
accounts for nominai geometrie imperfection and stiffness reduction effects direci1~.
, 1n th
structural analysis in both methods. . t
The Direct Analysis Method is a rigorous analys1s method that allows forni I .
of more realistic lirnit state models. The new Dire~t Anal~sis Meth_od is present~atio~1
alternative rnerhod in AISC wirh the intention of improvmg and s1mplifying des· as <lll
'. · h . I · · ign f
stability. This improvement 1s accomphshe? th rough 1 ~ mc us_ion of nommal georne or
imperfections and member stiffness reducoon effects d1rectly m the analysis. Th llic
accurate required strength values account for ali possible second order effects an; hlllore
lead to the use of K = I .O in calculating the in-piane column Slrengt~ Pn for use
interaction equations of AISC-Chapter H. On the other hao<l. the Effecttve Length l., ~
. . . . · . A
i:~:
••1e1h0d
includes the above effects md1.rectly m the mteracuon equatJons. · s a result, lengthv
error-prone calcularions are required to compute nomograph-based effective lenoth f. aJid
"' ac101\
to assess the in-piane srrength of unbraced stee I fram es.
Il is important to recognize thai iniriaJ imperfections in the structure (i e
. . .. · • OUt-of-
p)umbness, fabncatwn tolerances, member ~es1dual stresses a~d generai softening of the
structure at the strength limit state) tend to mcrease the magmtude of load effect .
. L h M h0 d d. . s in thé
structure ~bove thos~ predic~~d by th~ _Effccnve cngt ~t. tra Itwna! analysis. This
becomes 1rnportant lor stab1hty-sens111ve s1111ctures contmnmg large ver11cal Joad .
. . l s \\ltth
small lateral Joad requiremcnts, leadmg to relanvely ow lateral load resistance 1Ji·
results in underescimatino
- b
the actual internal•
moments. The reduced required
.
rnoments · do is
not impact tbc design of beam-columos, smce the column curves are cabbrated 10 accou
for this, reduction throuo-h
o
the interaction.
equations.
.
However,
.
the
.
reduced momen1 can ni
affect the design of beams and connecl!ons. wh1ch prov1de rolallonal restraint 10 the
umn. To limit the potential for gross underestimation of the load effecrs in stability-sen _coJ.
. ~~
structures, a maximum limit of 1.5 on B2 has been unposed by AISC-C2 on the use of the
Effective Length Method.
The Effective Length Method
Traditional Effective Length Method procedure is based on first-order analysis of the ideai
geometricaJly perfect, nominally elastic structure. The metbod accoums for residuai 51 ·
and geometrie imperfection effects on the sidesway stability of unbraced mornem frare~
in an implicit fashion in the calculation of the effecti_ve _length factor K, and the use
AISC column strength. For most structures, the l11rntanons placed on this methoct by tht
of~:;
2005 A!SC Specijication are normally satisfied. Nevertheless. for some cases. this method
could underestimate the internal forces, as explained earlier. This limìtation has bee
addressed in the AISC Spec~fìcation by including a minimum notional lateral Joad (equiva~
lent to the effect of a nominai out-of-plumbness) in gravity-only load combinarions. and b,
restricting the use of the method to frames in which the amplification of the storvJ drift~, lS_l
less than or equa) to 1.5.
The following steps describe the new Effective Length Method:
1. Use the nominai geometry and member properties for the second-order analy,is.
2. Perform a second-order analysis for each of the load cases.
3. Apply N; as a minimum lateral load in aJl gravity-only load combinations
(N; = 0.002Y;- Notional load at leve] i and 1-; = gravi ty load at leve] ; from thè
LRFD load combination being considered).
4. A!l load combinations must be subjected Lo the seçond-order analysis (using am
method thai properly considers both P- 1 and P-5 effec ts). • ·
5. Design the beams and girders according to thc ,èquiremcnts of AlSC-Chapter F.
AISC-Chapter I and other relevant sections of t!:c Soecification.
Section 12.11 Unbraced Frame - AISC Design • 619
6. Check for each I I f h f

of th eve O t e rame that second-order effects as measured by the ratio
e average second- lo first-order story drifts (B 2 ) are \ess than or equa! to 1.5.
7. Forali beam-col ·
( umns m moment frames apply the interaction Formulas (H l- I )
or wherc applicable, Formula (H 1-2))
(a) For unbraced m f . .
oment rames, determme the Effecuve Length Factor K 2 for
each column.
(b) When second-order effects are small such that A. 20,J 6. l>1 or 8 2 s. I.I , K may
be tak.en equa! lo I .O in the calculation of Pn (but not in the calculation of 82)
for al! types of frames.
(e) Adjustments to K2 for column ioelasticity are permissible according to the
procedure outlined in che AISC Chapler C Commentary.
(d) When using the sidesway-uninhibited alignment chart for calculation of K2,
adjustments are typically necessary 10 account for non-ideai framing condi-
tions olher than those assumed in the development of the alignment chart.
8. For determining member axial nominai compression strength, use thc relevant
equations of AISC-Chapter E, Sections E3 tbrough E7.
EXAMPLE 12.11.1
Investigate the acceptability of W 14X 145 columns in a ~ingle-bay multistory unbraced

frame, part of which is shown in Fig. 12.11.2. Tue axial compression P is the tota! load act-
ing on the bouom story columns and the wind load H is che tota! horizontal service wind
load acting on the entire multi-story frame. The steel is A992. Use AISC LRFD Method,
and the Effective Length Me thod.
Soluti.on:
(a) Compute factored loads. In accordancc with ASCE 7-05, at least two factored
load combinatìons are necessary when wind or earthquake act on the structurc,
1. Gravity Load (LRFD Load Combination 2-ASCE 7-0S)
Pu = 1.2(230) + 1.6(92) = 423 kips

Wu = 1.2(0.S) + 1.6( 1.5) = 3.0 kips/ ft on each floor
Minimum notional Joad is lo be applied only with thc gravity-only load combinatìon
(AISC-C2.2a(3)).
H,, = 0.002( 423 + 3) = 1.9 kips
V
p = 230 kips dead load
92 kips live load
"' ,. 0.5 kips/ft dead load

1.5 kips/fl livc load
H
H = 78 kips wind load
/ Relative momeni
/ ofinertia
I
ColumnA
Figure 12.11.2
Lowest ponion of sìnglc-bay 28' O
multistory unbraced frame
for Example 12.11 .1 .
620 • Chapter 12 Combined Bending and Ax:ial Load
2. Gravity Load + Wind (LRFD Load Combination 4-ASCE 7-05)
Pu = 1.2(230) + l.0(92) = 368 kips
Hu = 1.6(78) = 124.8 kips

w,, = J .2(0.5) + J .0( 1.5) = 2.1 kips/ft on ali floors except roof
(b) First-order elastic strucrural analysis. Unless a second-order an 1 .

· h · · · a Ys1s i
performed, the factored moments us ed m t e dmvesugauon . must be obta1ned. s lo be
1
moment magnification. Eq. 12. 1 I . IO. The factore gravuy oad plus the resuJ . Using
load (loading 1) in part (a) is divided imo 1wo separate first-order elastica ~ng not1onai
factored loads; a non-sway analysis under gravity loads, and a sway analysi n Yses undc-,
. . dd. . I • s underj
not10nal load only. The sway analys1s causes an a 111ona faccored compre . · atc,..i
· h · F. 2 ss,ve load
kips. The factored moments of part (a) are s own m 1gs. l . l l.3b and c. 0/3
The gravity plus wind (loading 2) in part (a) is also divided into
. ~~
first-order elasttc analyses under
. fac1ored loads: a nonsway analysis Under gParatt .
loads only, and a sway analys1s under lateral load only. The results on th tavnv
investigated are as shown in Fig. I 2. I .l .3e and f; the sway analysis also ceacolumn lo ~
tional factored compressive load of 18.5 kips on the leeward column L use:s an ackJi.
be initially assumed to govern ihe beam-column sn-engch. · oading 2 lli)I
(e) Column strength. Verify that locai buckling will not occur; i.e., that Q "' I.O:
[
A= ::I = 7.8.J < [ Àr = ~
95 -- V50
95 == 13.5] 01(
[
À = lh
w
= 19.3] < [ Àr = 253 . = 253 = 35.6]
~-vso 01{
423'
--
1.9'
l
3.0 k/ft ____rt -, I
I
_,..ColumnA I
0.3
(a) Gravity-onJy + notional (b) Non1way part (e) Sway pan
368' 368t 368' 368

1
a.,. A,.
l
-
124.8'
l 2. 1 k/ft
! J
2.1 k/ìc
-------
124!R-
A'°,-:g
____rt -,
I
/ _)
40 +
_,..ColomnA = I
I
Figure 12.11.3 21 554

Forces from first-order elastic 18.5 1K5
analyses under factored
loads-Example I2. I 1.1. (d) Graviry + wind (e) Nonsway part /fJ Sway part
' • I I ; ,. •
s .
ect,on 12.11 Unbraced Frame-AISC Design • 621
The eftìect,ve
· length factor K .
factors G with Fig. 6.9.4. :e tn lhe piane of the frame is determ.ined using restraint
Grop = 1// L , columns = 2(// 13) _

I// L, beams 1.4// 28 - 3.08
Gbouom = I.O (Tue practical recommendation of AISC
Commeniary-Fig. C-C2.J for nominaJly
fixed base.)
Fiod Kr = 1.57 (From Fig. 6.9.4)
Since in the y-direction th · J • •

thus, e co umn ,s cons,dered pinned al the top and bottom, Ky = I .O;
K xl x 1.57( 13) 12 1.0(13)12

- ,- X
= 6 ••..,3
,.
= 38.7 ,._,, 3.98 = 39.2
<l>cFc, = 40.2 ksi (AISC Tab)e 4-22)
</>cPn = <l>JcrAg = 40.2(42.7) = 1720 kips
Check Pu!(<PcPn) 2!: 0.2 for the gravity load case
,,.... . P,, = 423 + 0.3 + 3.0( 14) _ ) _

( <f>cPn 1720 - 0.27 > 0.2, UseEq.12.10.l
(d) Beam effect. The laterally unbraced Jength L1, = 13 ft.
MP = F,Zx = 50(260)/ 12 = 1080 ft-k.ips

{E 300 300(3.98)
Lp = 1.76rn{i, = . ~ rl' = . e: = 14.1 ft
_,, V F,. , ksi V 50( 12)
Since Lb < Lp, Mu = Mp assuming the section is "compact" for flange and web locai
buclding. Check whether or not the W I 4 X145 is "compact" for F,, = 50 ksi accordi n~ to
AISC-Table 84.l. Note that when h/ tw < >., for axial compress1on alone, as in parr (e),
then >. < ),_P for beam action is automatically satisfied. For most rollcd 1-shaped sections.
this is the case. Also, AISC-F2 "User Note" indicare.- 1hat the Wl4X 145 section is ..com-
pact"; therefore.
M,, = MP = 1080 ft-kips <J,bM,, = 0.90( 1083) = 975 ft-kips

(e) Moment magnification-nonsway magnifier 8 1for the structurc of Fig. I 2. I I .3c.
The slenderness ratio KL/r involved in moment magnification must relate to the lll-i.r of
bending. Jn this case the x-axis. Thus Kx s I.O for the 1~onsway part. Since the structure is
actually an unbraced one, the authors recommend usrng I.O rather rhan any value less
than I .O (say, from Fig. 6.9.4a).
KL KL 1.0(13)12
Axis of bending -
r
=-
r..-
= 6.33
= 24.6
Cm= 0.6 - 0.4(Mi/M2) = 0.6 - 0.4(21/ 40) = 0.4
1T2El 1T2 (29,000)( 1380)

16,210 kips
P,i = (KL) 2 = ( 13(12) 2
Pu = 423 + 14(3.0) = 465 kips
Using Eq. 12.11 .12.

0.4 (
- 465/ 16,210 = 0.4 I.02 ) < I.O
When Bi is compured robe less lhan I .O, the magnified moment bctween lhe
rhe column in Fig. J2. l l .3c is Jess rhan the moment at the end of the member (S? 01 r~:S
Use B 1M,,, = 57 fr-kips PII.
(f) Momenl magnificarion- sway magnifier B2 for the structure of Fig 1
1
The total factored compression load _'i.P,, to be carried by all columns of the f~- ~-~.
one story (in this case two columns) is Wl\hi~
LP,, = 2(423) + 28(3.o) = 930 kips
The Euler Jo~d pc2 for the column being invesrigared must be compure~ using KL!r for
axis of bendmg, and rhe K valuc must be for the unbraced frame, that 1s. K ;;,, 10 llit
case K = I ·57 and K L = 1.57( 13) 12 = 245 in as detennined in pan (e)· For One• cohini..
• In lhi,
2
TT2 EI 1' (29,000)1 7 10
pd = ( KL)i = (245) 2 = 8 160 kips
Since two identica) columns resist sway, 1 Pc2 = 2(8160) = 16.320 kips. Thus, the s11,a
1
magnifier is
1.06
1- ~
16,320
Since B 2 is less than 1.5, use of this method is perrnitted

Tue maximum magnified momcnt M11 • Eq. 12.1 I . I O. for colurnn A is
Mu = B1M111 + B1Mc1 = 1.0(57) + l.06(8.5) = 66 ft-kips

Note that AISC-C2. lb requires lhe maximum M 111 and maximum Mlt to be used in e
ing Mu. Logically, the values of M111 and M t, simuhaneous ly should beat the same en:°i·
member. Even that procedw-e is not entirely correcc because the maximum ma~~
moment in the nonsway case may occur out in the span (and will when B1 exceeds I.O) v.ti:
the magni ti ed sway moment occurs at the end of the mernhc.r.
(g) Check AJSC Formula (Hl - la). omitting the bending tenu for the NJ ·
. . ,- d d "" . :I.IS and
adJUStmg the Pu to account ,or secon or er e 11 ect.
P,, = B,P,,, + B2P1, = l.0(465) + 1.06(0.3) = 465.0kips

-P,, +-8 ( -
M,,x
-) s I.O
<l>P,, 9 rJ>bM11x
0.27 + 8 ( 66) = 0.33 < I.O OK

9 975
' ., - ----1 • ' ., I • ._ a •
··-
•
-·
• • . •
Section12. 11 U
nbraced Frame-AISC Oes,gn
. • 623
For thc gravity + wind lo· .
through (k), follows ading case, steps (e) through (f) are repeated
as steps (h)
(h) Check p /(-'- p )
u 'Pc n 2 0.2,
~- 368 + 18.5 + 14(2.1 )

</>cPn - 1720 = 0.24 > 0.2; Use Eq. 12.10. I
(i) Moment magnificat'
ton- nonsway magnifier B1.
e,,, = o.6 - o 4( M 1
• I M2) = 0.6 - 0.4(21/ 40) = 0.4
B1 = - C,,, - I.O
l - Puf P,, - I - 416/ 20,111 = 0.4 < I.O
(j) Moment mag ·fi ·
nt 1cal1on-sway maonifier B
o 2·
~ Pu = 2(368) + 2. 1(28) = 795 kips

82 = I = _ _ 1_ _
'-0 p 795 = 1.05 < 1.50
I - ~ I
~P,2 16318
Effective Length Method is permìtted
M,,x = B1Mn1 + B2Me,

= I.0( 40) + 1.05(554) = 622 ft-kips
(k) Check AISC Formula (Hl-la).
= 1.0(398) + 1.05( 18.5) = 417 kips
417 + 98(622)
1720 975 = 0·81 < I.O OK
Tue W I4X 145 section is acceptable according to AISC LRFD Method.

•
The Direct Analysis Method
The new Direct Analysis Method, presenled in AISC-Appendix 7, accounts for nominai
geomettic imperfection and stiffness reduction effects directly wìthin the structural analy-
sis. When the required strengths of members have been determined from an analysis con-
forming to these new requirements. individuai members can be designed using an
effective length factor of unity in calculating the nominai strengths of members subject to
compressi00.
1. Use reduced member properties El* = 0.8-rbE/ and EA* = O.BEA forali mem-
bers participating in the lateral load re.~ista:nce of the frame.
2. Apply the yielding reduction factor -rb . In lieu of applyìng Tb < I.O. it is pemm-
sible to increase the notional loads N; by O.OOIY; .
3. Derermine the notional tarerai Joad to be applied to each leve) and J)Cti
ond-ordcr analysis including the effects of ali other la tera I Joads and ~ a'Ct-
loads stabilized by che structure. &ri,11\
4. Notional loads are applied as follows
N; = 0.002Y; - Notional load at leve! i
where y' = gravity Joad (including dcad. live,

b" .
snow, and vcnical w·nd .
. I lf
31
leve! i from cach LRFD load com mauon bemg considcrcct irl)'J
s. Apply M as a minimum load in ali gravity-cmly load combi11a1ions When .
order effects as measured by the ratio of che average second-order I tì SCcon11,
. h · o 1rs1.
story dnfcs (l12ndl 11 15, or B2 based nn I e nomma1 member properzies) lS
. sOrdq
I
The second-order analysis must be carried ouc for ali applicable load co b" . ,I.
11
(ASCE 7-05 Section 2.3 .2). The design of che beams and girders is based 0 0 thlTJe tna
rcq ·on1
ments of AISC-Chapcer F, AISC-Chapter I. and ocher seccions of the Specifi . uu~
applicable. Forali beam-columns in moment frames apply the interaccion AlSC ~aiion a,
(Hl-I ) [or where applicable, AlSC Formula (Hl -2)J using an effective le thormui.;
. . ·1 ~ ~
K = I .O. For detennining member res1stances 1n ax1a compression, use thc equ . -,oi
AISC-Chapter E, Seccions E3 through E7 as applicable. ations (lf
Note that the Specificatioo allows the frame model to be set up to incorpora,
plumbness explicitly in rhe analysis without che need for applying notional lat elout~.
However, 11· 1s
· usually eas1er
· to appIy not1ona
· era load1
I 1oads correspond.mg to a specified .
out-of-plumbness along with other applied loads on the scrucrure rather than mod1f1,n~rnin!I
!be
structure georne1ry. ·
EXAMPLE 12.11.2
Repeat Example 12.1 I.I and investigate the acceptability of 1he W I 2 X t 45 beam-col .
the Direct Analysis Method of AISC-Appendix 7 with reduced Oexural stiffness: E I' :ITUIO.&rbfl
l1SlJJt
Solution:
Calculate reduced stiffness for alt members participating in lateral resis1ance
. ac. cord"tn•to
AlS C-A7.3.3. In this example all beams and columns are assumed 10 panie·ipate. h• ~
noted lhat one can argue thai only the columns are the structural elemencs resistin lat
forces and accordingly reduce the column stiffness only. g eQI
P,
Check if ...!!. $ 0.50
P_v
P _,. = F_,.Ag = 50(42.7) = 2 135 kips
P,, = 423 + 3(14) + 0.3 = 465kips
-P,, = -465 = 0.22 < 0.5 . ·. -rb = i.O

P,, 2135
Therefore use ~· = 0.8~ = 0.8\ 29.0?0) = _23,200 ksi for ali beams and columns in the
analysrs of the frame. Th1s reduc11on w11l not rmpacl 1hc momenl distribution at th · ·
·11 · . . CJOlnt N
w1 mcrease the lateral deflect1on due . to the laterat torce~ :•mi witl reduce pti and p,,. ,,__
11r
en_d momencs are tI_1e same as prev1ously delermined in Example 12.11, 1. Calcul;,e 8,
usmg the reduced strffness: ·
~ P,,, = 2(368) + 28(2.1 ) = ..,95 k.ips
K = l.57(as calculatcd i.,:c ously)
Section 12.11
Unbraced Frame-Arse Design
• 625
~ 1r2El2 2
4.,P, 2 == ---- ==
2 2 1r (23,200)1710
(KL) ( l.57(l3)! 2 ) 2- == 13,050 kips
The magnifier B
2 can also be decermined usi .
ng the followmg expression for P,2:
2,HL
P,2 == R,, _
,.., ,i
where R - H
1.0 for braced frames and 8
M -
~H _ · 0. 5 for momenc frames
L., - story shear prod db
- . uce y lateral forces == l 25 kips
L - story hetght == 13(12) = 156.
A - .
fe,1ast1c
r:~ o~der
IO.
H - interstory drift due to lateral forces =
frame analysis) 1.13 in. (results of
p _ 125(156)
e2 - 0.&S--
l.]3
--'- = 14 ,640 k.1ps
B2 = - - 1_ _ l
1(795) = -06
1- - -
14,640
B1 = ~
Pi,
1- -
Pe1
Cm = 0.4 as previously calculated
Pu ==Pur+ B2P,, = 397 + l.07(18.5) = 418 kips
2 2
Pe1 = 1r El* = 1r (23,200)1710 _ .
(KL )2 [ l.0(J3)l 2 J2 - 16,090k1ps
0.4
B1 = - - - - - = 0.42 Use B 1 = LO
418
1- - -
16,090
M11v = B1Mn, + B2Mtr = l.0(40) + 1.07(554) = 633 ft-kips
Using AISC-Fonnula (Hl -la):
P,, 8 M,,v 418 8 633 .

<l>Pu + 9</>M,,y = 1720 + 9975 = O.S2 < I.O
W J2X 145 is adequale. rt is worth nocing chat both methods produced che same interaction
formula value. The advantage however is associated with appropriate bending moment val-
ues for the design of frame joints and beams. •
The First-Order Method

According to AISC-C2.2b, a simplified ftrst-order method can be used. when che required
compressive strength is less than half the yield srrength in ali members whose llexuml
stiffnesses contribute to the lateral stability of the ~~ructure. ~ this method, the struc
analyzed using the nominai geometry and nommal elasuc sllffness of al) lttrcÌ\
required member strengths are determined from a first-order analysis; aJI load ;elllber1:
0
tions include an additional lateral load at each frame leve! of a magnitude b lllb1na.
'ff f ased 0
gravity Joad applied at that leve] and che lateral su ness o the strucrure. Th n!lit
· d · e nolll·
strengths of compression members may be determme assuming K == 1 and h 1n,1
column moments must be adjusted to account for non-sway amplification, usint e bealll.
This section provides a method for designing frames using a first-o dgB1•
. J'fi . r er eia;·
analysis with K = I.O, provided the s1desway amp I icauon (2nd order / lst ~e
es:: 1.5 ( or B2 es:: 1.5 ), and the required compressive strength of all members that are or11cr1
lateral load resisting frame (otber than . truss members whose flexural stiffness is n Panlecof~
. . . . eg ~-
che analysis) have Pu < 0.5f>;, . All load combmanons must mcl ude an additiona] late tn
N; applied in combination with other loads at each leve! o!
the Structure specified
Fonnula (C2-8). This equacion is based on the clause withm AlSC-Appendix 7 tha ~ AISC
t 11
~
the norional load co be applied as a minimum !arerai load in the gravity load onJy com~_pelllli~
and noi in combinacion with other faterai loads when (2nd o~der/1 st order) ( or Bi) :;;; ~~llons
minimum value of N; of 0.0042Y; is based on the assumptton o_f a minimun1 first-ord~~-l1ie
ratio due to any effects of l'J./ L = 0.002. Note thar a target maxnnum drift ratio co drin
. . b · rresP<llld-
ing to drifts under che LRFD strength Ioad combmauons, can ~ assu_m~d at the stan of deii
to detemune the addmonal faterai load N;. As long as that dnft ratio 1s not exceeded · gii
strength load Jevel, the design will be conservative. Tue noosway amplificacion ofbe ai ani
wnn moments is addressed within the procedure specified in this section by applyi a;-tol-
arnplifier of AfSC-C2. l conservacively to tbe total member moments. ng e 81
12.12 DESIGN PROCEDURE-AISC LRFD METHOD

Various design procedures for selecting an economica! beam-column section bave
proposed. The A!SC Specijìcation requirement is to satisfy Eq. 12.I0.! or 12.IO~
appropriate (AISC-HI ). ln the past, the authors believed it was advantageous 10 co _--, :i!
. . . mm 1
least m an approx1mate way, the factored bendrng moment Mu into an equivale ·. '
compress1on . Ioad P.uEQ· Occas1ona . o f the factored axial
. Il y, convers1on . compressio otpax1aJ
.
equ1v· alent moment MuEQ w11l · speed the selecllon
· process. That approach is stilla" u Into.
ate, and was described in detail in the 4th edirion (Sec. 12.12) of chis cext. ppropn.
The more recenl method of Aminmansour ( 12.57 J is preferred by AISC - ,•.
. m~
ahuth?nng of _the 2005 Al~C Manual [I. 15 I (see Pan 6). The end result must be the sanie·
t at 1s, to s11t1sfy the requirements of AISC-Hl. ·
The authors present Aminmansour' s [ 12.57] development of design aids u,ino rhe
AISC LRFD Method formulation, Eq. 12.10. 1. [which is AISC Fomiula (Hl-la)]. e
P,,
I. For - - ;?: 0.2
<p,.P,,
-P,,- + -8 ( - M,,,
-·- + ·- Nl-11,·-- ) :5 IO [12.IO.IJ
<J>,.Pn 9 </JbMnx 'P!,Mn, - ·
Rearrange Eq. 12. I0.1 as follows.
(12.12.IJ
Define:
8
[>_., :--.: - - --
9<bb1\I/,.)
Section 12.1 2
Design Procedure-AlSC LRFD Method • 627
Note that p b
' x, and b are un·
co;pression load, effec~ive un~;ue ~r~pe rties for each section, which vary with axial
un _raced length Lb, In other wor ace ength KL: and for flexure with the laterally
design strength in axial compres _?s,
these pr~pemes p, b_,, and b)' are functions of the
y-axes. The AISC Manua/ T bi 6s1on, an~ design strengths in moment about the x- and
FY == :,-Ok·
s1. Equation 12 12a eb -1 prov1des th ese properties
· forali W sections having
· · 1 ecomes
(12.12.3)
Similarly, using Eq. 12.10.2,
pu
2. For - -<02
<f>,.P,, .
~
2 p + ( - Mux M.,v)
- + --·- ,e;; 10 [12.10.21
<f>c <f>&M11x
Il <PbM11y .
lit • Substituting Eqs. 12.12.2 into Eq. 12.10.2 gives
.!_ 9 9
+ 8bxM11x +
2 pPu
8byMuy ~ I (I 2.12.4)
.e-
For
b the initial tria) section, A mmmansour
· . a set of averaoe values
[ 12 .57] comphed
,orp, x, andb.} .; theseappear·m T~bl
a e 1212. . l . For every depth aroup of W sections
" aver-·
age values are g1ven for a range of' unbraced column lengths KL " and a ranoe of laterally
·
0
unbraced lengths Lb· Tabie 12.I 2 . I g1ves
· values for lengths from 8 ft to 20 ft.
TABLE 12.12. 'l ,,,,_.,,,.,!' ,ge Values of the p, bx and by Coefficients X 1000*
!-o:. -
tÀl 1: Effocr'..~i -~ngt.h KL (ft) with least radius of gyration or unbraced length Lb for x-axis bending
,a.J1q
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
1/, !l..
t-l.1iù. p b,: f? bx p bx p bx p b_, p b_. p b., b,.
iW W40 0.19 0.20 0!9 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.21 0.23 0.22 0.24 0.23 1.10
ilfbri. 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.26 0.25 I.IO
~ I W36 0.20 0.21 0.20 0.21
0.22 0.26 0.22 0.26 0.23 0.27 0.24 0.28 0.25 0.29 0.26 0.30 0.28 0.)1 1.20
:adma.:" W33
W30 0 26 0.38 0.27 0.39 0.28 0.41 0.29 0.43 0.31 0.45 0.33 0.40 1.70
0.25 0.37
0.3 1 0.43 0.33 0.44 0.35 0.46 0.37 0.48 0.40 0.41 l.90
0.42
elllofhi: W27 0.29 0.41 0.30
0.49 2.80
0.40 0.73 0.42 0.62 0.45 0.65 0.49 0.62 0.53
W24 0.37 0.67 0.38 0.70
:f.'lul' 0.72 0.67 0.81 0.56 3.80
0.54 J.08 0.59 0.82 0.64 0.86
W2\ 0.48 0.96 O.Si 1.01
0.91 1.22 1.03 1.18 1.20 0.8.< 1.40 0.86 4.70
Wl8 0.69 1.40 0.74 1.48 0.81 1.42
2.74 J.74 2.93 2.06 1.98 2.46 1.76 2.92 un (0.80
Wl6 1.22 3.07 l.34 3.32 1.51
1.37 0.81 I 13 0.90 l.17 1.02 0.98 3.50
Wl4 0.61 1.74 0.64 1.60 0.68 1.47 0.74
1.19 2.22 1.32 1.85 l .50 1.92 1.73 1.80 7.0
Wl2 0.94 2.54 1.00 2.27 1.08 2.37
6.38 3.82 7.88 3.95 9.60 .,,t,6 1)50
4.03 4.99 5.10 4.13
WIO 2.57 5.99 3.20 4.72
15.99 7.80 20.09 7.25 2-t.76 6.7~ 21.80
9.44 9.20 12.43 7.47
W8 5.20 11.18 7.04 8.68
35.94 18.34 45.49 16.-U 56.H:, 17.~~ 47.80
20.46 22.17 27.53 21.38
W6 10.27 27.28 14.69 24.60 2'>.0 -18.10
20.96 29.66 26.53 27.51 .'\2.75
28.12
' W5 7.02 24.34 8.87 25.48 I l.79 26.74 16.05
49.62 45.11 52.79 57.0') 70.49 ~3.20
W4 25.38 46.80 34.54
12.05 42.04 17.62 4429
1
•Units; flin kips- 1; bx anel by in ft-kips-
12.13 EXAMPLES-AJSC LRFD METHOD

Several examples are included co illustrate applicacion of the interaction ~
principles and procedures for columns from Chapter 6, and beams from Chapt ulas Using
ers 7 and 9.
EXAMPLE 12.13.1
Select th_e Ji~htest W ~ 4 sectio_n t~ c ~ an axìal.compression load of 170 kips dea 1

and 40 k.ips hve Joad, m combmal1on w1th a bendmg mom~nt of 140 ft-kips dead I d °"<1
ft-kips live load, and 420 ft-kips wind load. The member 1s part of a braced sy Oad, 140
transverse support provided in each principal direction at the top and bottom s~rn,
O 'Nitb
le ngth. Conservatively assume che moment causes s ingle curvature and varìes a 14,ft
.
Fig. 12. 13. L Use A992 steel and Load and Res1stance Factor D esign. ~ •-"11
- ·in
Solution:
(a) Compute factored loads. Assume a first-order e lastic analysis was perf0
obtain the given forces. Using ASCE 7 LRFD Load Cornbinations 2 and 4, t11Jed to
1. Gravity Load
Pu = 1.2( I70) + 1.6( 40) = 268 kips
M 111 = 1.2(140) + 1.6(140) = 392 ft-k.ips
2. Gravity Load + Wind
P,, = J.2( l 70) + 0 .5(40) = 224 k:ips

M,,1 = 1.2(140) + 0.5(140) + 1.6(420) = 910 ft-kips
It appears thai loading Case 2 will be the more severe loading; thus, use that case 10
the section. Then any other loading cases can be checked. SClect
(b) Since the bending moment is dominane, estimate an intennediate p val
salve for the required bx · Using the unbraced length K L = 14 ft , enter the AISC ;e and
Table 6 - 1, and find a p value fora Wl 4 sec1ion. Estimate p = 0.8. (Note that AISC Manuoi
Table 6-1 gives p X 1000.) anua/
Check
Pu 0.8
pP,1 = <PcP,, = IOOO ( 224) = O. I79 < 0 .2
P = 150 k
:t Servire loads
500f1- kip<
r _/ Nou: Secondar) m,,men!
ir
)' ìnonty 1%of
14' - O" ' primary momcnr
for 1hc sectiorl ,elected
l (8
1
= 1.01 )
Figure 12. 13.1

Examples 12. 13.l
and 12.15.1.
+
P = 150 k
Primary
momcnl
M,
Sccnndary
mornent
Py
Section 12_13
Examples-AISC LRFD Method
• 629
AISC Formula (Hl-lb) [Eq
. 12.10.2] applies
I 9
2.PPu + -b M - 1 ( 0.8) 9 b
8 X !IX - 2 1000 224 + 8 I ~ (910) ~ I.O
Required hx = 0.89
Enter A!SC Ma "
b - nual Cornbined Ax·· .
x - 0.89 and KL = 14 ft tal and Bendmg-W shapes"' Tabi 6-1 .h
b - O826 f lo select a W14 . e ' wu
x - • or KL = 14 ft Ch k. . sect1on. fìnd W14Xl59 (p = 0.541 d
. ec mteracuon equation. . an
pPU =~ = Q.541
<PcPn 1000 ( 224 ) = 0.121 < 0.2
I 9 (
2PPu + 8b.tMux = _!_ ~ ) 2 24 + 2.(0.826) _
2 IOO0 8 I0O0 910 - 0.91 OK
Try the next lightcr section; Wl4XJ45 (p = O·593 and bx -
- 0.912)
_!_pP,,
2
+ ~h
8
M =
ux X
..!.(~)
2 1000 224
8 1000 .
+ -9(0.912)
- - 9!0 = I o
OK
Check Wl4XI45 m · detai·1 usmg
- .
behav1oral conccpts.
(e) Column effect Both the fl d .
buckiing prior to ach· : I ange an the web sa11sfy A < Àr to preclude locai
minimum r for Wl4;vl4rn5g coA/uSmCnMstrength based on KU,: Using KL = 14 ft with thc
Y m anual Tablc 4-1, find
<f>cP,, = 1690 k.ips

Check Pu/(4>cPn) :e:: 0.2,
Pu 224 )
( </JcPn = 1690 = 0.132 < 0.2: Use Eq, 12.10.2
(d) Beam effect. The laterally unbraced length Lb is 14 ft.
MP = f~.Zx = 50(287)/12 = 1196 ft-kìps
300 300(3.98)
Lp = . r::-r,. = . r:::. = 14.1
V~,-, ksi . V 50(12)
Since Lb < Lp, Mn = Mp regardless of Cb . In this case. Cl> = I.O. Check thi.· "cumpaçt°'
section requirement; i.e., is ,\ :S Ap for both flange and weh? For F,. = SO ksi stccl, AISC
Specificarion "User Note in F3" indicates nearly ali current scctions haH~ ··cumpad'
tlanges, and the exceptions are indicated. Reg,u-ding the "çompac1·· web, AISC S11l'Cifìcatio11
"User Note in G2. I" gives the few exceplions. This W 14 X 14.'i st·c1io11 is '"ù>mpaL·t". Thc
detailcd check is shown in Examplc 12. 1 I. I. pan (d). Thus,
<PbM,, == 4,1,Mp = 0.90(1196) = 1076 fr-kip~
~= 910
= 0.845
'PbMn 1076
Quite likely this section will work.

ment magnification for Wl4XJ45. The slenderness ratio KUr in 1

e Mo
() . d" . h' vo ved.
moment magnification must relate to the axH of ben mg, m t 1s case thex-axis. 1~
KL KL 1.0(14)12
Axis of bending - = - = 6.33 = 26.5
r 'x
cb = I.O ( constant moment)
7r2 EAg 1T2(29,000)42.7
17,400 kips
P,i = (KL/r)2 (26.5) 2
e,,, I.O = 1.01
B1 = - -=---
I - Pu/ P,1
= - 224/ 17,400
(f) Check AISC-Forrnula (Hl-lb), Eq. 12.J0.2, omitting rhe bending term for
the y-axis,
Mux = Mn,8 1 = 910(1.01) = 919ft-kips
~+( M":x ) = O.IJ2 + 0.845 = 0.91 < I.O
01(
24>,P" <!>bM11x 2
Thc other loading case from part (a) clearly does not contrai.
Use Wl4X 145, A992 steel.
•
EXAMPLE 12.13.2
Select the lightest W section to carry axial compression of 30 kips dead load and I 30 ki
live load applied at an e<;eenu;city e = 5 in. as shown in Fig. 12.1 3.2. The mernber · ps
. . . . . u~
of a braced frame, and 1s conservanvely assumed loaded 111 smgle curvature with constam
e. Use A992 steel and the AISC LRFD Method.
Solutum:
(a) Compute factored loads. Assume a first-order elastic analysis was performed 10
obtain che given forces. Using ASCE 7 basic gravity load factors,
Pu = 1.2(30) + 1.6(130) == 244 kips

M 11 = P,,(e) = 244(5/l2) = 102 ft-k.ip~
(b) The axial force in this case is dominant. Select an average b,. value and solv~ f
lhe required p. using the appropriate inreraction equation. or
Primary Secondary
Figure 12.13.2 momenl momenl
Example 12.13.2. Pe
. . .. ~ "( -...:..--1•·1 ·· - ·· :•, . ..•••

Section 12.13 Examples-AISC LRFD Method • 631
For W l O sections usi n K L _

b, == 4.13.(NotethacAJSc,il - 20ft, selecl from Table 12.12.1, an average value
mula (Hl- I a) Eq anual Table 6-1 gives P and bx X 1000.) Assume AISC Por-
' · 12· 10. 1, controls.
4 13
pP,, + bxMr,x = (-P-)244 + · (102) $ 1O
1000 1000 ·
Required p = 2.37
Fio<l WIOX 6 0, P = 2-38 and hx = 3.73. Check the section,

P. =~ _ 2.38
p u </J,Pn - IOOO (244) = 0.58 > 0.2 Use Eq. 12.10.1.
PPu + bxMux = 0.58 + ~~~~ ( 102) = 0.96 < I.O OK
Check other similar weight/ft deeper sections. Try Wl2X58 having p = 2.54 and bx = 3.41.
P. = ~ = lOOO
2.54 _ ? .
P u <PcPn (244) - 0.6_ > 0.2 Use Eq. 12. l O. I,
3.41
PP.u + bxMux = 0.62 + IOOO (l02) = 0.97 < I.O OK
Both the WIOX60 and the Wl2X58 are acceptable. Check the W1 2 X58 in detail using
behavioral concepts.
(e) Column effect. Both the flange and the web satisfy À < ,\, to preclude locai
buckling prior to achieving column strength based on Kllr. Using KL = 20 ft wich the
m inimum ry for W 12X58 in AJSC Manual Table 4-1, find
</>cPn = 393 kips

Check P.,/(cf>cPn) 2:: 0.2,
244
( ~</>cP,, = 393
= 0.62) > 0.2: Use Eq. 12.10.1
(d) Beam action.
(Lp = 8.87 fr) < (L1, = 20 ft) < (L, = 29.9 ft)
• ,1,, M t be linearly interpolated between rf>bMp (324 ft-kip.s l'rom i\lSC
Thereiore, 'l'I> n mus _ . .
,1,, M (205 ft-kips from AJSC Ma11ual p. 3- 70) a,cordmg 10 Eq. 9.6.4.
Manua l p. 3• 70) and 'l'b r
(Note thai <f>bMr is r/>b(0.7FyS,).)
Lb - L1, ) ]
M
11
= Cb[ Mp - (Mp - 0.7FrS,) ( L, _ Lp :,; Mr 19.6.41
,t,,,M., = e,[ ~,M, - ( ,t,,,M, - ,t,,M, t =~;)] "- ,t,,M,
= ,o[,2• - (324 - ,osi(,!"9--·~·:,)] = 261 r,-kips

(e) Moment magnificalion for W 12~58'. The .sle~de~ess ratio KUr invol~ .
moment magnification must relate to the ax:1.1· oj bendmg, m thts case the x-axis. t(I •n
KL KL 1.0(20)12
Axis ofbending - = - = 5.28 . = 45.5
r 'x
Cb = 1.0 (constant moment)
2
7r2 E Ag 1r (29,000)17.0
Pr1 = = _ _;__---:2:--- = 2350 kips
(K L/ r)2 ( 45.5)
Cm I.O == 1.12
8 1 = J - PJ P~, - 244/2350
(f) Check AISC-Formula (Hl -1 a), Eq. 12.10. 1, omitting the bending term for 1ht
y-axis.
M,,x = Mn,B 1 = 102(1.12) = I 14 ft-kips
~ + ~( M,uc ) = 0.62 + ~(~) = 1.0 1 ""I.O

'PcPn 9 <J>bMnx 9 261
The other loacling case from part (a) clearly does not contro!.
Use W I2X58, A992 s1eel. The W I 0X60 was also shown above to be acceptable.
•
EXAMPLE 12.13.3
Design a beam-colurnn W section for the service load conditions shown in Fig. 12.13.3. Thc
compression load P is 3 kips dead load and 25 k:ips live load, as might be caused by acrane
1he horizontal load H is 7 kips live load, as might be 1he horizonlal effect of a crane. Tue ,and
ber is part of a braced sys1ern, has support in the weak direction at mid-height, but only'::
ll>p and bottom for lhe strong direction. Use A992 steel and the AISC LRFD Method.
Solution:
Thc particular features of this examplc are (a) the bracing is not at the same Jocations 1
both principal ctirections; and (b) the lacerai transverse loading causes the primary bendi:
moment. g
Assurn~ hingcd supporto in both dircctions.

iop and bonom.
p
I
I
I
w 7
1·- O"-! - 8'- 0"
,,--\. I
I -t
R'- 0"
J
p + \V
Figure 12. 1:1.3
Examples 12.13.3 and (a) Loading (b) ldealized primal')' :,l A, umption
12.15.2. moment lorC,.
. ... .. . . ,.
(a) Compute factored loads A . . .

obtain the given t U. · ssume a first-order elasuc analys1s was performed to
orces. smg ASCE 7-LRFD load combination 2.
P,,= 1.2 ( 40) + 1.6(100) = 208kipsaitop

Wu = 1.2(3) + 1.6(25) = 40 kips
Pu = 208 + 40 = 248 k.ips at bottom (comrols)
Hu = 1.6(7) = 11.2 kips
The horizonca) reaction at the bottom of the column is ( H /2 + W/16) making the max.i-
mum moment, '
Maximum moment = ( H/2 + W/ 16)8

M,,, = (11.2/2 + 40/16)8 = 64.8 ft-kips
(b) Establish effective lengths. The member must be viewed as a column without
bending moment, lhen as a beam without column load, as in Fig. ! 2.13.4.
For column action:
lt is require<l thai r xl ry Z: 2 if K)Ly = 8 ft is val.id for entering A/SC Manua/Tab\e 4- I.

Por beam action:
Laterally unbraced \ength Lb = 8 ft

K L for moment magnification = KxLx = 16 ft
(e) Selecl a suicable W section using AISC Manual Table 6-1. The. axial load is dom-
inant for this design. Therefore, select an average bx va\ue for L 1, = 8 ft and determine the
maximum p pennitted to satisfy the interaction equations. For WIO scciions using
L1, = 8 ft, se\ect from Tab\e 12.12.1, an average va\ue hx = 5.99.
pPu + bxMux = ( - p- ) 248 + -5.99

00
(64.8
)
:5 I.O
1000 10
Required p :5 2.47
r
8' -0" ---
r-
81-011
~ :.....-.2~~-=='---=-I cb = l.67
Provid<S la1eral
tupport of comptti;:sion
flange
L for KL/ry• 8 ft
Lb = 8 ft
Figure 12.13.4
Separa1e beam action and KL, = 16 ft KLy ~ 8 ft
column acùon from (b} Beam action
faamples 12.13.3 and (a) Column ac1ion
12.15.2.
634 • Chapter 12 Combined Bending and A><ial Load
From AISC Manua/ Tablc 6-1, ~elect WIOX49, P = 2.34 and b_, = 3.92.
pP. =~= 2 34
· (248) = 0.58 > 0.2 Use Eq. 12. l O. I
" <h,.P,,
1000
3 92
PP." + bl'Mux = O.58 + 1000
· (64.8) = 0.83 < I.O
Try the next Jighter section, WJOX45, p = 3.27. and b., = 4.39,
3 27 ( 8) - O 8. I
pP.11 = - P,,
- = -· - 24 - . > O.2
<J>cPn 1000
4.39
pP,, + hxMux = 0.81 + IOOO (64.8) = 1.09 > I.O
The WIOX49 secms acceptable; also thc Wl2 X50 and the Wl4 X53.
(d) Check WlOX49 for column action.
Kyly = 1(8)1 2 = 37_8 K,L, I ( l 6) 12

-- = - - - = 441
ry 2.54 r,. 4.35 ·
Since x-axis controls, can either evaluate ù1e formula of AISC-E3, or modify the KL
enter the AISC Ma1111al Table 4-1: lo
EquivalentKL = ActualKlforx-axisdividedbyr,/ ry = 16/( 1.71) == 9.4 ft
Find <f>cP,, = 562 kips

Check Pu/( <f>cP,,) 2 0.2,
248
( ~<f>cP,, = 562 = 0.44) > 0.2: Use Eq. 12. 10. l
(e) Beam action.
( L,, = 8.97 ft) > ( L11 = 8 ft)

Therefore,
<PbM,, = <f>bM,, = <fibF,Zr = 0.90(50)60.4/ 12 = 227 ft-kips

(0 Mo~ent ~1agnification for WIOX_49. _The slen~emess ratio KUr involved in
moment magnificat1011 must related to lhe ax1s of he.ndrng, 111 this case the x-axis.
. . Kl KL I.O( 16) 12
A)(1s of bendmg - = --- = - - -- ""' 44.I
r r,. 4.35
2 2 {29,000)14.4
1r EA 1r
P,1 = (KL/ r;2 = ( 44 _1) 2 - 2 i20kips
For transverse loacling, C111 may be evalua1eù using 'fobie 12.~. J, Case 3
e = I - 0.2-P,, = I - 0.2( ·---

111
248) ,· 0977 0
Pr1 21 :.() .
B1=
e,,, = - -- - -
o.977
LII
I - P,,/P,,1 l - 248/212(1
. (g) Check AISC Formula (Hl-la), Eq. 12.10.l, omitting the bending term for the
y-ax1s,
Mux = MhlBl = 64,8(1.11) = 71.9 ft-kips
,J, p + !(
~ g ,1..
Mux
M )-- 0.44 + ~(71.9) -_ 0.72 < I.O TooLow
e n 'l'b nx 9 227
(h) Try WIOX45, Since (rx/ry = 2.15) > 2, KL for column action = 8 ft (rather
than 9.4 fl when rx/ry was less than 2 for the WIOX49).
I I <f>cP,, = 505 kips from AISC Mamw!Table 4-l for K)L\' = 8 ft
P., 248 )
( <f>cP,, = 505 = 0.49 > 0.2
(Lp == 7.10ft) < (Lh = 8ft) < (L, == 26.9ft)

I: q>bMp = 206 ft-kips ,J,bM, = 129 ft-kips from AISC Manual Table 3-6
q,bMn = c{<J,bMp - (<f>bMp - <PbM,)(~: =~:)],,; <P1,M,,

o lt, . 8 7 10
= 1.0[206 - (206 - 129)( - · )] = 203 ft-kips
26.9 - 7.lO
KL KL 1.0(16)12
Axisofbending - =- = - - - = 44.4
r rx 4.32
r.2 (29,000)13.3
2
1r EAg ok·
· = - -- ~ - = 193
- --- 1ps
P,1 - (KL/r)2 (44.4)2
Cm 0.977 = 1.1 2
B1 == l _ Pu/Pe1 = I - 248/ 1930
M IIX =M nl
B1 == 64.8(l.l2) = 72.5 ft-kips
I • •T; •
-~ ·
P.
_u_
<f>cP11
+ -8(- Mux , +9
- ) -_ 049
9 <J,1,M11x
~(72.S) =
?OJ
-
0.81 < I.O Still Low
C) Try WIOX39 Smce

. (1.x/ 7v = 2 •16) > 2. KL for column action = 8 ft (rather
I I / ;as less than 2for the WIOX49).
than 9.4 ft w1en rx ry "
. f Alse M am,al Table 4-1 for K,L,. = 8 ft
<f>cP,, = 435 kips rom
~ = 248 == 0.57) > 0,2

( <f>cPn 435
= 699ft) < (Lb = 8 ft) < (L, = 24.2 ft)
(Lp . . .
. et, M == 111 t1-k1ps
<f,1,Mp==i76ft-k1ps b r (Lb-Lp)] M
,1.. M ) s; </>1, I'
rf>bM., == e,,[ q,bMP - (iJ,bM,, - 'l'b r L, - Lp
4>1JM11 =I .o[ 6
176 - ( l 76 - 111 )( ;_ - _ ·:: )]
2 2 9
= 172 ft-kips
KL KL 1.0(16)12
Axis of bending -
r
== -
rx
= - -- -
4.27
= 45.0
2 2(29,000)ll.5
7T EA,1 7T .
p - -- = - - -----=-- = I 630 k.ips
et = (KL/ r}2 (45.0)2
e,,, o.977 == _
B, = - -- - 1 15
1 - P,,/P, 1 - 248/1630
M,,,. = M,.1 B1 = 64.8( 1.15} = 74.5 ft-kips
~ + ~( M,,x ) = 0.57 + ~ (
745
) = 0.96 < 1.0
</>cPn 9 cpbM11x 9 172
Use WlOX39. A992 srecl.
EXAMPLE 12.13.4
•
Investigate the adequacy of the W8X24 sectio~ in _Fig. l~.13.5, of A572 Grade s
50 1
loaded as a beam-column. The ax1al compress1on 1s 15 kips dead load and 60 ki !tt,
Ioad, and the uniformly distributed superimposed lateral load of 0.1 kips/ft dead : h,"t
10
0.4 kips/ft live load causes bending about the weak a.x1s. Use the AISC LRFD Metho(l~
Solution:
(a) Compute factored Ioads. Assume a first-order elastic analysis was perfonned
10
obtain the given forces. Using ASCE 7-LRFD Joad combination 2.
w,, = 1.2(0.124) + l.6(0.4) = 0.79 làps/ft
( adding in 0.024 kip/ ft beam weight)
M,. 1 = w,,L2/8 = 0.79(10)2/8 = 9.86ft-kips

Pu = 1.2(15) + 1.6(60) = i 14 kips
(b) Column action. In thìs example, buckling as a column occurs in the piane f
0
bending, whereas in the rhree previous examples colunu1 buckling occurred about the.
which was noi the axis of bending. Usìng AISC Mmwa! Table 4-22 "Available Cri::
Stress for Compression Members,"
Kl KL I.O( IO) 12 ..
Largest - -
r
=-
ry
= - ---
1.61
= 74.:>; </>J·~.. = 30.0 ksi
cf>cP,, = <PcFcrA g = 30.0(7.08) = 21 2 kips
"' = O. I kip/ft dead lo:ic!

0.4 kip/ft live load
P = l5k
Fig ure 12. J3.5
dead load
Ex.amples 12. 1J.4 and
IO' -O'' 60 k
12.1 5.J. live load
Section 12.13 Examples-AISC LRFO Method
• 637
The ratio Puf4>cP,, = _ .
1141212
la), Eq · 12· 10· 1, app11es.
. - o.54, wh1ch exceeds 0.2; therefore AISC Formula (Hl-
(e) Beam action Becaus be d. .
buck\ing is 001 sst .b e . n !n~ accurs 1n the weak direction, lateral-torsional
a~
"compact,. accordtng le comrolhng hm1t state; nor is web . buckling. The section is
. locai
IO AISC 84 .
, 1.or l he flange,
A -< "-p • tf flange locai buckltng 1s precluded; that is, when
( ,\ = 21b1 = ~ _ )
2(0.400) - 8-' :S
( 65
>.P = . ~ = _ e: = 9.2
65 )
OK
1
V f y, ks1 V 50
Therefore, according to AISC-F6,
M" = MP = FyZy = 50(8.57)/ 12 = 35.7 ft-kips

There is a maximum value for Mn in weak-axis bending,
Maximum M11 = l.6r:i.sx = 1.6(50)5.63/12 = 37.5 ft-kips > 35.7 ft-kips OK

<l>bM" = 0.90(35.7) = 32.l ft-kips
This value cannot be obtained from the AISC Manual Table 3-2 ·'Selection by Z," because
those tables are only for x-ax1s bending.
(d) Moment magnification. Tbe slenderness ratio KUr involved in m01nent magni-
fication must relate to the axis of bending, in this case the y-axis.
KL KL 1.0(10)12
Axis of bending - = -- = - -- = 74.5 [computed in part (b)]
r r.v 1.61
2 2(29,000)7.08
7r E A8 7r _ .
:t:. P,1 = (K L/r )2 = {74.5)2 = 36:i k1ps
For transverse Joading, e,., may be evaluated using Table 12.3.1, Case I. whìch indicatcs
Cm = 1.0
Cm I.O = 1.45
B1 =I - P,,/ Pei I - 114/36'i
. •
(e) Check A!SC Formula (Hl-la), Eq. 12. 10.1. omitting the bending term for the
x-axis,
MIJX =M 11(
Bi = 9.86( 1.45) = 14.3fl-kips
~ + ~( Muy ) = 0.54 + ~(~) = 0.94 < I.O OK

,1. p
f.Pc 11 9 ,1.
'ff'b
Mn). 9 32.1
The W8X24, A572 Grade 50, is acceptable. •

EXAMPLE 12.13,5
. h I mn member of the frame shown in Fig. 12. 13.6. The
Selecc a suicable W sectton for I e_co u h I 1· b ·ndin•': howevcr. in the transvcrse
. f ne achon m I e p ane o e .,. .
joints are rigid to g~ve _ra1 ~ided and the attachment, areassumcd to ~ hmged. T~~
dl·rection sway bracmg is pro . . icl1 that this frame is cons1dcred pari ol .1
b ced construc11on sl . d
frame is auached to other ra .. I st... ha. becn performcd using tactolt'd loads an
hraced Sy stem. Assume a strUctural ~na y s ' s
. f ,ored axial comprcss1on r,.
. o = I ~8 kip:c: and foctored moml'nt
the resulls are as follows. ac
I + M
!l
7
!
20· - O" 7
IO'
I IO'
L ~_........,""' ..J
~--- 30' -· O" - ~ p

Figure 12.13.6
Examples 12.1 3.5, 12.13.6, (a) Frame (b) End view (èl Loading &nd mornent
and 12.15.4. dl,111gram
at che top of column M,,,2 = 234 ft-kips and at the bonom M,.,, = 117 ft-kips U
sceel and the AISC LRFD Method. . . Se A.~l
Solution:
(a) Establish effective lengths. The member must be viewed as a colu .
llln v.- th
bending moment, then as a beam withouc column load. For the piane of bending h I OUt
1
tive length factor K may be estimated as ""'0.7 from Fig. 6.9.5, or may be ob~- teffc,;:.
the Alignment Chart, Fig. 6.9.4a, as llled hoir,
I/20
G.4 = I.O (fixed) Ge = 31/30 = 0.5 Kx = 0.73
Por the transverse direction. the member is assumed hinged at the top and botto .
Ky = 1.0. For beam action, Lb = 1O ft and for moment magnification, lll. lhus,
KxLx = 0.73(20) = 14.6 ft
(b) Select a trial section using A/SC Manual Table 6-1. Tue bending momen . .
11
case is dominant compared to tbe axial compression. From Table 12.12. l select " this
. . . ' . ~~
age p value for K L = 1O ft (assummg y-ax1s bucklmg controls) and detennine the ·
mum hx pennitted to satisfy che interaction equations. rnax.1-
For WIO sections, select p = 3.2 for K L == IO ft
Assume AISC Formula (H 1-1 a), Eq. 12.1 O. I, applies
3.2 ) hx
pP,, + hxM11 x = ( IOOO 128 + JOOO (234) S I.O
Required b., $ 2.52
Select WJOX77; p = 1.15 for KL = IO ft; hx = 2.45 for Lb = 10ft

Check interaction equation:
pP,, = - P,,- = -1.15

- ( 128) = 0.147 < 0.2
<1>r-P,, 1000
AISC Formula (H 1- Ib), Eq. 12. L0.2, applies.
9 1( 1.15 ) 9 ( 2.45 )
2ì pP,, + °i/,M11x =2 I 000 I 28 + 8 lOOO 234 = 0.72 s I.O Too LOII
Try W lOX60; p "" 1.48 for K L = I O ft; hx = 3.22 for L1, = I Oft
Check interaction equation:
.!.2P P.
1
' +2
8b,/,-1u, == -1 ( -
1.48
-) 128 + -9 ( -
3.22
- ) 234 == 0.94 :s I.O
2 1000 8 1000 . OK
The WJ OX60 is acceptable; the W l2XS3 and W 14X53 may also be acceptable.
(r) Check the W I 2X53 in detail using behavioral concepts; column effecL Both the
flange and the web satisfy À < A, to preclude locai buckling prior 10 achieving column
S!rength based on KUr. Using K L = IO ft with the minimum r,. for W I 2X53 in A/SC
Manual Table 4- 1, find ··
<f,,.Pn = 590 kips

Check Pu/(4>,.P,,) ~ 0.2,
Pu 128 ·)
( ,/.. p
'+'e n
= -590 = 0.216 > 0.2; Use Eq, 12 IO.I
(d) Beam action. The laterally unbraced length lb is LO ft.
(Lp = 8.76ft) < (Lb = 10ft) < (L, = 28.2ft)
Therefore, <f>bMn musi be linearly interpolated between cf>bMp (292 ft-kìps from
AISC Manual p. 3-71) and <l>bM, ( 185 ft-kìps from AISC Manual p. 3-71) accordmg lo Eq.
9.6.4. Note that <f>bM, is 4>b(0.7FyS,J
Mn = e{ MP - (Mp - 0.7r).Sx)( ~: =~:)] :s MP (9.6.4]
(e) Moment magm'fi1cauon . for Wl2X53 -- The .'slenderness

. . ratio KUr
. .·.involved in
mornent mag nification must relate to the axis of bendmg, 111 thts case the -~-ax1s.
KL Kl 0.7(20)12
Axis of bending - .
I
= -,-
_..
= 5.23
= 32 .1
2 2
rr EAg _ 7i (29,000)IS.6 = kip,
4330
P,1 = ( Kl/ r)2 - (32.1 )2
. em is• AISC Fomrnla (C2-4), Eq. 12.4-6 ,

For end moment Ioadrng,
em = O•6 M1 = 0 -6 - 0.4 ( ~?14 )

- 0.4- = 04
.
M2 -·
Cm = 0.4 = 0.4( I.OJ) = 0.41 < I.O

81 =I - Pu/ P,1 - 128/ 4330
ent out away f.roin the suppor! docs not exceed the primary
Thus, the magnified mom I .O. =
momenc at the support; thus. 81
(f) Check AISC Formula (H 1- I a), Eq. 12. I 0.1 , omitting the bending ter ,
IJl 1011<.
y-axis. ""
M11x = Mn,B 1 = 234( 1.0) = 234 ft-k.ips
-P,,- + - - M-
</JcP11
89 ( 11. ,
<PbMnx
)
= 0.216 89 (234) =
+- -
285
0.95 s I O
· 01{
Use WJ2X53, A992 steel; could use WIOX60 (checked above). Tue check of Wt _
.
gives0.93 forEq.12.10.1. 4X)3
EXAMPLE 12.13.6
Repeat Example 12. 13.5 cxcept treac the frame a~ unbraced in the piane of be d'
Though the total factored load, acting in thi~ exam_ple are the same as in Example 1; ~ng
1
they would have been determined by an ent1rely d1fferent procedure. Two elastica .5,
1
under factored loads are required; a nonsway analysis for gravity loads, and a swayna Y~
sis for lateral loads. Assume lhe factored moments M,,, for nonsway analysis the arca;t·
k.ips and 21 ft-kips al the top and bottom of the column, respectively. The fac ft.
moments Mt, from the sway analysis are 192 ft-kips both at the top and the bott~o~
. C . 9 ~,... AD
moments cause double curvature m the column. ontmue to use A 92 steel and the AISC
LRFD Method.
Solution:
(a) Effective lengths for column and beam action. A significant difference bctw
this case and the preceding one is the effective length factor Kx for the piane of bendctn
exceeds 1.0. Using the Alignment Chart, Fig. 6.9.4b for the unbraced frame (sidcsway:
prevented),
// 20
GA = LO (fixed ) Gn = 31/30 = 0.5 K_. :::: 1.24
This value of K may be adjusted for inelaslic bucklin.g according to the discussìon in Seç_ 6__
9
(h) Select initial tria) sections in WlO. Wl2, and W14 using the interactionequa-
tions and rhe A ISC Manual Table 6-1.
This time the M,, equation includes both tbe sway and nonsway terms. lt is relativeli
eas ier te es timate 8 1 for the braced frame (and fur ù1e nonsway part of the unbraced ~
analy$ÌS) than it is to estimate 8 2 for the sway aiialysìs . Often B, is 1.0 or not much larger,
ho wcver, 8 2 ìs commonly in the raDge 1.2 to 1.5 and it may be larger. Practical desirni
should !iave 8 2 not exceccling about l.5. ~
F or this desig n, estimate B1 = I .O and lJ, =- 1.3,
= -U( I.Oì + l92(L3) = 280ft-kips

Estimated/11111 0
Nex1. n...,te thnt !.he AISC Man,wl T;~blc 6-1 can re u~ed direct!y for K L = IO ft only whtn
r i/:\' C'<Cl:Cd~
K_,L J K,L v = 1.24(2() !t !O = 2.48
Sel<:..,ix, c.-f \J./ IO M W ! 2 seclio11~ nu y likcly havc ,ht'.·r column strength controlled b; col-
um.n li,•.<.:!. !,ng in rhe piane o f bl:ncting. whik dt:<'-pèr ~ectìons will be controlled by weai-
~:<i~ ~~t;c:\.itng.
, - - ·- ---~ lb)l;t.. . ~ l - . _ .. ·~ ~- · :
Section 12.13 Examples-AISC LRFD Method
• 641
In order to · · ·
tr I uuuate the selectio . .
o s. The factored moment M . n_process, li is assumed that weak-axis buckling con-
Thus, assume p value for K L u~s dommant compared lo the factorecl axial compression p
Table 12.12.L, select for WJO - ~O ft and solve for the corresponding maximum b.,. Fro~
' p - 3.2 for K L = I Oft. Solving for maximum b., gives
pP + b M
u X ux = ( -3.2 )
128 + _b..-_ (280) < Io
1000 1000 - ·
Required hx s; 2.11
Select from AISC Manua/ Table - .
Lb = 10 ft. It is noted that r r 6 I, _WI0~88,_ p = 0.999 for K L = 10 ft;br = 2.11 for
strength is 0oovemed b tr xl >' for 1h15 s_ecuon •s I. 73, which means thai column buckling
the unbraced Jength t b
Ys ong ax1s
. buckltng an d the mma· ·· I
assumption is not correct. Thus
o e used 1s '
Equivalent KL = 1.24(20)/(rx/r,.) = l.24(20)/ l.73 = 14.3 fl

For the WIOX88, p = 1.18 for KL = 14_3.
pu l.!6
pPu = <PcPn = 1000 (128) = 0.148 < 0.2
ATSC Formula (HJ-lb), Eq. 12.10.2, applies.
_!_
2 pP,,
9 l(l.16)
9(2.ll)
+ 8bxMux = 2 IOOO 128 + 8 IOOO 280 = 0.74 s I.O Too low
Check the WIOX68, p = l.51 for KL = 14.3; bx = 2.81 for Lb = 10 ft:
PP.u =</>cPn
~--JOQO(l28)
~ -- 0.194 < 0.2
AISC Formula (Hl-lb), Eq. 12.10.2, applies.
I 9
-pP
2 "
+ -b M
8 x ux
= -2I ( -I1.51
000
- ) 128 + -89 ( -I2.81
- \l2go = 0.98 $
000 )
lO
. OK
The WIOX68 seems acceptable. lt is a)ways wise tocheck against the actual AlSC formula
after using tables to arrive at a tentative choice.
(e) Check the column effect.
Both the flange and the web satisfy À < À, to preclude locai buckling prior to ac-hieving
column strength based on KUr. Using K L = IO ft with Lhe minimum r y for W IOX68 in
AISC Manuul Table 4- I, find
Equivalent KL = 1.24(20)/(rx/r_") = 1.24(20)/ 1.71 = 14..5 ft

</>,P,, = 617 kips
Check Pu/(<bcP,,) :2: 0.2,
_!i._ = ~ = 0.201) > 0.2;

( <J,,.P,,
Use Eq. 12.10.1
617
(d) Beam action. The lateraly unbraced length Lb is IO ft.
(Lp = 9.15 fl) < (Lh = IO ft) < (L,. = 40.6 ft)
Therefore, <f>bMn must be Jinearly }nterpolated between 'PbMp (320 ft-kips from
Manual p. 3-73) and <l>bM, (199 fc-kips from A!SC Manual p. 3-73) according to Eq AJsc
Note thac <l>bMr is <l>b( 0.7F.,Sx.). ·9-6.4
Mn = Ch[ Mp - (Mp - 0.7Fy5x) ( Lr - Lp

Lb - Lp)] :5 MP {9.6.41
(e) Moment magnification for WJOX68-nonsway part B1. For end momc
. E nt 1
oad-
ing in the nonsway part, Cm wiU be 0.4, the same as m xample 12.13.5, pan (e). In
example it is prefereable to use Kx = I.O for Pei . However, B1 = 1.0 whether K "' 11n1
:X 07• ~
Kx = I.O.
(_f) Moment magnification- sway part B2. The slendemess ratio in the piane of tbc
frame increases from the nonsway part because here K :x = 1.24; thus,
Kl KL 1.24(20}12
Axis of bending - = - =
4 .44
= 67.0
r rx
2 2
TT EA ,r (29,000)20.0
p - g = =J275kips
e! - (KL/r)2 (67.0) 2
Since in this example, two equa! sized columns having equa! loading are participatin~.
- In
the sway resistance,
ì:Pe2 = 2(1275) = 2550kips
2-P,,:;: 2(128) = 256 kips
Thea Eq. 12.1 l .12 for the sway magnifier 8 2 gives
B2 == - - -- - - . --- ·- = 1.11
:ù~, l ·-· ----
256
LPe: 2550
(g) Ch;>,ek AlSC Formula (Hl -l a), Eq. l 2.l0 l. ornitting the bending temi forlht
y-axi~
M,,x = Mn 1B1 + Mt 1B2 = 42(L0) + l':2( 1.ll) = 255 ft-kips
·; f~,
--- + ~-8 ( - A1.,x
---- ) = 0.207 + 8-\/255)
::·: - = 0.92 :::; l.O OK
w,P,, 9 Q>1,M,,,. 9 ,_,J /,
U te W .0;<68. A.992 steel.
EXAMP!..r.: '12.1 3.7
Se1,~ct rhe lightest W l 2 section to carry an axiai cu;,1, 11ession in addition to bia.xial l:(nJ.
int., loaded a~ shown in Fig. 12.13. 7. Assume a !ìr:-r urlJer srructural analysis has been~-
fr,rrned using factored loads. The results give Pu cc- J75 kips, M 111., = 38 ft-kips abou1lht
Section 12.13 Examples- AISC LRFD Method
• 643
375 kips
r
14 ft-kips
Braccd frame
1'-6• (conservative
as,umplion of
I hinged cnds)
-f-
Fac1ored
7'- 6' load.,
givcn
Figure 12.1 3.7

Example 12.13.7.
375 kips
x-axis at the top of the column, and M = . .

umn. Use A572 G d 50 nry 14 ft-k1ps about lhe _v-ax1s at thc top of the col-
ra e steel and the AISC LRFD Merhod.
Solution:
(a) Effective lengths for column and beam action.

Column action:
K,Lr = 1.0( 15) = 15 fl
KyLy = 1.0(7.5) = 7.5 ft
Beam action:
Lb = 7.5 ft for x-axis bending
C1,x = 1.25 (Eq. 9.6.ll )(AISC-FI )
(from Table 9.6.3 for
M1/ M2 = - 19/38 = -0.5)
Lb = not applicable for y-axis bcnding
Cby = not applicable far y-axis bending
Moment magnification: K L = 15 ft for Pa
cmx = 0.6
KL = 7.5 f1 for Pey
Cm_v = 0.6 - (3/ 14) = 0.51
Note that lateral-torsional buckling is nota possible limit staie for weak-axis bending of w
sections; therefore, Lb and Cb are not applicable for the y-axis.
(b) Select a tria! section. Since the axial compression is large, selecr b_,. and b 1 val-
ues and solve for the maximum p valne. From Tablc 12.12.1 , selecr tria! b.. = 2.54 for
Lb = 8 ft and tria! by = 7.0 (values are times I 000).
p ) 2.54 7.0
pPu + b_,M11r + byM11y = ( IOOO 375 + 1000
(38) +
1000
(14) :!é I.O
Required p :!é 2.15
,. = 1.0(7.5)
From AISC Manual Table6-1, assume weak-axis buckling controls (i.e., use Kyl _
= 7.5 ft);LryWJ2X45;p = 1.98,b, = 3.75,by = 12.5.
9
pP = ..!.3_ = 1. & (375) = O.743 > 0.2; Use Eq. l 2. IO. I
u <PcP,, 1000
1.98 ) 3.75 12.5
p P.U + bX MUX + br•uy
M = ( -JOOO 375 + -(38)
JO()()
+ IOOO ( l4) = 1.06 > I.O
Try Wl2X50, p = l.78, bx = 3.34, by= Il.I. Using Eq. 12.10. I,
_ ( I. 78 ) + 3.34 ( 38) + ...!.!:!__

pP,, + b.,M,u + byMuy - 1000 375 1000 1000 ( 14) = 0.~5 - I
.(J f)~
(e) Column action.
Kl 15( 12) KL 7.5(12)

- = - - = 34.7 - = - - =459
rx 5.18 '>'1.96 ·
Find from AJSC Manual Table 4-22 (p. 4-319), <l>cFc, = 38.5 hi.
</JcPn = <f>cFc,Ag = 38.5( 14.7) = 566 kips
Tue ratio P,J4>cPn = 375/566 = 0.66 which exceeds 0.2: lherefore, AISc F
0
la), Eq. 12.10.l, applies. 11Ttul;,. (fil.
(d) Beam action-x-axis. From AJSC Manual Table 3-2 (p. 3- 17) ··seJec.
for WI 2X50 find llon by z •
LP = 6.92 ft '
Lr = 23.9 ft
<f>bMpx = 270 ft-kips
<PbM,x = 169 fr-kips

(Lp = 6.92 ft ) < (Lb = 7.5 ft) < ( L , = 23.9 ft ).
Tberefore, <f>bMn o,ust be linearly interpolated berween <f>bMp (270 ft-kips ft
Manual p. 3-17) and cf.,bMr ( I 69 ft-kips from AJSC Manual p. 3-17) according om A!Sc
I0
Note that <PbMr is <Pb(0.7 FyS x)- Eq. 9.6 ~
[
<PbMn = Cb lPbMp - (<f>bMp - <PbM,) L, _ LP ( Lb - LP)] s <l>bMp
7.5 - 6.92 ) ]
= l.25 [ 270 - (270 - 169) ( _ _ _
23 9 6 92
= 333 ft-kips
The result for <f>hM,, cannot exceed </>1,Mp = 270 ft-kips. Thus, <PbM11 = 270 ft-ki
(e) Beam action-y-axis. Since lateral-torsional buckling and web lo<: ps. .
1
cannot be applicable limit states, and À < Àp for the flange precludes l~a~Uckhng
~~~ ~
Mny = M,,,, = FvZy = 50(21.3)/12 = 88.8 ft-kips
<f>vM11y = 0.90(88.8) = 80 ft-kips
Checking AfSC-F6. l ,
Mpy = 88.8ft-kips < [1.6FySy = 1.6(50) 13.9/12 = 92.7ft-k:ipsJ

o~
. . Ali standard 1-sha~ed sec_tions have Mp s_lightly gr~ater than the previous I.Sr
hnut with respect to y-ax.1s bendmg. Since the 1.:, number 1s a Jttdoment value . . ,S
0 · , ra1s1n~ ·
1.6 seems reasonable ; il will not often contro! us ing 1.6. -,.ltto
(f) Moment magnitì t" ·

magnificatio ica •on----:x-axis. The slenderness ratio KUr involved in moment
I 10
n musi re ate lbe <Ltls ofbending, in lhìs case lhe x-axis.
Axis ofbending KL = KL = 15(12) == 34.7

r rx 5.18
2
2
_ 1r EA g 1r (29,000)l4.7
P,i - (KL/ r)2 = (34 _7 ) 2 = 3480 kips
For end moment loading, Cm is AISC Formula (C2-4). Eq. 12.4.6,
c,,, = 0.6 - 0.4-Mi == o.6 - 0.4 - .

M2
(O) = o.6
38
0.6
- 375/3480 = 0.6 ( 1.1 2 ) < IO
Thus, the magnified moment out away from the support does not cxceed the primary
moment al the support; thus, B ix = I.O.
(g) Moment magnification-y-axis. The slenderness ratio KU r involved in moment
magnilication must relate to che axis ofbending, in this case Ihc y-axi s,
KL KL 7.5 ( 12)
Axis of bending - =- == - - - == 45.9
r ry 1.96
2 2
1r EAg 1r (29,000)14.7 .
pel = (KL/ r )2 = (4:i.9)2 = 2000 k1ps
For end moment loading, Cm is AISC Formula (C2-4), Eq. 12.4.6,
M1
em = 06-04-=0.6
· · M
- 0.4 (-14
3) = 0.51
2
_ Cm = 0.6 = 0.6 (1.23) < I.O

Bi - I - P.JP, 1 I - 375/ 2000
Thus, the magnified rnoment out away from the support does not exceed the primary
moment at the support; thus, B1y = I.O.
(h) Check AISC Formula (Hl-la), Eq. 12-1O.I,
MU.% = M nlXBi X = 38 ( I.O) = 38 ft-kìps

Muy = Mnty BiY = 14 (I.O) = 14 ft-kìps
P,, 8 ( Mux ) + !( Muy ) :s:: I.O

<J>, P. + 9 <f>bMnx 9 <f>hMny
375 ~ ( ~ ) + ! (~) -= 0.94 ::s I.O OK

566 + 9 270 9 80
u se W12X50, A992 5teCJ. •

SELECTED REFERENCES
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/)i,·iriorr, ASCE. 85. ST7 (Septernber 1959). 75-11 l. rru,/ of,i,,, s,
12.2. Walter J. Auslin. "Strength and Design of Metal Beam-Columns:· Jouma / ofrhe Sr '
ASCE. 1!17, ST4(April 1961 J. 1- 32. . ""ctu,a1 D;,.1
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244-266. 62 1. p~ Il
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Capaciry:· Proc. lnsr. Civil Engrs.. 5, I. Pan Ili (Aprtl t9::i6). I0:>-146. 1trna1,: e~
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I 987), 1738- 1754. n_ Jo~,-,.~ll 0,,, 5rn
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1
Beam-Columns:· Transacrions. ASCE. 120 ( l955). 1028-1069. <Ìe· l'l.a.,~
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ofrh,, Engineering Mechanù:-s Divis,on, ASCE, 85, EM2 (Aprii 1959), 1- 30. Also; Tlini.st: 10
126 (I % I), Part I, 1- 25. ansac,;0 ,.., ""¼i
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1
l)ivision, ASCE, 92, ST2 (Aprii 1966). 351-370. <mw 0/ th, ,
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. .. -~ - 358
llllllis .,..,.._ 1
""::i.
12.13. Le-Wu Lu and Hassan Kamalvand. '·Ultimate Strength of Laterally Loaded Cotum .. ·
10 4
Struc1ural Division. ASCE. 94, ST6 (June I 968), 1505- 1524. ns. '>la/ q di,,
12. 14. W. F. Chen. "funher Studies of loelastic Beam-Column Problem: · Joumal ofthe S
ASCE, 97, STI (February 1971). 529- 544. tn,crura/ o; ,
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0
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1
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· · - 1-37
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01
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1
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1
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1 1
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1
2259- 2277. r 987)_
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0
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12.30. Francois Cheon• s··Formrd
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· · ·
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: · . Journal AISC, 14 2 (Second Quaner 1977), 49--67.
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• ..
r and Peter F Adams "Furthcr Aspects of Desii;n by P-Dclta Mclh<'Ù.
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· B
Jour/1111 of /ne 1n1c uro

t;;;:::;~,, '
ASCE. 1Ò2, ST3 (March 1976). 487-500.
I "' . .
. · Ela~tic Analysis of Swav Frames." Jmmwl ofS1r11c111ro c.1111111e,·n11g.
12.54. H. Scholz. "?-Delta Efi ecl rn · ·
SCE 113 3 (March 1987). 534-545, ..
A · ' .. nela,iic Amplilicalion Factor for Design of S1ccl lkan1-Colunu1,. ltmmal
12.55. 1. S. Sohal and N._A. S~cd.A~CE ' 1IS, 7 (July 1992). 1822-18)9.
of Strucrural Engmeen1ig, S I ~eam-Column Design." Jo11mal ofStn"·r11r11f Engi,u,rri1111. ASCE.
12.56. Thomas Sputo. "H1s1ory of tee:
547 557
119, 2 (February 1993~: : · oach for Design of Stccl Beam-Columns," E>1gi11,·rrin11 J,,,m111I.
12.57. Abbas Aminman1our. A New Appr
AISC. 37, 2 (Second Quaner 2000). 41- 72.
PROBLEMS
Ali problems (except Probs. l 2.24-12.28) are tu be done according to AISC Load and Resistance Factor De -·
The requirement of W section is intended to include W, S, and M sections. Ali given loads are service load•ign ~ !h..•
· · · · ( . s11n1 --JQ.
erw1se md1cated. Assume lateral support consists of translational restraint bue not moment rotauonal) rest . ess<ll!i.
111
otherwise indicated. Assume all standard sections are equally readily ~vailable in the in~icated grade 0 ;~ • u111t\\
though actually they are not). A figure showing span and loading is required, and after ~aking a design select~I '""'
1011
check of the srrength interaction equation (involving factored loads Pu and M., and design Strengths <f,P. and a. firi.i
. Pr~blems 12.1 through ) 2.23 relate to design considerations. Problems 12.24 through 12.28 relate 10 01
1cal cons1derations. er lhtorq.
/M.i.
12.1. Investigate Che adequacy of the section in che in che weak direction aod the Joad·1ng 'oc.
accompanying figure assuming the loading ìs kip/ft dead load and 0.08 kip/ft live load 1s 0.~2
30% dead load and 70% live load. No cranslation kips dead load and 18 kips li ve load. ASa__nd Pi, 2
1
of joints can occur, and external lateral support 50 steel. l Ora.le
is provided at the ends only.
12.3. Detennine the maximum service Ioao \V (ki
12.2. Investigate the given section in the accompanying mid-height of the beam-column shown in:) 41~
figure wìth regard to safety if primary bending is panying figure. Assume the member i, h. ac:~
· 1ngeò °"Ì!li
a
~l' w : 0.85 kip/ft (incl. beam weight)
I I I I I Il I il I I 11111 I I I I I
Service loads
'1~ --+ia======u
WS X24
~ bending
a.:os
A992 Steèl
i--- - - 10' -O'· - - ---l
Problem 12.1
4"(100mm)
t" B~ìldìne axìs
t' ~ ~- /
w kip/ft (lncl. beam weight)
4"
(100) - t -
0 .24.,
(6mml j l1--- O.~o· typ.
(10mm)
' - - - - - 1 0 · - o·- - - --
Problem 12.2
IOD k dead \o ad
I 50 k Jivc load
~~~
Wl2 X 136
A992 11' - 0'
...-- Consìdcr as latcr,tl support only
.,,, againsl movemenl in \,•eak t1ire('·tion
w
W = 20 % de3d 103d
SO% live Jo,d
!l'- O'
Problem 12.3
Problems • 649
respect to bending in both x and y directions al the
top and bottom. Additionally, lateral support occurs 12.6. Determine the service axial load P which lhe
in che weak direcrion at mid-height. W12X45 of the accompanying figure may be per-
mitted to carry. Late ra( support is provided at ends
12.4. Investigate the adequacy of the given section of and at midspan. Compare for A572 Grade 50 and
the accompanying figure. No joint translation can Grade 65 steels.
occur and extemal lateral support is provided at
the ends only. 12.7. Select the lightest Wl4 section lo carry a service
load P as shown in the accompanying figure,
12.5. Determine the safe service load W permitted for with an eccentricity e = 12 in. with respect Lo the
Ibis braced frame beam-column of the accompa- strong axis. Assume the member is pan of a braced
nying figure. system, and conservatively assume the effective
W8 X 28
Ll)
p \
w
1111111111111111 11 )l-/__l -H- p
A992
Bending axis
-- lS'-<Y'---1 :~:c::~::ead toad

2.SO'k livc toad
r M,
+
M = 2.90'k dead load
• 3.80' k live load
P = 14.0'k dead load
50.0'k live load
M,
Problem 12.4
Servicc loads
ip
p = 5() kip• dead lo:id
- Assume
-.' - hanged
for both
80 ldp• livc load
princip:.ù
8' - O" dircctions
w = 20% dead lo•d
W12X96 80% live load
w A992
8'- O"
L foxcd for bolh

principal
din:ctions
Problem 12.5
w Servi~e INd>
'J~:=l;J
Wl2 X 45 30'-0• -
'u~,-~
Verucal <uppon
"'.,. o.~ kip,:/f, .ie•d k.aJ
(l.~ kip</fl li,·< lood
p = ~o~ d•ad lo~d

6()'lli\CINd
Problem 12.6
,,
Sen'icc load~
l
P = 100 kips
dead load
400 kip,
livc load
14'-!Y'
,, = 12" -----1 ,,
Problem 12.7
length equals the unbraced height. Use A572 p
.;1'7
Grade 60 steel. S.,rvjce lo!Jh
P = 85 kip, deild 1"411
12.8. Select the lightest W 14 section to carry an axial com- 15 'k1p, livc l<>ad
pression P of 100 kips dead load and 140 kips live M = 18 f1-lc,p. deild I
loa<l along with a bending moment M of 125 ft-kips 18'- 0' 50 ft-'kip, li,, lo':°
dead load and 325 ft-kips live load, which, for con-
servative simp)jcity, is assumed to be constant along
the 15-ft equivalent pin-end length of Ù!e member in I ~
the braced structure. Use A572 Grade 50. 12'- 0"
12.9. If the service load P is 30 kips dead load and 95 _l

kips live load and w is 0.8 kips/ft dead load and
1.2 kips/ft live load for the beam-column span and
support conditions of Prob. 12.6, select the lightest
W section. Use A572 Grade 60 steel. Problem 12.1 1
12. I O. Selcct the lightest W 14 section for the beam-colunm
of the accompanying figure. Assume !atemi buck-
ling is adequately prevented such that L,, < L,,. J 2.13. A frame braced against sidesway has a beain-co!u
Use A992 steel. loaded ~s in the ~ccompanying figure resulti11g ~n
an elasuc analys1s. The honzontal 1nernber has /i
era\ suppon at its euds and e,·ery 9 ft Se-tee, at-
Scrvice loads lightest W section acceptable using A.992 S\eel lhe
w superimposed
W = 1.5 lòpslft 12.14. Redes ign thecolumn memberof Prob.12.13 as
-2...J;_ll ll llillllllllillllllll l l l ~ dead loa<I
3.8 kips/fl of an unbraced frame. but disregard the SCl"\ice 1:
lìve \oad of that problem . Assume two factored load f
L 30·- o· _ _J P = 25 k.ìpsltl
dead load
65 kips/f(
order analyses have been perfom1ed: ( 1) the " ~l-
load nonswav
. •
:ma
• .
.
-
. .
i)1s1s mvmc. P = 85 k·i·
~ Il
,.ra,11\
p~ anè•
livc load M,,, = 130 ft -k1ps;
.
and (2) a sway anal)·si·s · .
• · , g11~no
Mu = 375ft-k1psand P,, = 14kips.Assumebo*
Problem 12.10 columns 11111st çan-y the same load.
12.15. Design the column A as a W section for h

12. I I. For the mernber of a braced system in the accom- 1
unbrnced frani.e member of the accompanvino ~,,
panying figure, selec l lhe lightest W section. Use
~re. The frame i ~ unbraced in_ the plan~ of :~
A572 Grade 60 s teel.
trame and analys1s has determmed K., "' l.~-'11.
12. 12. Rcdesig n the section for Example 12.13.5 for the perpendicular direction the structure i\ brac
A572 Grade 60 steel. such that K v = 1.0. First-o rder factored 1,,
. ~
Problem s • 651
p
P = 14 kips dead load
r18'-0"
"'tp;~i~l 38 kips live load
M = 135 fl-kip, dead load
190 fl-klps live load
-1 Scrvice load,
(Prob. 12. 13 only)
- -L~
f...-- 54'-0" - j
Brac,,d frame
t
p
t
p
X·X &JtÌS y-y BJ<is
bendil\8 bending
and and
$Upponing supponing
Problems 12.13 and 12.14
analyses under ùead load, live load, and wind

and the load on each is identica!. Use steels: (a)
( 1.2D + 1.6W + 1.0L) have been perforrned; the
no11sway gravit) a.nalysis ( 1.20 + l.OL), and the
F;, = 50 ksi; (b) F_,, = 60 ksi: and (e) F, = 65 k~i.
sway wind (1.6W) analysis giving the values as
12.16. Design columns A and B as W sec1ions for the
shown. Assume al l columns in the story are the sa.me unbraced frame of the accompanying figure. Per-
pendicular to the frame, assume the system braced
P0 = 270'
l ~
40' ' 210·'
,....-..,._
14'
'-.'...../ '-!._,;
27'' 210·1
Nons.way Sway
P, analysis analy~i,;
t M,, M1,
Problem I 2.15
Q
9'-0 9'-0
Q = 90 kops dead IO><!

170 kops livt Jood
w- W = 50 kips wind
./
Hmge ~ ice. load•
13'
@
0
Fixcd
Problem 12.16
652 • Chapler 12 Combined Bending and Axial Load
and lhe columns addi1ionally braced a1 mid-height weak direction. assume thc '-Y,tern br-
with Ky = I.O. Design for 1he dead load, livc that K,, = I.O and L-' = 13 ft. li <ICC<f
load, plus wind case. Use s1ecls: (a) F,. = 50 ksi; F_,. = 50 ksi; (b) F,. = 60 hi; and lc:~F '~h ,~1
(b) r;. r;,
= 60 ksi; and (e) = 65 ksi. · 12. 19. For 1he vierendeel truss (rigid frame , h
> - Gs 1
acco mpanymg· fi1gure. ·mves~gate lhe ~adeq

0 \1.n ·
_111 lt.t
12. 17. Design columns A and B as W sections for 1he
unbraced frame shown in the accompanying fig- rnembers A and B. The uniform loacr ~Q() ,~
ure. The system is braced in the direc1ion perpen- live load and 10% dead load includi mg I\ (,.tfj<j;
. ng thc ..
dicular to the frame such that K,. = I.O. Design
for lhe dead load, live load, plus- wind load case
using the uniform live load acting on both spans.
IO% dead load. and 90% live toad..
A992. Assume s1mple cross-bracing be
e~:r~~
of the stee I secuon. Assume ali 0th t "Cigli,
ar~
~lctJ ~
Use steels: (a) F_,. = 50 ksi; (b) r;.
= 60 ksi; and frame and an adjacem parallel one. tween ~"Il
(e) Fy = 65 ksi.
12.20. Redcsign member A for A572 Grade 60
I 2. J 8. Design the lightest W 12 section for column A of the ~leel
unbraced frame in the accompanying figure. Use t 2.21. Design the lightest W scction to carry
the dead load plus live load plus wind loading case. tric 26-kip Joad_s causing primary be~d:~o eceen_
Pretiminary design has selected W27X94 for ali axial compress,on of 350 kips. Assume g Plu~illl
adjacent beams. and it has been decided column A are 20% de~d load and 80% live load alt loatt,
wiJJ be approximately the same size as those above mrsional fi~ily at the vertical suppon~- Ass\lrtie
and below it. Assume lhe forces given are lhe lateral bracmg at midspan is ad.equa, · assulllt
result of two first-order anaJyses; a nonsway Jateral- torsional buckling, but does ~~ PTe,eq
analysis giving factored moments Mn1, and a sway rotarion for rorsionaJ moments 10 dev:~ en<ltigh
analysis giving factored moments M t,- In the A36 steel. op. t,e
w = 1.0 lcips/fl DL; 1.7 kips/ft LL
Scrvice to•ds
Hinge Wind unifom,
load = 0.9 kips/ft
35'-0 35'-0
1 - - - - - - - ---1
Problem 12.17
M, = 6.ìO kips
O fl-kips
W27X94 240 ft-kips
1 ~
·~ ) i
W27X94
A
JJ'-0" ~ ~
_J_I -' ~ '-..:../
240
13'- 0"
W27X94 _ __ _l 630
Nonswny SW3)'
analysis analysis
L28'-0"-l28'-0"---L Beam spans .M,,, M1,
Problem 12. I 8
Problems • 653
W24X!3J
Ali top chord
-i - r-77........,\j--77~~---:me~m~be~rsc=-~
12'-6" I
L ~--.J___--1.....-1_--1--J._J
li~---- 5@ 14 '---0"; 70'- 0 "
Latera) suppun 1 •
ravcrse ro frame every 4 ft
_J_J
280 ft-ltips
,,.. +i'"""""'"I ) , ,. +
1.6 klft .;;_80 ft-kip.s 585 ft-kips
llOk
l.7 lu'f1
ITTiilOliijjjj)jH, 7120k
700 ft-kips t t
l~b r,- MemberA
Member B
J!Ì Problems 12.19 and 12.20
li; (
\•,'
,-. _( ., ... T, ...,.'f.,._,.

. ,) i) .. \
1&t, ·,.1,;,s ' t

1
_ 18'-0"
I
18'- 0"
t~o ~
I _____j__ 350 k
l-----''"--"----1---"'--=-4-- Latera! suppon

k.
" " tps
i 36'- o" I Ve11ical suppon
~---==========-=J Torsionally
fi,ed atends
Top view
!'rc·r),, ·n 12.21
12.22. A colum.n in a huHd::1g has the factore<l Joad react.ions 12.23. For rhe factored loading shown, sele<:t lightest sec-
I
~ at the top from :xa,T1Sframing into it, as shown in the t.ions for the following conditions:
accompanying figure. Assume the framing beams (a) Wl4 using A992 steel
contribute moraents at che top of the column, but the
(b) W in any depth using F_,. = 50 ksi
bottom of the colLUnn is hinge<l (no moments). Tue
beams framing into the web are assumcd to rest on (e) W 14 using F" == 60 ksi
seats, where reac6ons are assumed to be 2 in. from (d) Wl4 using F,, == 70 ksì
the center of tl1c web. The reaction from the other
beam is assumed ro be acting at the face of the flange. P. = 300 ldps P, = JOO l<.ips
~ M.,=3Rfl-kip<
Use A36 steel and select lightest W section.
M., = 270 fl- kips
Fac1ored
loads
given
r
10'-6"
Consideras
• brared sys1em
L
P, = 300 k,ps P, • 300 l ip>
Problem 12.23
Problem 12.22
Problems Relating to Theoretical Considerations

12.24. through 12.28. For the given loading and support
conditions, develop the differential equation for
the moment M i in the piane of bending, and deter-
mine the maximum value for M i. Problem 12.26
p
FiKed
w
f'ixed
-§il11111111111111111111111~-L.
I' r-o-r-L- 07 I'
-li}, ii-
1--L I i--- L -----..j
Problem 12.24
Problem 12.27
, -f: ~~~~~~- "7,,

Simple
Fiud suppor! M, M,
I' w
-§illlll\l\ll\1111\1111\'.i- _L. ,11111i1ooì'i1111111'j,.
~ L -..J \--- L ---i
Problem 12.25 Problem I 2.28

13.1 TYPES O F CONNECTIONS
- - - -- ·--·-·- -- - - - -- -- - - - - - - -
Steel connections are categorized by AISC-B3.6 depending on the amounl of restraint
developed by the connections. These classifications are:
Fully-Restrained (FR) Moment Cmmections. Tlùs situalion occurs when full rnnti-
nuìty is provìded at the connection so thai originai angles between intersecting members
are maintained essentially constant during loading of the strucnu-e.; i.e., with rotational
restraìnt on the order of 90% or more of that necessary to prevent any angle change.
Simple Connections (also called Sìmp/e Frami11g). This siwation occurs whcre rota-
[Ìonal restraìnt at the ends of members is as lillle as practicable. For beams. a "Simple Con-
nection" is ìntended to provide only shear transfer at the eods. A "Sirnple Connection" is
usually assumed co exist when the originai ang]e between interseccing members may
change approximately 80% or more of che amount it theoretically would change if fric-
tionless hinged connections could be used. When a simply supported beam is ùesigned,
"Simple Connections" must be used. When plastic analysis is used, continuity is inhcrcntly
assumed: lherefore in that case it is inappropriate co use --simple Connections."' Two or
more planar systems designed using plastic analysis may, howcver, be linked LOgether by
"Simple Connecrions" combincd with a bracing system (such as cross-brncing).
AISC design requires that when a "Simple Connection·· is us.:d. three specific
requiremems (AISC-B3.6a) apply, paraphrased as follows:
a. The simply supported beam reactions under faciored loads musi be ade-
quately carried by such connections.
b. The structure and its connections must be adcquate to re, ist factored lateral
loads.
Connections must have sufficient inelastic rotation capacity so that angit'
c.
changes inherent in the --simple_Connection·· assrn_11ptio~ can nccur un~er
the combination of factored grav,ty and lateral loadmg w,1/,11111 un·rfciadmg
rhe endfaste11i11g system.
655
656 • Chapter 13 Connections
Wclded connccrions for rigid frame constniction. showing beam-ro column c·onnenit,n,
with column web stiffcners. Rural Mutual lnsurance Building. Madison. \Vis. (Photo h\
C. G. Salrnon) ·
Partial/y-Restrained (PR) Mom.ent Co1111ec1io11s. Formerly called semi-ri<>id .

.
111g, t111s
· srtu:rnon
. . occurs w I1en 11e . trang f ers moment accornpanit.>d witl
I coonect,on '"' Jm111. .
. b be TI .
t1on etween connected mem rs. 1e rnoment-rotatlo n rcsponge characteristics ln l\lt,,. · ·
connecuon . musr be " . .. documented .rn 1I1e tee h mca
. 11·11eraLUre or established by. dtbt.'
I [) . 1' 11•
. ,mawi1en
c;i l or cxpenmer'.tal means." (_A IS -B6b. (b) . an~a Il y- Restram~d
· C . connec1jon OC{'ltr~
roratronal restramc 1s approx1mately betwecn 20',h and 90% ol that necessary tn "~
. ang le change. This means tI1at w 1·t11 pan .ia Ily-restrarned
reIa11vc . connection thc 111
,. t'\tnt
l'Ol(ni
Section 13.1 Types of Connections • 657
transmitted across the 1· 01·nt · ·h ( Il · · 1 · "

. . · . ts nen er zero or a sma amount) as m a "s1mp e connecllon,
nor is li ih_e full contìnuity moment as assumed in elastic rigid-frame analysis.
. 5
_Panially-Restramed connections are not used in structures when plastic analysis is used
th de ,gn, and have not been commonly used in traditional Allowable Stress De~ign because of
m
e difficully in obtaining the moment-rotation relationslùp fora given connection. However,
with greater availability ofhigher strenglh steels (such as A992) required in designing this type
of connection, the authors believe use of Panially-Restrained connections will increase.
Beam Line
ln order to better understand the practical distinction between the AISC framing types, the
beam line developed by Batho and Rowan ( l 3. l] and used by Sourochnikoff [ 13.5 I is a
useful graphical device. .
As shown in Fig. 13.1.1, consider a beam AB loaded in any manner and subJect to
end moments Ma and Mb, and with end slopes (),, and ()h· The moments necessary to have
()0 = 8b = O are designateci MFa and MFb, the fixed-end moments. Writing the slope
deflection equations, *
4E! 2EI
Ma "' MFn + -e.
L ,. + -oh
L
Mb= MFJ, +
2EI
L{Ja + L ob
4El } (13.l.l)
Solving Eqs. 13.1.1 for ()0 and Oh gives
6El () = 2(Ma - MF,,) - ( Mb - MFI,) }

L " (13.1.2)
6EI ()h"' -(Ma - MFa) + 2(Mb - MF1,)
L
. the second equation from the first gìves

Subtractmg
6El (Ba _ Bb) = 3(Ma - Mb) - 3(Mr~ - MF1,) (13.1.3)

L
. I loading is considered, then
lf symmetnca
(13.l.4)
Mb= - M-(I• ()I, == -Ba ,
M. ~~f==-;>.a)
( n <:_J_ii, M•
(a) Final end momcnts and slopes
Figure 13.l.l
Moments and rotations for MF•([UJJ@fiIIIUJII])MFb
slope-deflection equations Fix~d momCl)(S
(shown with positive sign~).
·ihnon /11rrml11ctor.1' Sm1c11m ,/ t1111i/yJi.,
G S
-- Chu-Kia Wang and Charlc~ · • ·
•For in~1ance. sec I984 (Chap. 9).
NJ: Prenctice-Hall. loc.,
full lìxity for uniform Joading

wL1
/M,-,, ~ - ,-2-
'::i:_"
PR
E
o
.
.;
M,-a
M,
E
..,e
<..i
M3
Mi
Figure 13.1.2
Mome.nt- rotation - MFti
8• = 2EJIL
characceristics of AISC
conneccion types. End rolation 0 0
in which case Eq. 13.1.3 becomes
-2El
~L - oa = Ma - MFa
or
03.1.si
which may be called the beam-line equation. When O,, "" O (a full fixìty CO d" .
·
Ma= Mp0 ; andforahmgedendwhereMa = O,th es_ope
·l n 1t1on1
b eco~1es· 0a= - MFJ(2E/ L·
Figure 13. I.2 shows a diagram of che beam-hne equauon and also the mo / ).
rotation behavior of typical connections of AISC Types FR. PR. and Sìmple. The
1
:en,.
FR (rigid) connection would have to cany an end moment M, about 90% or · pica!
Mp hence its degree o f restramt. may be sa1d . to be 90,-, T . more of
7o. he S11n.ple Connect·
a• . . . 10n ma ,
have to resist only 20% or less of the moment M Fa , as md1cated by the momen, ~/
while the PR (semi-rigid) connection would be expected to resisc sonie intenn d. 2•
~alue M 3 at perhaps 50% of the fi_xed-end moment Mp" . AISC Commeniary-B3.
t1fies the three types of connecuons by the level of their secant rotational , -ff:
6
ei;:~~
~ 11 ness
Ks = Ms/8s, under service load, where Ms and Os are the moment and rotation, respe '
tively, at service loads. c-
When Ks > 20El/L, the connection is considered to be fully restrained· ,L
.
Ks < 2El/ L, the connection is cons1dered to b e s1mp ' '~ 111:n
. Ie . an d connections havino st"ff
. ~ '· L 11ess
between the two Jimits are considered partiaJly restramed.
When the moment- rotation characteristics of a particular connectìon ar ava·i bi
·
the strcngih can be des1gned_ so th~t th e_ r~s~1tmg
· end _rotation
· 0·1s compatible With iatha;
e
caused by the loads. Discuss10ns ot sem1-ng1d connecuons and moment- rotation eh
teristics of vrufous connection arrangements are given by H_e chtman and Johnston fl~~~-
Schenker, Salmon, and Johnston [13.7). Lmdsay, Ioanmdes, and Goverdhan !l3.8i'
Brown (13.9J, Ammerman and Leon [13.lOJ. Leon, Ammerman, Lin and Mcc ·
. . . . ' · au1ev
[13. I_I J,_ Net_hercot, Dav1son, and Kirby ( 13. I 2). Cben and K_1sh1 [ 13.13]. Azizinaminìand
Radz11nmsk1 [13.141, Leon and Ammerman [13.15]. BJorhovde, Colson Bro .
. • ZZttb
[13.16]. Zandonini and Zanon [13.17], and Leon [13.18].
Section 13.2 Simple Shear Connections • 659
13.2 SIMPLE SHEAR CONNECTIONS
Simple shear connections (

(200S) f d common 1Y known as framed beam connections), and now
• re erre 10 as "Simple Connections" (AISC-B3.6), are used to connect beams
10 other beams or to e I f1 .
o umn anges or webs when s1mple support of the beam has
been assumed. Design of such connections has become somewhat standardized using
Part lO of the ~/SC Manual, which providcs the design methods and tables for Simple
~hear Connecuons: Table 10-1 "Ali Bohed Double-Anglc Connections," Table 10-2
Bolted/Welded Double -Angle Connections," Table L0-3 ·'All-Welded Oouble-Angle
Connections," Table 10-4 "Bolted/Welded Shear End-Plate Connections:· Table 10-S
"AII-Bolted Unstiffened Scated Conncctions," Table 10-6 "AII-Welded Unstiffened
Seated Conncc tions," Table 10-7 "All-Boltcd S tiffened Seated Connections," and
Tablc 10-8 "Bolted/Welded Stiffened Seatcd Connections."
Typical bolted and wclded framed conncctions are shown in Fig. 13.2. I. lt is imended
in such connections that the angles be as flexible as possible. The connection lo the column
(2 rows of 5 fasteners shown in Fig. 13.2.1a) is usually made in the field. while the connec-
tion to the beam web (one mw of S fasteners shown in Fig. 13.2.1b) is usually made in the
sbop. Geoerally on plans, shop fastener holes are shown as in Fig. 13.2. lb, while ficld fas-
tener holes are shown as solid black dots. There have been many studies [ 13. 19-13. 28 l of
simple shear double-angle connections. .
In today's fabrication practice, the shop conncction is usually welded. while the fi~ld
connection may be either bohed or wclded; thus. any combination in Fig. 13.2.1 or (a} wuh
(b} or (e); or (d) with (b) or (e) may be used.
Fas1cncr line A
21' /
,.
4/ 2
- WcldA
I
W30
(e)
(a) (b)
Cope (cul-back or bcam Oansc)
a~ weld
sizc
Weld8
Figure 13.2.1 (t )
!>imple ,hear double-angle (d)
conne1:1ion~.
The si11gle-plare Jiwning comrectirm is a moditication where a single plate (i

the pair of augles) ÌS boJted Oat against lhe beam web and then is Welded pern..ndn~tC<l(J 1~
the beam web or colum11 nange or web to which Il . "'" . 'C:U1""to
. 1.s attac he d - Th e design of -
· d 0·11 Kr. MngJe \
framing connections• has. been studied . by R1char . J ett, 1egh, and Le,... P "'le
Young and Disque [13.30). Richard, Kr1egh, and Honnby fl331]. Hormby, Rich
nJS {13
/<iJ.
Kriegh ( 13.32!, an~ Aslaneh. Call, and ~cMullin [ 13.33). AlSC Manua/Tablc 10-9~S: ~
1
Plate Connecl!ons, prov,des a standard1zed design method. 1lgle
Another type of simple shear connec1.ion is the 1ee frmni11g co11nec1io11 a .
S S!Udtcd
Astaneh and Nader ( 13.35, 13.36]. where the tee nange aitaches lo the supponing b~
(or beam) and the tee web laps against the loaded beam to transmh its shear. Colurnn
Another single-plate framing connection. studied by Kenne~y [ 13.341, u~es th
in the vertical position welded tlat against the end of the beam wuh the connect' e Plate
10
beam or column made with bolts. ton the
When angles, sometimes known as dip angles. are used co attach a beam
. I . . h ·r h b
umn, there 1s a clearancc setback of aboul 2 in. so I ac I t e eam 1s too lo
. lo a .e0 I•
.I . . ng, \V1tb.
accepcable tolerances, the angles may be relocated wH tout c uttmg otf a picee of the be tn
When beams intersect andare attached to other beams so that the tlanges of both
. . h h .
arn.
are ~t tL
same elevation, as in Fig. 13.2. le, the beams frammg m ave t e1r Oanges COped ne
away. The loss of scc tion is primarily loss of flange that canies little shear anvw , ' or cui
20~
0
normally a cope rcsults in little loss of shear strengch. ~irkcmoc and Gilrnor ·[ 1;_) th.a1
shown 1.hat a coped web subject to high bearing stress m a high-strengt.h bolted be· ha~e
connection may fai! in a tearing mode (known as ·'hlock shear") along a line rh ani end
holes, as shown in Fig. 13.2.2. Additional study of block shear in such situation:~~gh tne
made by Yura, Birkemoe , and Ricles (13.21] and Ricles and Yura l 13.23]. as lieto
Po1en1ial parh
_.,..-. of tearing f.Jilurt:
f'igure 13.2.2
Tearing failure at coped ends
of framed beam rnnnection.
"Block s hear" was firsc discussed in regard to te nsion members in Sec. 3_6 _ B
shear may be criticai in simple shcar connections when there is a s hort connecci lock
. . on using
few bolts that do not extend umformly over the entire d e pth of the web. AlSC-J4.3 re .
consideration of the block shear lìmit state "where the top flange ìs coped and in ~ui_res
. - . d I
s1luat1o ns. such as tension members an gusset p ates.
" sunllar
_ In addition 10 block shear, copes of the flange s of bem1_1s may affect locai web bue._
1mg, as reported by Cheng and Yura [ l 3.24.1 ,_ and lateral~tors1onal buckling. as reponed \
Gupta [13.25J. Cheng, Yura, and Johnson LI 3.26). and Cheng and Yura f 13.27]. b}
The number of high-strength bolts ìs based on che direct shear. neglecti_no an
tricity of loading, while the weld length and size include the effect of eccen;ric yl ecdcen.
. . . 00~
The fasteners. bolts or welds. are des1gned m accordance with procedures of Ch·· ·
. ~¾4
and 5, rei;pect1vely.
?he thickness o!· _the frami ng angles or _platc is usually controlled by the ''bl0ç -
shear srre ng th. In add111011, angle s should be th1ck enough s uc h that bearing does k
. not con
~rol. The angles are expected fu be11d so thai the assumed rotation of the supported be ·
ICS ends can occur. arn at
Flexural Deformation and Strength of Connection Angles
Refcrring to Fig. 13.2.3, the tensile farce T per inch acts at the top of framing angles of
length L as shown in Fig. 13.2.l when an end moment acts. This end momem arises from
the reaction P acting at an eccentricity e measured, as in Fig. 13.2.1b or e, from che poinc
of action of P to the cencroid of the fastener \ine A or to che centroid of weld A.
The concentrated load T acting on the connection anglcs may be considered as acting
on a fixed-end heam for the bolted connection and on a simply supported beam for a
welded connection. The true situation for each case is partially end restrained. The higher
restraint for the holted connection arises from the clamping action between the pieces
caused by initial tension in the bolts, while the welding causes littlc clamping ac1ion.
A si mplc approximation of the dcflection Li at thc tension end of the framing angles
will therefore be that of a fixed-end beam (high-strength boltcd connection) having con-
centrated load T at mid-length of a ,pan g,
Tg3
b . = -- ( 13.2.1)
192E/
and for the concentrated Joad T acting al mid-length of a simply supported span g (welded
connection),
LÌ -- Tg~ (13.2.2)
48EI
. occur when 11e 1op o f the

Noting that the maximum farce T w11l . Iangle
! th yield,:
Eq- .13i.e2.. IMax
and
T = 2F~t per unit length at the !Op, and that J - r'/ 12 per umt enoo , .,. · ·
13.2.2 bec<)me
2F,.tg 3 F.yg3
. =--, ( 13.2.3)
t92E(t 3/ 12) 8Er
,,,J ·-· · · - · ~/1 - --·-'.
~I
rl
~
r ~~
Figure 13.2.3 . 1- -i:- 1 (b) Wtlckd
Behavior at tension edge of .
(a) High-strength bolled
traming angles.
and
e: ]
2 ,.y1g· F.).g3
A = 48E(t 3/12) - 2Et2
Note that the more rmation required at the e nd of t~e beam the greater must be
deformation ~ and the thinner (low 1) must be the angles. In generai. th1s defonn . ~e
1
. f h I · 11
se]J-limiting because the mid-length port10n o t e ang es wi. remam efasi·
. atton i~
. ic eve
though the top end may be inelastic. Furthermore. the use of th1ck angles wouJd Ili n
that the stress . ean
. at the top of the angles. due to T might be less than F.>" thus red ucing 4
(and 1he corresponding end rotation).
EXAMPLE 13.2, 1
Compute the factored load Pu capacity for the reaction on the 5 row Simple Connection
0
Fig. 13.2.1 for connecting a W30X99 bearn to a column having a ¾-in. flange IJ f
¾-in.-diam A325 bolts as a bearing-type conn~ction (A3~5-X) having no threads in tbe.sh~
planes. The connection uses standard hoJe.,; w1th clean mili s~ale (Class A) surface conct·1 .
. - - tion
and assume thm the bolt hole defonnation is a design consic1erauon al service Joad. Use~
AISC LRFD Method with A36 angles and A992 beam and column.
Solution:
<f>Rn per bolt for the connection to the web of b
(a) Design strengths
W30X99, tw = 0.520 in. Using Eq. 4.7.3, the design strength in double shear (m == 2~ i:
</>R,, = 4>F',11,mA1, (4.7.3]
= 0.75(60)(2)0.4418 = 39.8 kips/ boll
Si.nce ~he bolt spacing exceed_s 3db == 2.25 in .. the nominai strength in bearing on the
0.520-m. web, from Eq. 4.7.9. rs
R,, == 1.2LJr~, :s 2.4dtF,, (4.7.9)

<f>R,, == <fJ2.4drF,, = 0.75( 2.4)(0.75)(0.520)65 = 45.6 kips/ bolt
(b) To tal connection facrored load P,, capacity based on the web connection 10 th
W30X99 bearn. Common practice has been to neglect the eccentricity e with respect tothe
fastener line. Thus. the maximum factored reaction P,, would egual the design strength pe~
bolt cimes the number 11 of bolts,
Maximum P,, = 11</>R,, = 5(39.8) = 199 kips
If the eccentricity with respec! io the fastener line were consi<lered,

1 .
e = 2 :i 111.
assuming the reaction to be along fastener line A. For this eccen1ric shear loading. ultimai
strength an alysis or elastic vector analysis, as disc ussed in Sec . 4.1 2. may be used. Usin
ultimate strength analysis as represented by the AISC Mnnual Table 7 -7. ''Coefficients
for Eccentrically Loaded Bolt Groups," p . 7-32, for vertical spacing of fasteners s = 3 in
the number of fasteners n = 5, and cccentricity ex = 2.25 in. ,
Find coefficienl C = 4.27

P,, = C,:/>R,, = 4.27(39.8) = 170 kips
Section 13.2 Sìmple Shear Connections • 663
This is 15% less than h
.· · w en eccentricity is neglected.
(e) Design strengths R 3
The design strength . . I n per bolt for the connection to the 1-in. flange of the column.
m smg e shcar ( m = I) is
<J,Rn ( single shear) = <f>FnvmAb

cf>Rn = 0.75(60)(1)0.4418 == J9.9kips/ bolt
The design strength in be· · th .
h F . anng on e angles w11J be less than bearing on the ¾-in. flanoe which
5O
as . >' == ks1. Tue minimum thickness for the angles so 1hat bearing wìll not : ovem is
obtamed by setting th ·t h· b . "
es rengt m earing equa) to the strength ( 19.9 kips/bolt) in shear.
</>R,, (bearing) = ef,2.4dr F,, = 19.9 kips/ bolt
Min 1 = -..!.2.:2._ = ·19 9 - ·

</>2.4dF,, 0.75(2.4 )(0.75)65 - 0·23 m.
Tue desig_n strengrh in tension will be dependent on the applìed shear load; however, 1he
upper hm1t on that strength is
4>R,, (tension) = cf>Fn1Ah

== 0.75 (90)0.4418 = 29.8 kips/bolt
(d) Tota) connection factored load Pu capacity based on the connection to the ¾-in.
flange. Neglecting eccentricity, the ten fasteners in single shear give
P" = 10( l 9.9) = 199 k.ips

If the combined shear and tension eft'ect is considered, and the elastic vector method
is used, the factored tension Tu at the most heavily loaded bolt ìs
Mc P. ec P,,(2.25)6
T. = - A = - "- A = = 0.075?,,
" I I 4 (3) 2 + 4( 6)2
and the direct shear per bolt is

p Pu
V. = -A = -
u A 10
= 0.IOPu
·
Usmg A
lSC-Formu las (J3-2) 3 nd (J3-3a)' the nominai Joad F;,,
. in tension
. permitted
.i . d.
inb .l he
I
·. ~ bearing-type A325-X connec11ons usmg 4 -u1.- iam o ts
presence of shear 1s, or
( A1, = 0.4418 sq in.),
<J>F~rAb = <t>( l .3F,,, - ;;,:/v )A,, ::,; <j,F,.,A1,
= 0_75 [ l.3( 29_8) _ ~!:!fv ]A1, s 29.8 kips/ bolt
Let <f>F~,A1, = 0.075P,,, and l"r Ab = O. IOP." : 1hen

0.075P,, = 29.1 - O. Il 2P,,
P,, = 155 kips
ceed 29 _8 kips: 0.075?,, = 0.075 ( 155) = 11 .6 kips.
Check that 0.075Pu_d~ not e;, A is not exceeded. In addirion 10 that l'het·k. the
hich means the upper hm1t on. ur d b bear cannot exceed the strength based on slk.-ar
w b ed on combined tens1on an s
strength as
alone. Referring to Fig. 4.14.:3. J;,v cannot exceed 45 _ksi: however, f,,v "' O
= 0.10( J 55 )/ 0.4418 = 35.1 ksi from che above computatwn. Thus, P,, cannot el[.1OJ>,J,\
kips based on combined tension and shear. e~ 155
(e) Summary of foc tored load capacity results.
Connection 10 beam web: P,, = 199 kips ( neglec1 e)

P,, = 170 kips ( consider e)
Connection ro column flan P,, = 199 kips (neglect e)
Pu = 155 kips ( consider e )
For the illustration of edge and end distance requirements, the value of 199 k.ips n .
eccentricity will be used. · eg)ecllng
(f) End and edge distances . When bearing strengch based on 2.4f: is usect
to AISC-13.10, as shown in parts (a) and (e), a minimum end distance of 15d ~c0rding
· h IS a
able. In this case, cccp,.
Minimum end distance Le :2c [ l.5db = 1.5( O. 75) == 1.13 in.]

When a !esser dìstance is desired, Eq. 4.7. 16 can be used, where Pu (i.e., <J>R,,) is the
tored load per bolt. Eguation 4. 7. I 6 should also be used to check the end distane fac.
beam web (using K = l.2). e on the
Rn d
End distance L 2' - - +- [4.7.16]
e KF,,t 2
p db 199/5 0.75 ]
Le ~ [ <f>l.2F,,r +2 = 0.75(1.2)( 58)0.52 + 2 == 1.g4 in.
The end distance requirernent is conservative (i.e., large) because the full load
uppennost boll is assumed to be directed ~oward the n~arest ~dge; actually only th;~ the
zontal component need be used. The 1.75 m. prov1ded 1s certamly adeguate. on.
(g) Shear_on the net section ~rough tbe angles. ~or sh~ar as well as tension, the
area A,,v accordmg to AISC-B3. l 3 1s based on the nommal d1ameter of the hole plus l ~et
Thus, for standard holes, w 1n.
An11 = ,[14.5 - 5{fì + k) ] = l0. l3t per angle

and A gv = 14.5 t per angle
Shear yield design strength (AISC-J4.2a) is
'red Reaction 199/ 2

R equi t = l.0(0.6)(50)14.5 = 0·229 in
4>(0.6F_v)Agv
Shear rupture design strength (AISC-J4.2b) is
r/>R,, = 4>(0.6Fu)A,iv
R . Reaction 199/2
equ1red t = cp(0.6Fu)Anv = 0.75(0.6)(58)10.13 = 0.376 in. govems
Select i-in. angles.

Section 13 2 s·
· imple Shear Connections • 665
(h) Examine the degree of .
the elas11c detlection ìs smiple support provided by i-in. anglcs. Using Eq. 13.2.3,
FgJ
Il = ~ == 36[2(2.5 - 13/16)]3 _ .
8E1 8(29.000)(0.375)2 - 0.04 m .
T~e longest beam span uniformi I
of 199 k1ps is Y oacted fora W30X99 having a factored reaction
<PbMp = 0.90ZxFy = 0.90(312)36/ 12 = 842 ft-kips

M = W,,f: _ 199(2)L
" 8 - --8-
8(842 )
L = 199(2) = 16.9 f1
Assumin° the service mo · bo
"' · ment 1s a u1 0.5 of M r • lhe elas1icaUy computed end slope is
2
O_ WL ML (842/ 2)( 12)(16.9)12
- 24El = 3El = 3( 29 ,000)3990 = 0.0030 radian
Assuming rotati on about lhe bottom of the angle, the dcformation required al the top of the
angles 10 accornmodate 1he servit e load ro1ations ai the ends of che beam would be
il = (d/2)0 = 14.5(0.0030) = 0.04 in. "' 0.04
Based on these approximate calculations, che angles must yield ac service load co accom-
modate rotation a1 the ends of the beam. Even if such rotation occurs, the full simply sup-
ported beam moment is not likely to occur: tJ1ere will be some end moment. •
The conclusion is that simple shear connections should use the thinnest angles consis-
tent with the bearing and shear fracture limit states, as well as practical limitations. Bertwell
( 13.37] ha~ provided some additi(}nal discussion on che behavior of simple shear connections.
EXAMPLE 13.2.2
Investioate the 5 row simple shear connection of Example 13.2.1 (Fig. 13.2.1) a~ a slip-critica{
0
co1111ecn·on (A325-SC) assumino o

75% live load a.nd 25% dead Joad a.nd using standard holes.
Solution:
(a) Strength in shear and bearing. A shp-crilical conne~tion has the same strength
· - h d bearing as a beanng-type connecuon. From Example 13.2.1.
requ1rements tor s ear an
d,R
. n
= 39.8 kips/bolt (double shear)
,1..p_
'i' Il
= 45 _6 kips/bolt (bearing on 0.52-in.web)
· on the angles will not contro!, nor will the shear

Using ~-in.-thick angles means beanng
fracture limit state. th . .t tates The maximum factored load Pw that can
. b d on streng 1,mi s . . .
(b) Capac1ty as~ . to be 199 kips (neglecting eccentnc1ty).
1 13 2 1
be carrìed was detenmned m Ex~p ~ . .
Based on this the service Joad capacny is
l.2 (0. 2SP) + J.6(0.75P) =199 kìps
p = 133 kìps
(e) Check tbe slip serviceability limit stare. The service load capacity per boli·
using AISC Formula (13-4 ), Eq. 4.9.1. with Class A surface condition and standard~
Rn = µDuh ,cTi,N,- = 0.35(l.13)(1.0)(28)2 = 22.2 kips/boh

q, = I .O for prevention of slip as a serviceability limit state
P = q,R,,(number ofbohs) = 1.0(22.2)5 = 111 kips
Thus, comparing tbe results from parts (b) and (c). the serviceabiliry (slip resistan.- • •
. . . I connecttons.
state controls. Tbis will usually be the case for sI1p-cnttca . Wben a-llilllu
6
condition is used having a high slip-resistance coefficient and/or threads may exi;~llct
sbear planes, it will be possible for rhe scrength limit state to contro!. Ili tbe
(d) Consider eccentriciry for the slip-criticai connection. Tbe combination of ~
and tension on the attachment ro the column flange will be more criticai than e ~ .
shear at bolt line A (Fig. 13.2.1 ). The service load components at the most beavily loa:
bolts are
Mc P(2.25)6
T = - A = -----=-
2 2 = 0.015P (tension)
/ 4(3) + 4(6)
and the direct shear per boli is

p p
V = -A = - = O. IOP (direcr shear)
A IO
Tue service load capacity in shear fora bolt simult.aneously subject to tension is. accordU!t
to AISC-13.9, -
R,, (with tension) = k,R,,(without tension)

where, with one slip piane ( N, = l ).
r,, 0.075( 133)
k, = I ----= - - - - =0.69
l.1 3(28)1
D,,TbN,
Thus,
R11 = 0.69( 11.2) = 7 .66 k.ips [nsiug o ne-hai f the pan (a) value of 22.2]
P = ef,R,,(numberofbolts) = 1.0(7.66) 1() = 77kips
Note that when designing to prevent slip at service load. the- unfactored (i.e... the service
Joad) censile force musi be used to c.akulate the k.< factor. Also. it is not~ lhat this re<IIJCCd
capacity is conservative because il applies to ali holts. the majority of whìch are subject 10
a lower leve! of tensile for..::e.
(e) Summary.
P = J33 kips (based on strengrh linù.t state.s)
f> = 1 l l kips ( based on servil:eability lìmit state of slip

neglec!i ng accenLriciry)
P 0
-- 77 kips (based on ~en iceability limit state ohlip
considcrin.-. cccentricitv)
"' <
The AISC Ma11uai Tabi I O l 1. . .

ble angle · l h es . · mphc1tly accept the neglect of eccentricity for dou-
th d .. simp es ear connectJons. To verify this, one must use lhe tables to detennine
( e 1~~; ~trength. For 5 mws wìth }in. A325 bolts, enter AISC Manual Table 10-1
p. ) or SC Class A, to find the strength equal to 111 kips. This value matches
the calculated value f () . .
o part e where the eccentnc1ly was negle-eteò. •
. EXAMPLE 13.2.3
Design a òouble-angle simple shearconnection far a Wl0X68 beam baving a factored load
reaction P.1 of 70 kips anò a W24X 104 beam having a factored load reaction P,,2 of 210
kips. These rwo beams are to frame into apposite sides of a plate giròer having a ~-in. web
as shown in Fig. 13.2.4. The connection is to be of l-in.-dìam A325 bolts in a bearing-typc
co nnection with threads excluded from the shear planes . Use AISC LRFD Method and
A992 steel.
Solution:
(a) Compute design bolt values relating lo connections lo webs of WIOX68 and_
W24X 104. Initially assume that s ~ 3db, Le ~ 2.0dn, and two or more bolts in a Ime ot
force with standard hole.~ anù hole deformation being a design consiòeralion. so that
R11 == 2.4Fudbr for bearing,
<J>R11 (bearing) = <J>(2.4Fu)dbt

4>Rn = 0.75(2.4)(65)(0.75)0.470 = 41.2 kips/ bolt (WJO)
<f>R,, ; 0.75(2.4 )(65)(0.75)0.500 = 43.9 kips/ bolt (W24)
tf>R,, (doubleshear) = </>F.,mA b
</>R,, = 0 _75 (60.0)(2)0.4418 = 39.8 kips/ bolt
2 2 W24 X 104
Wl0X68 /
'-
r = 0.470"
"'
'·· = 0.50"
3"
8
Figure 13.2.4
Framed beam connection
ha~ing unequal reactions.
70
Numbernfbolts = _ = 1.8, say 2 (WI0)
39 8
210
Number ofbohs = - = 5.3. say 6 (W24)
39.8
Use 3-in. bolt spacing wìth 1.5-in. end distancc al cope (rop of angles).
(b) Check block .~hcar on WL0 according to AISC-J4.3. This is discussed in ,
CombiJ1ing Eqs. 3.6. l and 3.6.2. or use AISC Fornrnla (J4-5), 10 compute lhe 1101111- ,Set. 3.6.
na su,
for the linùt state of block shear rupture. · en!;lh
R,, = (0.6FuA,w + FuUb,A 11, ) s:: (0.6F,.A g,, + F,,U1,_,A 11 , )

Obtain Lhe areas lo be used in the c omputation,
A 11,, = shear yield area = 4.5(0.470) = 211 sq in.
A ,,v = shear frncture area = [4.5 - t.s(t¾ + tt;) ]0.470 = I.SO sq in.
A,,, = tension fracture area = [2.0 - 0.5 ( iÌ + ft) ]0.470 = 0.73 sq in.
With a single row of bolts thc tensile stress is assumed uniform and Ub.,. = I.O.
= 0.6(65)1.50 + 65(1.0)0.73 = 106kips

Rn = 0.6r,:,,Agv + F,,U1,sAn,
= 0.6( 50 )2.11 + 65 ( 1.0 )O. 73 = 111 kips ( upper limit)
The factore<l reaction capacity Pu = (j)R 11 • where == 0.75,
P., = ,j,Rn = 0.75(106) = 79kips > 70kipsrequired
Use 2 bolts to connect the WI 0 section.

(e) Check block shear on W24 accor<ling to AISC-J4.3. Fro m Eqs. 4.6.1 and
4......
61
Rn == (0.6F,,A,,v + F,.UbsA, 11 ) :S (0.6F,.Agt• + F,/Jt,.,A,11 )
Obtain the areas to be used in the computation,
A 11 v = shear yield area = 16.5 (0.50) = 8.25 sq in.
A 111, = shear fracture area == [ 16.5 - 5.5 ( fi; + -h) }O.SO = 5.84 sq in.
Anu = tension fraclll.re area == ( 2.0 - 0.5 ( ~ + -h)Jo.50 = 0.78 sq in.
With a single row of bolts the tensile s tress is assurned unjform and Ub5 = I.O.
R11 = 0.6F,1 A 11u + F,,U1,,A 111
= 0.6( 65)5.84 + 65( 1.0)0.78 = 279 kips
R11 = 0.6F,.Agv + F,,U1,,A,,,
= 0.6( 50 )8.25 + 65 (I.O )O. 78 == 298 kips ( upper limit)
The factored reaction capacity P,, = <f»R 11 • where 4> = O.75,
P,, = <J>R = 0.75(279) = 209 kips = 2l0 kips requìred

11 O'
Use 6 bolts to connect the W24 ~ection,
Section l3. 2 Simple Shear Connections • 669
(d) Connections lo plate irde . .
both s1des will be govem d b g r web. For this connecllon, the two bol!s common to
e Ydouble shear or be · h 3· • ·
are govemed by singl h . anng on I e g-m. plate, while the remamder
. e s ear or bearmg th J · 1 . . . .
usmg standard holes with b h l on · e g-tn. _P ate. Agam, the connecuon 1s deta1led
0I O
t e deformanon bemg a design consideration.
</>Rn (bearing) = rp(2.4Fu)dt

<t>Rn = 0.75( 2.4)(65)(0.75)0.375 = 32.9 kips/ bolt
<J>R" (double shear) = 39.8 kips/bolt [from (a) above]
<l>Rn (singleshear) = 39.8/2 = 19.9kips/bolt
For the bolts common
. to both s1·ctes, beanng
· govems. The four bolts m
. common carry
~O/ 4. = l 7.5 kips from the W10X68. The remainder is available far the W24X 104 reac-
uon; 1.e., 32.9 - l7.5 = 15.4 kips.
lf ali bolts were to carry egual load,
210
Numberofbolts = _ = 10.6. say 12
19 9
When 12 bolts are used, the average load per bolt will be 210/12 = 17.5 kips. Even
though this exceeds the 15.4 kips available on the top 4 bolts, the lower 8 bolt.s are not fully
loaded. Accept this arrangement.
(e) Angles rhickness. Bearing will not contro! angles thickness unless end dis-
tance L, < l.5db or bolt spacing s < 3db, according to AISC-14.10 because 2.4Fu was
used to compute bearing strength. For the ~-in. diam bolts, l.5d1; = 1.13 in. and
3db = 2.26 in. In this design, the end distance L, = 1.25 in. and the minimum spacing
is 2.5 in.
The thickness of angles might be controlled by eilher t.heir shear rupture strength or
shear yield strength in accordance with AISC-J4.2
(<f>(0.6F,.)Agvand <f>(0.6F,,)A11v] "" Pi,
-FJ for the angles connected 10 tbe WI0,
1.0(0.6)(50)(6)21 ~ 70
70
1 > = 0.195 in.
- 1.0(0.6)(50)(2)6.0
or
o.75(0.6)(65)[ 6.0 - 2m + ~) 21 l 2 10
70 = 0.28 in. Controls

1 2
0.75(0.6)65[6.0 - 1.75 ]2
For lhe angles connected to the W24,

I.0(0.6)(50)(18)21 2 210
21 0 :: 0.19-lìn.
1 2 1.0(0.6)(50)(2)18
or
0.75(0.6)(65)[ 18.0 - 6{t¾ + f6)]2, ~ 210
210
I 2" = 0.28 in. Controls
0.75(0.6)65(18.0 - 5.25)2
The bearing value </JRn for ~-in. angles is 27.4 kips/bolt, which is more tha
carry the factored load of 17.5 lòps/bolt from the beams (a coincidence that ~adeqllaic Il,
tored load per boh is conlributed by bo1h the WI0 and the W24); therefore :-anicrlic:. l
are satisfacrory as connectìng angles. ' 16- 111- llnt~
Use 2- L4x3½x$xO' -6" for WI0X68.
Use 2 - L4X3½XJ6XI '-6" for W24X 104.
Tue length of angle should not exceed the dimension T. which is 7 ~.
WI0X68. The girder flange th.ickness is such that a cope is required on the' 111• for tlic
encroacbes on the T dimension. bcains ~
I
Weld Capacity in Eccentric Shear on Angle Connections
Since no initial tension is involved with welded connections, the eccelllricit
even though small, is considered. The principles of Chapter 5 (See. 5.18) are y of 10adin•
USCd · •·
welds treated as lines. "-'tth thc
EXAMPLE 13.2.4
Compute th~ factored load Pu capacity for wel~ A ~n the ~gle connection shown in Fi
1
The beam 1s a W30X99 and the weld 1s 4 m. w1th E70 elect:rodes. The g. 13.2.1_
4X3½xrlìx I' -2½" in length. Use A36 steel for the angles and A992 steel for the~Ics ~
and the AISC LRFD Mcthod. SCctiO!J
Solution:
Analysis of this eccentric shear situation may be done using strength analysis a
in Sec. 5.17 or the elastic (vector) method presented in Sec. 5. I 8. · s Presenitd
(a) Elastic (vector) method. Using IP from Table 5.18.1 and referrino to F·
~ "' •g. 13.2.!c
8(3)3 + 6(3)( 14.5) 2 + ( 14.5) 3 (3) 4 '
l" = 12 - 2(3) + 14.5 = 583.5 in.'
Using che moment of ine11ia computed with a I-in. effective throat. the force
length at criticai locations can be computed. J)er Unit
P,,
Rv = ---) = 0.0244P,, ( direc.t shear componem) ,1
2(20.5
(3)2
X = - - - -- = 0.44 in.
2(3) + 14.5
The x and y components of force due to torsional moment are
P,,( 3.50 - 0.44) (3.50 - 0.44 - 0.50)

Ry = 2(583.5) = 0.00671P,, !
P,,(3.50 - 0.44)(7.25)
R.r = - - - -- - -- - = 0.0190?,, -
2( 583.5)
R., = P,,V(0.0244 + 0.0067) 2 + (0.0190) 2 = 0.0364P,,
Section 13-2 Simple Shear Connections • 671
The design strength ,1.R .

'I' •w per mch of weld is
i/)Rm,, = .P(0.707a)(0.60FExx)
= 0 .75(o.7 o7 ) (¼)(0.60)70
= 5.57 kips/in.
Check base metal shear
screnglh for the beam web and the angles
Fws~ru~re
h ·
(cf:>Rnwhaseme1al"' 0.7S(0.60Fu)I = 0.45Fut

( cJ,R.w)angJe "' 0.45(58)0.3125 e: 8.16 kips/in.
(,f>Rnwlweb"' 0.45(65)(0.520/2) = 7.61 kips/in.
For shear yield
( cf>RnwhM "' l.0(0.6Fy)AnM = 0.60Fut

(<l>Rnw)ang\e = 0.60(36)0.312S = 6.75 kips/in
(<f>Rawlweb = 0.6(50)(0.S20/2) = 7.8kips/in
Weld Strength controls: cf>Rnw = 5.57 kips/in.
5.57
Pu = _
0 0364
= 153 kips
(b) Strength analysis. Use AJSC Manual [1.15), Table 8-8, "Coefficients C for Eccen-
trically Loaded Weld Groups" with 8 = 0°. For ¼-in. weld using E70 electrodes,
a= (e - xL)/L = (3.5 - 0.44)/14.5 = 0.211

k = kL/L = 3.0/ 14.5 = 0.207
k = 0.2 0.207 0.3
a= 0.2 2.63 3.11
0.211 2.60 2.63 3.08 e = 2.63
0.25 2.51 2.96
Table value = P,,

Pn = CC,DL = 2.63(1.0)(4)14.5 = 153 kip,
cf>Pn = 0.75( 153) = 115 kips

where
C1 = coefficient for electrode = ( Electrode used)/70
D = number of hs of an inch in weld size
L = length of vertical weld, in.
]es the factored Joad reaction capacity is
Since there are 1wo ang · '
P,, = 2( 115) = 230 kips
As expected. the streng

lh analysis gives the higher value. •
· · by Johnston and Green [ I 3.191 and fohnston and
Id d angle connecnons . .h
Tests of we e hat rfonnance of web anglcs agrces generally \\ 11
Diets [ I 3.38] have demonstrated t p.:
assumptions.
Weld Capacity in Tension and Shear on Angle Connections
This is the field-welded connection shown in Fig. 13.2. Id. There is no agreemen
1
the strength analysis for this s ituation. Blodgen [ 13.21 considers the strength as a rega,ding
shear situatìon in the piane of the we~ds. With the eccentric load as in Fig. 1 ;_~~ntric
angles bear agamst themselves for a d1s1ance of U6 from the top, and the tors" h, tbe
over the remaining ¾of the length L is rcsisted by the weld. Neglecting the eftnal ~tres1
retums at the top, the horizontal componenl R ;r can be ob1ained from rnoment
Equilibrium in the piane of the load P and weld leg B requires
eq:~
11
of tbe
hri11tn.
frm:e arm U3.2 s1
9Pe?
R, = --f force/unit length
. SL-
Tue direct shear compooent is
Rv =~ force/ unit le ngth

2L 012.1,
Acmal R = ~(~Y + (~ : ~
2
r
R = ~ VL2 + I2.9e~ force/unit length
2 2 0 3.2.8)
Equation 13.2.8 neglects eccentricicy el, which rends to cause te nsion at the top f •
weld lines. The authors believe it is more _appropriate to consider the tlex_ural stress d:tri~
unon of F1g. 13.2.Sc to be a more appropnate approach. The flexural tenston compooent R
at the top of the weld B is 1
Mc Pe,(L/ 2) 3Pe1
Rx = - /- = 2L3/ 12 = --;T 012.91
w he n the returns at the tops of the :mgles are neglected. The direct she,ar componeni Rr is
p .
R,,
·
= -force/
2L
nn1t length (13.2.10\
WeldA
LegA
Figure J 3.2.5
rield-wdded wm1ecrion for
web framing ang lè~. (al (b) {C}
,Figure 13.2.6
Weld configuration for web
r,:-t_l~
LI
l_
·11-" ·1r-b
-tr
RJ,
(lension)
angles and beam seat,.
Actual R= )(:J2+ ( ~:1

p
3
r
R =-
2L2
V L2 + 36ef force/unit length (13.2.11)
Or, if retums are considered (distance b of Fig. 13.2.6) the expression becomes com-
plicated. The AISC Manua/ Table 10-3, p. 10-47 indicate the returns to be twice the weld
siz.e. The returns have the greatest effect when the angle length L is short. It may be rea-
i
sonable to consider the remms to be Ul2 (2 times in. weld for L = 6 in.).
Using, from Table 5.18.1 (Case 4), S = I /y referred 10 the tension fiber at the top of
the configuration,
S=2 (
4bd + d2 ) (13.2.12)
6
which for d = L and b = L/12 becomes

4L2
S =- (13.2.13)
9
The flexural component, as shown in Fig. 13.2.6, is
M Pe1 Pe1 9Pe, ( IJ.2. 14)

Rx=s= s = 4L2/9= 4L2
. · · d b the re1Urns. they are neglected for the dire.et shear

Since httle of the shear 1s carne Y ·
component, giving
p (13.2.15)
Rv = 2L
1
!___)2 + (9Pe21)
Actual R = ( 2L 4L
(13.2.16)
EXAMPLE 13.2.5
. f Id 011 Fig. 13.2..5 if ~-in. weld b us.:d nnd
d load capactty P,, o we 8 Jx-'
Determine the factore . d . h. Id ·d metal are we lding (SMAW). 4 X. ~
_ ·n E70 electrodes are use . rn_ s h,~ k"'enough to preclude shenr fr11c1ure as the
L - 20 · 1
materl'1I 1s 1 ,e RFD
angles are used. Assume_base1he fill~t weld strength controls. u~e tht' AISC L
controlling limit state; ,.e.•
Method.
Solution:
(a) Best procedure, Eq. 13.2. I 6
tpR,,w = 0.75(0.707)(.Ì)(0.60)70 = 6.96 kips/in.

Actual Ru = P,,2 V L2 + 20.25ef
2L
e1 = 3.00 - x = 3.00 - 0.25 = 2.75 in.
_ 2(2.5)(1.25) .
X = - - - - = 0.25 In.
2(2.5) + 20
P.
Aclual R 11 = _ _u - 2 V(20)2 + 20.25(2.75) 2 == 0.0294P
2(20) u
6.96 .
Pu = -0.0294
- = 237 klps
(b) Neglecting returns entirely, Eq. 13.2.11,
Actual R,, = ~
2(20)-
2
V(20) 2 + 36( 2.75) = 0.0324P
u
6.96 .
P,, == - - = 215 k1ps
0.0324
(e) Using Ref. 13.2 equation, Eq. 13.2.8,
Actual R11 - -2 V ( 20)'- +

= - P,, 12.9e,2
2(20) -
e2 = 4-in. leg
Actual R11 = 0.0308P,,
6.96 .
P,, = O.OJOS = 226 k1ps
The aulhors believe melhod (a) to be appropriate, P,, = 237 kips. I
Note that when the elastic (vector) method is used, the same formulas appl\' for
Allowable Strenglh Design and for Load and Resistance Factor Design. ln ASD, p lhe is
service load connection capacity, R is the service load resultant force per unit length at lhe
most highly stressed weld segment, and the allowable strengù1 is Rie. In LRFD. "i, and R
represent factored loads, and the design strength q,R11 w is used. •
13.3 SEATED BEAM CONNECTIONS-UNSTIFFENED

As an alternative to simple shear connections using web angles. or other attachments iothe
beam web. a be11m may be s upported on a seat. e i1hcr unstiffened or stiffened. In ùiis sec-
tion the unstiffened sene is treated. as shown in Fi g. 13.3. l. The unstiffened seat (an angle)
is shown in Fig. 13.3.1 and is dcsig ned to carry the entire reaCLion. This type of connectioo
must a lways, however. be used with a top clip angle, whosc inte nded functìon is 10 provide
latcral support of the compression fl::mge.
Section 13 3 s
· eated Beam Connections-Unstiffened • 675
, / Top clip aogle, f mio. ohickntss
-,
•1
~~
I /2" rn,min•I
Sea1 aogle
dearnNce
- Angle 1hickness
deoennined by '
ae~ura] !.lress on
See AISC
p. 10-84
for type, A
through F
J Angle log
depends on s!rcngth
requiremt.nts. for bolt!i or weld
criticai sec-1ion
ofb(')]I
,---~
L-.\ J arrangemen1
l---r--.1
\ \
Figure 13.3.1
Seat length. u,uallv
Sea1ed heam conne.ction s---· Seat widoh. govemed by
eilher 6" or 8". de~nding
unstiffened. rtquirtd bearing Jength
upon u,ual gage g
. As with the case of the simple shear angJe connecrion, the ~eated connection is
mtended to transfer only che vertical reaclion and should noi give significailt re.maining
moment on the end of the beam; thus the seat and the top angle should be relatively flexì-
ble. The. behavior of welded seat angle connections has been studied by Lyse and Schreiner
[13.39], Roeder [13.40] Roeder and Dailey [ I 3.41 ], and Caner et al [ 13. I00J.
The thickness of seat angle is determined by the Oexural srrength at a criticai section of
tJ1e angle, as shown in Fig. 13.3.2. lf a bolted connection is u,ed wicboul auachment to the
beam (Fig. I 3.3.2a), the. criticai section should probably be taken as 1he net section through
the upper boli li ne. Wheo the beami, attached to the seat (as it should be) as in Fig. I 3.3.2b.
the rotati on of the beam at tbe end create-s a force that iends to rer.train the poli away from the
column. The criticai section for flexure will then beat or near the base of the fillet on the out-
standing leg. Similarly for the welded seat, the weld completely along the end holds the angle
ri ght against the column, in which case the criticai section i~ as shown in Fig. I 3.3.2c.
whether or not the beam is au.ached 10 the seat. As a practical matter. rarely wiJl the beam be
.left unattached from the seat, so the design procedures of thi, secrion use a cri1ical section as
i
in Figs. 13.3.2b and e, taken at in. from 1he face of the angle.
The bending moments on the criticai section of the angle and on the connection to the
column flange are determined by taking the beam rearnon tunes 1he distances to the criticai
sections. The beam reaction occu.rs al the centroid of the bearing stress di~lribution. a~
~
a-
..
Ì"cri11cal Crolocal
Cntical seclion b s.,c1ion se-c1ìon
{e) Weldcd
Figure 13.3.2 {a) 8oliod-beam (b) Bolled-beam
Criticai sectioo for flexure nor connec1ed conneded
on seais. 10 se.al 10 seat
1-Erection clcarance, 2,.

p 2.5k
N
k
--,,.u
Figure 13.3.3
Bearing stcess assumpcions
far seated connections.
J f.
e,
Criticai secEion
(a) Conserva1ive
assumptìon
section
(l>) AISC &

Ref. 13.23
assumption
(e) Flexible
angle
(d ) Thick suff
angle
shown in Fig. 13.3.3. While the A/SC Specification does not state bow the compu .
. bend'mg moment 1s
th1s . to be made, a conservative
. approacI1 1s. to assume the reactitatton of
center of the full contaci width (Fig. I 3.3.3a). This wi~I lead to excessively thick ~n ~t ~
most cases. Tue less conservative approach of assummg the reaction at the cent g es 1n
required bearing length N measured from the end of the beam (Fig. l 3.3.3b) has ~ of lhe
by Blodgett [13.2] and has been the approach used for AlSC Manua/ tables. Anoth n ~
nal distribution fora flexible seat angle is the triangular distribution of Fie:. 13 3 3er ra!Jo.
the angle is ve~y stiff the ~eaction may _become heavier on _the outer edge, ~ in Fi~. ~· ~d if
3
The design of unsllffened seats mvolves the followmg steps: .3d.
1. Determine the seat width.
2. Determine the moment arms e and ef.
3. Determine the length and thickness of che angle.
4. Determine the supporting angle leg dimension, and the weld size: or the nurn
and placement of bolts. ber
The design of seated beam connections and the background for che AISC load tabi h
.
been rev1ewed by Garrett and Brockenbrough [I 3 .42] an d b Y Brockenbrough [13. es aJ\d ave
431
Carteret al [13.100).
The seat width is determined from the bearing length N required based on ( )
th
locai web yielding lìmit state, as gìven by AISC-J l 0.2. or (b) the web cripplino li111.·ta e
" 1 state
as given by AISC-J 10.3. Locai web yielding usually controls the beari.ng length ·
The AJSC Manual Part 9 presenls a simplified fonn of the uominal s~re~olh
tions for locai web yielding and web crippling at beam ends. The simplìfied ;q equa.
. . . . ua11ons
express the nommal strength tn terms ot design parameters. These parameters ate give f
ali W sections in AJSC Manual Table 9-4. "Beam Design Constants:· n or
Locai Web Yielding-LRFD Method [AISC Formula Gl0-3)).
The required bearing length

Pu
N= - - - 2k
F,,-w11,, (13.3 t)
where P,, = factored load reaction

 = resistance factor = I .O
T,v = we b thickness of snppo1ted beam
Section 13.3 Seated Beam Connections- Unstiffened • 677
F_, w = yie ld :;tre1,~ of web of -upported beam

k = d istance from outer face of nange to web toe of fill et
The requircd be ar ing le ng1h N may not be taken less thao k for bea m e nd rcactio ns .
Generally the seat width sho uld not be less than J in. with AISC Manua/ Table I0-5 ..All-
Bolted Unstiffened Seated Connections," indica1ing a standard 4-in . seat width.
Locai Web Crippling- LRFD Metlwd [AISC Formulas 010-Sa)

and 010-Sb)].
For N /d ~ 0.2,
P,, = </>R,, = <J>0.40lu{l + 3 (:)(:; t5JJE;~~~Jf ( 13.3.2)
Solving for N, using the parameters available (and defined therein) in the AISC Mtmual
Table 9-4.
(13.3,J)
Note that <J> = 0.75 for the locai web crippling limit state in the AISC LRFD Method, For
N/d > 0.2,
P, = </>R,, = <f,0.401 ,}[ l + 3 ( d

4N - 0.2 ) ( '/; ')1.5]V
{EF;;;;
~ (13.3.4)
Solving for N, using the parameters available in the AISC Manual Table 9-4-,
N ~_::_-
Pu - -<f,R5
~
(13.3.5)
<f,R6
where Pn = factored load reaction
<J, = resistance factor = 0.75
tw = web lhickness of supported beam
r = flange thickness of supported beam
1
ryw =
r. yield stress of web of supported beam
E = steel modulus of elasticity (29,000 ksi)
The moment arms e and e1 are obtained as follows, referring to Fig. 13.3.Ja,
ef
. e Iearance +
= erecuon N
2 ( 13.3.6)
3
e= ef - I - (13.3.7)
8
The bending moment on the criticai section of the angle is
Mu = P,,e ( 13.3.8)
The thickness , ofthe angle is obtained by lelling Mu = tf,1,M,,.
Angle Thickness-LRFD Method (AISC-Fl 1.1),

L/1
,t,1,M,. '-' ,t,,,M1, = <J,1,ZP,.' = <f,1,-
4
F,. lLU.9)
when: P,, = fac1oreJ load ruac1io11 IO bc:- carrieJ

cJ;b= resis1ance fac1or for llexure = 0.90
,. = eccenuicily of load to 1hc cri1ical sec1ion on angle. ~uch li., E.q
L = length of seat angle (i.e.• wiJth of r&·1angular se.:·t.ion being ~ 3 1
13
F, = yield s1ress of sea1 angle s1eel lll J
This lengrh of tht!' sea1 angle is generally taken as either 6 in. or 8 in. fora beain .
3 !-in. and s!-in .. respectively. ~e .t ~
The number of bolts. whìch are in cornbined shear and tensìon. is dete .
accordance wich 1he principles of Sec. 4.15. rrnint-0 11,
The weld size and length are obtained using che princìples of Sec. 5 19 .
13.2.16 applicable ro this case: direct shear and bendìng abou1 the x-x ax.is fr;r U:'lh ~
uracion of Fig. 13.2.5 with the retums b "" L/ 12. C<>nftt.
EXAMPLE 13.3.1
Design che sea1 angle to supporta Wl2X40 beam on a 25-fl span. assuming the beam
adeguate lateral suppor!. Use A36 steel and Load and Resistance Factor Design. ~
Solution:
In many cases it will be wise practìce to design the seal for the maximum reac,·
· •on 1>.·"-
1he beam is fully loaded in flexure. •q
(a) Determinc the seat width, length. and thickness. TI1e flexural strength Ì\
c/>bM,. = c/>bMp = <PbZ,Fy = 0.90(57.5)36/ 12 = 155 ft -kips
= w,,L = 8</JbMn = 8( 155) = 24.8 ki s

P,, 2 2L 2(25) p
Bearing length N required based on locai web yiclding. Eq. 13.3.l. is
P,, - <f>R1
N ~ -- --
</>R2
R1 = 2.5k1;F,wtw = 2.5( 1.25)(50)0.295 = 46.1 kips
R2 = f;-wtw = 50(0.295) = 14.75 kips/ in

24.8 - 0.90( 46.1) .
N :2: - - -- - - - = negatJve
0.90( 14.75) ~
A minimum hearing length musi be use.d . Following AISC .Manual. Table 1~5. ",\Il
Bolted Unstiffened Seatecl Connectfrms,'' suggestion. use 4-in. seat ( i.e .. angle le,•) .. ,:..._,·
._ e• ;""U,:,'-"IU
ing to ~IS_C-J I 0.2. N. ',i: k. Wit.h a 4_-in. anglc leg. N -~'ì_ll exceed k ti.e.: 1.25 in.).('~
web cnpphng Nrcq agamst actual N us1ng a clcarnnce ot ~-m. to allow possitilt> mili unJc.nin.
N =4 - 0.75 = 3.25 in.

N 3.25 . C....
Compulc -
d
= -- - = 0.27 > ).
Il. 4
.1. . use Eq. 13.3.3
9
S. ·, ·n :.~ 3 Seated Beam Connections- Unstiffened • 679
R= 0401 ;,J( J - 02(:.w)1.s)~lE~ tf 1

J
li \ f ~\ fw
f
li
== 0.40(0.295)2"( 1 _ 0.2(0.295)1.5)\l
0.515 0\ 29,000(50)0.515 _
0.295
_
- 50.6 k1p.s
R4 = 0.401}/-~)('w)I.S
\ d lj
J EF;-wtf
lw
4 0 295 29,000(50)0.515
= 0.40(0.295) 2 ( ~-)( ·
11.94 0.515
)1.5 0.295
= 8.04 kips/in
N 24.8 - 0.75(50.6)
2 = negative
0.75(8.04)
. ·. 4 in outstanding leg is OK.
As expected, web crippling doe.s not control. Following the usual pracrice N = k ,·s . d
ior de te rmmmg
· ·
angle thickness,
use
1.25 3
+
ef = - -
2 4= l.375 in.
Trying 1 = ½in.,
e = e1 - f - J = 1.375 - 0.50 - 0.375 = 0.50 in.
Si~ce the usual gage g = s½

in. (A/SC Manual p. 1-24) for Wl2X40, use angle length of
8 m. The angle thickness required is then, by Eq. 13.3.9,
, 4P. e 4(24.8)0.50
,- = _ _u _ = - - - - = 0.19 in.; , = 0.44 in.
<PbF,.L 0.90(36)8
U se seac angle, ½in. thìck and 8 in. long.

(b) Determjne bolted connection lo column, using lin.-diam A325 bolts in a bearing-
type connection with no threads in the shear piane.
<f>Rn = 19.9 kips (single shear) (AISC Ma11ual, Table 7-1)

<f>R == 39. t kips (bearing on ½-in.-thick angle) (AISC Ma,wal, TaMe 7-5)
11
<f>R,, = 29.8 kips (tension) (AISC M111111al, Table 7-2)
Using Eq. 4 . 12.29, obtain a rou~h es_timare of lhe number of bolts per ve11ical fine for two
vertical rows of fasteners at a 3-m. p1tch.
6(24.8)
_ _ __ 1..18 ,,. 1.3
19.9(3)2
Try bolls (i.e., 11 == t J as shown in Fig. 1.Ll"'- The direcr 1-hear 1:omponent i!I.
2
48
R
,,
a: P., = ~ •
,, 2
= t:?.4 kip~ < 19.Q kip~ OK
1
--L.4x3 ¾xo·--s·
A/ ~774~- _ _
/
LA >:4:<.l ,:o·
4 -4·
AJ25
bohs
3"
4 r~turn
L.4X3 J_x_!_ XQ'-8"

2 2
(b) Welded seat

(a) Bolted sea,
Figure 13_3-4
Designs for Example I 3.3.1.
Since the bolts lie on the center of gravity, no momenc of inertia can be e
using :ry2 . However, since initial tension exists, the initial compression, accirrnr>ut~
E q. 4 . 15 . I , 1S
. ding to
rr,., 2(28) _ .
fb; = bd = g(J) - 2.33 ks1
The change in stress due to moment, Eq. 4. 15. 2, is
6M 6Pe 6(24.8/1-5)1.38
1.9 hi
fN, = bd2 = bd2 = 8(3) 2
Since 1.9 < 2.33, the inicial precompressìon is not eliminated and the connection
considered safe. The factored load reaction P,1 = 24.8 kips was divided by an can be
overload factor of 1.5 to approximate service load. Under full factored load the 1- -~verage
. . . - ~~
s1011 would be overcome at the top of the angle: however, compress1on wou\d ev· -
. . ,..1s1 at the
toes of the angles and the tension would be camed m the bolts. The initial 1 .
approach seems justified for this case. ens,oo
Use 2 bolts, with seat angle, L4X3x½x0'- 8''.
(e) Determine welded connection lo column, using Eq. l 3.2.16. with E70 ele
. . Clrodes
w1th sh1elded metal are welding:
= 2I - 16 = 16 111.
I 7 ·
Max weld size
Min weld size = AISC-Table 12.4 based on thickest materiai beingjoìned.
Try L = 4-in. supported leg:
R,, -_ -.,
Pi, vL 2
+ 20.25e12 [ IJ.~.16]
2L-
Sectio" 13.4 Stiffe"ed Seat Connections • 681
R _ 24.8 VC4\2
u - 2(4}2 (4 ) 2 ~is-(i .38)2 = 5.72 kips/ in .
<l>R,.,o = <l>(O 707 )
Base met · a (0.60FExx) = 0 .7S(0.707u)42.0 = 22.3a
1
a shear fracture doe
s not contro! on ~-in. angles.
Weld size _ 5.72 . ~ .

A a - 22 3 = 0.26 m.. ,;ay ft io.
more couservative a .,
of the seat (Fig. 13.3 3 Proa~h is to measure e I \O the cemcr of the contaci bearing width
seats g ives · a · Th,s traditioMI AISC method for tables giving, weld capacit y for
e1 ~ N + ~ = 3.5 - 0.75 _ .
2 4 + 0.75 - 2.13 m .
2
which upon substitution .
(for ~ in. weld) g· mto Eq. \ 3.2. 16 wìth cf,R,.w = 22.3a = 22.3(0.3125) = 6 .96 kips/ in.
, ives a fact dl
ore oad capacity of
P. -
u -
cf>R,,w(2L2)
~=
L + 20.25e}
~-===========
Y(4)2+
6 .96(2){4)2
=
20.25(2.13)2
.
21.5 k1ps
The weld size requircd would then be
Required a = 1,I<> ( 24\.S)

-~\ .. ~ ·in.
_- 0.36 .m ., say
2 8
Use L4X3½x.!. xo'-S" . 3.

must be "blocked" or ::::_it~,s m. we\d. Sìncc the W12X40 flange width is 8 i.n., the beam
sary welcti· , be Ut to have a rcduced flange wi<.lth over the seat so that the neccs-
.
The fi . d .
ng can do ·r o.
ne, or 1 the column flange permits, the seat may be \ongec than ° in.
1
ma es1gns are shown in Fig. J3.3.4. •
sTIFFENED SEAT CONNECTIONS

When
. reactions become h eav1er
· th an desirable
. ..
for unsti.ffened . -
seats, sufteners may , be u.,ed 0
w1th the seat angle m· b Ol ted construct1on

. .
or a T-shaped st1ffened seat may e use b · d ·111
welded conSlruc~ion. The unstiffened seat' may become excessive\y thick when th e fac-
tore~ beam reactton exceeds about 60 kips. There are no AlSC rcstrictions, however. to the
maximum load that may be carried by unstiffened seats.
T~e Sliffened seat as discussed herein is not intended to be part of a moment resiSùng
connection, but rather it is only to support vertica\ \oads. Here the stiffened seat is treated as
"simple framing." Behavior ofwelded brackets has been studied by Jensen l\3.441-
There are two basic types of loading used on stiffened seats; the common one wh e~e
the reaction is carried with the beam web direct\y in line wìth the stiffener, as sh own m
Fig. 13.4.1; the other is with a beam orìented so the l)lane of the web is at 90 degree~ to
the plane of the stiffener, as in Fìg. 13.4.2. Furthermore, a difference in behavior ans~s
d epending on the angle at which the sti.ffener i.s cut, as sh own in Fi.g. \ 3.4.3. lf the ang, e
0 is approximately 90 degrees, the stiffener behaves simi\ar\y to an unstiffened e\elnen
4
under unifonn compression, and locai buck\ing may be prevented by satisfying AlSC-~
. t'f · t behtWlO
When the supporting plate is cut to create a triangular bracket p\ate a d I eien '
result s, and this case is discussed in Sec. 13.5.
T"I' ongles mu•t be used.

a> in Fig. 13.3.4.
...
'
.!.
4 2
Contact
bcaring lcngth
f dea~e
0.ll O.2L Il
o o 3• spa
3• L
o o
8 ftller
Figure 13.4.1
Stiffened seat-beam web in (bi Wcldcd
(al 8ohed
lioe wich stiffener.
1• min. clcarance
4
p
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
/
/
Figure 13.4.2 I
Bracket supporting concen-

trated load.
Fìgure 13.4.3
Two cases of inclinati on
angle at fre(! endge of - w-
stiffener. (a} (b)
The steps in the design of s1iffened sea1s are as follows:

l. Detennine the seat width.
2. Determine the eccentricity e5 of load.
3. Detennine the stiffener Lhick:ness t 5 •
4. Determine the angle sizes and a.rrangement of bolts: or the weld siz.e and 1
Cllgtb.
The seat width is based on the required bearing length N (1) to prevent locai ,
yielding, according to AISC-J 10.2, Eqs. 13.3. l or l3.3.2; and (2) to prevent web crirw~eb
nntng.
-
Section 13.4 Stiffened Seat Connections • 683
accordi11g to AISC-J I
03
· · Eqs. 13.3.3 through 13.3.S. Because of lhe rigidity of the stiff-
s1de asthe
e_ner.
1·r
most highly stressed po . . . .
was for the u 11 . nion 1s at the edge of the s.ea1 rather than at lhc m1enor
. "ror Stiffened
•
sea,sShffen
t ed seat (see Fig. 13.4.4).
nections," and TabJe l()~gh~ A/Se Manu"/· Tablc 10--7, ··AU-Bohcd S1iffcned Sea1e<l Con-
•num factored load reac . ' Boltcd/Welded Stiffened Seated Connections," contain maxi-
outstand· 1 hons (i e d · . .
ing egs o{ 31 4 nd ·. ·· es1gn strength) for bolted connecllon st1ffener ang1e
Assuming the b~ 'a 5 111 • and wclded seat widths of 4 to 9 in.
ener thickness z, shouldam ~eacrion P is locaced at N/2 from 1he edge of 1he seal, the stiff-
l . sattsfy ",,evera1crnena:
. .
. Shffener thick
supponed bearn Web, ness '"' shouJd be equa! to or greater than the thickness 1,,, of the
2 1., ~ lw (13.4.l)
. Locai buckting of the .
and AISC-JJ0.8, Sllffener must be prevented in accordance with AlSC-B 4
where W - ·ct h
,, "" [056~ ~ 95/~.ks,] (\3.4. 2)
3 ~ W1 t of stiffener,
. Beanng on the
ers, it is assumed that ! . contact area of stiffener must satisfy AISC-J7. For anRlc stìffen-
·,n I u rtn. of lhe an I 1· . .
.. g e. nder the AISC LR g e s cut off tn arder to get dose beanng under the seat
FD Method (et, == 0.75),
ts ~ ~
</>(l.8Fy)2(W ~ (far angle stiffeners) (13.4.3)
A structural tee might b .
5
lor of Eq. 13.4.3 wo lde used •n lead of two angles; in which case the 2 in the denomina-
respect to cemer of b . u no1 be u d E
se · q. 13.4.3 assumes no eccenlricity of \oad ·w1t ·h
4 F _eanng contact length ass111ned.
. or eccentnc loadin .
satisfied. In thìs 8 -1 . g_on Sltffener, bearing strength according to AlSC-J7 must be
1 uation a sin 1 \ .
bearing stress at th ' g e we <led plate stiffener is generally used. Tue h1ghest
e outer edge Of h - d
load. Using comb· d t e st1ffener may not ex.ceed et,( l.8Fv) under factore
me stress (see Fig. l3.4.4), ·
fii==!,_ + M == P,,(e_. - W/2) P,,

A S tsW2/ 6 = t.W2 (6es - 2W) (13.4.4)
Pu(6e., - 2W)
t., ~ - - - -- ..:..
<P( l.8Fv)W2 ( for welded stiffener) (13.4.5)
N + 2.5k
-w- 1
k
""'1t !3_4.4 .
rt-:- 1oad dis1ribut1on on
::iseats.
5. Plute thickncss must be adequate to develop the fillet welds u~ed 1O .

according to AISC-J2.4. The concept of maximum effective weld size was d ìlllach 11.
. . . . . evcJo"-d
Sec. 5.14, g1vmg Eqs. 5.14.8 and 5.14.9 relatmg weld s1ze to base materiai thic'· ....., in
"ne~~-
Since the net shear area for the base materiai is equaJ to the gross shear area lh
inal strength is governed by shear yielding for both A36 and A992. Thus, from e llotri. ~h
"""I· S.J4is
0.60Fy11 F1 r1 '
amax eff = = 0.943- ·- [5
2(0.75)(0.707)0.60hx.x FExx -14Jq
where r1 = thickness of base materiai(= r., here)

Fu = tensile streaglh ofbase materiai
FExx = tensile strength of electrode materiai (70 ksi for E70 electrodes)
Assuming two lines of fillet weld of size a using E70 electrodes, the stiffener lhick
requìred such that the stiffener plate will not be overloaded in shear is, from Eq 5 ness '•
· ·14.8,
rs ~ 2.06a (for A36 steel)
03.4.61
,., ;:::: 1.49a ( for A992 steel)
(13.4.7I
Once the sriffener dimensions have been established, the connection must be d .
· es,gneò
to transmit the reaction at the moment arrn es· For the bolted connection, AISC M
Table l O-7, "All-Bolted Stiffened Seated Connections," uses onJy direct shear in det~O:~ ·
fastener group capacities. One may reason, as in Example 13.3. l, thal as long as initial tng
pression between the pieces in contact is not reduced to zero due to flex:ure, the moment ~::
ponent need not be considered.
For the welded connection suggested by tlle AJSC Manual, p. 10-92, as sho\\ .
Fig. 13.4.1 b, the weld configuration is subject to direct shear and flex.ure usino th• n in
. . . e e com.
bmed stress at the top of the weld as the cnt1cal one. Thus, the configuration is identic 1
10
that used for web framing angles (see Fig. 13.2. ld) except the retum is Jonoer
e · ·Sino
ua·
d = L and b = 0.2L in the S values for Case 4 from Table 5.18. t gives >
L2 L2 l
y=
2(L + b) 2( l.2L) 2.4
2(4bL+L2 ) 4(0.2L)L + L2
s X =
6
= 3
= 0.6L1
Then,
M Pe,
R = - = - -·-2 force/ unit length....,
x Sx 0.6L
Rv = - --p -- = - p - I .
force u,ut len!!tb ,1,
I
2( L + 0.2L) 2.4L ~
R = \J
f( Pe )
0.6{2
2
(
+ 2.4L
p )~
R P v 16e':~ +
= ·-·--- L2 force/ m1it length
2
2.4L s
Equa!ion 13 .4.13 is used for obtaining loads for welded stiffened beam sea1s in AISC
Manual, Table I 0-8, "Bolted/Welded Stiffened Seated Connections." when es is taken .t,
0.8W. For the AlSC LRFD Metbod, R is the design strength 4>R""' and P is the fill:tl~
load reaction Pu ·
Sectioi, 13.4 Stiffened Seat Coi,i,ectioi,s • 685
pi.E 13.4.1
Design a Welded "ff

p - su ened s . I 10 .
" - 160 k.ips. Use A9 9 ea. suppon a W30X99 beam having a fac1ored load reacuon
2 stcel a d Lo - -
Solufìon: n ad and Res1s1ance Factor Design.
T~e be~ìng length N re ui . . . .
phng cnteria. From loc q red is obta1ned from (a) locai web yieldmg and (b) web cnp-
al Web yielding (AISC-J 10.2),
= l.O
25
Ri "" - kF},u)w = 2.5( I ; }50)(0.520) = 93.4 k.ips
6
.R2 = F
,.,.r"' = 50(0.520) = 26.0 kips/in
N ?:: ~_ 160 - l.0(93.4) _
</>R2 - l.0(26.0) = 2 ·6 m.
From the web cripplin cri .
g tenon (AISC-J 10.3), assuming N / d :;; 0 .2 use Eq. l 3.3.3,
<J> == 0.7s
2
R3 -- O.40t,,, \j ~ ~ = 0.4(0.S2) ~
29,000(S0 0.67O = 2
)
_ k.ips
1 147 8
w 0.S20
R4 == 0.40r1{ ~) (': }\/~

1
5
== 0.40(0.52)2(-2_)(~)1. /29,000(50)0.670 = 10 _2 kips/in.
29.65 0.67 \J 0.520
N ~~ _ 160 - 0.75(147.8)
</JR4 - 0.75(l0.2) = 6 .42 in. Controls
th 65
Wi N == - in., N / d = 6.5/29.65
be used lo determine the N Th = 0.22 > 0 .2. Tb.is means Eq. 13 .3.4a muSl
reqd· . US,
Rs ~ 0401~~1 -02(',~)"~~
== 0.40(0.52)i\/(1 _ 0.2 (0.520)1.s~ /29,000(50)0.670 = 127.6 kips
~ 0,67 Jj\ 0.520
R6 = 0.4o~(~)(tw)1.s ~-E_Fy_wt_f
d tf lw
= 0.40(0.52)2(_4_)(0.520)1.S 29,000(50)0.670 = 13 _6 kìps/in.

29.65 0.67 0.520
Pu - <l>Rs 160- 0.75( 127.6)
N ~ </>R6 = 0.75(13.6) = 6.30 in. ... N = 6.5 in. ìs adequate
Required W = 6.5 + 0.5(setback) = 7.0 in. Use 7 in.

For the seat plaLe Lhickness, use a thickness comparable to the flange of the
-1-
i
supported beam; use in. Mjnìmum weld size for welding on ~-in. seat and O67 '.W3<J,,~
-~~
lS In. . ''<lllgc
4
The stiffener thickness is next to be established:
Ts 2: lw = 0.520 in.
(l3-4_J}
W 7 .
2
,, 2: 9 5 / ~ = 13.4 = 0.5 m. [13.4.2]
N 6.5 .
e, = W - - = 7.0 - - = 3.8 m.
2 2
P,,(6e, - 2W) 160(22.5 - 14)
1 = 0.41 in.
' 2: <f>(l.8Fy)W 2 0.75(90)(7)2 113.4.6]
The use of a ~-in. stiffener plate would mean a maximum effective weld size of
t, 2: 1.49a
t, 0.625 .
Dmax eff = - - = - - = 0.42 m.
1.49 1.49 Il 3A.9j
Thus, weld siz~ is not of concern s.ince a weld ~maller than 0.42 in. would be preferred
erally, the maXJmum weld that can be placed m one pass would be used; in this e · <jc_n.
1
_ For estimating the length L of weld required,_ as~ume thai e, in Eq. 13.4_ 13 i~'Ì6 n.
1mately LJ4; i.e., that e., = 0.8W = 0.8(7) = 5.6 m. LS roughly U4. PPtoA-
R = - p- I (L
,116 - ) + L·,
2.4L2 V 16
2
P
= 0.59-
L
For LRFD, R becomes <f>R,,w and using .Ì-in. E70 weld.
</JR,,w = </J(0.707a)(0.60hxx)
Use top angle

UX4Xl_ X 0'-4"
8
2.. -in. weld on 1oes
WJOX99 16
1 2
4
5
16
_2_
8
l-1·
Figure 13.4.5
Design for Exampie 13 .4.1 . 1- -· 7"-
- --- - - - - - - - - - - - -
Section 13.S Triangu
. 1ar 8 r acket Plates • 687
<1>R.,.,. "° 0.75(0.707)(½,)(0.60)70 = 6 -96 kip~/in.

0.59( 160)
Required L "" -- - - = l'.\.6 in.
6.96
~
14
F °'
L m.,
- . . 0.4L, which when us,d ",,f L .'"Eq. I ·'.\.4.13
5.6 m." , . gives
. Idrequircd
L "" 18 in. The answer lies between 14 and 18 in. Try /, = 16 in. wilh ·u;-10. we .
R,. "" .~O 6 5.6 )2 +(

2.4(16)2 ~ ( 16 )2 = 7.2 kips/in. > 6.96 kips/in. NG
5
The length / - 16. · · · but 18 in. may e,- ..
~"'-"-=
- - in. 1s no1 adeguate; one could use 17 m.
18 in. Us, «iffone, plaoe, !x?x I' ·6";, nd
'Ih, S<at 4pi,.., Wod<h "l•aìiii« ~ h (10.45 in.) plus , nuugh '".""F,;' 13.4.5.
(approx. tirnes the Welct size is often use<l). The final design 1,; shown m •
se•~r·:~
b~X7X I' -O -
nreferred.
<he wo\ds
•
0
;.5 TRIANGULAR BRACKET PLATES
b h
When <he1 '""'""
. fo, a b,,ck« is cu, in,o a ~iangufat sh,pc," .m F'•·. l3 ·4.3b,
. ofthe applied
platc
I d 1
e aves ·n a d'ff
t erent manner than whcn thc free edge 1s
. paraIle1 to the d1reclion
. lar brackct
o a ·n t h e reg1on
· Where the greatest stress occurs, as 1n
. Fig.
· I-,->.4 ·•5 • The tnangu
Th b h
plate >rrangemen, and nota,ion a,, shown in Fig. 13.5.1. · • lly by Sa\mon
e e ov,o,. of <àangu\a,
. bucket pla<cs hos boe~ "".d'" d analyt1ca Mi] and design •••·
( 13 .45] aod oxp«,me"tal!y hy SaJmon, Bo«1n«, and O Shend,m .1 13 . · d '"" , suppon
b
gest1ons have been proposed by 'Beed\e et al. [ 13.471. For small sti~ene P_ f tinto atri-
0
eam reactions
angular shape. there .ts htlle danger of bucklmg
. or fa1\ure
. . .. 0f the snffener l cu
Most Exact Analysis and Design Recommendations
For many years, design of such brackets was either empmca\

. . fil o f edge.
d' nona\
wi. thout bene theoryThe
or
,esu;, o, whe" m
. doubt, angJe o, plate SJiffenm we« used along. the iaelhe top plate .os
.. (I)
,ecommenda<ions p,e«n1ed here .,., basc<l o" cenain assumploon~ , nemsoorily uni·
solidly attached Io the suppon; (2) the load P is dist<iboied (<ho•g. " : (3) the ratio b!a,
formly) and has its centroid at approximate\y 0.6b from the support, an
loaded edge to supported edge, hes between O.SO and 2.0. . b kli'ng· however, the
Tue originai theoretica\ analysis was concerned wit· h elast1c .d
uc ble· post-buck\mg
·
experimental work showed that tnangular bracket p ates
. l· have cons1 era
Top platc
\
\
' Loaded ed ge
a
Free edge
Supponed edge
1 \ _ h ---...
13.5- cket plate.
gular bra
strength. Yielding along the free edge frequently occurs prior lo buckling. at which .
tribulion of stresses occurs. A considerable margin of safety against collapse w J>oìni rtdt,,.
indicating the ultimate capacity may be expected to be al least 1.6 time~ the buckJ·a.~ S
The maximum stress was found to occur al the free edgc; however ~ g loiid.
complex nature of the stress distribution. the stress on thc free edge is noi oba~~ Of tbc
any simple process. Because of this difficulcy, a ratio z was established betwa tainab1e b.,
~en lhc .
age stress, Plbz, on the loaded edge to the maximum stress fmu on the free cdge 1nc ~1·er.
inal theoretical expression 113.45] for z was revised as a result of the tes1s [ 13 O!it .%
conformed closely IO what one could realistically expect in practice. The rei . l, %it11
given [13.461 as auonship ;~
2
z = P/ br =
/max
1.39 - 2.2(!?.)
a
+ 1.21(!?.)
a
0.25(1!_)
a
-
3
03.S.Jj
which for practical purposes may be obtained from Fig. 13.5.2.
The nominai strength Pn when the free edge reaches the yield stress is
P,, = F;,zbt
03-s.2J
For the plate buckling limit state. the width/thickness ratio bit musi be re .
StnCle(!.
accordance with a relationship of the type of Eq. 6.16.4. •n
b constant
- -:s::
~- 0 3.5_3,
Figure 13.5.3 gives the variation in (b/t) VFy with b/a for the theoreticat stu.
( 13.45) (fixed and simply supported), the welded bracket tests result [13.46]. and the die\
suggesteddesign. curve. Tue d" .
es1gn requrrement may be expressed(. wnh F), in ksi) as<lU\hon
For 0.5 ~
b
- ::s I.O: !?_ ::;; 1.47 /f: = 250
a t \ F), ~
b 250(b/ a)
For 1.0 ::;; - ::;; 2.0;
a
~ ( 13.5.4bJ
0.30
l ~] 1 = ihickoe.ss
L,-
O. IO
Range of reconunended use
Figure 13.5.2
Coefficient used to obtain o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
maximum stress on free edge. /J/a
Section 13.5 Triangular Bracket Plates • 689
80() -
500
k
'> 40()
-<SJ ,
__,,.
-
30()
__ ,,.
200 - ,,
,--<. . ., "-
... - - - - -
-- , ''.,. Simply supponed cdges
(thcor~)
IO() -
1
hg~re i}~1ues so that
criuca1 's reached along
ield suesfsee• edge without
. ()llal r 0.5
~,a.!l I.O 1.5
cldillg· 2 .0
hla
Satisfying the above li - ·\ · r

b . mits means that yielding a\ong the dia<>onalfree edge w1\ occuqmo
to uckhng and w·th 1 - "' F. 13 5 3
Th th ' th conservatism compared to the we\ded tests as shown by ig. · · ·
her: ~u th ors note at the conversion of formulas into a non-di;ensional format \not juSl
th
~t _ roughout e AISC Specifìcation) has resulted in implied accuracy far in ex.cess of
the 7~ng'.n~
th 18 derivations or recommendations. Eqs. 13.5.4 have the ridiculous coefflci~nt
l .4 ' isn a_backward derivation from the originai approximate 250 coefficient. DeSlgn
recomme
ground work. ctations Srrived to be simple and within the scope of the accuracy of the back-
. lt is noted that theb/tlimits suggested here are higher than those ofRef. \3.47 (p. 552),
wh_1ch were based solely on the theoretical studi.e s (1 3.45]. Reference l 3.47 suggeSlS a coef-
18
~c,~nt of 0 ioSlead of 250 in Eq. 13.S.4 and reaches a maximum of 300 instead ~f SOO as
md,cated by Eq. l 3.S.4b for b/ a = 2.0. The reason for the higher values is found 10 th~ teSl
results whìch showed the principal stress along the diagonal free edge to be lower relative to
str
tbe ess on the loaded edge than had been established by the theoretica\ SlUdy. ln olh er
words, the z value, Eq. 13.5. l , as detennined by tests is substantial\y smaller th an asSumed
for the design suggestion of Ref I 3.46.
Plastic Strength of Bracket Plates
Reference 13 .47 suggests that to develop the full plastic strength of brack~ts the bit
sbould be restricted lo about \ of those limitations for achieving first yield on the. 1
rat
edge. The test results [13.461 ìndicated that ultimate strengths of at leaSl 1.6 tm
j = proportion of criticai
~c-crion in ,nmpression
,u plas1ic strenglh
Figure 13.5.4
Plastic strenglh analysis.
L---"---
buckling strengths could be achieved due to post-buckling strength. To be e .
developing the plastic capacity of the bracket, it may be reulistic to use half of hellain of
1 1
tions of Eqs. 13.5.4a and b. e .unita.
To establish the plastic strength of a bracket pi ate used in rìgid-frame stru
may follow the approach of Beedle et al. [ 13.47) 3S shown in Fig. 13.5.4 T~_tures. Ollt
assumes that plastic strengtb devclops on the criticai section. Taking force e~uili~s-niethOd
alle! to the free edge and moment equilibrium about point O gìves the Beedle et ~·u~Par.
equation for the ultimate load. a - l l.i 47J
P,, = 1'~.t sin 2a( V4c2 + b2 - 2e)

03.s.51
In addition to the triangular plate being adequate, the top plate musi carrv the
nal load P,, cot a. · nofl\i.
EXAMPLE 13.5.1
Determjne the tbìckness required fora triangular bracket plate 25 in . by 20 in. 10 e .

t~red load of 60 kips. Assume ù~e l?ad is located 15 in. from t_he face of suppon a :
0
:.f;ic.
F1g. 13.5.5, and thai A36 materiai 1s used. Use Load and Re.~1Mance Factor Design. n in
Solution:
(a) Use the more exact method. Since the load is appro>-imatelv at the o6 po·
' · · intal
the loaded edge, ù1e bracket fits the assumption of this method. Using Eq. 13 .5.2, ong
P,, = F,.zbt
ll 3.s.21
-b sin-}= 6.2"
Figure 13.5.5
Bracket for Example 13.5.1.
Section 13 6 .
· Cont1nuous Beam-to-Column Connections • 691
Since this is
P.,. lt m a compression . .
b/ 0 _ ay be reasonabt snuauon. the design s1rength 4,P. should be equated to
-
2 S/3() == 1.25 fi de to use the for comprcssion: 4,,. = 0.85. From Fig. 13.5.2.
• in z = O· 135- Then thc Mrength rcquirement gives
P., ,., <t,p
e "
-o.8SFY zbr = 60 kips
-
1~-L_ 60 .
cl>cF>. zb - 0.85(36)(0.135)25 = 0 ·58 m.
Ìbe stability r .
equ,rement Eq 13 5 4b .
· · . - . g1ves
1 ~ b~ . 25V36
s.1 2SO(b/a) = 250(l.i5) = 0.48in.
V se i\- ~ate.
(b) Plastic stren lb m -

g ethod. Usmg Eq. 13.5.5 for the strcngth requiTement,
r ="' P"
cbFy sin
2
o-l V 4e2 + b2 - 2e Ì
Using e=
lS - 25/2 = 2 .s -in.,
t ~- 60
0.85(36)(0.39)(Y4(2.5)2 + (25)2 - 2(2.S)Ì = 0.25in.
For stability u ·
, s tng one-half of Eq. 13.5.4b
b~ 2SV36
I ~ 12S{b/a) = 125(1.25) = 0.96 in.
Use 1-in. pia~ as a . .
alon th fr conservative practice to assure deformation wel\ beyond first yie\d
g e ee edge.
l · The authors note that 1'f a 1-m.
· plate is just stable enough to inhibit bucklmg · unti·1 the
th
p astic STreng is obtained, that strength would be ·4 times ( l..0/0.25) the facll)red load P,. · •
coNTINUOUS BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS

In continuous ?eam-to-column connections, it is the design intent to have fuH t.ransfer of
mome~t a nd httle or no relative rotation of members within the joint li.e., AlSC-Fu\\y
Restramed Moment Connectìons (FR)-rigid-frame connections). Since the fl anges 0 ~ a
beam carry mo st of the bending moment via tension and compression flange forces actmg
~t a mo~ ent arm approximately equal to the beam depth, it is the transfer of.these_esse_n-
tially ax.ial forces for which provision must be made. Since the shear is camed pnmanly
by the web of a beam, full continuity requires that it be transferred directly from the we~-
Columns being rigidly framed by beams may have attachments to both flanges. as m
Fig. 13.6. la, b, and e, orto only one flange, as in Fig. 13.6.ld, and in Fig. 13.6.2. Al_tern_a-
tively, the rigid attachment of beams may be to the web, from either or both sides. as m F\g.
13.6 .3. When the rigid system has rigid attachments either to the f\an ges or the web (but
not to both) the system is said to be a two-way, or planar, rigid frame. When the rigid frame
(a) No column sliffeners: (b) Horizontal plalc

direc, llang• 10 nange s1iffcners
groove weld:':
f ===iBBf ===+
Figure 13.6. l Angle or

breckel
Continuous beam-lo-co lumn
connections: welded (e) Vertkal 1ee (d ) Seat aod 1op piote
auaehment IO coluu111 flange. 5tiffener$
(a) Top and bottom pla1es ( b ) Top pla1c and scat

.
Il
Figure 13.6.2
Continuous heam -to -column
+
I
O II
~,
1'
'
o
O
conncct ions: bolted (e) Spli t tees. wilh o r (d) We lded end platcs
a11achmcnts. without web anglcs
S ectio n 13 6
· Continu ous Beam-to-Column Connections • 693
""
:~
,,.--F=:::::::::::i
"IlIl 'II
":~F::::::==:J
' (a) Top plateH nd «•t
Il , bracket
,,
't'
(b) T op >.nd bottom plates.

web plaic; and seat p!a,e
T-se,:1ion
]3.6.3
f igu~e us beam-w-column
conunu~ . welded attach-
conn
ecuons.
oJumn web.
Bacl,-up -
plate
I
----i,._.......u
(e) Tee scction with
flange back-up platcs
and small web platc~
J11entt0 e
system consists of - · ·1
.
both s1des), · contmuous connections to both flange (or flanges) and web (e ll ,er or
the systein b . f
. ecomes a three-d1mensional system ca\led a space rame.
The vanety of arrangements for a contmuous . · 1
beam-to-co\umn connection . · orea1
· s so o
as to preclude any e l 1- - · F. 13 6 l
13 6 2 nd 13 6 omp ete istmg or i\lustratìon; however. those shown 111 1gs. - · · •
. · · •a - -3 are believed to be common in current (2008) design use. MoSl connec-
ti~ns a:e partly shop welded and then completed in the field by either welding or faSlening
w1th h1gh-strength bolts.
The principal design concem il'> with transmission of concentrated \oads caused by
flange forces on beams to the adjacent columns. The web of a column may be unable to
accept the compression force from a bearn flange without additional stiffening; the t1ange of
a column may exhibit excessive deformation caused by a tension force from a beam flang~.
Rigìd framing is used to greatest advantage in (a) structures dei;igned nsing plasuc
analysis under the AISC Load and Resistance Factor Method (AlSC-B3. \ ), or (b) strnc-
tures designed using elastic analysis where the sections are "compact" and the 10% red~c-
tion is permitted under A[SC-Appendix \. [n these cases, the objec1ive of the connection
will be to develop the full plastic moment strength at the joint, and in addition, be able 10
unde rgo plastic hinge rotation. .. .
Many researchers {7.28, 13.48- 13.591 have adequately demonstrated the abil!ty_ ot
beam-to-column rigid frame connections to develop the plastic moment. as wel\ as exh tbn
- • ' ' • • '~ I \, ~\ • • - ., :. •• •' ' I JI ",

adequate rotalion capacity (ductility). A summary of bolted bearn-to-column .

is given by Kulak. Fisher. and Struik (3.1 J. co111\ect_i0 n
1
Horizontal Stiffener in Compression Region of Connection

When the forces in beam flanges are rransmitted to column tlanges as compressio
forces, horizontal stiffeners, as in Figs. 13.6.1 band d and Fig. I 3.6.2a, may be~ n ~ len,i<Jn
stiffeners prevent locai flange bending (AISC-J IO. I) from the rension force, loca]C{JuirCd. Sllch
(AISC-J 10.2), web c1ìppling (AISC-J I 0.3), and compression buckl_ìng (AlSC-J JO;~ Y•eldin@
the compression force. Locai web yielding and web crippling were treated in Sec.· /;aul>ed by
Locai Web Yielding.
AISC treatment of this phenomenon i.~ based on work of Graham, Sherbourn

and Jensen [7.28]. e, Khabbai
Consider a beam compression flange bearing against a column as in Fi '
When the maximum locai yielding strength of rhe column web is reached th g. 13.6.4._
10
have been distributed along t~e ba~e of the fillet (k from rhe fa~e of the flan,ge)\ ad \\•i!Ì
slope. Usmg Eq. 7.8.2 for an mtenor concentrated load accordmg to AISC anct n ~ 1:2.s
bearing length N as the beam flange thickness ti and the reacrion R or "-R . Lakmg the
r · '+' ,.a,the11
,orce Pbf g1ves (for the AISC LRFD Method) atlge
Pbf == t/>(Sk + 1f!,)F_,.,,,Jwc
U3.6 I
where Pbf = design strength of che column web to resista beam flange tran- . · l
force under factored loads smitted
</> = resistance factor = I.O
F.,,w "" yield stress of t.he coluom web
lwc = column web thickness
tfl, = beam compression flange thickness
The required Pbf could be as high as F,-bAJ when the beam is expected to de,·e1o .
tic moment strength . P tts Pla.s.
Web Crippling.
ln accordance with Eq. 7.8.8. using tfl, for the bearing Iength N,
5
2 - "
t11 ) ( t·1vc ) 1. ]
1\r = <jJ0.80t10c [ I + 3 ( d ffc
03.6))
. •,
Il
Il
11
Il b
~1
~-03
/ Stiffener
11
Il
Il b,: Widlh of
Il
Il
s1 i ffener plaie
--il-lwc
Il
Figure 13.6.4 Il
Stn:ng1h of colunm web in Il
compres.sion region of w
T
connection- AISC approach. (a) Wi1ho111 column web stiffener (b) Wi1h column web stiffener
Section 13 6 _
· Cont,nuous Bea m -to-Column Connect1ons • 695
re,i~tance fa<.:tor = 0.75

tf> ""
1
column flange thick.ncsi:
f <· ==
Tue Othcr tenn d "" column overal\ dcpth
s are defined abo .
ve lol\owing Eq. I 3.6.1.
Compress,on
· Buckr
lngofthe Web
Overan buck.r .
This \j · tng of the Colum
b h rnn i,tate ii. of con n Web must also be prevented a.~ a controlling \imit state.
ot coluinn flanges Whcern Whcn concentrated loads from beam flanges are app\ied to
overall w b b · en on\y O \
e uck\ing 1,·m· ne co umn flange is subjected to a concentrated \oad. the
i.~ . tt state n d
'--'iuatton 6.\4 _28 a r ce not be check.cd.
PP ics 10 elastlc buckling of a plate.
k-rr1 E
Fc, == - -- --=--
2
-2 l6.14.28\
12( 1 - µ )(b/ t)
. Chen and Newlin lB 60- .
ma column as analo · J and Chen and Oppenheim l 13.6\l have treated web bucklmg
in Fig. l 3.6.5. The glous lo a plate subject to equa\ and opposite concentrated loads as shown
h . e ashc bu kr
aving a large ratio a/h . . e 1 ng load Pc, for that situation usiog a simply supported plate
'is given by Timosbenko and Gere l6.67, pp. 387-3891 as
4112 3
Per== Er l.l52Er3 33,40013
(13.6.3)
12( 1 - µ 2 )h = h = h
. If the rotational rest . . .
tton the buck)· raint provtded by the co\umn f\anges were the ful\y fixed condi-
, mg Slrcngth would be th · · b Eq l3 6 2
Ex.perimental k eorettcal\y twice as great as that g1ven y . . · ·
(such as A36) ~~r [ ·52 , l 3.60, 13.61) has shown that when lower yield stress steel
13
1s mvolved · Id"
a load Lev l ' yie mg of the web along the juncti.on witb the flange occurs at
e corresponding l l 6 3 Wh 100
ksi (690 MPa) . e ose Y to the simple support case, i..e., Eq. 13. . . e~
high d st
yield ress steel was used in tests the higher yield stress steel prov1ded a
·t ehgrebe of rotationa\ restraint along the junc~ion of flange to web giving a buckling
s rengt a out twic h · ' 1·
[ l3 60] . e t at obtamed when A36 steel was used. Thus, Chen and New m
th
- · · sugges_ted at the increase in effective degree of fixity as the loaded edge ma)' be
accounted for m pract" 1 d . t f
. ica es1gn by making the strength proporti.ona\ to the square rno 0
th e y1e\d stress Their t b"l· . . . .
· sa 11ty cntenon 1s a modificat10n ofEq. 13.6.3.
(13.6.4)
The c~efficìent 5570 of thìs semirational ex.pressi.on was adjusted downward to 41~· re~-
resentmg a lower bound for all test resuhs. Then for the beam-to-column connect1on 1 ,s
r-1 p
I = thickness of plate
Length = a
7 h
gure .
13.6.5
equal and ----L
\
e subJCC1 10 .
-
,,,te concentr1c
,enti..,,ed
.. toads.
L
696 • Chaptet 13 Connections
thc column web thkkness rw,· and the concentrated load Pn is the nomina)
strength P,., giving the AISC-JI0.5 cxpression rc~illrl
24r~,.vvç,: 4J00r~,.~
P,, = - --h - - h
where P., = nominai strength provided by column web
h = web depth clear of fillets = cl - 2k,
'w = colunm web thickness
r~.,,, = coh111111 web yield stress
Substitution of the required nominai strength Phf/<1> for Pn, and using cJ, = 0.90
'accord·1
to AlSC-J I0.5, gives the factored load Pb f that can be carried without overau col ~g
buckling when no stiffeners are used, ' ~
Web
1
,J>24ru, EF,,w
' -Vr.:-=- A, I 00110 ~
'f'4 k
_\'W• ·SI.
pbf = h Il (13.6,61
where e/> = 0.90 (for the AISC LRFD Mcthod)
Pbf = maximum factored service concentrated load from beam flanges
When any or ali of the three concentratcd load related limit states (i e 1
yielding. web crippling, or comprcssion buckling of the web) indicate inad~~ 0c_al "'eb
. {' n . 3cv of lk_
coIumn web to transmit the beam flange compress1on orce r bf, st1ffeners in p : ur
. I f'
area A.,1) muse be provided on the column to res1st t 1e orce ri,r-
n a1rs (tota)
·
Compression Stiffener Rules-AISC.
The following are t.he AISC requiremenrs for stiffener desig11:

1. When che web buckling (AISC-110.3) or compression buckling of th
(AISC-Jl0.5) Jimit states indicate the need for stiffeners. they are to be desiuned a e ~eb
. . ~ s ax1a11,
loaded compress,on members (AlSC-J 10.8). Alternarively. doubler plates mav be .~
accordance with AISC-Jl0.3 or AISC-110.5. · used 1n
2. When compression buckling of the web (AlSC-J l0.8) controls. the stiffencn; ..
used) must extend the entire depth of the column. ' (Il
3. When locai web yielding (AISC-J 10.2) controls and the concentrated load p, .
1
applied at only one column flange, the stiffeners need not extend more than one-hal? '
depth of the column web. the
4. When locai web yielding (AISC-110.2) controls. the area A,, of ,tiffener .
. ) requ1re
p~1~s . d ,~
. __the excess ot_ J factored t·orce rbf
- 11e n I d estgn
over ue · s (in
resìstance 4>R
d1v1ded by the st1tfener design y1eld stress <J>Fvst : thus , 11
•
0 3.6.?i
S. Proportioning of stiffeners, The following propo1tioning requirement appe~,
AISC-J 10.8. The stiffener width b.,1 plus ½ tbc column web thi~kness r,t•c may not be le~~
1
than of the beam flange width bfb or moment plate connecuon w1dth delivering the force pb.
1
fwc) h11, .
which makes
( b,,·t + 2 ~ 3 (13.6.8)
bfb _
( 3
'11·c) ( I3.6.Q)
2
Section 13 6 697
· Continuous Beam-to-Column Connections •
6. The l0c I
co . a buck.lin r1 ·
bempress,on elemcnts ! m11s of AISC-84, resta1cd in AISC-J 10.8(2). for un-,tiffened
_am lransmitting the ~UM be satisfied. Since these limit states relate 10 b 1/ 2 tr for thc
th •ckness 1_, is 10
001 less thorce lhe colunm, 1he limit will be satistied when the ~liffener
ìhus, an one-half lhe beam nange thickness , f b.
'r"
,, ~ 2 (13.6.10)
7. The weld · - .
in th · JOlntng sliff
e st1ffener caused b u~ :ners 10 the column web should be sized to carry thc force
Y balanced momcnts on opposile sides of the co\umn.
Horizontal St1"ffener in T -
ens1on Region of Connection
At the b . .
earn tens1on fla
shown in Fìg. \3_ 6 nge attachment lo a column, the pull on 1he co\umn flange, as
6
umn. A yield line ~n~ma_Y cause suff1cient deformatìon as 10 impair 1he strength of the col-
umn flange of width YSis was performed by Graham et al. p .281 t)n the ponion of the col-
nominai strength p q aoct length P, as in Fig. l3.6.6. P\acing a line \oad on the sys1em, the
" was approximated as
P,, = 71}cFyf + ,11,mF,,,,, (.\3.6.1 l)

w h ere the first te .
elements (one on: ~P:esents the bending resistance of the column flange as two plate
goes ctirectly into thc , side of the web) and the second term is the ponion of the \oad that
·tng m
· compress· e colurnn
. . web· U smg
· ·
con~ervat1sm comparable 10 the \oca\ web y1e· Id-
ton cntenon Eq 1.,, . .
• · .:>.6.11 was multip\ied by 0.8, then solvmg for t Jc gwes
1f~ -_ ~ -Pn-( 1.25 - ljbmF,w}

--- (\3.6.\1)
7 FyJ Pn
From tests [7.28) the . .
using o. 15 for th minimum value of 1f bmFyw/ Pn was determined to be O. l S. Thus,
sion used by AlSeCs~couct tenn in the bracket of Eq. \ 3 .6. \ 2 gives the conservative expres-
~h ~ - . . 1
urnn stiffen . . inimum column flange th1ckness r fc to avmd the need of a co -
er to assist m ca . h -
rrymg t e tension force from a beam flange,
(13 .6. 13)
7
Flange rnay bend
Lengthp of
Treat as nange
linc load affected by
p bf
Weld may tear \

away
. e 13.6,6 . .
figlll' •0 f çolunm tlang~ in
lqJ L m =- ,1h + 2(k - ,,,)
sae~gth -
0 00
of connecnon. SectionA-A
!lllS1on re.,1
Locai Flange Bending {rom Tension Force.
In onler for more generai applicability to any situation, Eq. 13.6. 13 is solved for th
inal strengrh Pn in AISC-JIO.I. enolt\.
P,, = 6.25t}cFvJ
Since the factored flange force Pbf carmor exceed Lhe_design strength <l>Pn, either Eq. 13
can be use<l 10 determine 1he available strength or Eq. 13.6.13 can be used to com - ·6·l4
minimum flange rhick.ness needed to avoid stifteners. Thus, Eq. 13.6.13 for mini:te lhe
umn flange thickness / f't in the AISC LRFD Merhod would be ITl coJ.
r;;;)f
1Jc ;;,: 0.4 V;j;jC;. (13 ·6.IS)
where Pbf = factored concentrated rension load

 = 0.90 (for the AJSC LRFD Merhod)
F,1 = yield stress of the column flange being benr
Since, generally, rhe compression-related s tiffener requirements are more rk
. 1 lo
l e\'
contro!, the reader should particularly note Lhose requ1remenrs. The same proponi ·.
requirements for compression stiffeners should be used for teosion stiffeners. UsuaJ~~lng
same size stiffeners would be uscd for both compression and tension (if any tensio ' ~he
· O Sltff
ener is needed). Examples of the design of beam-to-column moment connections hav-
been presented by Miller [ 13.62]. e
EXAMPLE 13.6.1
Design the connection for the rigid framìn g of two Wl6X40 beams to lbe flanoes f
O
Wl2X65 column using A992 steel, as shown in Fig. 13.6.7. Use A36 steel for sti!e a
11 , ners if
needed. Use the AISC LRFD Method.
Solution:
(a) Compression region. Design for the maximum transmined by the beam. Thus th
maximum factored force wi Il be assumed to be the design strength of the beam flange. e
P,,f = </>AJF°,v = 0.90(6.995)(0.505)50 = !59 kìps
s ince the beam is "compact" with lf the bcam were '·noncompact," this approach - h
.s used to establish the coun m1e~ t
su·11 be reasonable unless the actual factored mome nt 1
force. ecuon
V' 5 7
_,. 2 1l,s - Ì6 X) X 10
8
,_,/
( Wl6X40
<,.. , ..h = 0.305 (web)
'I" = 0.505 ( naoge)
~/
t--...
Wl6X40 ·=
)
5
- ì7, X) X 102 / Wl 2X65
8 = 0 .390 (web)
--i'
lw,
Figure 13.6.7
Connection with horizonial 'J, = 0.605 ( Oange J
Miffeners for Example 13.6. 1. k = 1l
16
Section 13 6 e . .
· ont,nuoua Beam-to-Column Connect,ona • 699
To avoid srtt
"'-'eb Yielding), ~S~nel'!I, the column wcb-relatcd strcngth must sati,fy AISC-J 10.2 (locai
We b). Solving Eq 1/ I0.3 (web crippling), and AISC J 10.5 (compre,,ion budJing of the
6 1
Carri.ed without •s.,;,,,: · · • 13-6 -2. and 13.6.6 for the maximum factored load Pbf thal can be
u11ener-,,
P,,, "' c/,(Sk + 111,)F_,.,,lw, 113.6.1}

= I.Ol5( 1.3125) + 0.50S)(S0)0.390 = 138 kips
phf ""' </>0.801;.,{1 + 3 (!;)(!.!,.,.!:.)1.5] /EF>,wlfc [l _ _2 \
36
1/c \J l wc
""' 0.?5(0.80)(0.390)2 [, + 3
(0.S0S)(0.390)'- 5 1
/29,000(S0)0.605
= 144 kips 12.12 0.605 j'J 0.390
pbf = <1>24,t\/Eiç,, = </,4 l00t1, ~

l I 3.6.61
N h h
o~e that in Eq. 13.6.6 . •. .
radms for rolled h ' h_ is thc clear d1stance between flanges less the fillet or corner
s apes· d1sta .
between flanges whcn· · nce between adjacenc lines of fastene rs or the c\ear d1sta~ce
propeny given in the A Welds are used for built-up shapes." For rolled shapes h/tw 1s _a
Eq. 13.6.6 gives /SC Manuai. Using h/tw = 24.9 from the AISC Manual p. 1-23 111
Pb1 =~ o.9o(4100)(0.39o)3vso .
h - = - - - - - - - - - = 159k1ps
S. 24.9
tnce the factored I · · · \d"
( Ph = 138 k" ) oad capacit1es Pbf without stiffeners for locai web y1c 1~1 g
nd
req~ired ips ~ for Web crippling ( P11 = 144 kips) are less than the \ 59 kips
extra st ' co;ipress1on stiffeners are required under AISC-J 10.2 and AlSC-J l0.3. The
reng mus~ be obtained from stiffeners.
L oca! web y1e1ct· (E . . · · T k
ing th I ( mg q. 13.6.1) md1cates the need for compress1on suffeners. a -
e oweSl pbf = 8 kips) of the three strengths in Eq. 13.6.7,
13
R · Pbf - 138
equ1red As, = -Acuial
- -~-- = 159 - 138
= 0.7 sq in.
cf>Fysc 0.85(36)
Stiffeners to preve t I 1 . . \ b
n oca web y1elding need not extend the full depth of the co umn we
unless the force is ap r d b . t tend
full depth. P te at oth column flanges·' in this case' the stiffeners mus ex
t
S iffeners are also needed to prevent web crippling, and such stiffeners muSl ex.teTitl
th
~II dep ~d be designed as columns the same as bearing stiffeners in a plate giTtler,_ as
10
dtscussed Sec. 11.12. The factored column load that must be carried is the fu\l
Pb_r = 159 kips.
Size Limitations. Using Eq. 13.6.9, the minimum sriffenc( width b_,, is
bs1 > (bfb - lwc) = -6.995- - 0.390

- - =
.
2.1 in.,say
3·
m.
-
3 2 3 2
The minimum stiffener thickness ts according to Eq. 13.6.10 is
1
.
Mmt$ Jb 0.505 . 5 .
= - = - - = 0.252m., say 16 m.
2 2
1\vo plates-t; X 3 give more than the minimum area As, = 0.7 ~q in. requircd.
Locai Buckling Limit~·. When elastic analysis is used,
b ) s ( À, = . 95 = . 95 )
( A= ~
t, VFy
r.:: r,:-; = 15.8
V36
3
Min ,, = -15.8
- = 0.19 in.
or, when plastic analysis is used,
6}:. = . 6~
( A= hs, ) s (A,, = .VFy
t, V36
= 10.8)
3 .
Min 1s =- = 0.28 m.
10.8
Column Strength ofStiffeners. The column consists of the stiffeners acting in co .

nation with a length of web equa! to 25twc = 25(0.390) = 9.75 in. (see AlSC-Jto.srn::~
text Sec. I I .8).
fi(0.3125)(3 + 3 + 0.39) 3 _
r = = I. I tn.
\ 2(3)0.3125 + 9.75(0.390 )
Using an effective length KL equal to O.75 of the column deplh: i.e., approximateh 9 .
; tn.,
KL =~~8; Thus, </>Jcr = 32.3 ksi

r l.l
Ag = 2(3)0.3125 + 9.75(0.390) = 5.68 sq in.
4>cPn = Ag(4>cf'cr) = 5.68(32.3) = 184 kips > 159 kìps
(b) Tension region. To prevent excessive beoding of a column flange from the a ..
. . . . ct1on
of a beam flange tens1on force, the nummum column flange th1ckness required by AISC.
J l O. I is given by Eq. 13.6.15,
Since the flange thickness of the W l 2X65 ( tJ = 0.605 in.) is less than the requ· ed
Ife = 0.75 in., tension stiffeners are required. The locai buckling limits do not applyar 10
· elements; however, for pracuca
tens1on · l purposes the same stt·tt·eners used as compression
stiffeners should be used here.
Use 2 PLs-ft X3X IO~, A36, for both compression and tension sides.
(e) Connection of plates to column. The forces to be used for the design of weldin
are shown in Fig. 13.6.8. When beams frame from bolh sides and contribute equa! flan}
~orces PiJJ, th~ welds on the ends of the plates musi carry the portion of the force pbf whi~:
1s not taken d1rectly by the web.
. For thi~ example, Fig. I 3.6.8a applies. The weld _should be d_esigned to carry the
maximum st1ffener force AsrFrsr: actually, when the st1ffeners act m combination wìih
the web, each part will try to carry load in proportìon to its stiffness. Thus, the stiffeners
will likely carry more than just the excess that the web alone could not carry. Maximum
Section 13.6 Continuous Beam-to-Column Connections • 701
p•t
~~~
1J.6.8 pbf
:guirements for ·2
,tal plates.
(a)
(b)
effectìve Weld sii.e alon . . . . .

trodes, is g e nds of sllffener plates m tens1on, us1ng SMAW w1th E70 elec-
a 0.90F t F
max eff =~ _ y,1ts _ 36r
= 0.73r,
2(0.707)0.75(060F, ) - l.4l4F, - l.414 s
· · EXX EX.X 70
Using 1. · ·
• 16-m. stiffener plates.
arnax eff = 0.13ts = 0.73(0.3l25) = 0.23 in.

Min weld size a = l4 in.
The maximum factor d f
e orce to be carried by the stiffeners ìs
Force= 'PcAs1Fy.•t = 0.90(2)(3)(0.3125)36 = 61 kips

For fil!et welds •top a d b
n ottom of plates, the strength required per inch is
n . 61
1'..eqmred <pR,,w = ( ) = 5. l k.ips/in.
2 6
Fro; . Table 5.14.2, {-in. weld provides <f>Rnw = 5.57(0.23/0.25) = 5.1 kips/ in.
V se 4·1U. fillet weld t0 db · h h
i:::::".~:=~;-~~·..:::r_;Pa~n-~~o~tt:':o~m, on both tension and compress10n plates w ere t ey
s th
b~ar again c e column flanges. Along the column web, fillet weld is required only on one
s1de of the plate.
. When _a beam frames in from one side only, as in Fig. 13.6.Sb, the weld forces T1 are
desig~ed as In the symmetrical case. Additionally, however, shear forces V1 must be devel-
op~d m accordance with AlSC-Jl0.6 to take the proportion of the unbalanced flange force
wh1ch comes to the stiffener plates, in this case V1 = T1 . •
Vertical Plate and Tee Stiffeners
Sometimes it may be desirable to use vertical plates, or structural tee sections as shown in
Fig. 13.6. lc. Particularly, they may be useful in a four-way system where beams are
attached to the tee sections. Research [7 .28] indicates that a vertical stiffener at the toe of
the flange is only one-half as effective as is the web of the column. .
Thus, assuming two vertical stiffeners (one at each flange toe) each having one-haH
the web strength indicated by Eq. 13.6.l, gives the following for the maximum factored
load Pbf that can be transmitted based on locai web yielding:
(13.6.16)
which upon solving for 1he re<juired stiffener thickncss r., gives
1, 2: - -
Pbf
----- -
(Fyw)
lwc - -
<J,(111, + 5 k)Fyw Fv,·t
where P,,1 = factored concenirated load from beam flange
,t, = 0.90 (for rhe AISC LRFD Method)
fJb = flange thickness of beam 1ransmit1iDg force
l -,,x· = column web thickness
k = distance from outer face of column flange 10 web toe of fillet

Fy,, = yield stress of s1jffener
0·w = yield stress of the column web
If the vertical stiffener is a plate. then comprcssion buckling of the column Web
prevented by satisfying Eq. 13.6.8 under AISC-JI0.5. When structural tees ar Illusi be
web a11achment predudes compression buckling of the web. Regarding we: us~. lhe
(AISC-J l0.3). it is unlikely this limit siate will contro! when vertical stiffeners cnPPling
rhe column flange rips. are used at
For the design of che tee stiffener and connection when a beam is attached .
0 11
Fig. I 3.6.3c, some special consideratioos are necessary. The beam flange, if equa; . • as in
10
to che tee. ac1s on the tee as shown in Fig. I 3.6.9a. For analysis. one might co .d ""1dth
. . F' 3 6 b
f·orm loading on a two-span bearn as shown tn tg. I . .9 , wherein tbc load cr un,.. ns1
· 5· · 3 WOU(d J.. .
transm1tted ii into thc tee web and 16 each to the column tlanges. Blodgett l 13 2l ut
· h f h
when che beam flange extends full w1dt o t e tee, one may assume the effectiv• · suggcsts
width bE (Fig. 13.6.9a) tributary to the tee web to be¾
of the bcam flange width. e flange
One may summarize che LRFD design requirements when the beamJ7an . .
. . ge IV/dt/1 .
approx1111a1ely the some as the 1ee flange w1drh: 1s
I. Tue tee web chickness , ,., muse satisfy Eq. 13.6. I':
0.75 pbf
t,,, :! - - - -- - -
(tfb + 5 k)F_\.H ( l3.6. J8)
where O. 75 Pbf = the portion of the factored load transmitted by the beam flan e
tributary to the tee stiffener g
k = distance to the roo1 of fillet: tee section
rfb = Oaoge t.hickness of beam transrrtitting forcc
r
/ Slruc1ural ice
sliffener
2.7
8 'J• + 5k
l
I I
I
1,
I
j
l jb
.
I
db,,,
-
ftT~~T -r- ,,
I
I
-
I
I\
'th+ 5k I
I
T I
b t: = effec1ive I L
I I
I
widrh triburary !
Figure I 3.6.9
ro stiffener web
-LL
Su·uctural tee stitlèner. (a) (b) (c1
- .-....---- -
..., . .,. w ... · - . • ~
Section 13 6 C ·
· ont1nuous Beam-to-Column Connections • 703
t: 2._ The structural tee fl .
orce W1thout exce . ange thtckness '" must be able to carry the beam tensile flange
. ss1ve deform · . . . .
conservative since th . aLJon, hence Eq. 13.6.15 should be satisfied. Th1s w1II be
Whereas here there ise equation Was derived for the free-edge condition at the flange toes,
· a welded connection. Using 0.75 Pbf as in 1.
1
/c ~ = 0.35 J?f.bf
~ 0.4\J-';j,~ -- ( 13.6.19)
if, Fy,1 <P Fy,,
3. The structura] tee fl .
ange Wtdth b., must extend fully between the column flanges:
b, = dcol - 211, (13.6.20)

Where d
col = column overall depth
tf,· = flange thiclcness of column
4. The structural te d .h
edges of the col umn fl·anges:
e ept d.s must be adequate to be nearly flush with the outer
bfc - lwc
ds = - - 2- - (13.6.21)
where bfc = column flange width
lwc = co\umn web width
th
Wh he n _e beam flange width is signiticantly less than the tee flange. width (say,
more t an an mch or tw0 ) p . .
13_6 _19_ • bj mstead ot 0.75 Pbf should be used in Eqs. 13.6.18 and
~n m~king the welded connection when beam flange and tee flange are nearly
10
equa[ width'. the weld on the tee web (two segments of cwo fillets) is to resist the
mome nt assummg 0.75 Pbf must be carried ( \ 3.2l. At the flange tips of the tee, Blodgett
suggests l 13.2,
!
P: 5. 7- 13] to design for of the beam flange force (sornewhat grealer than the
F1g. l 3.6.9b) to be carried.
ft of
EXAMPLE 13.6.2
Design a vertical tee stiffener connection to frame a Wl4X6J beam into the web of a
Wl2 X65 column. Use A992 steel. Use the type of connection shown in Fig. 13.6.9. and
the AlSC LRFD Method.
Solution:
Since the beam flange width (9.995 in.) is approximately the same as the clear distance
between column flanges Eqs. 13.6.18 and 13.6.19 may be applied.
(a) Determine the stiffener web thickness tw required 10 prevent locai web yield-
ing (AJSC-JlO. l). The max imum factored beam flange force P1,1 that can be carned 1s
pbf = </>A fFy = 0.90(9.995)(0.645)50 = 290 kips
, · Eq. 13.6. 18, and estimating k = l in. for the tee section.
Usrng
0.75 pbf = 0.75(290) = 0.77 in.

Requiredtw:::: (tfb + 5k)Fyst [0.645 + (1.0)]50
(b) Determine stiffener flange thickness to prevent distonion 11nder ten .

Eq. 13.6.19. .---=-e~ sion. llsing
Requircd r, = 0.35 ~ = 0.35J0 _9~~0) = 0.89 in.

(e) Select a scructural tee section. The maximum flange width pennitted is
Max b, = d, 1 - 0 2tfc = 12.12 - 2(0.605) = 10.91 in.

Max depth = 0.5( 12.00 - 0.390) = 5.81 in.
Try Wl2X96 CUI into lees:

1, = 0.900 in. ( flange thickness)
lw = 0.550 in. with k = 1 ~ in.

Rechecking Eq. 13.6.18,
0.75 (290) _
Required lw =a= ] = 0.50 JJl. < provided ,,,_.
(0.645 + (1.625) 50 01(
Try Wl 2X96 cut as shown in Fig. 13.6. lOa.

(d) Welding on stìffener web. Referring lO Fig. 13.6.9c, the length of tee stiffe
requìred is ner
Length = dbm + 5k = ]3.89 = 5(1.625) = 22.02 in.
Trylengthoftee = 2'-0".
Length of weld, upper and lower ends:
,1 b + 5k = 0.645 + 5(1.625) = 8.77 in.

Try 9-in. weld at each end, connecting web of tee to web of col11mn.
Cutfrom Cui from
fI
WI 2X 96 w 12x 120
k = 118 k = I !_2
16
2·- 0·
(a) (b)
13
ll
16
Figure 13.6. I O
Example 13.6.2. Tee
selection and welding to web.
Secuon 13 6 e .
· ontmuous Beam-to-Columr, Connectìons • 705
A.ssurne lhe
111
Web. omem comributed by 1he center ¼of the flange is tributary to the tee
<f>Mn "' 075<1,F [
w here z 1·s th
x •
.
e plastic mod
yZ.,. "' 0.75(0.90)(50)102
.
]-6
= 287 fl-kips
The Strength of the We)ct· u~us tor the W 14 X6I beam, which is "compact" for /\, = 50 ksi.
18
section modulus s of the1wo9
tng conservatively
· treated with the elastic "vector" analysis using
-in. we1d segmems treated as lines,
S"" 2(_!_)[(24)
12 ~----
(24 - 18)
3
- 3]
=
12 I 89 in. 2
The factored load R .
" at lhe top of the weld is
Ru"'~=~ -
S 189 - 18.2kips/in.
The Weld sì.re a required is
a=
7 7 ~- - 18.2 .
<f>(0, 0 )(0.6 0 FExx) - 0.75(0.707)(0.60)70 = 0 ·82 m.
Check flexura] strength of .
depth 24 in. Shffener web a~ a rectangular section of width rw = 0.55 in. and
</,M = cf>F z = (0.55(24) 2 ) I

P Y 0.90(50) - ~ -
4 12
= 297 ft-kips > 287 ft-kips OK
Though the elastic "vect .. • .
1
weld "ore
'' e tO be transmitt or ana
d YS1s 1s a conservative treatment for welds. nevertheless the
Ih . · ·
.strength. A t the top ot_the Weld
e to1· e hbase materiai
, would. not cxceed
. . the base ma\enal
ines, t e maxnnum effec11ve weld s1ze 1s
Tension strength
of stiffener web = Strength of lwo fillets
tw</J,Fy == 2[</>(0.707 a)0.60 FExx1
0.55(0.90)50 = 2(0.75)(0.707 a)(0.60)70
24.75 = 44,54a: a max eff = 0.56 in.
The use of ij-in. welds on the 0.55-in. web is not acceptable: therefore, increase the section
to_ W I 2X 120 from which lo cut the tee. The web is stili not qui te thick enough; however,
th1s seems acceptable because of the uncertainty in the proportion of the beam moment
transmitted through the tee web and that transmiued between flanges of the tee and the col-
umn, as well as the conservatism in the weld resistance cakulation.
Use W l 2X 120 as shown in Fig. 13.6.1 Ob.
(e) Welding on stiffener flanges. Assume conservatively thal the tee connection lo
rhe colurnn flange (Figs. I 3.6.9a and b) may have to carry as much as of the beam llange !
force. The concentrated forces from the bearn flange may be consìdered as distributed
along the column flange over the distance IJb + 5ts , as sbown in Fig. 13.6. 11. .
Assuming the factored force Tu attributable to the groove weld aJong one flange is
T,, == <J>Fyffb(1) = 0.90(50)(0.645{9-~95 ) = 97kips

,,
1
'fb + 51,.
Figure 13.6.11 j_
Force~ carried by weld along
1ee sriffener flange~. (a) (b)
I fb + 51., = 0.645 + 5( l.105) = 6.2 in.

97 . .
Factored weld force R,, = -
6 .2
= 15.6 k.ips/in .
Using a partial joint penetration U-groove weld with E70 electrode materiai th d .
. ' e es,..
Strength <PRnw 1s tO
</)R,,w = 0.80(0.60FEXx) = 0.80(0.60)70 = 33 kips/in.
for tension normai to effective area (AISC-Table 12.5). The requìre<l effective th
dimension is roai
15.6
Required effective throat = 3. = 0.46 in.
3 6
According to AISC-Table 12.1, lhe effective throat for a pania! joint penetratio .
~roove is the "depth of groove.'' The minimum effective throat (AISC-Table J2.; )u.
1
111 in. for the stiffener flange of 1.105 in. s
Use N;-in. single-U-groove (A WS-1.1, BC-P6 prequaJifie<l joint, also A/SC Mm,.ua/ p •
--e~-:-----:,:::--;-..:::.._-;:-:-'-;=------;;-;--- - ' ----'-- - - ' - -- - -- -....:.:.:.:.:::::.:::· . 8·)7)
weld along the edges ofthe flange ofthe tee. ---..:.
(f) Effect of beam shear force. Ordinarily the length of the weld isso Iaroe th
··
a dd1tlonal capacity requrre· d to can-y end shear t· S neg1·1g1'bie. A "w'l4X6J
· "'mi·obat lbe
. . . al~
expected to carry somethmg on the order of 70 k1ps factored load shear, in which case . I
1·s resis
· tedby n
Total lengthofweld
Required extra weld strength =

= 4(10)[forweb ] + 2(24)[forflanges] == 88in.
70
= 0.80 kips/in.
I
88
0.80
Added size for web fillets = - - - - - = 0.04 in.
0.75(0.707)42
0.80 .
Added size for flange groove welds = -- - = 0.03 m.
33.6
The shear component and the flexure component actually act at 90 degrees 10 on
another so thai adding the requirements algebn:iically would be overly safe. The autho e
consider the weld design adeguate withour an increase for dìrect shear. rs
I
Section 13.6
Continuous Beam-to-Column Connections • 707
Top Tension Plates
When thc be ·
h0 · am 1s connect d 10 1he .
nzontal plate scift e column flange and the colurnn is stiffened by verttcal or
ca] tee stiffener ·a s·ene1rs. or When the beam is connected 10 the column web through a veni-
pi 1 • .imp e means oft · · ·
a e at the top of the be . ransnmting lhc moment from the beam is with a 1ens10n
shear; (2) a bottom am comhmed with ( 1) a bottom compression plate and web plates for
13.6.2a and b. Thes;::~an~Je; or (3) a bonom bracket (s1iffcned seat). See Figs. 13.6. ld and
Jensen [13.63] and B avior of such top platc connections has been studied by Pray and
The d - ranctes and Mains { 13.64).
es1gn of seat I .
Transmission of t . ang es and brackers has heen treated 10 Secs. 13.3 and 13.4.
h . cns1on and corn . ' . . .
l 1s section. Emph . . press1on ,orces mto the column has been treated earher m
1 asis here 1s on th l · · ·l
rated in the follow· e top p ate, a tension member whose design 1s 11 us-
mg examplc.
eXAMPLE 13.6.3
Design the top tension I· .

1
bolts for trans'e . · thePfull
· ,, rnng ate and
d ts connec tion by welding or by A325 high-strength
a_nd che AISC LRFD Desi en moment from a W14X61 _to a column. Use A992 steel,
hgs. 13.6.1d or 13_6 _2 a gn Me th od. Assume che connection to be of the type shown m
Solutìon:
(a) Design plate as a tension member.

Smce the WJ4X6J 15 · ..
T" is approx·1mace1y ) a compact seccion" for Fl'. = 50 ksi, the facto red flange
- farce
T11 _ r/>Mn r/>FyZx 0.90(50)102

- '7i,;;: = ~ =: ,,,,
14
= 328kips
When there are no hole th . Id' . .
1
f1acture
. on net seccion rs, -1e Y C Th
tng hm1t. state far tension m.embers will contro! over the
.
• tmc state. us. usmg Eq. 3.9.2, the required gross plate area Ag 1s
A _ 1~ 328 .
g - <f>,J,~ = 0.90(50) = 7.3 sq m.
The plate ~idth must be less than the W14X6l flange width o f IO.O in.
Use PLJ X9, A g = 7.9 sq in., for welded connection.
(b) Detennine welding for plate to beam flange. Try ~-in. fillet weld with E70 elec-
trodes using the shielded metal are process.
</>Rmv = </>(0.707 a )(0.60 FExx) = 0.75(0.707 a ) (0.60)70 = 22.3 a

= 22.3(0.375) = 8.35 kips/in.
The required Jength Lw of weld is
328
39 in.
8.35
To reduce the length of weld, use !-in. weld. This will require Lw = 29.4 in.
Use ! -in. weld. 9 in . on end and l I in. on each side for a tota] of 31 in. T he des ig n is sum-
marized in Fig . l 3.6.l 2a.
-~ •• j • , ' • • • .,., • ~ - •• • ; ;. ' • ..- ,: ' ...: •• • ..:= : . . ' ...

3
4
t_ -2x9
Back-up
plate
/~
Wl4X61
I
'- t5 - l x9x
8
l'-4"
Oroove
weld
j !
11===
1 : : :~:
: I ---l~,
( a) (bJ
Figure 13.6.12
Exarnple 13.6.3. Momeot connection using top plate.
The plate is connected to the colur~n flange b~ a full penetration single-beve! or ,

weld, using a backup bar. When a seat 1s used tt w11l serve as backup to make lh ~ìoO\e
I
groove weld. Ocherwise, a backup plate is needed below the compression tlane ange
quently it may be satisfactory lo use fillet welds along the top and bouom of th gel. Fre.
e P aie 1
make the connection to the colurnn flange. o
(e) Design bolted connection for plate to beam flange. Use ~-in.-diam A32S bo .
a bearing-type connection with threads excluded from the shear piane (A325-X). lts in
<J>R,, = c/>Fnv111Ab = 0.75(60)1 (0.6013) = 27.1 kips/ bolt

( single shear)
<J>R,, = c/>(2.4 F,,dbt) = 0.75(2.4)(65)(0.875)0.645 = 66.0 kips/ bolt
(bearing on 0.645-in. beam flange)
The use of 2.4 F,1 assumes s 2: 3db and L,. 2: 1.5db.

When bolts are used, the holes in the W14X61 may indicate a reduction in stre0
according 10 AISC-FI 3, as discussed in Sec. 7.9. No reduction is to be made when th
th
f
Iowing condi1ion is satis fied. e ol-
F,1A .r11 ~ Y,F_,.A_rg
where A.r,, = net flange area

A Jg = gross flange area
Y, = I.O for F>./ F,, :;; 0.80
65(9.995(0.645) - 2( I )0.645] 2: 50(9.995)0.645
335 > 322
Section 13.6
Conlinuous 8
Th eam-to-Column C .
U\. the limit \t·1 onnect1ons • 709
in lCn\1on i\ 'te of tensile ruptu r~' uoe,
., not apply an<l thc d .
es1gn stren2th of th ll
d>T,, "' dJF ~ e ange
111
I· 0.90(50)(9 99
,~ c::
or the platc a 5)O 645 = 290 k.
the effc ct1ve net area' a1.tens1on memb·cr. tlie eftec·t
. ips
' ,.. of hol es. must be <l educte<l
. .in computing
A,, = ~ -- _ 252
• <l>rF, - o-:-90(50) c:: 5.6 sq in.
A, = ~ ; _ 252
<l>rF., 0.75( 65) = 5.2 sq in.
·n1l· cfkctive net are·,' ·4 "equals
. . .
acrnrd· in,,.,, to AISC--03 · ·--~ _· ihc ac!Ual net '·,re,,, A· ,, ·m th1s
- concenlric loa·•· . .
umg s1tuauon
T,
n PL - I X9. Check
· A. and AlSC-14.4. .
. ) - 6. l sq .in > j A = S 2 . . '

A" = [9.00 - 2(1) ](l87- OK
O85 . = . . e - • ~q in.:
· A~ 0.8'.\(9.0)0.875 = 6.7 sq in. > A" OK
. ?'ì
No. ot bohs required = _)_
_ = 91
--.. Say IO
27 1
Use 10-~-in.-diam ~?lts, as , hown in Fig. !3.6._126. •

Split-Beam Tee Connections-Prying Action
For bolied moment connections. 1hc split-beam tee as shown in Fig. I3.6.2c is not often
:wy longa used. Howcver. thc design of a connection involving the 1ransfer of a tensile
force through a thick-pla!e bolted conncction. such as the tee conncctcd 10 rhe flange, will
illustrate 1reatmen1of ··prying action:· Prying action was tìrst mentione<l in Sec. 4. 13.
Consider thc deformation of a tee section. as in Fig. 13.6.13. where as the pull on the
web defonns the flange and <leflects il outward. the edges of the flange rips bear againsl the
connecied piece giving rise to rhc force _Q. _known a~_the ··pryi~g force."_ Inclusion of this
. , is requircd by AJSC-13.6 wherem 1t statcs. The requ1re<l 1ens1k strength shall
. orced ten't.C>ll resultino from prymg. ac11on
. prodnced by defonnauon . ol- the con-
t 0
1nc1u e any ' ·
nected parts:· nections are sub1ect
· to d1stot1mn
· · sue1I as m · p·1g. 13.6.J_.
3 the treai-
When o te feOnbolts in 1ens1on . 1s· 1101 vaJ1d.
. . When ,,1 th1ck-tlangcd
.. tee . _ th<=,
d1stor1,.
b l d
d 3 d.~
ment of. Sec. 4.1 or in 01.vmg
. nse
. to thc, force
. Q.
1 0
flange 11ps 1en to <> •
Q
B Q = t>rying force
B
8 = bolo force
2r = applied 10.,d
71 O • Chapter 13 Connections
Kulak, Fisher, and Struik (3.1, pp. 274-282) have reviewed the v .
relaling to prying aclion. They have recommended the procedure used in th:~ous ~
[ 1.15]. The model, formulatioo, and design procedure is well explained
(13.65, 13.67) and Astaneh [13.66).
:se
M""~
Y l'h<>riitan
The analytical model used in the AISC Manua/ [ I .15) procedur ..
Fig. 13.6.14. Moment equilibrium requires e •s •ho""n in
Mi+ M2 - Tb = O
The can1ilever moment is
and force equilibrium requires 0 3.6.23,

T+Q-B=O
03.6.24)
where T = extemally applied factored load on one bolt
Q = prying force tributary to one bolt
B = tensile load in the bolt (10 be compared with the design strength ,..
the bolt) ~R" of
Eqs. 13.6.22 through 13.6.24 are the iodependent equations of equilibrium ti
satisfied. lat rnu~t be
Next, referring to "width" as the dimension along the length of the tee s ..
tary to one bolt, ler ~hon tribl).
net width at boh line
8 = . .. .
gross w1dth at cr111cal sect10n near web face 0 3.6.2SJ
M 2 may be multiplied and divided by 8M1 without any effect, and the ratio MiJo
brnllOO 2~ M,Ui:) ~ (.'::} M, ~ a8M,

a~"'· M (:~:
Q prying force
I,
8 tensile force in boli.
including prying action
B=T+Q
2T !
Factored applied
ten,sion per boli
Figure 13.6.14
Analytical model for prying
action.
Section 13.G
Continuous B
eam-to-Column Connections • 711
Substituting Eq
eq · · 13-6 .26 for M2 ·
uatl()ns for M1, into Eqs. 13.6.22 and
13.6.23 gives the following two
Tb
M, = -
1+ ao (13.6.27)
Qa
M1 = -
H . ao (13.6.28)
tmmating M1 frorn Eqs. 13 6 27 d .
· · an 13 -6.28 g1ves the prying force Q as.
_ .
Substitutmn of Eq. 13 _6_29 . .
Q =
.. .
r(1 : aa)(~)
0
(13.6.29)
mto the lorce equ1hbnum equation, Eq. 13.6.24, gives

T +Q - B =O [13.6.24]
T + r(i :saa)(!) - = o B
and solving for B gives
There are two design

B
·
= r[1 +
h
e:.
8
a 0 )(~)] (1 3.6.30)
1
h . requirernents t at must be sausfied: (I ) the mornent strength of
e flange must be adeguate, and (2) the bolc strength in tension 111us1 be adequate.
Moment Strength o{Tee F/anges.
The AISC LRFD requiremenl would be

</>Mn :2: M1 (13.6.31)
wt}
c/JM,, =Ml'= <j)ZF"
'
= ,/J-F,.
4 .
(13.6.32)
where w is the length of flange, parallel to stem, tributary 10 one bolt, and c/J is 1he resis-
tance factor <Pb = 0.90 for flexure. The AISC Manual p. 9- 1Oon "prying action" modified
the moment strength equation previously preferred by AISC. by replacing rhe yìeld stress
Fy with the ultimate tensile strength F,, to reflect the fact that experimental results have
shown consistently higher strength values than predicted by the previous preferred prying
model. Prying action has been studied by Thorntoo [ 13.651, Astaneh [ 13.66], and Swansoll
[ 13. 101 ]. Putting Eqs. 13.6.32 and 13.6.27 into Eq. 13.6.3 l, and rcplacing F,. with F,, gives
the design requirement for the flange thickness r1 .
) 4Tb ( 13.6.33)
l.f :2:' </J1,WF,,( I + a ' c5 )
where 8 is defined following Eq. 13.6.40.
Tension Strength ofBolts.

The AISC LRFD Method requirement would be
<f,R11 2: B ( 13.6.34)
. the factored load force on one bolt, given by Eq. 13.6.30.
wh ere B is . . . b E 474
The design strength of bolts in tens1on ,s g1ve11 y q. . . .
tf>R,, = <J>F,11 At, 14.7.4]
where ef> = O.75, or for A325 bolts having F, = 90 ksi. and A490 bolts having Fn,-_ I 13~-
11
</>R,, = 0.75(90)Ah = 67.5Ab (A325) (I !Il.

3 63
</>R,. = 0.75(113)A 11 = 84.8Ab (A490) ( ! · · 51
3.6.36
Thomton [1 3.65] has shown rhere is no unique solution for Eqs. 13.6.33 and '
13 6
Thus, a tria) procedure to obrain onc sarisfactOry solution is necessary. One ma · -34.
when a = O there w11l · be no prying
· ·
ac11on · Ie curvature bending· Ynote '"-·
an d sing ~'41
d
a = I .O there will be maximum prying acrion and double curvature bending. · ao Wheii
. The afo~emen_rion_ed ~ odel and developmenr has been calibr~ted by tes1s (3_ . .
catmg the b d1menst0n m F1g. 13.6.14 should be larger and rhe a d1mension sma)I 11lld1.
1
amount egual to one-half the bolt diameter db · Thus. a' and b' are used in piace fer by an
. o u , ~.. b
m all of the foregoing equations, -"'
db
a' = a+ -
2 (13.6.3?)
db
b' = h - -
2 ( 13.6.38)
Flange Thickness.
The flange thickness t1 required from modified (using b' for b) Eq. 13.6.33 is
11 ~
I 4Tb'
\cpbwF,,( 1 + a 'cS) ( 13.6.39)
and using <l>b = 0.90 for flexure, Eq. 13.6.39 becomcs
4.44Tb'
wf;,( I + a'cS) ( 13.6.40)
where T = factored externally applied tcnsion per bolt

b' = b - d1,/2
d1, = bolt diameter
w = width of resisting section (i.e.. length of tee secrion) tributary to one bolt
a' = I.O if /3 ~ 1
= the !esser of I and .! (- - ) if f3 <

13
8 I - /3
f3 = ¾(J - 1)
p = b'/ a '
a' = ( a + ~b) s ( l.25b + ~)
cS = ratio of ner area at bolt line (where M2 acts) to gross area where
M1 acts = (w - db)/w
The bolt design strength required accordjng Eq. 13.6.34 is
q,R,, ~ (~) T (13.6.41 )

where
I = [I +
Q
a' 8
1 + ct'8 ;;;
(b')] ( 13.6.42i
~-~- ··- --
Section 13.6
Continuous 8
eam-to-Column Connections • 713
. In the 2005 AJsc M
m design, as follows· anua/ (p. 9-12) section on" . . ,. .
. prymg acuon , Q 1s redefined for use
I.Q = 1
Catego I·1 ifa'> O (13643
ry · mplies s ffi · · · )
nominai st 'u tcient stiffnes and st
rength. s rength of the fitting to develop full boli
2.Q"' (t)2(1 + a'8) ifO,,,; a'.,,; 1 (13.6.44)

Catego 2 1·
ry · mplics the fitt' 15
· .
not sufficient stiffness. mg Sufficient to develop full bolt nominai strength but
3.Q = r,. (~)\1 + 8) ifa'> l (13.6.45)
Category 3. irnplies insuffi .

' icient S!rength 10 develop the bolt nominai strength.
Note that te is the required 1h' k . .
without prying action ( od'fi . te ness of fittmg 10 develop the bolt nominal streng1h
am 1 •catton ofEq. 13.6.40); thus,
I,%
t, = ;4.44Bb'_
( 13.6.46)
and \J wF,,
a
,= l+ [(1,t. )2 - ]
8 (I p) 1 ( 13.6.47)
/Bf.
where p = b'/n'.
EXAMPLE 13.6.4
Design a split-beam tee connection, such as in Fig. l3.6.2c, to enable a plastic hinge 10
develop in a Wl4X61 beam framing to the flange of a Wl4X 159 column. Use A992 steel
with i-in.-diam A325 bolts in a bearing-rype connection (A325-N). Use tbe AISC LRFD
Design Method.
Solution:
(a) Compute the factored tensile force to be canied. The Wl4X61 is compact (i .e..
,\ ~ Àp for locaiflange buckling and locai web buckling): in addition, assume that lateral-
torsional buckling is precluded (i.e.. Lb ::;; Lp)-
Since there are flange holes in lhe Wl4X61 for this bolted connection. the nomi-
nai moment strength Mn of the beam may be less than Mp. Check in accordance wich
AISC-FJ3.I. As discussed in Sec. 7.9, in order to use full gross propertics. Eq. 7.9.I
must be satisfied,
[7.9.11
FuAJ,, ~ F,.Aff:Y,
Fv/ Fu = 50/65 = 0.83 > 0.8; thercfore. Y, = I.I
F,,A fn = 65( 5.32) = 346 kips
FyAJgY, = 50(6.45)1.1 = 355 kips
(F.N A~ = 346 kips) is not > ( F,.AJgY,
.
= 355 kips)
This means gross prope.rties canno1 be used to detennine Mn . lnstead, AISC f;

(F 13-1 }, Eq. 7 .9.2. must be used to determine the nonunal moment strength M at <lriri11~
tion of thc holes. as follows: n thc !oc.
F,,AJ,,
M,, =--Sx
A fg l7.9.2)
65(5.32) ( I )
M,, =- - -92.1 --:, =
6.45 ,_
412 ft-kips
</>M,, = 0.90(412) = 317 f1-kips

If ali thc bcnding mome111 is carried by the tees, the force of the internal couple is
. Mu 371(12}
Force = Fac1ored load 10 be camed = d = --i---
3 89
= 32 I kips
bm ·
(b) Check whetbcr or noi the tens ile force can be accommodated by th b
0
tension. e 1ts in
cJ>R,, = 67.5Ab ll 3.6.3S)
</>R,, = 67.5Ab = 67.5(0.4418) = 29.8 kips
Only 8 bolts will fit, as shown in Fig. 13.6. 15; therefore the maximum factored .
force that may be carried is tensile
Tu = 8(29.8) = 238 kips < 321 kips
Wl4 X 159 Wl4 X 61

column beam
a
5.!.
2
7@3 = 1'-9' S24 X 80 (CUI)
Angles
Wl4X61
e - - (
WT5 X 24.5
Figure 13.6.15
\
S24 X 80 (cut}
4
Example 13.6.4. Split-beam

ree connecrion with tee stub. ¾diam. A325 bolts
Section 13.6 Con .
tinuous Beam-to-Column Connections • 715
When this difficul1v arises

tom of the rnain bea (F. · · one may use a stub beam or a tee ~tub attached to 1he bot-
v.,hen designing for·,~) ig. I ]·6 · 15) 10 increase the moment ann of the couple. Actually,
midspan momcnt andethsuppon moment, one might have used a heam size required for the
en used the stub b ,· h · .. .
the support. The ne . eam to gam t e mcreased capaclty requ1red at
ces,ary moment arm 1s
. 371(12)
Requ1red arm -- =
= -238 18 7 ,·n
. .
Extra depth required = 18.7 - 13.89 = 4.8 in.
Tryas stubbeam · WTSX2 .
. . .a 4.5. '"' = 0.340111.,11 = 0 .560 in.,b1 = 10,000 in., d = 4.990in.,
whose d11nens1ons are comparable lo the main W\4X61 beam.
371(12)
Force of couple = 13.89 - 4.990 = 236 kips
Using 8 bolts in tension,
236
( R., =8 = 29.5 kips ) < (</,R,, = 29.8 kips) OK
(e) Check shear Slrength on web (section e-e of Fig. 13.6.15) of WT5X24.5. Apply-
ing AISC-G2. I the length t of tee required is
. Force 236
Requned t = -- -- = 23.1 in.
c/>( 0.6 Fr)lw 1.0(0 .6 )(50)0.340
(d) Detennine bohs required to transmit tension and compression forces at the top
and bottom of the beam.
<J,R,, = 0.4418(0.75)48 = 15.9 kips {controls)

( single shear, AlSC M anual, Table 7- 1)
</JR,.= 0.75(2.4 F,,dbt) = 0.75(2.4)(65)(0.75), = 87.8t
(bearing assuming s ~ 3db, L, ~ 2.0db
( deforrnation al ho\e is a design consideration)
236
Numberofbolts = - = 14.8 Use 16
15.9
The minimuID length of WT5X24.5 required using 8 bolts per line al 3-in. spacing
is 24 in. .
Use WT5 X24.5 stub tee, 2'-3" long. welded to the bottom of the W14X61, as shown m
Fig. 13.6. lS.

·
(e) Deternune
rn·1ckness required to transmtt· tens1on
· on secuon
· a-a (p·1g. 13 6 15)·
. . .
· dA - ~
236
Reqmre g - 0.90 Fy
= = 5.2 sq in.
0.90(50)
and
. ed A _ ~= 236
= 4.8 sq in.
Requir " - 0.75 p;, 0.75(65)
716 • Chapter 13 Connectiona
Using thc lenglh of sec1ion li-a as I 3 in. (column flange width = I 5.565 in.,. illd d,..,_
ing two holes. givcs -...it1
48
r è?: · = 0.43 in.
13 - 2(0.875)
15·9 = 0. 18 in. (bcaring does not contro!)
1 è?:
87.8
(O Determine rhe tlange thickness for the tee seclion aitached to 1he cotum
tion 13.6.40 has been developed 10 providc nexural strength on section b-1, of Fi ~-3E.qu..
6
Es1imate the adjusted distance b'. Es1imate the usual gage gas abou1 4 in.: thus g. · -15. ..
db g fw d1, 4 fw 3
b' - b - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 8 e-: say 1.25 in.
U~in_g AISC '!"anua_l procedure. p. ~-JO, _determine 1he minimum thickness requir
elmunate prymg act,on: Lhus Q = Orn wh1ch case o- = O. Then, from Eq. 13.6.4() Cd to
ing a length w of 14 in. at the criticai section (section b-b) of the tee. · a,sum.
4.44 Tb' 4.44(236/2) 1.25

wFu( I + m5) 14(65)(1 + O) = 0 ·85 in.
Altematively, if the required thickness to eliminate prying action is not practical .
rhinner flange thickness is desired, the A/SC Manual provides a method which is b. or ifa
rhe recommendations ofThornton [13.65} ro compu1e /3 , which from Eq. 13.6.JO~'òCd~n
using a' and b' instead of a and b) is a functioo of ao. (aga1n
/3 = ( -TB - L) -a'
b'
= (29.8
- - I ) (e-: 1.25) = 0.013
29.5
Then use a as follows:
if {3 2!'. I use o = I ( meaning large prying force)
if f3 < I, use a = !esser of ½( 1

~ /3) aod I.O
Jn this example, 15 may be estimated using Eq. 13.6.25 as
3 - (0.75 + 1/ 16)
o= = 0.73
3
¾C ! /3) = o.~3c ~-~-~13) = 0.018 < I: use a= 0.018
In which case, ao = 0.018(0.73) = 0.013 for use in Eq. 13.6.40 for ,1 .
4.44Tb' 4.44(236/2)1.25
----- =
wFu(I + al>) 14(65)(1 + 0.013) = 0 ·84 in.
Try a tee cut from S24X80, t.r = 0.870 in .• fw = 0.500 in.
_..,""',....-~.'-~ # .-6., ...- •
. ~ - ~ ~ -- .
Section 13.G
Continuous Beam-to-Column Connections • 717
(g) Check the ·
Prymg force usin Eq 13 6 29 . ,
g · · · with a and b' instead of a and b,
' - db bf - g
a - a+ == - - - - + db = 7.000 - 4 3
2 2 2 2 + 8= l.875
b' =b - db - g fw - db - 4 0.500 3
2 - 2- 2 2 - 2- - 2- - 8
= l.375
Kulak. Fisher, and Struik [3 I)
~d b = I. 75 in.; thus, a ~ _;~~or;n~nded that a s: l_-25b. In this ex ampie, a = 1.5 in.
1
v1ew of Fig. 13.6. 15) with ' h. 1· aking the length ot the tee section as 14 in. (see top
,our o es deducted.
ò = 14 - 4(0.75 + l/16)
14 = 0.77
Using the same trial value o -- o.018 as prev1ously
. gives oò = 0.013. Then tìnd Q.
Q = r(~)(~)
+ I
_( + a,8 a' - T I
0.013 ) 1.315
0.013 l.875 = 0 .0\ T
Then compare (T + Q) per bolt to </>R,,.
T + Q = l.OIT
l.OIRu = 1.01(29.5) = 29.8 kips = cJ,R11 OK
Since
.· the factored
. load Ru per bO lc , mcrease
· d bY the mmor
· · torce,
prymg - exactly equals the
1 0 tens10n strength </>Rn of a bolt, the bolcs are satisfactory. Thorncon (13.65} has
ces1.,n
shown that when the actual t1 exceeds the required 11 , the actual Q will be less 1han che Q
computed above. More detail on chis procedure is provided in Ref. 13.65 and in the AJSC
Manual.
(h) Recheck the thickness r1 required.
4.44 Tb' ; 4.44 (236/2)1.37.5

I
11 ;;.,: \ wFu(I + a'ò) = \J 14(65)(1 + 0.01 3) = O.SS in.
The flange thickness t provided is 0.870 in. The design can be considered satisfaccory
1
because the provided thickness is wichin I% of the compured requirement.
Use tees cut from S24X80 to carry tensile and compressive forces.
Noi discussed in this example is che development of che shear strenglh of the
W I 4X61. A pair of angles may be attached 10 the beam web for the purpose of providing
whatever shear is required. The final design is shown in Fig. 13.6. l 5. •
End-Plate Connections
The practical alternative to the split-beam tee connectìon ìs the end-piace moment connec-
tion as shown in Fig. l3.6.2d. Having much simpler fabricatìon details. a single plate
welded on the end of a beam has become relatìvely common.
An excellent summary of the history of the use of end-plate connections is given by
Griffiths [13.68]. The behavior of end-plate moment connections has been studied by Bee-
dle and Christopher [13.49], Onderdonk, Lathrop. and Cocl [13.48]. Douty and Mc~uire
[ _ _Agerskov [ l 3.69, I 3.70), Krìshnamurthy [ 13. 71 ). Knshnamurthy, Huang. kffrey,
13 501
and Avery (13.72). Mann and Morris [13.73], Murray (13.74]. Hendrick aitd
(13.75], Yee and Mekhers (!3.76), Murray and Kukreti (13.77], and Cunis and Murr4y
( I 3. 78J, among others. Murr.y
A conservarive approach co end-plate connection design is to use the p .
concept discussed previously in this sec1ion. The region near the tens ion n~ng iìcti<iri
beam is designed similarly co rhe split-beam tee connectlon. This fastene ge of lbe
designed for shear and rension. including any effect of prying action. r group ~
Krishnamurthy ( I 3. 7 I] has recommended a modìfied split- beam tee rneth
on analycical study and correlation wich available rests. Tbjs method involves Od b~
containing sca1is1ical coefficiems and is suitable only with adeguate design aids. fiUat,Olis
11
al. [ 13.74, 13.77] has proposed procedures for 4-bolt and 8-bolc stiffened end pi ll'aYet
. ates
The 2005 AISC Manual refers ro che procedure of A.ISC Design Guide Se . ·
e1sm1c and w·m d Applications" nes
4
Ed) ··Extended End-Piace Momenc Connecuons. . S . .
b · (2'Id
M. Murray and Emmerr A. Sumner [13.79]. as well as A!SC_?esign Guide Senes 6~ 0 ni..., i
and Extended Multiple-Row Moment End-Piace Connecnons by Thomas M. Murta . f'l11sh
Lee Shoemaker [ 13.103]. These design guides give procedures which must be consi~ aJ\d \\'_
ommended practice. The AJSC Specijication does nor prescribe procedures and ~eq .re(! ree.
· end -piace connections. As research contmues.
tor · d es1gn
· urrell\en
gu1·des are modìfied and ad . . t1
ones are developed. The reader must keep in nund the ilifference between the AlSC S di~ollal
tion whlch is the ;'law'' (so to speak) and the A/SC Manua/ which is a ''handboo:,ec~ca.
rables and recommended practice ro aid designers. giving
Regarding end-piace connections, procedures are presenced that were origi
11
posed by Borgsmiller and Murray [ 13.103) whicb are based on yield-line ana\y:~ YPro.
piace for detennining its thickness. and a modified tee- hanger analysis co d s of che
required bolt strength. Detailed treatment is given in the Guides. According 10 thee~l"lniite
11
the design can be based on maximum prying forces and minimum plate chicknes . ' des.
be based on no prying forces with a corresponding thicker plate. These alternativ: or can
the designer to opcimize either the bolr diameter or the eod-plate thickness as de . s allo\\
. . . • Stre(f
rt 1s often des1rable to exrend the piace outsrde the beam flange so that ali ·
welding can be done in the shop. See ATSC Manual, p . 12-8 for diagrains and :: ~
assumptions for the extended end-plate FR moment conuections. 51Zli
EXAMPLE 13.6.5
Design an end-plate connection fora WJ4X53 beam all:l.chment co_ a Wi4X176 c:o\u
both of A992 steel. Use A572 Grnde 50 for the end plate. Design tor maximum ( 010
beam moment and 85 kips factored shear. Use A490 bolts in a bearing-tvpe e acto~
(A490-X). Use the AISC LRFD Design Method. ~ · onnect10
Solution:
(a) Determine the diameter of the boh assunùng :l. 4-bolt pattern {equired 1 .
O
the faccored bending rnoment. Tue desig n moment s treugth <PbM,, of che beam is l'eSr
'PbMn = <PbMp = <Pi,ZxF_v = 0.90(87.1 )(50)12 = 327 ft-k:ips

<PbMn 327( 12)
Max T. = - -- = - -- - - = ">96 k1·ps
" d - 1ft, 13.92 - 0.660 -
For A490 bolts.
</>R,, = </>(0.75Ab)Ft = 0.75(113)Ab = 84.8Ab

. Max T,, 296
Reqmred bolt area = - <J>R,.
-- = -84.8- = 3.5 sq in.
Section 13 6
·
eontinuous
. Beam-to-Column Connections • 719
Noie
1 l"."5--it--------l....
1e1ii,r 8 rr--.,__-~_
11$,t ili
fi11;,
ltt~
liii
r'gn~
)
Figure 13.6. 16
~è!jf,: End-plate connection for
Examplc 13.6.5.
~!~;
~5M,,
Boli~: I" diam A325
1?Mmr·
r'h:,~ . The requìred bolr diameter whcn a 4-boll pattern is used.
f!ardre;~1
,j~ll; = rrotal Area ( 4) fE .·
llt.!,~[,
dh ~~ 4 -;; = 'vi~ = 1.06 m. Use I~ in.
'li.mi.¾·,,:.
(b) Escablish che pian dimensions of the end plate. For determining 1he discance s
(Fig. 13,6.16) the fillet weld size {for E70 electrodes) and the bolt insra!lation clear-
'aia;,;;_ ance are needed.
'll(aliy-!
~ù,t,_ 296 _ . . ;-
iii;r,ti 2(8.060) - 0.370 - 18·8 kipS, m.
fldx--.
• ~l:ni . Because che maximum effective fillet weld size along the 0.660 in. flange ìs 0.48 in .. 18.8
C!l,tif• kips/in. cannot be developed {see Table 5.14.2, which indicates ¾-in. wdd using E80 elec-
;oW. trodes is needed to obtain 18.8 kips/in.). Thus, use full penetration groove weld. The min-
1~11; imum assembling clearance for I l-in.-diam bolts is given by A/SCManual Table 7-16.
p. 7-81 "Entering and Tightening Ciearance,'' as 1 fi,-in. {typìcally ahout in. more than !
bolt diameter).
Distance s (Fig. 13.6.16) = I~ + i = 2. 19 in.

Try a plate 9 in. wide and about 18 in. long.
(e) Estimate piace thickness tP required. A conservative procedure is to use Eq. 13.6.40
with the prying force Q set equal to zero. The distance b' will be
dh 1.125
b' =s - = 2.19 - - - = 1.63 in.
2 2
4.44 Tb' 4.44(2%/2) 1.63
1
1.35 in .
P 2: wF,,(l + aS) 9(65)(1 + O)
The designer could probably use the procedure in Ex.ampie 13.6.4 relating lo the prying action
Q 10 justify a thinner plate. _ .
(d) Check combined shear and tensmn on bolts. Referrmg lo Sec. 4.14, compute
stress fuv resulting from factored shear.
V,, 85
14.3 ksi
f.,v = Ab = 6( 0.994)
The factored Joad rensile stress limit F~, from AISC Formula (J3-3a) for J\490-)(.
1
F. ( I 13 ) 14 3 '
F;,, = l.3Fm - ,,__;' J,w = 1.3 (Jl3) - 0.75(75) · "" ll8ksi
lf'r,u,•
The upper limit is Fn, = I 13 ksi. Combined shear and tensio~ is nota problcin.
(e) Lengrh of end plate. At the end near the compresswn flange of the be
ofren desirable ro extend the plate outside the bearn flange an amount equa! lo th arn, it ÌI
thickness 'P (or even farther). This will increase t~e length of the critica) sec1i~;ndpla1e
computing the strength based on locai web yreldmg. The Slrength in loca) Web ~d Ìij
under a concentrated load is given by AISC-J l0. 2 ; however, a concentratcd 1 . Y•eldin
I .. 11 h oadp g
through a thick end-plate distributes over a ong_er cnttca engt · Hendrick anct <ISsing
[ 13.75] bave recommended the following express1on for thefactored compres . Muri-""
s1on re . -,
strength Pbf. ~
Pbf = F,.ctwJIJt, + 6k + 2tp + 2a)
where P1,f = facrored compression farce from beam flange
tw, = column web thickness
'fl, = beam flange chickncss
k = distance from face of column flange ro root of fillet
lp = thickness of end-plate
a = fillet weld feg dimension for beam flange to end-plate welu
In this exacnple,
pbf = 50(0.830)[0.660 + 6(2.0) + 2(1.375) + 2(0.75) J e: 700 kips
This far exceeds the factored applied compression force of 296 kips and is· th erefore
factory without stiffeners. sati1.
The overall web buckling of the column should be checked accord'111g (O A
JI0.5, as well as web crippling according to AlSC-J lO.J. These checks and the . . !Se.
any stiffeners required have been previously shown at the beginnino of th' design of
e IS secr1
Example 13.6. I . 0n in
Use PL- 11x9x I· -6-21 " wirh 6- 1 8!-in.-diam bohs in a bearin!!:-type conneci·
.-8 . ' - ton (A 490 ,
as shown 111 F1g. 13.6.16. ·Xi,
Murray [1 3.79] has provided an overall treatment of extended end- 1
connections that is endorsed by AISC. p ate rnome 01
•
Beam to Column-Web Direct Connection
Instead of using verti e al tee stiffeners (Fig. 13.6. lc) or complicated details h
in Fig. 13.6.3, occasionally the designer would prefer to auach a beam dire~~c as showo
10 th
umn web, using either a welded or bolted connecrion. The column web must hy e co(.
· l en re ·
moment effect by plate action. Sis1 the
Abolitz and Warner [13.80], Stockwell f 13.81]. and Kapp ( I 3.82} h ,
yield line analyses to detennine the strength of a column web when directl a\e presented
. d. . . R y attached b
moment connecuon or a irect tens1on connect1on. entschler. Chen and D . Ya
· , nscoll [I 3
13.83], Hoptay and Ainso [13.84], and Hopper, Batson. and Aìnso [13 85] h
. · · ave co d
-58.
?f
tesrs such ~onnectt~ns. A!tachm~nt of beams to box columns presents a similar _n _u,,ed
Practical design data 1s preseoted m Ref. 13.81 ; other design recommenda . Slluation.
Ref. 13.85. A detailed discussion of yield line analysis and desion 01- the ttons appear in
. e se connec ·
outs1de the scope of this text. Ilo~ is
Section 13 7 e .
· ontmuous Beam-to-Beam Connections • 721
Figure 13.7.1
Jntersecting beam
connections: tension
flanges not atrached to
each other. (a)
(b)
13.7 CONTINUOUS BEAM-TO-BEAM CONNECTIONS

When be~ms frame transversely to other beams or girders, they may be attached to either
or both s1des of the girder web using simple shear (framed beam) connections (Sec. 13.2)
or using simple seats in combination with a framed beam connection (Sec. 13.3). When
full continuity of the beam is desired, the connection must dcvelop a higher degree of
rigidity than provided by simple shear connections. For beam-to-heam connections, the
principal objective is to provide a means of allowing the tensile force <leveloped in one
beam flange to be carried across to the adjacent beam framing oppositc che gisder web.
These connections may be divided into 1wo categories; (I) those with intersecting tension
flanges not rigidly attached to one another, as in Fig. I 3.7. I; and (2) those with rigidly
attached intersecting tension flanges, as in Fig. 13.7 .2.
When the intersecting tension flanges are not rigidly attached (Fig. 13.7.1) che con-
~;:,
neccion design is essentially a tension member design al the tension flange along with a
~.: shear connection.
IC(", On the other hand, the designer should be cautious when designing intersecting
beams with tension flanges attached, since this case becomes onc of biaxial instcad of uni-
axial stress. With biaxial stress the possibility of briule fracture increases (see Sec. 2. 9). lo
addition, a bìaxial stress yield criterion must be used. such as Eq. 2.6.2. to establish safety:
a; = a} + a1 - 0-1<.12 [2.6.21
e prìncìpal stresses acting. When the beams frame at 90 <legrees to one
where a 1 , a 2 are th _ _ ..
-
anot herehe ax1a1 stres•es
,, in the flanoes
e
are pnnc1pal stresses.
( )
Figure 13.7.2
liuersec1ing beam
COnncc1ion: tension tlanges
llllaclu,J to each other.
Tue designer should make certain the u y of Eq. 2.6.2 doe

. . . s~
1ension-eompress1on y1eld stress Fy under factored loads for 1he AlSC LRF C)(ceCd
DMelJiOd_thc
13.8 RIGID-FRAME KNEES

In 1he design of~gid frames, the safc 1ransmiss_ion ~fload_a1 l h e j u n c i i o n ~
umn is of great
. .nnportance.
. When members JOtn wuh . 1he1r
. webs. Jying 1n
. thebcarn and COj
I
frame, the Juncuon 1s frequently referred 10 as a knee JOmt. Typ1cal knee . . P anc of ·
square knee, with or without a diagonal or other stiffencr (Fig. . afld are ( 1·i Uic
13.8. 1aJoints
square knec wi1h a bracket (Fig. 13.8.1 e); (3) the s1raight haunched knee . b); (2)
and (4) the curved haunched knee (Fig. 13.8.Je). (Frg. 13,g 1llit
In the analysis of a strucrure, 1he designer commonly assumcs the . · dJ;
10 extend from center-to-center of joints; in 1his case the knees. The span of a l'llell\
would be assumed !O vary in accordance with the moment of inertia :rnent Of ine~
taken at right angles to Jines extending center-to-center of knecs. [nrem I a cross-seq'.Ua
determined using statically indeterminate analysis, including the variab! a forccs are t~on
tia effect when the k.n ees are haunched or curved. e mornenr of in:
(a) Squarc knee (bl Squatt k11ee

wi1houc shffencr with s1iffc-ner
(cl Squarela>ee (d) Scraight haunehcd

wilh braekcl knce (iap,ettd haunch)
Figure 13.8.1
Rigid-frame knees. (~) Curved haunched k.nce
Section 13.8 Rigid-Frame Knees • 723
ASCEThe
M generai design
·
con ts 1· · · d ·
cep app 1cab1e for n gid frame knees are surnmarize m
~
O
a;ua141 l7.2, pp. 167-1 86] which forrns the basis for much of what follows.
b e adequately designed, a knee connection must ( I ) transfer the end rnoment
l th
etween e beam and the column, (2) transfer the beam end shear into t.he colurnn, and (3)
lransfer th~ shear at the top of the column into the heam. Furthermore, in performing the
three funcaons relating lo strcngth, lhe knee must deforrn in a manner consistent with the
analysis by which moments and shears were detennined.
lf a plastic hinge associated with the failure mechanism is expected to form at or near
the knee, adeguate rotation capacity must be built into tbe connection. Square knees have
the greatest rotation capacity but are also the most flexible (i.e .. deform elastically the most
under service load conditions.) Curved knees are the stiffesl but have the least rotation
capacity. Since straight tapered knees provide reasonable stiffncss along with adequate
rotation capacity, in addition lo the fact that they are cheaper than curved haunches to fab-
ricate, the straight haunched knees are commonly used.
Shear Transfer in Square Knees
In the design of a rigid frame having square knees, two rolled sections may come together
at right angles as shown in Fig. 13.8.1 a. A frame analysis. either elastic or plas1ic, wi~l have
e~tablished what moments and shears act on the boundaries of thc square knee region. as
shown in Fig. I 3.8.2a. The forces carried by the tlanges musi be transmitted by shear into
thc web, as shown in Fig. 13.8.2b.
Aangt
t 1
A 8
c:====~=====112-
D e
~~lv)M - H
I
db
l
,
,1 1
I
1
8
Web
•
-!.....
~M
lv
·--
(bi Force, on corner
(a) Unrcinforced rtgion
squa,c knee
8'
D' (di Equivnlcnt w,b

(e) Web deformed ddom13tion dur
Figure 13.8.2 due 1oshtar 10 she3r
Sbear transfer in a square
knte.
Assuming all bending moment to be carried by the . flanges,

· and approx·1ma11.
distance between flange eentroids as 0.95db, the f1 ange f orce 1s ng 1ht
M
T = --
0.95db 03.&,]j
where di> is the overall depth of the beam. The nominai strength in shear of th e web
AB .i s atr~\
Vn = Vab = Tylwdc
where dc is the overall depth ofthe column.

The facrored moment M,, givcs rise to 1be factored tension force T. Th
strength ,f>V,, may then be equa1ed to T,, 10 give 1he required web thickness 11t••
,,. e de~ign
(13.8.3)
03.8.4)
In accordance with AISC-Jl0.6, Tv = 0.6Fy, and <b = 0.90 for lhe yieldin l' .
Equation 13.8.4 when solved for the required web thickness 1,~- givcs g •mn t!aJe.
0 3.8.Sj
where Abc = dbdc = the planar area within the knee. Equations l3.8.4-and 13.& 5
thai interaction between axial ,l oad Pu and column shear Vu does not control· . assume
P,, s 0.4P,. for tbc column. ' • .e., lhat
This same approach rnust be used when beams frame on opposite faces f
producing a high shear on the column web. as shown in Fig. 13.8.3. Tbe tota~s: co)oll\n
transferred across AB is ear 10 be
Total factored shear = Cui + T,,2 - V,, 0 3.8.6)
where C,, 1 = compression force produced by M,, 1
T,,2 = tensi.le force produced by M,,2
V., = factored shear in the c.olmnn
j
V
V
"
e,,, __ . . . ...,..
A Fi
'
<,. dh ~'"
D e
)
Figure 13.8.3 v"

Ge-neral case of shear transfer
within a rigid joint. •
V
. . . ' . ' -- ~~· - ---: ..,.• .:. !\ ' -

Section 13.8 Rigid-Frame Knees • 725
T
• ~::::,;:::------c:,-----,,--.....J-
r,cos8 ,, v.,,
''
'
e(',
~
figure !3.8.4
The tota! factored shear given by Eq. 13.8.6 would replace T,, in the developmenc of
Eq. 13.8.5. Thus, for two beams of egual depth framing on opposite faces of a column,
(13.8.7)
In a rigid frame knee, the required web thickness will typically exceed thai provided
by a W seccion: thus, reinforcemenl will be required. A doubler pi ate is sornetimes used to
thicken the web region; a generally impractical solution because of tbc diftìculty making
the attachment co the column web. Usually a pair of diagonal stiffeners is the best solution.
When diagonal stiffeners are used, the horizontal component C, cos 0 ofche stiffener
force C, panicipates with the web. Equilibrium (Fig. 13.8.4) tl1en requires
mdl%
OOliall,i:
T == Vai, + Cs cos fl ( 13.8.8)
or
M
- -"- = <f>v(0.60F,.)1wdc + A;1<!>Jc,.COS e ( l 3.8.9)
0.95db ·
Solving for required A., gives
Required A
"
1
1
= ( <f>cFcr COS 8) [ ~-
0.95db
1A-l_,
t/>u(0.60Fv) 1 (l 3.8.1 O)
where ,j>.11 = 0.90 for the yield limi! for shear

cf> = 0.90 for compression elements
e = com ression Jimit state stress compu1ed using AISC-E3 in the manncr
Fc, simifarto the stabilty limit state for bearing. stiffeners. a~ discussed
in Sec. I 1.11
EXAMPLE 13.8.1
· M thod desi<>n the squre knec connrction 10 join a W27X9~
. th LRFD Des1an e , "' . h I . . .
U.smg e ~lumn. The factored moment M,, to be camed throug t \e JOJnl 1s
g1rder to a w1 4 x 74 e ç he W sections. A572 Gradc 50 for the plates, and E70 ckc-
376 ft-kips. Use A992 ,or t •.
. h h·elded
1
metal are weldrng (SMAW).
trodes wll s
Section l3.B Rigid-Frame Knees • 727
(d) Determine the fillet Weld .

transmit the factored fJ ~ . s1ze along length AB in Fig. 13.8.5. Tiie weld tnus1
ange ,orce mio the be . b Th .
t h at can develop is A. F. A am we · e maximum design flanae force
'+'t y f, e
Flangeforce<t>,J,;A/ = 0.90(50)(10.070)0.785 = 356kips

The design strength of fillet welds along bolh sides of web is
rMnw = 0.75t,(0.6Dlixx) = 0.7S{0.707)2a(42) = 44.6a

Available length for weld = 26.92 - 2(0.745) = 25.4 in.
. 356
Reqmred a= - - -- = O 31 ,·n
25.4(44.6) ·- .
eh· eck ·. a max eff -_ 0.707 r:fwh

FExx = 0.707
65(0.490 )
= 0.32 in. > 0.3 l in. OK
70
M'ma= s. = 0.785 in.)
16-m. from Table 5.11.1 (for tfc
Use ft-in. E70 fillel. weld along leng1h AB (both sides of girder web).
(e) Determine fillet weld size along leng1h BC. The connection of lhe column we b
to the beam flange must carry lhe force resulting from flexure and axiaJ load combined
with the shear. At 1he most highly stressed location lhere will be tension and shear acting
simultaneously on the weld. A conservative approach will be to compu1e the resuhanr o f
the shear and tension compone-nts.
Tensile component = <f>rF_iw = 0.90(50)0.450 = 20.3 kips/in.

Vu 21 . /'
Shear component = ~ = 14 _17 _ 2 (0 .785 ) = 1.7 k:ips_ m.
2
Resultant Joading = V(20.3 )2 + (1.7) = 20.4 kips/in.
20 4
· - · = 0.46 in.
Requi red n - 2(0.707)(0.75)42
- nent is clominant maximum effcctive weld size is

Since the tens11e compo · '
c</JrF,. = 2rp(0.707)a(0.60FExx)
1111
0.450(0.90)50 .
- - -,---:·- - - ·- = 0.46 ]Il. OK
Oma• cff = 2(0.75)(0.707)(0.60)70
1
Id Jong length BC (both sides of column wch ).
Use 2-in. E70 lillet w ~ ~ ..:::..:::.~ - -- - - - - - - . .
. . uircd along stiffencr, . The wl'ld mn~t Jcw lop llw ,r,n-
(f) Detenrune the welcl req
ener strength.
_ ,; A = 0.90(50)(2)(.l0)0.50 :a 135 kip~
iJ>C., - rf>r, " ,r
135/ (1 4.17/_.:.o~ fl) _ 0 .()6 in.
Required 11 = 4(0. 707)(0.75)42
. - l _·111 (Tabk 5.11 .I for ~. in. ,1il'ft·ni:-r)
Mm a - 10 ·
.,
1
omn~a~I~A~C_!(,:b:::::;..
o«h:....~..:.;id:....e_s_o_f .:..gi_rd_e_r_"_'c_t>_}.
J .
Use Ji;·'"· E70
_ fillel__
weld aJong
_ d_!<L.,.
(g) Determine the cxrent of stiffener required from point C vertically into .
The design strength based on local web yielding ~I~C-J I 0.2 of the W27X94
carry rhe design compression force Pbf from the mside column flange at e is . lQ
!::e,.
, Us1ng_
Eq. 13.6.1.
f>t,J = cf>(5k + ljb)F;-ulwc [13.6. Il
== I.O[5( 1.4375) + 0.785]( 50 )0.490 == 196 kips
where r .b is the thick.ness of the W14X74 flange transmitting the force, and lwc is th
1 · · th " e Web
thickness of the W27X94 resistmg e ,orce.
Since the flange concentrated load from che colunrn is 356 kips, as computcd.
. h k . inp
(d). and the diagonal sriffeners are already performmg anot er tas , vertical stiffeners n, <IIl
be used along CD. When stiffeners are needed to prevenr locai flange yielding (A. 11st
JI0.2) or locai flange bending (AISC-J IO. I), thcy must extend "at least one-half th !Se.
of the web". Perhaps the designe~ should ~l~o investigate the strength b~sed on wc\d:~th
ling (AISC-JI0.3); however, wnh the sutfeners along CD and the diagona] .,,,. P-
P . b . 1· . st111ene
alono AC (which were investigated as a column) we cnpp mg ts adequately pr . ts
" . . . . ·. · ff e,en1e.1
When the locai web y1eldmg hm1t stale does not requne su . eners, the web crippr!no hm· . .
state should be investigated. " -li
(h) Establish piace size for stiffeners along CD. The required area of stiffeners,
(356 · 196)/2 80
Required arca = cf>Jy == 0 _9Q(SO) == 1.8 sq in./ platc
bfb - fwb 9.990 - 0.490

Width available = = 2
== 4.8 in.
2
8
Minimum t5 = -'- = O.4-:> .m. assulning 4-in. platcs
4.0
Use ½-in. plates. To preclude the locai buckling limit state,. À must not exceed À r accordll)
.
to AISC-B4. Here .A = 8.0, which does not exceed I S.8 (1.e., Àr) and is acceptable \" g
· h · · · ,•ben
the strength M,, required within the knee 1s l e plast1c momentstrenoth M . .
. • ~~ . • :, P' Il Wd)
be preferable to keep .A ~ Àp. Smce Àp = 65/ V F,,.ks1 == 10.8, m thts case A
,,. 13.p8·.5)
Use 2PLs-½X4Xl '-O", tapered from full width at C to zero width at D (Fio
< A
..
Straight Haunch and Curved Haunch Knees
Straight haunch knees (aJsocalled tapered haunches). as shown in Fio ,,. 13 ·8 · Id • and curved
haunch knees. as shown in Fig. 13.8. le, may extend over a significant portion of a s . .
which case they are not really connections but rather an intergral part of a variable l:an. in
of inerti a frame. Detailed treatment of lapered and curved haunches ìs available in BIo;ent0
[ 13.2) and ASCE Manual 41 [7.2]. For analysis of rigid frames , the reader is re~ dgeu
. .. . '~ffi
Smgle Span R1g1d Frames III Steel [13.86].
3.9 COLUMN BASE PLATES
Column base plates distribute the concentrated loads of columns to the supportino ed.
"'m mm
commonly a concrete pedestal or footing. These heavy Joads mnst be distributed 10 ·
Cl·us··,· 11g of· th e concre
· te support. A no11er
I concern 1s
· t he connectio
· n, or anchornge of ihe
preveni
ba~
Section 13.9 Column Base Plates • 729
plate and column 10 th
ity may be 01- · e concrcce foundation. In frame analysis evaluation of <legree of fix-
interest Th . '
Method. · e presentatton that follows is according to the AISC LRFD
Base Plates Under Axial Load

The design of base pi .
ates involves severa! considerations:
l. The area of the b .
ase P1ate w1ll depcnd on the bcaring strength of 1he concrece or
grout under the steel plate.
2 h th
· T e ickness of the plate will be controlled by 1he bending strength of the plate.
th
:hen e plate dimensions Band N, shown in Fig. 13.9. la, are significantly larger
an lhe profile dimensions b and d of the steel section, the traditional approach is
to deS tgn the plate as having cantilever spans m and 11 uniformly loaded.
3
· For plates not extending much beyond the profile Jimits of the steel section. an
a_ltemate approach is required. This situation arises w hen the column load is rela-
tively smal\. In this case the lightly loaded plate may be treated as uniformly
loaded over an H-shaped arca AH adjacent to 1he inside perimerer of the column,
as shown in Fig. 13.9. lb.
The AISC Specijìcmion does not give a specific design procedure for base platcs.
The AISC Manu.al section "COLUMN BASE PLATES FOR AXI AL COMPRESSLON,''
pp. 14--4 lo 14-7, contains the procedure presented in 1990 by Thornton { 13.87]. which
includes design of both heavily and Jightly toaded plates. Lightly loaded base plates
have traditionally given designers difficulty hecause the cantilever disrances 11 and m of
Fig. 13.9 .1a were small, giving little or no calcula1ed thickness to resist bendi.ng. Stock-
well [ l 3.881 suggested a yield-line solution, and Murray [13.89] significantly extendèd
the yield-line approach. Ahmed and Kreps [ 13.90] dcmonstrated the inconsistencies in
the early design suggestions. DeWolf (13.9 1} and Fling [13.92] have also treated the
subject. Thornlon (13.87, I 3.93] summarized and synthesized these studies to obtain the
c urrently accepted procedure.
I
Il
""
il
l
h'-r-r-o-cr-rrt--.-r--.-1==t:~P = bearing pressure
~~~~-r~- ~
1 '!.
=f-1 I
Id
!
I
(b) y ,<id line ar:,roich

(a) Cantilever approadl for fùr :-.. m:.dl pl.,tc:-.
lar~e plo1es
Establish the Pian Dimensions B x N.

This will be controlled by bearing on the concrete in accordance with AISC-J8. Ìhc
bearing strcngrh tJ,,.Pp musr at least equa) rhe factored column load P,,. design
tf,,.Pp 2: P,,
There are 1wo caregories for nominai srrength Pp in bearing:
J. Bearing on the full area A I of a concrete support,
Pp == 0.85/~ A 1
<13.9.2
2. Bearing on area A I which is less than full area A 2 of a concrete supPon, J
Pp = 0.85f~ A 1~ s 0.85/~(2Ar)
(13.9_3)
where <pe = 0.60 for bearing on concrete
A1 =
area (B x N in Fig. 13.9. l) of steel pia te concentricaliy bcaring on a
concrete support
A 2 = maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is
geometrically similar to and concenrric with the loaded area
f;. = specified 28-day compressive strenglh for concete
/p = P11/ BN
Plate Thickness According to the Cantilever Method.
Assuming the bearing pressure is uniform over the entire bearim?

-
plate ' the faCIOred
tilever moment is can.
2
Nn ) ( on section paraJlel to column web)
Mu=/p ( 2 ( 13.9.4aJ
_ (B
Mu - /p
111
2
2
) ( on section parallel to column tlanges)
(13.9Ab)
The yielding Iimit state for bending on the plate requires
U3.9.5i
where
</>bM11 = <f>bMp = <f>bZF_,. = c/,b(Nt~/ 4)F,. ( I3.9.6a)
<P&M,, = <PbMp = <PbZF_,. = <f>b(B11/ 4 )Fy (13.9.6b\
. Equating <p1,M,, with M11 • Eq. I3.9.4a with Eq. 13.9.6ri, and Eq. 13.9.4b with Eq 13
g1ves the following two equations · .9.6b,
( Nr~)F. (Nn2 2
= )
<Pb 4 .1 J,, (\3.9.7al
Bt~) _ (
<Pb( 4 F_\' - /p - 2-
B111
2
)
(ll9Jb)
So)ving for IP in Eqs 13 9 7 .

· · . g1ves
[21;"
IP= n\j--;;;:'j: or (13.9.8)
<PbF;,
or,with<f>b = 0.90' Eq·s. 1398
. . become
or (13.9.9)
Plate Thickness A d'

ccoi mg to Yield Une Approach.
In this semi-empirica! a h h .
13 9 9 Th , ppr~ac , t e effecuve cantilever length Àn' replaces m or II in Eq.
· · · ornton s fonnulanon [ 13.93] of the yield-line analysis indicates,
n' = ¼Vdbr (13.9.10)

where
d = overall depth of the stcel W scction
bf = flange width of lhe steel W section
The factor À relates to the load P,, carried by the area dbr actuaUy loaded. Thomtoo
[ I3.87] gives ·
À = --
2v'x
-==- (13.9.ll)
where +~
X= 4Po ~ (13.9.12}
2 I.O
(d + br) FP
where Fr, = limiting bearing pressure 0.85f;. from AISC-J8

Po = P,,(dhr/ BN )
Substituting for Po in Eq. I 3.9.12 and noting that Pv = fì,( BN) gives
4 ( dbr\ 4db'" p
X = - -- - - P. - - = . ....!!.. < l 0 ( 13.9. 13)
(d + b{)2 FP u BN) (d + br)2 P,, -· .
Thornton [ 13.87) developed À as the link between thc Munay [ 13.89] -Stock wcl! II 3.86]
method and his method [13.93]. Essentially, À = I is 1hc d1,·ide between lightly 1oaded
(À < l) and heavily loaded situations. From Eq. ì3.9. l l, ,\ I when X = 0.64. 0~
For the AISC LRFD Method design purpose.s. the A!SC Momwf (p. !4-5) placed the
4>.- with Pp in the denomjnator of Eq. 13.9.13. Thus.
(U.9.14)
The ino·oduction of ,j,, is unrelated 10 the derivation of X, and wiihin the accuracy of the method
ma.kes no difference; however, in the useof Eq. 13.9. !4. the link 10 &j. JJ.9.1 ìs a practic,tl one.
Design Equation.
Tue required thickness for an axially loaded base platc is. r,·ferring ,oEqs, 13.9. :J,1
lp = l.5(1argest of11,111, orÀ11

1
)v"irJ;i,: (13 .9. !.:'-)
where 11 = (B - 0.8h1)/2
m = (N - 0.95d)/ 2
n' = ¼Vdbt
À - - - 2vx
~== < I; conservatively À =I
- I + ~ -
4dht P,,
X= -- $ 1.0
(d + b1 ) ,P,.Pp
2
Inherenrly. À can cxcecd J.O; howc~cr, when it does, the plate is heaviJy loadC(j and h
1
simple cantilever method is appropnate. . . e
Some practical aspects of column base selecuon are g1ven by Ricker [ 13 _941
·. De
Wolf ancl Ricker [ 13.95) have presented an overall treatment of column base Plate des1gn_
EXAMPLE 13.9.1
Design a base plate fora Wl4X 145 colu~ of A_992 steel to carry factored axial loads of
kips dead load. 275 kips live Joad. and 100 k1~s wrn~. Ass~me a concrete pedestal wil) be u !
the base plate and the pedestal will have a d1mens1on 6 m. larger dian the base plate . r
h
dircction. Tue steel is A36 and the concrete has f~- = 3 ksi. Use the AlSC LRFD M.et~~eac
Solutwn:
(a) Compule the factored load Pu.
P,, = l.2Po + l.6PL = 1.2( 400) + 1.6(275) = 920 kip~
Pu = I .2Po + 0.5Pi + l .3Pw
= J.2(400) + 0.5(275) + 1.3(100) = 748 kips
The factored load Pu to be carried is 920 kips.

(b) Determine the maximum base plate area A I required. Assuming thc ped .
. . . d . E esta11,
exactly the d1mens1ons of the base plate, the requ1re area usmg q. 13.9.2 would be
. P,, 920 .
Requ1Ted A 1 = ,P(O.S5 )J~ 0 _60 ( 0 _85 ) 3 = 601 sq m.
1:"e pla te should be approximately square, with slight differences in dimensions 8 and Nt
0
g1ve nearly equa) values for m and n.
0.80b1= 0.80(15.50) = l2.40in.

0.95d = 0.95( 14.78) = 14.04 in.
Try 8 = 24 in. and N = 25 in. This would make the concrete pedestal 30 in. by 31 .
with an area A 2 = 930 sq in. Using Eq. 13.9.3. in.
~ = \/930/ 600 = 1.24 s 2.0

Preliminary required A 1 601
Required A 1 = 1.
24
= 1.
24
= 485 sq in.
UseB = 2 1 in.andN = 23in.givingA 1 = 483sq.in.Addingthe6in.toeacl1 d1·1 .
w,·11 m ake the pedestal 27 m.
.
.
.
.
• . .
nens1on
by 29 m. and A 2 = 783 sq in. Usino Eq 13 9· 3 aua· .
o lllg1ves
•.
0
• · ·
reqmred A 1 "." 472 sq m. Keep10g beanng piace d1mens1ons m whole inches, this calculatì
converges qmckly. on
(e) Determine the plate thickness. Using Eq. 13.9. 15.
1P = l.5(largest of n, m. or An') 0
V F)'
(13.9.15)
n = 0.5(8 - 0.8hr) = 0.5(21 - 12.40) = 4.30 in.
m = 0.S(N - 0.95d) = 0 .5(23 - 14.04 ) = 4.48 in.

Using rhe selected B = 21 in. and N = 23 in.,
e
1>cP,, = 0.60(0.8SJ;.)A 1~
e = o.6o(o.8s)(3)( 483) V783/483
I.
= l.53(483)1.27 = 941 k.ips
4db1 P., 4(14.78)15.50 920
X= - -- -'----- -2 -- = 0.97 > 0.64
(d + bi )2 c/JcPp (14.78 + 15.50) 941
o
!t When X > 0.64. A = I. Then
h
n' = ¼Wbf = ¼\/'14.78(15.50) = 3.78 in.
The largest of n, m, and 111 i~ 4.48 in.
TP = 1.5(largest of 11, m, or An' \ffi;,

920
= 1.5(4.48)) P. = 1.5(4.48) / = l.54in.
~ BNFy \· 21(23)36
Thus, the cantilever method requires the greater thickne:.s ( 1 54 in.).

!S Useplate 1!x 21x1'-11· . Only rarely will the yield line approach fom,ulas gin~ the
greater thickness.
•
Column Bases to Resist Mornent
Column bases frequently must resist rnomen( in addi1imi to aY1.il ..:ompress;on. 1111: ~irnn
tion has some similarities to the behavior of bolted connr:ctim•~ d1~1.:usse., in Chap,er -+.
and in many respects is analogous to the situJtion or r~i,1fo,c1 nt; b;.rs in <.oncrete <.011-
struction. The axial force causes a precompression ber,vecn ti-,e bJ~::: pìate Jnd the ct,11tact
surface (frequently a concrete wall or footing). \Vhen the mo,nent i, a-;iphed. the prc.:om-
pression on the tension side in flexure is reò1.1ced. o rten l<' t,crù, ka\ int only the anc hor
bolt to provide the tensile force resistance. O n thr c0mp1es~1un .,1J e, !he contact ,u·ea
remains in compression. The anchorage will have an abilit) to t:ndcrgo rotarinnal dcfor-
mation. depending primarily on the le.ngth ol' anchor b())! .w ailablt: to èdorm i'lasu~·ul\y.
Also, the behavior is influenced by whether or not thc anchor bt,lts an: givi:11 ;rn inùial prc-
tension (sirnilar to the installation of high-s1reng1h bolts as discuss.:d in C hapter -1). The
momenl-rotation characteristics of column anchornges are tre.;ued in dt-w.il by Salnwn_
Schenker, and Johnston [ 13.96].
A number of elaborate methOd$ are availablc for de,igni.ng n1:)m,;:nt-r..:sis1ing 1,as~·s.
with variations depending on 1he magnirnde of the eccemricity of londing ,lllll tbc ~pn ·ilic
details of the anchorage. Some simple details are shown in Fig . 13.9.2
Figure I 3.9.2
Column bascs.
Whe n the eccentricity of loading, e = M / P. is small such that it does

. . . ct· . f b d. (" . h. . noi excP~• i
of the piace d1mens1on N in the irecuon o en ing 1.e., wn m the middle th· '""',
1rd
plate dimension), the ordinary combined s1ress formula applies. Thus for small of thc
e.
(l3.9.16j
where M Pe.
S = Ar2/ (N/ 2) AN/ 6
r 2 = N2/ t2
/p = A ±
P 6Pe P[ 6e ]
AN = A I ± N (13.9_17,
Equation 13.9. I 7 is correct for e ::; N / 6 when tbere is no bolr pretension and .
' IS CO ·
cred satisfactory for practical purposes al least up IO e = N /2 without serious nsid-
error.
1'M
, Channel section
- Plale <tiffener:<
T Top of masonry
Figure 13.9.3
Momenr-resis1ing column
an(;horage. N
Section 13.10 Beam Splices • 735
When the ecccnt . .

becomes ìnacc· . ncny e exceeds N/6, part of the base plate at the tension face
we an<l the str d' ·bu · · · ·
practical assun1 1. ess lslrt llon becomes as shown 111 F1g. 13.9.3. A s1mple
bution is I · Pt on
d ct· to use for su ·h · · · h h f l · d' ·
e a s1tuat1on 1s t at t e rcsultant o t 1e tnangular 1stn·
ocate 1recily d h .
is designed f un er t e compress1on flange of che column. When large moment
moi~ com 1 °\;enerally the .attachment a1Tangement 10 the base of the column becomes
umn ba P ;xI th
an ose ol F1g. 13.9.2. Fora 111ore detailed presentation on designing col-
•tud'e sefsb or moment, the reader is referre<l to Blodgett [13.2. Scc. 3.3]. Experimental
·' 1 so asc plate · b · .
Sarisle [l 3 s su Je<.:t to ax1al load and n10ment have becn reponed by DeWolf and
Y •·
971 and Thamb1ratnam and Paramasivan (13.98].
13.10 BEAM SPLICES
There are severa) reaso h . .

_ ns w Y aro11ed beam or plate g1rder may be sphced, such as: (I) the
th
lui~ leng may not be available from the mili; (2) the fabricator may fincl it economica) to
spl~ce even when the full length coul<l be obtained; (3) che <lesioner may desirc to use
sphce p 01 1t ·ct , . . . "' -
~ s_ as ~n 31 to cambenng: and (4) che designer may desne a change m ~ecuon to
.
th 1
fit e vanauon ~ strength rcquired along the span.
Il
6 On each s1de of a joim, one must provide for che transverse shear and he11ding
he moment._ Por welded plate girders, ancl frequently for rolled beams. the splice may be
accompl!shcd by a full-penetration groove wcld. Splice, of materiai m ade en1ìrely i.n thc
shop are nearly always groove weldecl. Fielcl splices are becoming more frequently ali
6) welded, though usually using lapping of pieces and fille1-·welded connecrions. instead of
groove welding where dimensionai contro! is a criticai factor. Sin<.:e foll -penerra1ion groc>,·e·
welded splices are as strong as the base materiai, chey require no funher co111ment here.
. Many field splices for beams and welded plate girders use laping splice plates and
htgh-strength bolts as connectors. In this section the four-plate beam spi ice is t.reated.
Splices are dcsigned for the mo1nent M ancl the shear V occurring at the spi ice.cl point.
or they are clesigned for some arbitrary or spedficatio11-prescribcd highcr valucs. AISC.J6
i7) requires groove-welded splices to "dcvelop che full strength of t.he smaller spLiced section ...
"Other types of splices in cross sections of plar.e girdcrs and beam s shall des elop rhe
strength required by the forces at the point of splice: · Earlier AISC Specifications required
splices to develop not less than 50% of the effeclive srrength of thc m ateriai spliccct.
For beam splices, each element of the splice is designcd 10 do thc \\Ork rhc m ate1i al
underlying the splice plates could do if uncut. Platcs on the tl.ingc do thc work of the
.flange, while plates over the web do the work of the web One typical a1Tangeme11r of a
four-plate splìce is shown in Fig. 13. I O. I.
When determining the forces for which Lo ck, ign. onc should recognizc 1ba1 th e
splice actually covers a finite distance along thc span (perhaps I or~ ft), Ak111g thi, d is-
tance the moment and sbear vary. In accordancc w ith the pri nc iples uscd for ck signing
bolted connections, the forces desìg_ned for should be tho~.: acting on 1he c.;111cr of g raviry
of the bolt group. Frorn Fig. I 3.10.2 it may be nateci that thno.:i ically thc mo inenl at the
centroid of the connectors on one sidc of tbc splice i~ diffen.:111 from that ;11 rhe cen1 roicl on
the other. Some designers. therefore, proponion lhe connection on cach s1dc of thc ~plice
fora moment, M, = M + \Il'. Such a procedure rarely si;ems _i u,t ifìed. Design of surh
splices has been treated by Kulak and G recn [13.99}. ln tho,e 11nu~ual situa1io11, when :l
figure I 3. JO, I
Four-plate bearn split"
Beam or
welded
girder
I
1
1 )
M-!>M (
=M-V,•
1
V I
1~ V
M+!>M
= M + Ve
I
Cenrroid -e~ 1-,-

of
o o o M o o o
connec1ion o o o
o o o
Figure 13. 10.2
Forces ac1ing on web splice
O G1 O
o o o
l V) o (j o
o o o
o o o o o o
plares.
splice is Jocated where both shear and bending momenl are high, such a procedure .
. ~~
seem desirable. "
Most splices are Jocated in regions where either the shear or the bending mom
. . . dm1111mum
low so thar often 1he design is fora spec1fica11on-requ1rc .. .
strength. As dis~. -
f d . . . cussed
in Sec. 10.6 for plastic analysis, one must be wary o esignmg a spl!ce fora low mo J).
just because the splice i~ near an inflection point. /f m oments /or the srrucrure \\:ere llleni ...
11 uted using theory of srarically indeterminate structures withour a hinge within rh co,n_
. . e span
one should nor later design a splice which has /ow sr1iffness to acr as a l11nge. ·
Por most situations the authors recommend designing for the actual or specific .
. any eccentncJty
required forces at rhe sp/ice and neglecllng . . ef'•,ect. at1on-
EXAMPLE 13.10.1
Design a rolled beam splice (four-plac~ type of ~ig. 13. I O. I)_ for a W24 X 84 beam to be
Jocated where che faccored moment M11 1s 510 ft-kips and the tacrored shear V is 19, k'
l . Il ... ip~.
Use A992 steel for lhe beam and A572 Grade 50 for 1he plates and ~-m.-diam A490 bolts
in a bearing-type connection (A490-X). Use AISC LRFD Method.
Solution:
(a) Check the maximum design screngths </>M,, and ef>\~, of the W24X84 beam.
<l>bM,, = ef>bMp = O.9OZx0· = (0.90(224 )(50)) f2 = 840 ft-kips

4>vt.-;, = <Pi-(O.6OFy)Aw = 1.0(0.60)(50) (24.I )0.47 = 334 kips
The factored loads are 61 % and 58% of the desig n momem aod design shear stren th
respectively. Even though AISC does not require any minimum proponion of the streno~h s,
be developed by a splice, it is prudent to design splice-~ fora sig nificant (say, at least SO%:~
strength; the authors prefer at least 2/3 of the strength) propo11ìon of che member strength.
(b) Web places. The web plates must caJTy ali the shear. The desion strenoth ,kR ,
. . e ' e 'I' ",or
bolts III double shear 1s
q,R,, = 4>F,wmAb = 0.75(90)(2)0.44 18 = 59.6 kìps

195
Number of bolts =- - = 3.3, say 4
59.6
Since 4 bolts are needed for shear alone, and the web plate · will also carry of ponion of
the bendmg mornent the beam web would carry, try 2 lines of 4 bol!s each as shown in
Section 13.10 Beam Splices • 737
sym abou, q_
\
1
-}--I 1-4@ l'-0--1T-I½'
3=
2lls - {· X2 J X l'-1•
o o o o
------------- W24X84
] . o o o o
4 dtam A490 bol!s 3 egual spaces
= l'-6'
o o o o
o o o o
~
Figure 13.10.3
Design fnr Ex ampie I 3. 1O. I. IL--~8 X 9X 2'-6" --
~ig. 13.10.3. There wiB be 3 ~paces verlically of approximatcly 6 in. when the plate depth
1s made 21 in. (which is the available flac dimension T o[ thc beam web).
The web plate thickne.<, s to prevent shear 111pture along a nc1 section i~. according 10
AISC-J4.2.
<f>(0.6F,i)A.,v = V,,
. V,, 195 . .
Required A 11v = - - - - - - - = 6.7 sq ITI.
4>( 0.61-~,) 0.75(0.6)65
Using 4 bolts, the thickness required for each or two plates ba!:>.:d on che shcar ruptUie limit
state will be
. A,.v 6.7
Requiredr = 2[ 21 _ 4(
13116
) ) = -2(-l7.8) '"' 0.1 9 in
A thickness of ¼in. should be considercd the pracLical minirnurn.

Use 2 PLs-¼x21.
(e) Flange plates. The splice plates are designet.1 a., te nsion mc111bers. The pbte
width is made 9 in.; this is slightly less !han 1he bearn flang<:: width of 9.02 in. Both the
fracture and yielding limit states must be investigated in .ic.:on.lance with AJSC-J4. I.
M,, M,, 510(12)

Flange force = -Arm- = d - - - - = 249 1-,.ips
+ est.1 24.10 + 0 .5
<f>T11 = t/>AgFr yielding of the spi ice pla1e ( e/> "" 0.90)
<f>T11 = <f>A 11F,, fractureofthesplicepla1e(4, = 0.75)

A,. :50: 0.85Ag
Jn addition. ·'block shear·· must be considered, as shown in Example 4.8.3.
Tu 249 - 5 53 .
Required A
g
= -
4,F,,
= 0.90
(SO} - · sq in.
Tu 249 - 5 11 .
Required A,. = ef>Fu = 0.75(65) - . sq tn .
Required A,. 5.l l .

Minimum A
g
= _.!,__.-,C.'-
0.85
= -o. 85 = 6.01 sq tn.
_ __ 5_._ Jl = 0.71 in.
Required 1 =9 _ 2 ( 3/ 4 + l/ 8 )
Block shear will not be of concern with plates as thick as ¾in.: particularly here Where s
bolts perline are used.
Use 2PLs-¾x9.
(d) Flange bolts. The bolts are in single shear,
<J,R,, = 24.9 kips (single shear, A/SC Manual, Table 7- l)

<J,R,, = <f,(2.4dbtF,,) ( bearing: AJSC-J4. I 0--hole defonnation is nota consideration)
= 0.75(3.0)(3/ 4 )(0.625)65 = 68.6 kips

r., 249
Number of bolts = </>R,, = 24_9 = lO bolts
Use 2 rows of 5 bolts, each side of splice.

(e) Web bolts. Computc the moment carried by the web plates when FJ. is re~..ehed at
che center of the tensìon flange plates,
_
<f>hMn - <Pb
('d 2 )
Fy _
(10.5) = 0.90( 2(0.25)(21)
6
)50(0.85) _
12 -
2
.
l 17 ft-kips
6 12 3
A conservative
.
approach is to detcrm.i ne the force on the web bolts nearest the flanoe .
" UStno
the elast1c vec tor method, "
2
Lx2 + ~y2 == 8(1.5)2 + 4 (9)2 + 4(3)2 = 378 in.
Mv 117( 12)9
Rux = - , = - - - = 33.4 kips-
'2:x2 + LY- 378
Mx ll7( 12 ) 1.5
Ruy = '<" 2
'<"
2 = ~ = 5.6 kips !
,;.,X + .<:. )' J 78
195
R
U IJ
= _!_
LN
= 8
= 24.4 kips !
R,, :;: V[ R y + R vf + R~x
11 11
R,, = V (5.6 + 24.4)2 + (33.4)2 = 44.91<.ips < Sl.6kips OK
where, for the W 24X84 web (0.470 in.), assuming deformalion at bolt hole is nota d ·
·d · A es1en
cons, eration ( JSC-J4. I O). •
<f,R,. = 0 .75(3.0)(0.75)(0.470)65 = 51.6 kips.

r E '91,, 1~ ·""
l
--------+---.--
Fieure I3. I0.4 o o":: I~
1205" ;
\
Cheek for adequacy of holt\
31 iop of web plares,
f,iainple 13. 10. J.
_ _
"
Il
_ _ _:_! _ __ __ l_1
; I
o/
,f,R,H=37.2k
- Ncmral axi!i:
One funher check shOuld b

flange spii.ce b . e made to see whether the design bolt srrength used for the
I
bolts lf . P ate olts 1s· compau'bie w,t· h the design
. bolt strength uscd at che ourer web
· a 1inear dcformat' I · ·
assumed (F IO ion re al!onsh1p as would be caused by bending momcnt is
1g. 13. .4),
Flange horizomal farce 2(24.9) "' 49.8 kips (two bolts)
Max RnH "" 49.8( ~ )

12 05
= 37 .2 kips > (Rux = 33.4 lò.p,) OK
U 2 ·
se vemcal rows of 4 bolts each, each side of joint.
The fina\ design is sho
. , . . wn ·m F1g. 13 .I O.3. End and edge dist:mces should also be checked
in accoTctance wllh procedures discussed in Chapter 4. •
SELECTED REFERENCES
13.1.
C. Batho :md H. C. Rowan. "lovestigations of Beam and Stanchion Conncctions." 2nd Renon. Steel
S!ructures Rcsean;h Commiuee, DcpL of Scient.iiic and lndusu, al Rcsearch of Grcat Rrit;in. H.is
MaJesty·s S1a1ionery Office, London. 1934.
13.2. ~mer W. Blodgcn. Design o.f Welded Strutture.,. Cleveland. Ohio: James F. Linc"ln Are Wddine
Foundalion, 1966. -
1J.3. AISC. Ma1111al of Steel Construcrimr. Volume Il ConnecriQ>rs. ASD 9rh edition/LRFD 1st edition.
Chicago: American lnstitme ofSteel Construction. 1992.
l 3.4. '"Yt1liam ~- Thomt~n, ··~oad and R~sistance. Fac10r Design of Conntctionl):· P.-or eedìug.s. So!wim,s in
Steel, Nat1onal Engoneermg Confer~nce. Chicago. IL: Americnn Jnsmuie of Steel Con"ruction. folle
12-14, 1986 (pp. 33- J IO 33-22).
Semi-Rigid Connections
13.5. Basi! Sourochnìkoff. ~'Wind Stre$SCS in Semì-Rieid Co1mecrior~s: :·,f S1ccJ Fr:nnework.:· Th1r~sac1ious.
ASCE. 11S ( 1950), 382-402. -
13.6. Roben A. Hechtman and Brnce G. lohnston. /li1·crcd Semi- RiRid Beor.H <J·Colw,m R:ri/di•1g
Conncction.s. Progress Repor1 Nuinber 1 Chicago. IL: Air1eriCan lm:~Vture ot Sted C onq ructi(>n,
November 1947 (118 pp.).
13. 7. Leo Schenker. Charles G. Salmon. and Rruce G. Johr1~1on. S11·11cr11J'/II Sr,·,,/ Con, c1io11 , . A.1mtd F,,rc\"
Special Weapons Projecl, Repon No. 352. Engineerin~ Rc..,earch ln~tìlt;te-. Unh·1.·r ... ity nl ?vtichigan. Ju11e
1954.
13.8. Stanley D. Lindsey. Socrate., A. loannides. and Ar\'ind Go, crdh~n "l.RFD ' .nalysi, ~nd lk,ig11 of
Beams with Partia.lly Rcsirained Conncctions .'' Engir,,·a,11.Q Jo,m,ol Al:,C._19. t (F,·t>nh Quarler 1%5).
157- 162.
13.9. Jack H. Brown. ·'Moments on Beam-Columns with Fle,iblc Comtcetions in Br~rcd Fr.mr < ·
Engineering JotJma/. AlSC. 20, 4 (Fourth Qum1er 19R6i. 157--1f>~
13.10. Dougla, J. Ammerman and Roberto T. Leon. " Bchavinr of Semi-n tid C"mP<>\lté Coancc:1011, :·
Engiueering Jour,w/, AISC. 21, 2 (Scct•nd Ouaner 1987), 5.\- 62
l 3.11. Roberto T. Leon. Dougla, J. Ammern,an. Jih~hya Un. and Robe11 D. i,k('a1•le). ·s,m, -rig,d (.'r,m,,>,itc
Stecl Frame,," Engineerinli Joumal. AISC. 21, 4 (Fourth Q11:ìf[Cf l<l~'1). IH I ~~
13.)2. David A. Nethcn:01. J. Buick Davison. ,md Pat,ick A. Kirby. "Cunncts,,11 Flc.\!b1!:l) .,nrl Bcam D,•.,i,11
in Non-sw~y Frames," Engineering Jm1rnal. AISC, 22, 3 (Thii<l Q11.,r1er 1'18&' 91,•. 1t)fi.
13.13. Wai-Fah Chen and N. Kishi. "Stmirigicl Steel Bca,r,-to-Column Coonr;-1i ,,..,. l>,ne t;,"e and \-ic•1.k hn~ ..
Jouma/ oJ S1rucwral Enginee1·i1111. ASCE, 115, I (.l:muary I9S91. 1115- 11' '.
. . .. .._ _... .... _ . _ . . . . . , _ . ~ ~...,.._ • ..... • t ' '
. . ' . .
J J. l . Arorod A,izinamini and Jame,ç B. Radziminsk.i. "Static and Cydic Perfonnance of Sem;r; id .
4 Bcam-ro-Column Coonections." Journol o[ S1ructurol Engmeem1g. ASCE. 115, 12 (Deci,!bt:StccJ
1
2979-2999. l9~9,.
13.15. Rober10 T u:on and [)ougla.s J. Ammemian. "Semi-Rigid Composire Connections for G .
EtJgineeri~g Joumal. AISC. 27. I (Fir,;t Quaner 1990). 1-11. ravny '-<>a.J,.-
13. 16. Reidar Bjorhovde Andre Colson. and Jacques Broueni. ··c1~ssifica1ion Syste m for Be.i
Connecrions.'' Jm;mal ofS,ru,'lllral E1'.t11eeri11g. AS~E. 116, 11 (November 1990), 305';':~~~lu""'
13. J 7. Riccardo Zandonim aod Paolo Zanon. Beam Design in PR Braced Steel Frames," Engineer;n ·
AISC. 25, 3 (Third Quaru:r 1991), 85-97. g lou'>lu/
13. 18. Roberto u,on. "Composite Semi-Rigid Connections," Modem Sue/ Construcrio11• AISC Oc ·
I 8-23. . lobe, 199,.
Simple Shear Connections-Double Angle

13. 19. Bnice Johnsron anù Lloyd F. Green. "Flexible Welde<l Angle Connecrions." \11,,Jding 10 1 ,,,.,,a
(October J940). 402s--408s. · 19, lO
13.20. Pcrer c. Birkemoe and Michael I. Gilmor. ··Behavior of Rea.ring Criticai Double-Angle Be·
Connecrion<." Engineering Journnl. AISC, 15, 4 (4th Quarter 1978), 109-1 15. arn
13.21. Joseph A. Yura, Peter C. Birkcmoc, and James M: Ricles. ''Beam Web Shear Cmlnections: A
Experimental Study,'" Jormwl of1he Siruaural 1)11,,s,on. ASCE. 108, ST2 (February 198, ) n
. I C . "E . . - . 3 I l-3,,
13.22. AISC. "'Predesigocd Bolted Frammg Ang e oonecuons. ng meen11g Journo/, A{SC. 19, 1 '--'·
Quar1er 1982), l - 11. <Firs1
13.23. Jame, M. Riclcs and Joscph A. Yura. Strength of Double-Row Bolte.d-Web Connection J
Siructural Engineering, ASCE. 109, J (January 1983), 126-142. (Also Ref. 3. 12). '· ourna/ of
13.24. Jung-June R. Cbeng and Jo,eph A. Yw·a. "Locai Web 'Bucl.:ling ofCope<l Bearn,:· Joun,a/ 0
Engi11eering. ASCE, 112, IO(Oc10ber 1986). 2314--2331. >fStruc1•ro/
13.25. Ajaya K Gupta. "Duckling of Coped Steel Bcams,'' Jounwl ofStructural E,,ginuring ASC
(Scptember !984). 1977- 1987; Disc. by Jung-JuneCheng and Joseph A. Yur.1. ll2 1 (J E.110,9
201-204. • anuary 1986).
13.26. Jung-June R. Cbeng. Joseph A. Yura. and C. Philip Johnson. ''Laleral Buckling Coped S
Joumal ofStrucwra/ Engineering, ASCE, 114, l (January 1988). 1-15. - · recl lleam~...
13.27. Jung-June R. Chcng and Jo,eph A. Yur.i. "Latera! Buckling Tests on Coped Steel Beam ....
Strucrural Engineering, ASCE. 114, l (January 1988). I f>.-30. '· lourna/ oj
13.28. Abolhassan Astaneh, Maiwan N. Nader, and Lincoln Malik. "Cyclic Beha\'ÌOr of Doubl
Connections.'' Jourrra/ of Stroc1ural Engineeri11g. ASCE. 115, 5 (May 1989). 110l-l I 1~-Angle
Simple Shear Connections-Single Plate

13.29. R alph M. Richard. Paul E. Gille tt. James D. Kriegh. and Brcn A. Lewis. 'The Analysi .
Single Pla!e Framing Conneclions," E11gin.eerin11 Joumal. AISC. 17, 2 (Second Quane~ ~~ Design of
38 5
13.30. Ned W. Young and Rober1 O. Disque. ··Design Aids for S!rlgle Plate F raming Conne,:rion/·O). - 1
Joumal, AlSC, 18, 4 (Fourth Q uaner 1981), 129-148.: Disc. by John D. G riffiths. 19 , .;,}ngme, ,;•t
1982), 179. ' - ( "urd Qua!ler
13.31. Ralph M. Richard, James D. Kriegh, and David E. Hom1by. "Design o( Sin2le Plaie F .
C?nnections with AJ07 Boli~." E11gtn.-ering Joumal. AISC.,, 19, 4 (Founh Quane.r l98Y.\~\g
1
_ ,
Disc. by Edward P. Becker, 22, J (Fml Quancr 1985). 50-:> I. • -09 21 _,:
13.32. Oavid E. Hom1by. Ralph M. Richard. and James D. Kriegh. "Sing.le-Plate Framino e .
Gradc-50 S1ecl and Composi1c Conslruction." Engineeri,ig Joumal. AISC . 21 , in,·o~nQecuons With
125- 138. •- tr Uarter l9S~1.
13.33. Abol~as:an Ast~neh. S1even M . Cali. and Kurt M. McMullin. "Design of Single Plaie She·
t1ons. Engmcamg Joumal. AISC. 26. I (1st Quarter 1989). 2 1-32. Disc. by R:i.l h 11.1 _arConnec-
(Third Quar1er 1990). 121- 126. P · Rrchan:t. 27. .ì
13.34. D. J. L. Kennedy. "Moment-Ro1;11ion Charac-1eris1ics of Shc.ar Connec1ions" En · .·
AJSC. 6, 4. (October 1969). 105- J 15. · grneew,g Ju1m111/.
Simple Shear Connections-Tee Framing

13.35. Abolhassan Astaneh and Marwan N. Nader. "Design of Tee F rami ng Shear Conneccio .. .
.loumal. AISC, 26, I (First Quarter 1989). 9- 20. .ns. Eng111.-1•ri,,g
13.36. Abolhassan As1aneh and Marwan N. Nader. '·Experimental S tudies and
·· "J .r·
o,~·"
fS
"'~0 0 tee!Tee Sh,
e
o nnec110ns. 011111a/ o1 S1ruc11,ra/ E11gineai11g. ASCE. 116. IO (Oc1ober 1990). 288 2_ 2902 ear
Seated Beam Connections

13.37. W. Bcr1well. Discussion of "Design o f Bolis or Rivets Subiect 10 Comb'incd S h . . .
. d z · E' · · , e,U' ,1nd Tens11> "b1
Ali re ~we,g. 11gmeN111g Jmmw/. AISC. 3, 4 (Ociober 1966 ). 165- 167. · "· '
Selected References • 7 41
13.38. Bruce G. Johnston and G -

We/ding Jo11 rna/ 21 (Jorrlon R. Drets. "Tests of Miscellaneous Welded Building Connections,"
1
13.39. lngc Lyse and N~ ' anuary _1942). 5s-27s.
Jour11al, 14, 2 (Pe~": G. Schremer. "An lnvestigation of Welded Scat Ang)e Connections," Welding
13.40, Charles W R .. ry 1935), Research Supplemenc. 1- 15.
. . oeder. Results of E . . .. . . -
Engmecrinu Conf xpenments on Seated-beam Connecuons, Proceedmgs. Nauona.l
Constructi,;'n Apre~~~ceM&
1
Confercnce of Oper>ling Personncl. Chicago. IL: American !nstitute of S1ee!
13.41. C h l · W ' - ay2, 1987(pp.43-I 1043-11).
ar es · Rocder and Ro Id H D .
EngineerinR Jo A na · a,ley. "'l'he Resuhs of Experimenls on Seated Bcam Connections."
13.42. J H G I
uma · lSC, 26, 3 (Third Quarler 1989), 90-95.
· · arreu. Jr. and R L 8 k b .. . . _ . .,
Engineering J · · roc en rough. Design Loads for Scated-beam Connecuons m LRFD:
13 43 R ourna1· AISC, 23, 2 (Second Quaner 1986) 84--88.
· •· oger I-- Brockenbrouoh "D ·
Eng ineering C f b · eSign Loads for Seated-beam Conoectìons,'' Proceedi11gs. National
Construction 1n e~;nce & Conference of Opera1ing Personnel. Chicago, IL: American lnstitute of Steel
13 44 C ·1 [ , pn 9-May _ 2, 1987 (pp. 12-1 to 12-16).
· · Yn J. Je nsen. "W Id . , .. .
Supplement. _ _ e cd Slructural Brackets:· WeldrngJournal, IS, IO (October 1936), Research
9 15
Triangular Bracket Plates

13 .45. Charles G. Sa!mon "A . - fT, . .. . _ _
D' , . · na1ys.1s o n angular Bracke1- fype Plates Jouma/ ofthe E11g111eermg M ecJu1111c.<
i vtsioll, ASCE, 88, EM6 (December 1962). 41-87. .
13.46. Charles G. Salrnon o ald R .. . . .
U ·r n _ · on - 8 uetlner, and Thomas C. O Shendan , "Laboratory lnves1tgatron of
2
;;~
27
;~ed Tnangular Bracket Piace.,," Journol of rhe Srrucw ,-al Division. ASCE. 90, ST2 (Aprii 19~)
I 3.4?· ~~~sls~.cedle e t. al. Srruc111ral Steel Design. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1964 (pp.
e onrmuous Beam-to-Column Connections

13.48.
~ - B. O~d':,rdonk, R. P. Lathrop, and Joseph C:ocl. "End Plate Connc.ctions in Pla; tically Designcd
tructmes, Eng1neer111g Joumal, A!SC, l , 1 (January 1964). 24--27.
13.49.
Lynn S. Beedle and Ri.chard Christopher. "Tests of S teel Moment Connections.'' En~ineerirr g Jmmwl.
AISC.1, 4 (October 1964), 116-1 25. < •
13.50. Richard T. Douty and William McGuirc. ''Hig h Strength Bolted Momeol Connections," Journal oft/11•
Structuml Division, ASCE, 91, ST2 (Aprii 196S). 101- 128.
13.51. J, S. Huang, W. F. Chen, and L. S. Becdle. "Behavinr a nd De.sign of Steel 13eanHo-Column Mom<enl
C o nnections," WRC Bu/letin 188, Welding Research Council. Ne w York. October 1973. 1-23.
1352. J, E. Regec, J. S. Huang. and W. F. Chen. "Tc,t of a Fully Wclded BeanHo-Column C onoectirm:· 1\IRC
Bu//etin 188, Wclding Researcb Council. New York. Octobe r 1973. 24-35.
13 .53. fohn Parfitt, Jr. and Wai F. C hen. "Test of Welded Steel Beam -10-Column Conncclions ." Jo11mal "ftlie
Structura/ Divisio11, ASCE, 102, STI (January 1976 ). 189-202.
13.54. Bruce D. Macdonald, '·Moment Connections Weakened by Lam inations: · Jormwl the Srrucmral
Divisior,, ASCE. 105, ST8 (August 1979). 1605- 1619.
13.55. Paul G rundy, lan R. Thomas. aod lan D. Bennells. " 13cam-to-Columu Moment C mmcc tions." Jo,mw/ ,4
rhe Struc1ural Division, ASCE. 106, STl (Janua,y 1980). J 13-330. Disc . b) N, Krishnamurthy. HM,
ST12 (December 1980), 2573-2574.
13.56. W, F. Chen and K. V. Patel. "Static Behavior of Beam-to-Colum n ~foment C o nnee1i0ns:· .lmmwl of thc
Structural Division, ASCE. 107, ST9 (Septembcr 1981 ). I 81 5- 183~
13.57. Jelle Wilteveen, fan W. B. Stark. Frans S. K. 13ij la;trd, ;tnd Piet 7.ne-tl'n,ei_icr. "Wclcled and Boheè
Bcam-to-Column Connectìo tls.'' Jo,m,a/ ofrhe S11·1.rc1urol l>i l'i.11<•,,. M,CF:. 108. STI (F'ebruary 19 8'.l ).
433-455,
13.58. G. P. Rentsch\er, W. F. Chen, and G. C. Driscoll. "Bcan1-to-Colu111n Web Co11nt'r tic1!\ D ctails." Jo1m111/
ofthe Strucrural Divisfr,11. ASCE. 108, ST2 (February 1982). 393-409.
13.59. Kirit V. Patel and Wai F. Chcn. " No nlinear Analysi, of S1ccl M oment Conoections." Ja11mal of
Srructura/ Engineering, ASCE, 110, 8 (Augusl 1984l. l ~ù l- 1874.
]3 ,60. Wai F. Chen and David E. Newlin. '·Column Wd, Str,:ntlh in B,·~m -10-C ,,lurnn C onoectio,is." Jmmrol of
the Srruc111ra/ Divisio11, ASCE. 99, ST9 (Seµtcmber 1973), \ Q?X-19~4.
13.61. WaiF. Chen and [rving J. Oppenhei m. ' ·Web Bur kling Strcngth M. lk,,n-:v-Colunm Cc•nnw ic'lis ."
Joumal ofthe Struct11ra/ Dil'isio11. ASCE. 100, STI (Jan uary 19 74). ~79 .!~!>.
13.62. Eugene w. Miller. "l.oad and Resistance Factor De,ign of M0mc11t ~'< 1111.-~ii_on< · ~ron ·, dings . Sol,:·
1ions in Stecl, Natio nal Engineering Confcre n..:e. Chicago. IL: Ani<rtt·,111 In, ritute ot S tet>I ConS1ru.:-11t,n.
June 12- 14, 1986 (pp. 29- 1 to 29-22).
13.63. R. Ford Pray and Cyril Jenscn, ' 'Welded To p Pl;11c Beam-Cn lum n Ct,nne.t ,,n, .. \\ ,-/dir1g Jo11m il.. ,.=:, ~
(July 1956), 338s-347s.
13.64. J. L. Brande, and R. M. Mains. "Repon of Tests of Welded Top-Platc and Seat Building
We/dù,gloumal. 24, 3 (Mru-ch 1944). 146s-165s. Conncq;<;n ,
!3.65. William A. Thornton. ·'Prying Action- ·A Genernl Treatment," E11,:inecri11g Jmmu,/, AISC ~
(Second Quarter 1985). 67-75. · 22,2
13.66. Abolhassan Asianeh. ··Pro.:edure for Design and Analysis of Hanger-type Conneclions .. E
J,,umal, AISC, 22, 2 (Sccond Quartcr 1985), 63-66. · ngin,e,;n
13.67. w. A. Thornron. '"Strcnglh and Serviccability of Hanger Connections:· Eng;,.,,_,;118 Jo,.n, ~
4 (F,>unh Quarrer J992i. 145-149. ul, AISc, ~.
End-Plate Moment Connections

13.68. John D. Gri(fiihs. '·End Plare Moment Connections-Thcir Use and Misuse,'" E111/ìnu,;,,g J.
21, I (FirS! Quaner 1984). 32- 34. . . . ounu.,1_~IS(:
13.69. Henning Agerskov. "High-Strcngth Bolted Connecnons SubJect to Pry,ng," Jounu,/ ofrhe S ·
1
Division. ASCE. !02, STI (January 1976). 161-175. '11(.·rura/
J 3. 70. Henning Agerskov. "Analysis of Bolteù Connectior,s Subject 10 Prying," Jouma / ofih, Sr
Divìsion. ASCE, 103, STI I (Novembcr 1977). 2)45-2 163. · n,c""a/
13. 7 J. N. Krishnamurthy. "A Fresh Look al Bolleù End-Plale Behavior and Design; · Engìneerù,
AISC. 15, 2 (2nd Quaner 1978), 39-49. Orse. by H. Agerskov, W. McGuire. J. D. Grifiit; lounia/,
J. M. Wooten, N. W. Rimmcr. and author. 16, 2 (2nd Quaner 1979). 54--<,4. s and
13.72. Nawajau Krishoamurthy. Homg-T~ Huang. Paul K._ Jeffrey. and Louie K . Avery. "'Analvt,
Curves for End-Pt11c Connections, Journal 0/1/re S1ruc1uml Dms1011, ASCE. 105, sri ~ .lf-o
133-145. <J<tnuary 1979J.
13.73. Allan P. Marm and Linden J. Morris. "Limi! Design o!Extended End-PlareConnection~-- _
Srruclural Divisio11, ASCE. 105, ST3 (March 1979).) 11- 526. · lour11a1 af rh,
13.74. Thomas M. Murray. ''Beam-to-Column End-Plale Connection,--Colunm Desi"n Co "<l _ ·
prcsenred a, AISC National Engineenng on,erence. are
· C ' M h 28- . 1984. Tampa, FL (IOen
30 - " . n"• •on,:·
13.75. Alan Hendrick and Thomas M. Murray. "Column Web Compression Scrength m End-Pia Pp.).
Conncctions;· Engineering Journol. AISC. 21, 3 (Third Quarter 1984). 161-169. te
13. 76. Yoke Leong Yee and Roben E. Mekhers...Moment-Ro1arion Curves for Boltc.ù Connectio ..
of Structu.-al Engineering, ASCE. 112, 3 (March I986), 615--<,35. ns. lo11n,a,'
13.77. Thomas M. Murray and Ananl R. Kukreti. ·'Design of 8-bolt Stiffened Moment End Plat , ..
Engineering Joumal. AISC. 25, 2 (Second Quarter 1988) 45-53. e,.
13. 78. Larry E. Curtis and Thomas M. Murray. "Column Flange Strength a1 Momcnt End-pla,e C .
E11gi11eeri11g Journal, ATSC. 26, 2 (Second Quarter I 989). 41-50. oane,,non,_
13. 79. Thomas M . Murray anJ Emmett A. Sumner. Exrended End-Piote Momell/ Comreoio, _ S _ _
Wind Applications, Steel Design Guide Series 4 (2nd Ed.). Chicago: American lnstitut ;"""" a11d
O
Construction, lnc., 2003. · e Steel
Beam-to-Column Web Moment Connections

13.80, A. Leon Abolitz and Marvin E. Wamer. "Bending Undcr Seared Conneclions:· Enginee .
1
AISC, 2, l (fanuary 1965). l- 5. "' ~ lo,a·na/,
I 3.81. Fran_k W. S1oc1<well. Jr. "Yield Line Analysis of Columo Web, with We!ded Beam Connecti ..
Engmeaing Joumol. ATSC, IJ, I (F1rst Quar1cr 1974). 12- 17. ons,
13.82. Richard H. Kapp. "Yield Line Analysis of a Web Connect,on ttt Direct Tension:• Engine.
AISC, 11, I (Second Quarrcr 1974), 38-41. umg l o11n,a1
13.83. Glenn P. Rcntschler, Wai F. Chen. and George C. Driscoll. "Tests of Beam-to-Colunm w
Connections." Journn/ ofthe S1ruct11ml Divisirm. ASCE. 106, ST5 (M ay 1980), IOOS-IQ;~Mo1t1en1
13.84. Joseph M. Hopray and Heino Ainso. ·'An E~perimanlal Look at Brackct-Loaded Web< ·· E -- .
Joumal. AISC, 18, I (First Quarter 1981 ). l - 7. .. ngmeerins
13.85. Bruce E. Hnpper. Gordon B. Batson, and Heino Ainso. ··Bracket Loade.d Webs with L0 , S
Ratios," Engineeri1Jg Jounurl, AISC. 22, I (First Quarter 1985 ). I 1-I 8, " lenderne1s
Rigid Frame Knees

13.86. John D. Griffi1hs. Single Spon Ri11ùl Frames in Stee/. New York: American lnstitute of Steel
Construction, !ne.. 1948.
Column Base Plates

13.87. W. ~- Thornton. "Design of Base Plates for \Vide Flange Columns- A Concatenation ofM ..
E11i(mee1i11g Joumal, AISC, 27, 4 (Fourth Quarter !()90 ), i 73- !74. elbOds,
13.88. Frank W. S1ockwell. Jr. "Pre limiaary Base Plate Selection," Engineering Journal, AISC , , _
Quarter !975), 92-99. • 1~, -'IThirJ
I 3.89. Thoma, M. Murmy. ''Design o f Lightly Loaded Stecl Colurrui Base Plat~~--- Env · .·
20, 4 (Fourth Quarte.e 1983). 143- 152. · 0 mee,mg Jow·,1,a/, AIS('_
Problems • 743
13.90. SalahudJin Ahmed and R
AISC ASD Manual., E oben _R. Kreps. "lnconsislenc.ies in Column lia,c Plate Design in 1hc New
13.91. Johll T. DeWo]f .. · . ngmc,nng lourno/, AlSC. 27, 3 (Third Qullrter 1990). 106--107.
ST5 (May 197S), ;-;;~~i 4
Loaded Colum11 Bose Plates;· lemma/ ofthe Srrucwml Divi,<ion. ASCE, 104.
l3.92. Russell S. Fling "De.
13.93. W A Th · Slgn of S tcel Bearing Plates:• En8innri11g Jo~rrwl. AISC. 7, 2 (Aprii 1970). 37--40.
· · ornton "Desg11 0 f S
27, 3 (Third Q · ·1 rnall Base Platcs for Wide Flange Co\uinns:· Engineeri11g Jounwl. AISC.
13.94. . uaner 1990). l0ll-110. .
Dav,d T. Ricker "S .
(Third Qu•~et 1· °me Prachcal Aspec1s ofColumn Base Scleclion." Engineering Journal. AISC. 26, 3
· -· 989 ). 81- 89.
13.95. John T. DeWoif and D· d T .
D801 ). Chic.a o: ~Vt · Ricker. Co/11111n Base Plares, Steel Design Guide Series I (Pubi. No.
13.96. Ch g Ainencan lnst11uce ot Stecl Constructìon. lnc .. 1990.
arles G. Salmon Le0 S h . .
Column A h ' e cnker, and 13ruce G. Johnston. "Moment- Rotatìon Charactensucs of
13 ne orages." Transacrions, ASCE, 122 ( 1957). 132-154.
. .97. lohn T. DeWolf and Ed dr S .
ofrh S • War •. ansley. "Column Base Pla1es with Axial Loads and Momcnis.'· Journa/
13,gg_ .' m.1ctura/ Division, ASCE, 106, STI I (Novcmber 1980), 2176--2184.
Dav,d P. Tha.mhiratn- m , d P P . . ..
St, . 1E a "" · aramasavam. ··Baie Plales undcr A~tal Loads and M<1men1~. Joumal of
1tcrllra ngineering, ASCE, ll2,5 (May 1986), 1166-1181.
Splices
13 99
· · ~ctfrer, L. Kulak and Deborah L. Green. "Design of Connectors in Wch--Flange Beam or Girdcr
P •ces, Engineering Journnl. AISC. 27, 2 (Second Quar1er 1990). 4 1-48.
Additional References
I). IOO. t H. Yang, W. F Chen, and M. D. Bowrnan. ·'The Behavior and Load-Carrying Cap1ci1y of Un,tiffened
eated Beam Coonecrionf' Engineering Journal. ATSC, 34, 3 (Third Quarrer 1997), 89- 103.
I J. lO!. C. J. Carter. W A. Thormon, and T. M. Murray. Discussion of "Thc Behavior and Load-Carryìog
Capacny of Unstiffened Sèated Bea,n Cooncctìons" by Yang. Chcn. and Bowm.an (E11gi,1Nrir,,~ Jouma/,
AISC, 34, 4 (Founh Quaner 1997, 151-156. · ·
l3.IOl. Jamcs A. Swanson. ''Ultimare Strength Prying Model, for Bohcd T-s1ub Connection<' é'11gi11eering
Joumal. AISC, 39, 3 (Third Quar1er 20()2), 136-1.~ì.
13
.103. Thomas M. Mu,ray, W. Lce Shoemakcr. F/u,ç/t a,u/ farended Mulriple-Rmv Mome111 End-P/01<'
Connurions. Steel l)esign Guide Series 16. C hicago: American lns1ir11te tif Stcd Cl)nsrn1çtion. !11('.., 2002.
13.104. J. T. Borgsm(ller and T. M. Mum,,y. "Simplifoed Mcthod forthe Design of Momcnt End Pl.llè
Connectwns, ' Rcsearch Repon CF./VPl-ST-95/19. Departmcnt of Civil Enginee.ring, Virgi11i,1
Polytechmc l nstitute and Siate University. Black~burg. VA. Nm·cmhcr 1995.
PROBLEMS
Ali probleros are to be <lone according to che AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design Method. The requirement of \V
section is intended to include W. S, and M sections. Ali given loads are service !oads unless otherwise indicateci. lf needed.
assume service loads an: 2/3 of factored loads unless othcrwise indicateci. Assume latcral suppon consi~ts of 1ra11slalional
restraint but not m oment (rotational) restraint, unless otherwise indicated. Assume ali standard sections are cqually readily
available in the indicat.;d grade of stee! (even tJ1ough actually they are not). Assume ali conl,t,l surface, are C!J~s A and a\\
holes are standard holes unless otherwise indicated. A design sketch to scale is requircd for a.1! design probkms.
J3. I. Compute the r 1,l ~i.Jm1m factored load ( 20% dead (b) C,msider ecc;:ntncity of loading; use the ultimate
load and 80lì, '.-J avity live load) reaction Pu that s1.rcng1h appmach of Sec. 4. 12 far c.'ccentric
can be dev,:,', ;-cd for the simplc: shear (framed shear. and u~e one uf thc: combmcd ~hear ancì tcn-
beam) conn..:,· ,., shown in the accompanying fig- ~ion appma.:ilc, 01 '.)cc. 4.15 for thc conrcection
ure. The fa, , ' I'> are i-in.-diam A325 bolts in tu ù,e colunm llc1n/l.!
bearing-ty!)( ,,;1;ections with threads exc!uded
from the she.,i , •hmes (A325-X). 13.2. Rcpeat 1he anal~ , is ,,'<:ur~id 111 Pr(1b. 13. l excq)I
che bolts are in sirJH !·itkal -:onncct iuns (A.32"i-S(').
(a) Neglecr è' , . 1~rricity as is customa.ry on simple
shear ccv,, . , , ,,n~: compare detailed calculation 13.3. Des1~n a doubh: ang!.> , i:nplc <.hC,lf (framed bcam)
results '>· , \;,',C Manual. conncctinn fur a\'\ lf:-<'-{) b,:;m, ha,-ing a r~action
13.7. For the unstiffened seat of Prob._13.6, what i\

.- - 4-
3 maximum factored load react1on p a\ . lilt
. . I " ·,11 l<t1>1
when the connecuon 1s we ded with E?o e
....- trodes using shielded metal are w
1
:Ice.
o
(S MAW). Will the 7-in. length of seat . c1d ni
o ~ il~e~
o W24X 104 -,.. ]_ di:im A325 bolts
~ A992 slcel
satisfaerory .
o
p~
13.8. Assume a Wl6X57 beam is lo have the maX1rnu111.
factored load (20% dead Ioad and 75% liv,
/ ·r l e 1()ad·
reaction P,, fo~ _a um,onn Y load_ed 15-ft •Pan'
L i·
2 _ L4 X 3 l Xl_ X l '-2 ··-
2 8 2
Design an unsuffened seat connec11on and ~ •· ·
.
its welde<l connect10n. SI10w dela1led
. ·Pectfv
calcul· . -
. h 1· bi
and compare w1t any app .tea e AJSC "1ilhon·'
Problems 13. 1 and 13.2 , o,1ua1
tables. Use A36 steel, and E70 elccrrod~• _.
~, \\-Jlh
shielded metal are welding (SMAW).
of 20 kips dead load and 30 kips live load LO con-
nect. to the eolumn flange of a W8X67. Determme 13.9. Redesign the
3 ·
unstiffene<l seat connection of p
13.8 using 4 -m.-d.1am A32- · a bearing. rob
:, b o Its m .·
the angles to be used, and show the number and
· (A 325
connecuon _ . - X) · '.IPf
placement of fasteners. Use A36 steel. Use an
economica/ size A325 boh in bearing-type con-
nections, with threads excluded from the shear 13 _IO. Redesign th,e_ unsriffened seat con~ection of Prob.
13 · 8 using 4 111.-d1am A325 bolts ma slip •c·,·.
111ca/
planes (A325-X). connection (A325-SC).
13.4. Redesign the double angle simplc shear conn~c-
tion of Prob. 13.3 as a slip criticai connecnon l 3.11. Design an unstiffened seat angle to suppon a
WJOX22 beam on the web of a W!2X65 colu
(A325-SC).
The beam reaction is 6 kips dead load and 16 k~n
13.5. Design a double angle welded simple shear (fra~ed . no beam on the opposite sid ~
Jive ]oad. There 1s
3. eo1
beam) connection fora W33X 118 beam connecung che web of the column. Use 4-tn.-dìai-n A325 boi
to a column flange which is ¾in. thick. Tue beam . .h li
in a bearing-type connectton WH no threads i.n the
reaction is 25 kips dead load and I 00 kips live Ioad. shear planes (A325- X) and A36 steel. Shoii
E70 electrodes are to be use<l with shielded metal detailed calcular.ions for the design: then coniparc
are welding (SMAW), and the base steel is A572 wìth applicable AISC Manua/ tables. Specifv _
Gra<le 50. Design using basie principles; then com- size for the top clip angle. ' •
pare with applicable A/SC Ma11uaf tables.
13.12. Design a welded stiffened seat similar io that
13.6. Compute the maximum factored load (_25% dead 01
Fig. 13.4.4 attached to a \Vl4X7_4 column flange.
load and 75% gravity live load) reac11on P,, the The seat must support a \\121 X83 having a r~ac-
Wl4X30 beam may transmit to the seat angle B. tion of 30 kips dead load and 100 kip, !ive Iliaci.
What should be the size for angle A and what is its
Use E70 eleetrodes with shielded metal are weld-
function? Use t-in.-diarn A325 bolts in a bearing- ing (SMAW) and A572 Grade 60 steel.
cype connection with threads excluded from the
shear planes (A325-X). 13.13. Design a welded stiffened seat ro suppon a
Wl8X65 beam hav ing a reaction of 20 kjps dead
load and 70 kips live load. The bearn lies ai tight
angles to the stiffened seat as in Fig. 13.4.2. ulie
E70 eleccrodes, s hielded metal are weldine
0
(SMAW), and .A. 572 G rade 60 steel.
WJ4X 30 -} di:om AJ25 boli.,
13.14. Specify the weld s ize ,,n<l triangular bracket plate
A572 Gr:ide 50
thick.ness for the s ituation of the accompanvin2
figure. Use P = 8 kips dead load ami 25 kips.li1~
load, e = 6 in., and L ,1, = 10 in. Use E70 l'll'l.·-
Angle R. L 4 X 4 X~ X 0'-7"
trodes with s hje]ded ,Tletal a re welding (SM.-\\\"ì,
Problem 13.6 and A36 s teel fo1 base mate riai.
Problems • 7 45
1.tt5. Rcpeat Prob. l3.14 using p = 15 ki s

and 30 kips live load, e = 3 . P dead load 13.18. Design a continuous beam-to-co\umn connec1ion
in., and Lw = 12 in.
for W21 X55 beams 10 connect both flanges of a
W14X84 column. Use the type of connection
shown in Fig. 13.6. l b if stiffeners are required.
~
; J2
·r Assume the nominai moment s1rength M,, at the
connection is the plastic moment streng1h M1, of
L,
the beams and that elastic analysis has been used
to ohtain the factored load (20% dead load and
L_ 80% live load) internal forces. Use E70 elec-
trodes with shielded mera! are welding and A36
sleel for the elements being welded. The factored
Problems 13. 14 and 13. l5 shear Vu in che beams adjacent to the column is
50 kips.
!3·16. Design a s1iffened seat. (hracket p\ate) consmmg. .
· fl ange
of a structural tee. that 1s bolted 1o the 1-m. 13.19. Design for the conditions of Prob. I 3.18 but con-
of a colum_n as III the accompanying figure. The sider the W21X5510 frame in only on one side.
~e.at pl_ate 1s welded 10_ the web of the tee. Use Use the piate stiffeners as in Fig. 13 .6.1 b if
necessary.
8.in.-d1am A325 bolts m a bearing-type connec-
tion w1th threads excluded from che shear planes 13.20. Design forthe conditions of Prob. 13.18 cxcept the
(A325-X) and A572 Grade 50 steel. b eam frames in on only one side and the type of
connection shown in Fig. 13.6. ld is 10 be used.
13.21. The split-tee beam connection shown in the

accompanying figure is subject to factored moment
M u of 135 ft-kips and a factored end reaction P,, of
7 d'1am A325 bolcs 50 kips.
8 A572 Grade 50 (a) Detennine whether or not the tees are adequate.
and if not, increase their size.
Suuclural tee
(b) Determ.ine the number of i-in.-diam A325 bolLS
(A325-X) 10 connect the tees to the column
Problem 13. \6 flanges, the tees to the beam flanges , the clip
angles to the column nange. and the clip angles
t3. J7. Investigar.e thc adequacy of the connection shown to 1he beam web.
in the accornpanying figure. Tf the number of con-
nectors is noc adequate, determine 1he correct num-
be-r. Then specify the dimensions of the plates,
including rheir lhickness. The load P is 5 kips dead
Ioad and 15 kips live Joad. Use ~-in.-diam A32S WT1 2 X47
bolts in a slip-criticai connection (A32S-SC). /

W24 >< \04 A16 sted
i }----- - -j
r__, -- .
·- 21[,s (one each flange)
"- 8 - 2. diam A325 bolt,

1
11
u-.J
JJ~ - ·--- - ·- ---,----
-
'-....._ WT 12><87
I 8
L. ,__.J
Probh:m 13.:! l
Problem 13
Cut from S24X 105.9 X l '-3"

Top :md l,onom
/ WT8X28.5
Wl4X43
WTIOX3I X J'-0"
f
4'L
U---'11_ _._
·J1!-~·-I'. 3"..I
-4,J@3 7 ·
A325 holts 8 d,am
Problem 13.22
Fig. I 3.6. l 2b. Use shielded metal are weJd"
13.22. For the split-cee beam connection with the stub (SMAW) with E70 electrodes. tng
beam sbown, determine che de.sign moment
strength </)M,, and design beam reac1ion streng<h 13.29. For the continuous beam connection of lh
panying figure, specify the plate size e accorn.
<f>P,, at the face of the column. Use fr-i n.-diam AJ25 · • We(d ·
bolrs in a bearing-type connection with no threads using E70 electrodes, and leno1h of Sl?..e
· . "' Weld
in the shear planes (A325-X), and A36 steel. dcvelop full plastic moment srreoothb
,~
}VJ . Qf th
to
WJOX39 beam. Consider only plate A P e
13.23. Design a split-tee connection as shown in Fig. . and no1
other aspects o f the connecuon Use A36
I 3.6.2c to connect a W16X50 beam ro a Wl4X 132 shielded metal are welding (SMAW) Sie~( and
column. Assume t.he nominai moment strength M11 electrodes. wn E70
to be developed is the plastic moment strength Mp
of the beam. The factored shear Vu to be carried is Plate A
35 kips. Use ¾-in.-diam A325 bo\ts, or if it seems
advantageous use A490 bolts, in a bearing-type
I
connection with threads excluded from the shear WJOX39 W10x39
planes (A325-X or A490-X).
13.24. Redesign the connection of Prob. 13.23 using an
end-plate connection as shown in Fig. l3.6.2d.
13.25. Redesign the connection of Pro b. I 3.21 using an
end-plate connection as shown in Fig. I 3.6.2d.
The factored moment M" to be carried is 135 ft-
kips, and the factored shear V,, is 50 kips.
I 3.26. Design a vertical tee stiffener (as in Figs. I3.6.3
and 13.6.9) connectìon to frame a Wl6X67 beam Problem 13.29
into the web of a W I 2X96 column. The beam
must develop its plastic moment strength Mp and 13.30. Design a square knee connection (Fio.
., 13--8.1aor
the factored shear V,, is 52 kips. Use A572 Grade b) to join a W24X84 girder to a W30X\08 col-
60 steel, and shielded metal are welding (SMAW) umn. Assum~ U1e plastic moment strenoth M
with E80 electrodes. must develop in the girder. Use A36 st:el aod
13.27. Redesign the connection of Prob. 13.23 using top sh1elded metal are. welding with E70 electrodts.
plate and seat connection similar to that of Fig. 13.J I . Design the column base plate fora Wl4X211ol
13.6. I 2a. Use shielded metal are welding A572 Gracle 50 steeì subject to factore<l axial
(SWAW) with E70 electrodes. load P,, of l I 00 kips . T he plate is to be supponN
I 3.28. Redesign the connection of Prob. 13.23 using a on a 6-ft squ1.trt· concrete footing haiio~
!Op and bottom plate connection similar to that of .f~ = 3000 p:,i. ~
Problems • 747
13 .32. Design the column base plate for a WJ 2 x
umn to carry a factored axiaJ I d P. 65 coJ- 13.34. Redo Prob. 13.33 for W24X 84 beam.
oa of 370 ki
The base piace is supported on _; ps.
5 1
crete footing having 1:. == 3500 ~si. square con- 13.35. Redo Prob. 13.33 for W21X55 beam.
1-3.33_ Design
.
a four-plate beam spi,· e
. ce ,or a WJ4X53
13.36. Design an eight-plate splice (plates inside an<l out-
beam of A992 steel. Design for SO% side of the flanges and both sides of the web) fora
moment strength and 60% of th h of the welded girder consisting of I ix22 tlanges and
• 3 . • e s ear strength of
the secuon. Use 4-m.-diam A 325 bolt . ftX78 web. Use factored moment Mu of 6800 ft-
. · . s m a bear-
ing-type connecuon Wllh threads excluded f kips and factored shear Vu of 510 kips. Use A36
the shear planes (A325-X). rom sceel and ~-in.-diam A325 bolts in a slip-criticai
connection (A325-SC),
es-Brae ed
nbraced
14.1 GENERAL
As discussed in Sec. 6 .9, the effective leng1h of the column mernbers in f ~

dent on whether the frame is braced or unbmced. For the braced frame the cu es _is depen.
• 11 ect1ve I
KL 1s egual lo or less chan che accual length. For the unbraced frame che eu . ength
. · uec11ve I
KL always 1s greater than the accual length. englh
J11 order Lo understand frame behavior. consider in Fig. 14. l . l the for.... hh
. - s t ac a · .
a column member of a frame as a resulc of lateral deflecnon due to a force h flSe 10
The moment, M& and shears Qil are those portions of the momencs and slieasuc as ~tnd.
· ,rs re ·
balance rhe mo~ent P .6.. In addition, _c~er~ wi(l be_ moments and shears caused b;~red_to
loads at the parucular floor leve I. Equ1{1bnum m F1g. 14. l . l a requires ) eral'n,-
P6. = Q1;.lr + 2M::,.

(1 4_ I. JI
The lateral deflection À is commo nly caUed dr({! whcn it results frorn .
· mu Ir,story
t~ · frar_nes, as shown m
· F1g.
· l~.1.2. Dnft
· c~ns1sts
· wmd loact·'.ng
of two parts: thai
d1rectly from ho rizontal load, and thar ansing from vert1cal load 1imes the drifc. resulhng
(a) Effccls of faterai

Figure 14.1. 1 (b) Negligible momen1 (cl Ncgligible shenr
deflecrion rcstrai111 from
Sccondary bending momenr resi rainl from
columns and girder~ drngonals or
due to P il in frames.
01hcr bracmg
748
Section 14.1 Generai • 7 49
Welded unbraced rigid frame (Vierendecl truss). (Counesy Bethlehem Steel Corporacion)
A frame will defleci under Latera! loading such as wind regar<lless of the pattern of its
component members. However, the manner in whjch equilibrium is maintained against the
moment PD. differs depending on the restraint conditions. If the building were a venical
pin-jointed truss under lateral loading, there would be no continuity at the joints to allow
Side,way
insla"t>ility
prc-vcnted
Bracini; by br.1cmp
(a) 13raccd frame; drift
Figure 14.1.2
Comparison of braced a1 ..J
(b) Unliraced frame; drifl and sideS\vay budlin~
unbraced frames.
750 • Chapter 14 Frames-Braced and Unbraced
the moment M!J. ro develop. In which case, as in Fig. 14.1. lb,
Diagonal and horizontal members (web members of lhe truss) would havc to cany
enti re shear Qt,.. . . . the
On the other hand, if the members _are rig1dly Jom~d toge1her but wi1hou1 dia
members there would be little shear res1stance. Neglectmg the shear resistance . gona1
' . enttre\ ,
would result m }
pt:,,
M1:,. = 2 (14.1.31
as in Fig. 14 _1.1c. In this case. the girders and columns would have to accoininodate th
moment M:,.. e
Braced Frame
A braced frame has relatively small momenr resistance from columns and "Ìrders
• . . , . . "' , 10 cou .
terbalance p t:,, , m companson w11h the actual restrarnt from d1agonals or other bra _. n
other words, Eq. ]4.1.2 is assun_1ed to represent '.he braced frame in simplitìed desi~~g. !n
0
cedures. As is s.hown Jater in 1h1s chapter, 1here 1& both (]exural res1stance and shear /~ -
tance developed in the braced and the unbraced frame. lt is the relative magnitudes fesi,.
· o thes
resistances that make the difference between the braced and unbraced frame. e
Basically' a braced frame. is more appropriately
. defined as one in which -d
s, esw ,
buckling is prevemed by bracmg elements ot thc structure other than the structural fr a)
itself. As will be seen in the next section. the 1heoretical elastic stability analysi . ame
braced frame assumes no relative joinl displacements. which obviously could oc s of a
wll· h · fimite
· Iy su·ff· b racmg.
· However, 1· t 1s
· prac1·cI a I ,.
,or des1gn
·· an d reasonably cocur onlo,
111
. . . .. b 4 2 rrect10
assume neghgtble moment res1siance as u-nphed Y Eq. I . I. , and lO assume that for
bility purposes the sidesway mode is thereby also preven1ed. Sla-
The term "sidesway" is used to refer to stable elastic lateral movemem of a f .
usually due to lateral loads. such as wmd. . s·a 1 esway bucId" . t he sudden lateral rame·
· mg 1s
ment. such as 8 of F,g. · 14. I .2b, caused by axta· I Ioad s reac I1mg
· a ce11am · criticai valuemove.
In conclusion, the braced frame accommodates lhe P ~ moments by deve! · .
. .
shears Qil m the bracmg system.
~~
Unbraced Frame
In the unbraced frame, as Fig. I 4. I .2b, if the horiwntal load H is maintained constan1 ,
nd
:l.2
the compressive loads Pare increased sufficiently to cause fai Iure, such failure will ~ _,,
with a side lurch known as sidesway buckling. The lateral cleflection will suddenfr beoccur
greater than the drift as shown in Fig. J4.1 .2b. For cases where there is no Iater~l lo~~rne
mg
H and, cherefore, no initial deflection, the sudden sidesway will stili occur when the ven1-
cal load reaches a c1itical value.
The practical design treatment of the_un~raced frame assumes lhac, referring 10 Fì .
14.1.Ic. no shears Q,1 are capable of developmg and Eq. 14. 1.3 applies. Any P!:i. effe!
are balanced by column and girder moments in che unbraced frame.
Classica! methods for elastic buckling analysis of frame s are widely available _
ticularly in Bleìch [6.9), the SSRC Guide [6.8). and more recem l.y in S1ability Desi~~:f
S1ee/ Frames by Chen and Lui [ 14.1 ].
Section 14.2 Elastic Buckling of Frames • 751
Detailed stud f . . .
Yura and Gal b Y O one- story frames 1s g1ven by Goldberg (l4.2J, Galambos (14.3],
[14.8], Zwei ~~ ~s [l .4], Lu_ 114.5], Zweig and Kahn [14.6], Lind [14.7), Schilling
4
Mult' ~ · ), LeMessuner [12.50, 12.51]. Scholz [14.10, 14.11], and Liu [14.12).
Korn and ~~ ty bunbraced frames have been treated by Levi, Driscoll, and Lu [14.1 3],
Moy [! 4 _1/ : : ;s 114-141. S':"itzky and Wang [14.15], Liapunov [14.161. Cheong-Sial-
1
and ]\.forino ], Che~ng-Siat-Moy, Ozer, and Lu [14.19], Lu, Ozer, Daniels, Okten,
review d ~O OJ, Hans [14.21], and Gaiotti and Smith (14.22). Schuhz [14.45] has
d
142
frame~ :et s of approximating lateral stiffness of stories in elastk frames. The space
as een t~eated by Razzaq and Naim [ 14.23J.
metho1s a practical matter, unbraced multistory frarnes analysis is done using computer
th
for d s, at e v~ry least using a first-order elastic analysis, wherein the originai unde-
Th m:
e n
t:metry is used. Computer capability has made possible sophisticated analyses.
_tween research and practice has been discussed by White and Haijar [14.24].
Matnx forrnulation using stiffness ancl/or flexibility coefficiencs is the standard pro-
cedure for frame a \ · " ' ·
. . na ys1s. nang [14.25] and Halldorsson and Wang [14.26] illustrate the
matnx ! J · -
'ff ormu ahon. Frame analysis methods are generally outside the scope of this 1ex1.
S tI ness and fl ·b·1· ·
. ex, 1 Hy coeftic1ents are developed in Sec. 14.2 to previde introductory
mate~ia~; Sliffness coefficients in the well-known slope-detlection method are used in
explammg ~rame behavior in the remainder of this chapter. Elastic computer-aided analy-
sis of multistory frames is generally availahle, for example, by Mehringer. Pierson, and
Orb1son [14.27].
Inelastic Buckling
~ince ~ome fibers of a cross-section usually yield prior to frame buckling occurring,
~nelast'.c bu.:kling would usually govern the actual strength of a frame. Many stu<lies of
tnelastic buckling have been conducted, including for braced frames the work of Ojalvo
and Levi fl4.28], and Levi, Driscoll, and Lu (14.291. For unbraced frame~. the reader is
referred to Merchant [14.30). Yura and Galambos [ 14.4). Lu [ 14.5]. Levi. Driscoll. and Lu
(14.13], Kom and Galambos [14.14], Springfield and Adams [ 14.3 1]. Daniels and Lu
(14.32], Liapunov [14.16], Cheong-Siat-Moy [14.17- 14.19. 14.33]. Lu. Ozer, Daniels.
Okten, and Morino [14.20). and Haris ( 14.21 J. lnelasric buckling. studics have been
extended to the hybrid frame by Amold, Adams. and Lu [ 14 .34J. and to space frames by
McVinnie and Gaylord f 14.35].
More recently, second-order inelastic an:ilysis has bcen rccommended by King.
White, and Chen [14.46], and is recomrnended in C:hap. 16 of the G11ide l 14.48].
14.2 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF FRAMES

The distinction between thc braced and unbraced frame ha~ been made in Sec. 14. l. in
addition, there are two kinds of loading that may er,11trib11te t , in,;tahilit ) . For lhc /Jracei/
frame of Fig. 14.2.1 a, there are no pri111ary bending inomi:.nt,; iht: only loading is ax ial
compressìon. The criticai load for such a situation is 11sually d1..finecl as ,1 bucklìng load. No
bending of members uccu1-s unti] the bud:ling ioad :~ n·t1d1c.:tl
For Fìg. 14.2.lb, bending moments C). Ì~t when thc , tru, ture ;~ enli.Idy stt,bk. Due tn
the assumed "infinite rotational stiffness.. of the rigid join.:, , WHì1,~11-. an.: 1r:in$millcti i11t1>
column members. In addition to the primary bc nding ml)merit~ in t.h1 ,·olumn mcmlwr., . t\w
axjal compressìon induces secondary mornem.s equa) tu P 1ì11,e:. the dd lct.:tion Tl1is was
discussed in Chapter 12. Under ce1t ain cornbìnatinn, of a>-.ial ..:0111prc:-,iu11 ,mJ 11wnK'nt.
752 • Chapter 14 Frames- Braced and Unbraced
p p
P, ,
:
""", ----
.... ,
---
/ /
/ .,,, \
1
I ',,,../ I
\ ,,,, ,-... , I
~ .,. ,,, ', I
/
/ ' '
(b) lnstab,lity in (e) P1a, 11c strength

(a) Buckling in
presence of withOut oserall
Figure 14.2.1 abscncc of
prim..-y momem frame 1ns1abili1y
Streng1h ofbraced frames. primary ,nomcnl
the Jateral deflection ofthe column increases without achieving equilibrium· th' 18 .
referred to as instability, or instability in the presence of primary bending ~ o~: usua11y
When primary bending moments are present. enough plastic hinges m nt.
prior to achievmg· frame msta
· b'1l'1ty so t h at a mec h amsm
· r
,orms. ·
1n which e ay deve}Op
braced frame the nominai strength is the plastic strength (Fig. 14.2.lc). ase far lhc
The strength of unbraced frames. as shown in Fig. l 4.2.2, also may be se
three categories; buckling in the absence of primary moment (Fig. 14.2.2a)
the presence of primary moment (Fig. J4.2.2b), and plastic strength (Fig. 14:2_2 ) ny in
into i~:i
unbraced frame, achieving plastic strength frequencly (though not always) meac · For_the
ing a mechanism associated with overall geometrie instability. ns ach,cv.
The remainder o f this section treats the case of elastic buckling in the abse
mary bending moment, with the purpose of having the reader understand the d'ffnce of Pri-
1 erenc ·
behavior of braced and unbraced frames. e lTI
To investigate the elastic stability of a rigid frame, ii is firs1 uecessary 10 es b.
relationships between _e~~ moments and _end sloJ><:s for the ind!v!dual frame me:~::lhr
then apply the compat1b1hty of deforma11ons requuement for n g1d joints. and
General Flexibility and Stiffness Coefficients

for Beam-Columns
The reader is assumed to have some familiarity with the slope-deflection equacio .
frame anaJysis when axial effect is not considered. Fo r a prismatic section wit;s USed_m
load and without trans verse load. as in Fig l 4.2.3a. out ilX.tal
(14.2. la)
(14.2.lb)
.
I
I
I
I
I
__ _j t p" j lp lp p
~,-;;- ,- - - - - --- -t
p" H
I I I
I I I I II '
I I I I
I I ) Plasric
I
I
I
I
I
11 hinges
7T!lT 1.1+.-
Figure 14 .2.2 (a) Buckling in absence (b) lns1abili1y in presence (e; C> metrically unsrable
Strength of unbraced frames. of primary momen1 of primary momcnr 1vi qg :.1rcng1h
(a) Without »ial load
Figure J4.2.3
Definition of terrns and
sigo convention _for slope- y
deflection eguat1ons.
(b) lncluding axial compression
The following treatment, though similar to that for beam-columns in Sec. 12.2, ìs a
more generai approach that begins by expressing the moment ac any section z of Fig. l 4.2.3b:
2
d y = M, =Ma+ Py - (Ma
-EJ- + Mb- +- PRL)
~ '--- - z. (14.2.2)
dz 2 - L
d2y p
- 2
+ -y= ( 14.2.3)
dz El
2
Letting k = P/ El, the solution for Eq. 14.2.3 is
Ma Ma+ Mb . R
y = A sin kz + B cos kz - P + PL ;; --t" ;; (14.2.4)
Applying the boundary cond.itions of zero detlection at ;; = O a.nd" = R L at ~ = L gives
and
A _l ( A(, cos kL + Mb)

p Sl!I kl
Then
_ M11 [sink(L- z) _il.·- z) 7 __ lvh(sinll'.;:_ __ i._) + /?; ..l .S)

y - P sin k L L J P ~in k f. l. 04
Differentiating once to obtain the slope,
dy = Ma [ - k cos k(L - z)_ +

dz P sin k L
J.
f., J
.l __ -~~ ! li_:~~:~_
P \, '! tl ti. ,
J.ì +
:
i?
dy dy
when z = O'dz -- 0a + Rand when z = L, dz = 0b + R.
Letting 4,2/L2 = k 2 = P/ EI,0,, and 0b after some manipulacion ofterms tnaybe
expressed* as
0
L (sin - cos <t>)
= -MEl"- --'---'----- -- (sin2 - )
- +MbL
a 4>2 sin El t/J sin 0 4.2.?a)
fJ = M11 L(sinq, - )+ MbL(sin - c/>cos tf>)

b El q, 2 sin 4> El q} sin 04.2.?b)
where the <f> functions (i.e., expressions within parentheses) are known as.flexibility coeffi.
Cl·enrs
·
1···11, J,·11.• J··JI • and /·.
• 11 ·
To obtarn the beam-column
.
counterpans lo Eq· 14 · 2· 1, soiv
•
Eqs. 14.2.7 (i.e., invert the matrix of coeffic1ents) to obtam e
2
4,2 cos </J ) <f,
M = 8 -El ( </> sin rJ, -
. + 81,-El ( - sin <f,
.
)
(14.2.&a)
" " L 2 - 2cos <f, - <f, sm <f, L 2 - 2cos - </> srn tf>
2 2
El (
~=~- - - q,- -- </J- sin
- cf,- - ) + ~ -El ( sin - </> cos <t> )
04.2.&b)
L 2 - 2cos </J - tj> sin r/> L 2 - 2cos <J> - sin 
where the </> functions are known as stiffness coefficients. The 8 values are the end sl
measured with reference to the axis of the member. opes
2
Note that since <t,2 = PL / E~, </> = O mean~ no axial compression and Eqs. 14_ _
28
should become Eqs. 14.2.1. To venfy che coeffic1ent 4 wben r.p = O in E{). 14.2.&a h
1
numerator and denominator of the bracketed term must be differentiated four tim~ _e
5
accordance with L'Hospital's Rule and then apply the 4> O limit. = tn
To simplify the use of Eqs. 14.2.8 for the slope-deflection soluti on of frame buckli
problems, le~ the stiffness coefficients be referred lo as S;;, S;i, Sii· and Sjj. Because th:g
are symmetncal Sji = Su and Sjj = S;;- Thus Eqs. 14.2.8 become Y
El El
Ma = OaLS;; + e,,Lsij (14.2.9a)
El El
M,, = e" 1 sij + 01>
1 S;; (14.2.9b)
Braced Frame-Slope-Deflection Methocl
r· I
'
~
t"
--,- ~re;:---''---~--=-,. r"
I ,,I
4
_J
igure 14.2.4 i - -- - L. ------1
raced frame-hinged base. (al (b )
~TI~~ ~-s~ of ~h,:.?mbol ,P .is_the ~tabilily parameter throughoul this chapt,~r ,hc:;l.1 ,,-t be confused with tht re,ii-
tanc~ laU(,r , •.u ~ngth reducuon lac1or) </> 11 ed m Load and Rc:.,istant c Factt-r I). r:.•
The analysis of the · .
method Usin n~td frame of Fig. 14.2.4 is presented using the slope-deflection
· g e Io ckw1se la · . .·
deflection equatì . m llons and rotational end moments as positive, the slope-
ons are as follows, using Eqs. 14.2.9;
E/e Elc
M 12 = 81-hS·· + 82 - h Il
S IJ-· ( 14.2.10)
Efc E/e
M 21 = 81-S
/i IJ· + 82- h S Il
(14.2. 1 I)
E lg Elg 2Elg
M23 = 82 - S· + 83-S--1 = - - 82 (14.2.12)
L " L ' L
Because no axial ·
Use o f symmetry c ompressron acts on member 2-3 S . = 4 and S·- = 2 for Eq. 14.2.12.
d ' ,, ,, .
re uces the number of moment equations from six (two tor each frame
memb er) to three and (J - (J Th .. . . h . .
' 3 - - 2. e equ1hbnum equat1ons for l e 1omts are
=O
M12 ( 14.2. 13)
M21 + M2, = O ( 14.2.14)
st
Sub ìtutio n of Eqs. 14.2.1 0 through 14.2.12 into Eqs. 14.2.13 and 14.2.14 g ives
E lc El,
81- h SIl-- + 82 - li s.. =O
}
I]
( 14.2. I 5)
o, -El,.
h
s. + 02(El
I)
_h e s-- + -2EIK
L
- )Il
= o
Since the 8 values cannot be zero when buckling occurs, the dete1minant o f the coeflicients
of fhe Bs must be zero. Thus the determinane, whìch is the stability equation, is
2
Elc ) (
( h. s.2Il + -2/gh
l, L
s. - sIJ2 ) -- o
Il
(1 4.2.16)
Since El,j h c annoc be zero, the other tenn must be zero . Thus
s _ si = 211!11
( 14 .2.1 7)
" S;; l,.L
which in terms of e/> becomes
2 lgh
(1 4 .2. 18)
sin <J, - <f> coscp l ,L
EXAMPLE 14.2.1
Detennine thc buckling load Pc, and effectìve length K.L for n braced rìgìd frame, as in Fig.
14.2.4, which has lg = 2 I00in. 4 (W24 X76): lt 796 in.4 (Wl 4X 74): L= 36 ft: and =
h = 14 ft.
Solution:
The sta bility equation to be satisfied is Eq . 14.2. i 8. which im•1;11cù i,
sin q, - tp cos ,p l,.L - 796(36j ·- -~ ,,, ..,

·------- _..: - - - ---- • ·· i.).·+ . , t
2
rj> sin 1> 2 /~h 2(21 00) U
f--",...,.....~3~.4-,3:~6-3,.8----::4~.o=-4~.2-4~.41 _ _ _ ~
I
- - - - - - -..______ For !..J::. = -0.487

21,h
~-----;7 r·
-I.O ,
I ="'-
I, h
~ = 3.60 J
-2.0 1--- -,.----j
Figure 14.2.5 I I I I I
I.O 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70
Braced frame-hinged base,
Example 14.2.1. K factor
The smallest value of </; satisfying the buckling equation is the criticai value; i.e., the one
chat govems. As fg approaches zero, an isolated pinned column ìs indicated, with
</;2 = 'TT2. As girder stiffness increases, <J> should_ b~ome greater chan 7T. For an infinitely
stiff girder, according to Fig. 6.9.1 wh1ch md1cates K = 0.7, one would expect
2 2
<J> = (n/0.7) = (4.49)2. . .
Tue solution for </; = 3.60 obtained by tnal usmg values greater than 7T but less than
4.49 is shown in Fig. 14.2.5.
Comparing with the isolated pinned column,
(14.2.19)
it may be noted that che effecrive length faccor K may be expressed

7T
K= - (14.2.20)
cf>
which for Lhis problem means K =

r./3.60 = 0.87. In other words. to account for frame
buckJing the column member could be designed using 0.87h as the pinned length of the
isolated member. The K factor axis is also shown on Fig. 14.2.5 so rhat for various frame
propertics one could obtain che K faccor direcrly. Note that a large increase in girder stiff-
ness achìeves only a smaJI reduction in K.
The elast.ic buckling load is
(3.60)2Elc (3.60)2(29,000)796
P,
cr
=- ---=
h2
---- -- - -
( I 4) 2( 12 )2
10,600 kips
•
Unbraced Frame-Slope-Deflection Method

Next, the same frame that was treated as braced against sidesway ar joint 2 is now to be
analyzed as unbraced: i.e., with the horizootal support aijoim? : cmoved, as in Fig. 14.2.6.
Even for the unbraced frame it is conceivable IO consìder a ~ynuneuical buck.ling mode
(Fig. 14.2. la) exactly as when it was braced. It will be den\é'':,trated that the sidesway
buckJing mode (Fig. 14.2.6b) will occur at a smaller load lh?.ri .r,;: value obtained for the
symmetric:11 case.
r·
·gure 14.2.6
f2
h
l
I,.
l
I .,
I,
r·
3
4
,~.
---H=O
Jobraced frame-hinged f - - - L-----i
(IJ' "' IJ from Eqs.
se2 -9 and Fig. 14.2.3.)
I4..
(a)
(b) Showing end slopes measured
from axis of members
. Equations 14.2.9 are applied with the added faclor that the axes of some members
are lllted due to 'd . · be b ted
. SL esway, so that Jetting e represent total rotatton !:i./ h must su trac
from 1t to get the d I , . .
en s ope 0 measured w1th respect to the member ax1s.
M 12 == ( 01 - -l!i.)Efc
- S· + ( 02 - -!:i.)Efc
-S;· (14.2.21)
h h " h h .I
(14.2.22)
Elg Elg
M23 == 02 -S-· + e,-S· (l4.2.23)
- L " ·' L I)
With no axial compression considered on member 2-3, S;; = 4 aod Sij = 2 for
Eq._ I 4 .2.23. This time if the structure is symmetrical, the sidesway buckling gives an
anttsym~etrical deflected curve; thus e3 == ()i and only three end moment equations are
needed mstead of six. The equilibrium equations are
M12 =O (14.2.24)
M21 + M23 =O (14.2.25)
whìch are the same as for the braced case. I.n ad<lition, the sum of the base shears nmst be
zero since no extemal horizontal farce is acting. Because of antisymmetry H1 = -H~ so
that only one column member needs to be considered. Referring to Fig. l4.2.6c,
H = M21 + Pc,!!. = O ( 14.2.26)

h
Equations 14.2.24, 14.2.25, and 14.2.26 then become
( 14.2.27)
758 • Chapter 14 Fremes-Braced and Unbraced
Since 8 • 9 , and a cannot be zero (if buckling occurs), the ~eterminate of t~e-coefficienis
must be zero. Thus algebraic elimination of 81 and computatton of the remainmg four clc-
1 2
menl detenninant gives

6El S·· ,j/EJ, 6Elg]
El'( s1. - 5?-.) _ _g tf,2 " + -- - - - =O (14.2.28)
h2 Il I] [ L ( S1; - STj) h L
Since S;; ;t si/ the bracketed tenn musi be uro. Subs ti.tution of the S;; and S;i ex.pressions
in tenns of cf> from Eqs. 14.2.8 gives the stability equauon,
sin e/> - cf> cos tf, = l,L .

(14.2.29)
4,2 - c/>2 sin e/> 6/gh
or
04.2.30)
EXAMPLE 14.2.2
Determine the huckling load Pc, and the effec tive length KL for the unbraced frame con.
sisting of the same memhers and span as in Exarnple 14.2. l.
Solution:
6lgh 6(2100)( 14)
tf, tane/> = - - = ~--'---- = + 6.156
J,L 7%(36)
which is solved by tria! 10 obtain e/> = l.354, 1he smallest value satis fyi.ng the equa1ion (sec
Fig. 14.2.7).
K = !!._ = ~ = 232
cJ> 1.354
Thus ìf 1he frame is unbraced it may he designed as an isolated member of effective Jength
2.32h, whereas if it were braced the effective le ngth would be 0.87h. The range of K values
may be studied for tbis frame in Fig. 14.2.7. With hinged bascs. even w ith an infinitely
rigid beam the effective length faccor K is neve r less than 2 for an unbraced frame.
8.0 6/lt
u = 6.l 56
7.0
r· ,. r"
~
~
<:
~
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
rn,
I
.L
.
I---- L - - l
.
I
I
I
I
I
I.O l .J54:
o
Figure 14.2.7
Unbraced frame-hinged
base. Example 14.2.2. o:; 100 5.0 401.~ 1.0 2.5
Section 14 4 ..
5
· tab,hty or Frames Under Primarv Bending Moments • 759
The buckling load is
2
Pc,'= (l.354) E/c (l.354) 229,000(796) =
2 1500 kips.
1i (14}2 (12) 2
or about ! of wh 1 11
-
7 a was for the same frame when braced.
•
14.3 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR EFFECTIVE LENGTH
----~-~:.:.::::.:.~~~~-----
For ordinary de · -- - · · kl"
st th _ sign, li 1s 1n1practical to analyzc an entire frame to detennme 11s bue mg
reng and ns effective length (equivalcnt pinned-cnd length). Thus it is desirablc to havc
some generai Way of obtaining the K factor without the full analysis.
eh . The u~ual PfOCedure for obtainìng the effecùve length factor K is to usc_tbe_ alignme~t
S ans6of
9 Juhan and Lawrence f6.54}. The.,e appear as Fig. 6 .9.4 and their use 1s d1scuss.ed m
_ ec. · : The full mathematical development, including panicularly the a,sumprions uscd.
appe~ in Sec. 14.3 of thc first and second editions ofthis book. Ha.ijar and White {14.471 have
prov,_ded an exceUent generai treatment of effective length as related to unbraced framex. 1be
pracucal application materiai from this section appears in Sec. 6.9. For unsymmetrical frames.
Chu and Chow [14.36] have presented modifications to pennit use of the al.ignment charts.
14.4 STABJLITY OF FRAMES UNDER PRIMARY BENDING MOMENTS
Referring to Figs. 14.2.1 and 14.2.2, the distinction ~hould be noted betwecn (I) buclding
th
ìn e absence of pTimary bending moments: i.e .. 110 moments exist unti! bucklii\g occurs:
nd 2
a < ) magnification of primary bending moments (which exist éven \\rithout the presence_
of compressive loads) due to axial compression p times deflection .6.. The buckling ot
frames, which involved solvìng for the compressive loads P that make a dc:terminant equa!
to zero, was treated in Sec. 14.2.
_ This section considers frame behavior when primary moments also exist. Consid~r a
stmple rectangular fixed base frame subject to primary moments as in Fig. 14.4. la. lf snn-
ple bending theory is used, and the stiffness of the girder is 1101 considered reduced due ~o
axial compression, any ordinary procedure of statically indetem1ina1e analysis rncthod will
give the moments.
lf compressive loads Pare applìed, there will be additional nwments P ~ •. as in
Fig. 14.4.1. The tota) effcct may be treated a:- a magnification factor times thc pr'.mary
bending moments. This has been discussed in detail in Chapter 12 for membcrs with no
translation of joints (braced frames such as in Fig. 14.2.lb). ;md ha~ been approxi-
mately presemed for the unbraced frame beam-column in Se.e. 12.5.
ò. = A of
r1Fig 14.;;I ___ f1-, .l
p
ò.
;,
li : li+~
14.1.1
-
·-!ofFis
H
-,
1 I
.
H ~
--- -t
T I'
3
I
I
I I
I
I
I
I
L ',,
I, I I
I I
I' I I I
I
4
figurt 14.4. 1
L-L- -~
(al Pri111ary bending (b) Primary plus sccond~I")'
franic with fixed bases. bcnding
The following treatment is intended to provide

· " h an · understanding
· of the rn.athemat1c
.
and compare the actual magnification factor w1t,, t e s1mp e express1on, Eq. 12.S.l a& ~
· l
in AJSC-C2.lb. ' USCd
Primary Bending of Fixed-Base Frame

To derennine magnification of primary moments, the primary _moments musi first be d
mined. . While design
. praccice could use any method of elasttc frame analysis • the slopeter-
deflecuon method 1s used here so that the reader rnay compare what fo!Jows . e-
modifications required to include the P t:,. effect. · wirb lhe
For the frame of Fig. 14.4.1 a, use Eqs. 14.2. l noting that 6 is the angle me
from the axis of the member, and that for 8 to represent the tota! rotation, A/ h must ~ ed
rracted from it. The end rnoment equarions are sub-
Mp = (01 - A)4El, + ( 82 -
- - -
t:,,,) 2Elc
- --·
• h lt h h
à)2Elc ( à)4Elc
M 21 = ( 81 - - +
- - 6? - - - - 04.4.I )
h h - h h
4ELg 2El11
L- + 83 L
M23 == 82 -
Because of symmetry in che structure,
}
M4 3 == M12
M34 = M21 04.4.2)
(h = fJ3
Also, because of the fixed base, 01 == O.

For equìlibrium, it is required that
M 21 + M 23 = O (14.4.3)
and also the shears on the columns must equa! H:
M 12 + M 21 M43 + M 34
h + h + H =O (14.4.4)
Substitution of Eqs. 14.4.1 into Eqs. 14.4.3 and I 4.4.4 g i ves
4E[,. 6Elg)
02 ( - - + - - _ /j. ~ 6Elc ) = O
h
02( -l2El")
-
h
L
_ ~
h
h
h
24Elc)
h
= · · Hh } ( 14.4.5)
Solving for 02 and ll / h gives
(14.4.6)
and
(14.t?\
Section 14 4 S ..
· tab1hty of Frames Under Primary Bending Moments • 761
Subs1i1uting ini01h
e M12 and M21 Eqs. 14.4.1. gives
M12---
2
_ -Hh(lrL/lgh +
[,L/111 h + 6
3) ( 14.4.8)
and
M= -:h(,cL/1:h + 6)
21 (14.4.9)
M1, and M21 are the · · d P

apP-1.,ed . pnmary moments which are magnified when the ax1al loa s are
Magnifìcation F t - .
ac or tor F1xed-Base Frame
The frame ofFig 144 Jb · · - ·ti d' 1· M
d M 21 · · · 1s mvesugated next 10 delermine the magni 1e momen s 12
th
an .. · Use e slope-de.flection equations, Eqs. 14.2.9. that include effect of ax.ial com-
press,o~ on Sliffness. Again the rotation angle t:./ h musi be sublracted from the full angle
to ob1am the value .d .
rneasu1e from the member ax1s:
M12 = ( 01 - h -s-
h +
-!:.)Elc
Il
(8
2 - h -s
h,
-f:.)Elc
M 21 = ( 81 - -A)Elc
-S - + ( 02 - A)E/,
- -S- (14.4.10)
h h ,, h h "
4Elg 2EJ
M23 = 0 , -- + 0,- -8
- L " L
wher~as for primary moment determination, t.he compressioa effect on the g,irder stif_f-
15
ness not considered. The same symmetry and fixed-base condition (01 = O) as tn
Eqs. 14.4.2 apply.
The equilibrium conditions are
M21 + M23 = O (14.4.11)

the same as when rhe axial force p was noi present: and
M12 + M21 + M43 + My1 + 2Pli + H = O (14.4.12)

h h h
where the tenn 2P11/ h is added 10 1he previous condi1ion of Eq. 14.4.4. Let P <1>-, E 1,-I h-·
, =
Substitution ofEqs. 14.4.10 into Eqs. 14.4.11 a.od 14.4.12, and recalling M 43 = M 12
and M34 == M21 • gives
} (14.4.13)
Equations 14.4.13 compare with Eqs. 14.4.5 when Eqs. 14.4.5 are divided by El,.fh.
Solving Eqs. 14.4.13 for 02 aod 6./h gives
11
- = ---- 11 (S;; + 61 h/ lcL)
- - O, ( 14.4.14)
h S;; + S;i •
~
and
(14.4.is,
2
Note that Eq. 14.4.15 becomes Eq. 14.4.6 when P = O. When P == O, cf> = Ph2/é.J _
e- O
S;; = 4, and Sii = 2. . . ·
Substituting Eqs. 14.4.14 and 14.4.15 mto Eqs. 14.4.10 g1ves
M 12 = fh E:c (Sij - S;; - 618 h/I,L)
_ -Hh{ (S;; + S;j)(S;; - SiJ + 6lgf1/IcL)(IcL/lgh) }

- 2 (ST; - STj - <JiS;;)lcL/lgh + 6[2(Su + S;1) - cp2 )
-Hh{ (Sn - Sfj)/cL/ lgh + 6(S;; + S;j) }
Mn =- 2- (Sl - SJ1 - 4/S;;)fcL/lgf1 + 6[2(S;; + Sij) - cf> 2 ] ( 14.4.16)
and
(14.4.171
which become the same as Eqs. 14.4.8 and 14.4.9 when </> = O; i.e., no axial compres.
The magnification factor, the sway magnifier B1 in Load and Resistance Factosian.
. . I p A ff h . r ter-
minology, is rhe ratio of the moment mcludmg t 1e _ "-' e ect to t. ~ pnmary momem With.
out Pà. Thus, dividing Eq. 14.4.16 by Eq. 14.4.8 grves the magmf1er 8 2 for the momemat
the bottom of the column,
Eq. 14.4.16
(B2)bottom = Eq. 14.4_8 (14.4. l8j
and the magnifier B2 for the moment at the top of the column.
Eq. 14.4.17
(B2)1op = Eq. 14.4.9 ( 14.4.) 9)
Note is made that the magnifie.r B2 is applicable onJy in rectangular frames.

Jn actuaJ practice it would be easier to do the sccond-order analysis 10 obtain the
moments as obtained in this section than 10 compute corrcctly the magnificatìon factor.
The purpose bere is to show the relacive coITectness of che ~way magnification factor B, as
given by AISC-C2. I b for the LRFD Method. .
B2 = - -- - = (l-t.-1.20\
2-P,1 I - cx
- --·
L Pe2
wbere cx = "i.P,J"iPe2
2, !~, = sum of ali factored loads in the column, ri.::-isting sway
'J~ P,,2= sum ofthe Euler buckling loads in iht' ..:oltrmns resisting sway
2
l-~2 = 1r EJ/(KL)1
K = effective lengLh factor in the piane nf h, nding .:: I .O
Sectìon 14_4 St ..
abihty of Frarnes Under Primary Bending Moments • 763
Note that columns res· . . .
act independentJ . 1b •~llng sway m a story, such as the two columns in Fig. 14.4.1. cannot
story. The term pY• . us· IT musi mc · Jude the effects on ali columns res1st1ng
· · sway ·m the
18 th
lowing tbe pro d'" e buckling load occurring in the absence of primary momem. Fol-
.
lettmg H == 0 .ceth ure of Se
. c.· 14·3, P,2 may be detennmed
· · 14.4 . I b y
for the frame of F1g.
zero. Substit t'. en 5eltmg the detenninant of the coefficients in Eqs. 14.4.13 equal to
u 10n of the s.11 d S . . .. · d ·
nam will fin 11 . an iJ in terms ot the stab1hty parameter sin tf> cos 4>(cot e/> - J,L ) = l (14.4.21)

c/> 6/gh
which for exam le 1·r I
the buckJ · 1 p ' cL/ Igh == I, one obtains <ber = 0.8657T. For the fixed-base frame..
ing oad would be
( 0.8651r ) 2 El,
Pe2 =
and
rr
p
== P,2 =
( 4>
0.865r.
)2 • for LO
The effective length factor K is
1r 1.0
K =- =- - = 1.16
<f>cr 0.865
14 4
Table · · 1 provides a comparison of the theoretical magnification factor. Eq. 14.4.19 for
th
e top ofthe column, with the AISC LRFD Eq. 14.4.20.
Comparisoo ofthe values for Bz in Table 14.4.1 shows that AJ.SC Eq. 14.4.20 com-
pares favorably with the theoretical values.
Actual "unbraced frames" always have attachments which are designed as noostruc-
tural elements; however, such items do actually contribute some bracìng to the structure.
TABLE 14.4.1 Comparison ofTheoretical Magnification Factor B2 with

82 == 1/ (1 - a) far LRFDt
lcL lcL lcL AISC LRfD

1h
g
= 0.5 1h = 1.0 - = 5.0
g lgh
a 
1 - o:
0.10 0.92 1.102 0.86 1.107 0.66 I. I t4 \.li\
0.20 1.30 1.230 l.22 1.242 094 1.257 1.2S0
0 .30 1.59 J.394 1.49 l.415 1.15 1.441 l.429
0.40 l.84 1.6[2 1.72 1.645 1.32 1.687 !.667
0.50 2.05 1.918 1.92 1.968 1.48 2.03 1 2.000
0.60 2.25 2.377 2.10 2.453 1.62 2..548 '.!.S00
0.70 2.43 3.143 2.27 3.261 1.75 3.4 I O 3.333
t o:= I.Puf'i. Pe2

•B2 from Eq. 14.4.19.
In o!her words, a real building can never be as flexible as the skcle1on elastic frame. In
such itcms as exterior walls, partitions, and stairways,_ ali tend to add to the overau sti~1~
For funher study of 1he instabilicy of frames m the presence of primary mo Ile\,
reader is referred ro the work of Bleich l6.9]. Lu (14.37], McGuire [3. J I) Grnclll. Uic
' aJ;,n,L
( 14.38], and che SSRC Guide [6.8]. ''""I\
14.5 BRACJNG REQUIREMENTS-BRACED FRAME

One o f the decisions faced by 1he designer is t~e ~eterminati~n of whether a fr· .
braced or unbraced. Mos1 efficienl use of matenal m compress1on members i illl\e 1
when the frame is braced so thai sidesway buckling or instability cannot ~ obtained
design guidelines are provided by Galambos [ 14.39). As _1~ ~hat constiruie/~ Some
AISC-2.3a indicaces thal a frame is braced when lateral stab1bty 1s provided by ,./acing.
bracing, shear walls or equivalent means." liigo'¼l
The amou,11 of stiffness required 10 prcvenr sidesway buckling has rcce U,
defined in AISC-Appendix 6 of the A!SC Specification (1.13]. h has been n ~ been
(14.39] that "in many insr.ances nonstructural building elements, cunain wa)Js fotu~~
can provi·ae the necessary su.ffness agamst
. s1·aesway b uckl"mg... CX4 rnpJe .
The following presentati on fTom Galambos [ 14 .38 l provides some theoretic

1
ground on the strength requirements for diagonal braces. Before AlSC-Append· a back.
1 6
approach had been used by the aurhors co estimate the required strength of the ~. · th1 ~
brace. This discussion complements that in Sec. 9. 13. where the emphasis \\·a• •agonai
, on be,~
and column bracing. -,,
Stiffness Required from Bracing
It is the objective to use bracing to convert Fig. 14.2.2a into Fig. 14.2 .la. A sim
conservative procedure is to ideaJize the braced frame, as in Fig. 14.5.1. The
1
fori:,/ld
assumptions are made: •ni
1. Columns do not participate in resisting sidesway.
2. Columns are hinged at ends.
3. Bracing accs independently as a s pring at the top of columns.
Equilìbrium using summation of momenls about point I of Fig. 14.5. 1 gives
V2=P+?P -
- (.!l)
L
- {3t:. - "L o~.s.r
~ .l
T
t J
!
/>
1-r J1p
·- , ~L\
I
h
A A,
{)
I
I
I
I
I
I
l,
I I
'· I,
' I
I -- L --I
-I
-
N,
I
-
l·/ 2
-I
Figure 14.5. l
ldcalizcd bracing t\ I tI 2
arrangements. l :1) (bl

Section 14 5 .
· Brac1ng Aequiremems- Braced Frame • 765
Similarly ·u .
' s mmation of
momems about point 4 gives
Moments about the h.

V1 = P - 2P( + 4) {3t.1 (l4.5.2J
res · •nges at 2 d 3
pecnve)y, give an for free-body diagrams of columns 1-2 and 4-3,
(\4.5.3)
(14.5.4)
Summation of hori
zontal force, gives
. H1 + H2 - /3!:l = O (14.S.S)
Subst11u1ion ofEqs. 14 S .
gives 1
· · and l4.S.2 mio Eqs. 14.S.3 and 14.5.4, and then inio Eq. 14.5 .5,
!:l
h(2P - f3h ) = O (14 .5.6)
where Eq. 14.5.6 is the . . .
in Fig. 14 2 4 1h approximate bucklmg equat1on. Fora simple rectangular frame. as
E
Fro~- _ ~:~act buckhng_ equation is ~iven by Eq. 14.2. I&. _
columns q · ·6 , subShlutmg the nommal column strength p11 for P. g1ves for two
(14.5.7)
For a frame of seve I b h . .

th s ra ays, t e bucklmg load P (equal to nomina! stren2.th P,.) must mclude
e um of tbe loads carried on al! columns resisting sway; thus Eq. 14~5.7 becomes
. '2:P,,
Reqmred f3 =- (14.5.8)
lt
Equation . !4.5.8 gives lhe stiffness (spring constant) (3 requircd for ali hracing for the
c_olumns mvolved in 2.Pn. The 2. P11 includes the loads (factored loads "i-P,,/<f,,.) to be car-
ned on ali columns resistiog sway.
Bracing Provided by Stiffer Members in an Overall

Unbraced System
Overall sidesway buckling can occur only when the tmal lateral or sidesway resistance to
h.orìzontal move ment is overcome. When 1he loading on individuai members is less than
their strength, the reserve strength can be utilized t; provide bracing for ot11er members.
Yura [6.55] has presented the generally accepted design approach. More recen1ly. Cheong-
Siat-Moy [14.40], de Buen [14.41], Geschwindncr ll4.42]. and Aristizabal-Ochoa L14.-Bl
have treated the concept.
Examine lhe unbraced frame of Fig. \ 4.5.2a. Assum.ing 1he columns hinged at the
junc1ìon with the beam, K = 2.0 for this cantilever situation. Members A. B. and C were
proportioned for the axial loads 100. 300, and 40{) k.ips. res peclively. When sidesway occurs
as in Fig. l 4.5.2b, moments P A are produced a1 the base and the tota] load is the 800 k.ips.
If the system of Fig. 14.5.2 were a bmced one. the practical effective lenglh factor K
would' be I .O instead of 2.0, and the slrengths of the me mbers would be fonr time:- as grcat:
400, 1200, and 1600 kips, respectively, at columns A. B. and C.
.. ......,.__ --- -· --- - . . .

J100 k
(a)
r1
l'
ri 100 fi_300 r1400
(b) r: A
r---,. ----;--v-- --,
:
1
C ;
'
p
l:J':0800
L'
~ooa
(d)
~ i
1
3
ooht..
1100
-1- IShOA 1roo
No = 600 k
lP sidesway
Figure 14.5.2
Sriffer members bracing less
sciff member in frame.
1
'-.::Y
1006.
: 500C.
< - li-
max
~
JOO<\
< - ,,-
max
< 30011.
~
< 4006.
Suppose the loads applied to columns B and Care only 200 and 300 kìps ìnstead .
the maximum strengths of 300 and 400 kips. As in Fig. 14.5.2c. colunms Band e will n:
s_idesway buckle unti! the moments developed at ù~e botto~1 reach 300~ and 400~. respec.
tively. Those columns can therefore sustam honz.ontal lorces at the1r tops sufficient
10
cause sidesway buckling. Column C and column B can each develop 100~/ h as a she
Thcse resistances are additive and act as horiwntal res1raint at the top of column A. Th:
column A can carry the I 00 kips originai load. plus 200 kips as a result of the extra br.ici ·
from columns B ancl C. The tota! frame load is stili 800 kips. ng
The maximum increase in strengtJ1 that horizontal bracing can provide is the strensnb
the member wi ll have when its ends cannot transiate with respect to one another. In oth(r
words, the shear develoµed at tbc top 10 prevent horiz.ontal movement is t.he m,t,inium
resistancc from other members that is usable. For instance, in Fig. I4.5.2d, the horizonral
shear that cnn be developed based on columns B and C is 500ò./h: however. when the
shearat the topof column A is 300.1./h and the load (lll colurnnA is 300 k_ips. no ntlWl'mcnt
occurs and thc member is fully brnced. The maximum capacity for member A in a br.i..'tl)
~ystcm is 400 kips and the resi~ting laternl force from colu n111~ B and C mui-t ~ at lt1.-t
400/l/ h, which is less than the mnxìmum rcsistancc (1f 5006./ /1.
Section 14 5 .
· 8 racing Requirements-Braced Frame • 767
. . As stated by Yura [6 551 ..

dmnbuted among the . · · . · · · the iota! gravity loads which produce sidesway can be
tota\ frame load 00 columns in a story in any manner. Sidesway will not occur until thc
a story reach Ih
un braced frame" Th . . es e sum of the poJenrial individuai column loads for the
th . . ere Shll 1s th 11· . .
an li could carry · b e m1ta11on that an individuai column can carry no more
. tn a raced f . . .
ca11Y th1s procedure . . rame; 1.e .. Wllh K = \. Salem [ 14.6] has shown theoret1-
1s va1id rega di f .
The procedure d . . r ess o the type of framing and ratio of member Ml.e!>.
be designed· the col escnbcd above will determine the load for which each column is to
· ' umns havmg s . . . .
s1ve load. The mod"f d way res,stance carry more than thetr tnbutary compres-
sorne "rational" .' te loads are then used with effective length factors K detennined in
effective length fmanner, ~sually from the alignmem chan, Fig. 6.9.4b (see di,.cussion of
. actors K in Sec. 6 .9 )
Altema11ve to ad·u . . · . . .
tance the col J Slmg the column loads to reflect the d,fferences m swav re,-1s-
, umns ·d· -
use an aajusted ff pr?v 1 tng sway resistance could be designed for their actual loads. but
ner [ 14.42] If : ectJve length factor K. This approach has been presented by Geschwind-
1
ing zero ro~ation:;~~u~ sup~ning the "leaner" column (i.e., a colurnn idealized as hav-
from the Slraint at us ends) must carry its acrual \oad P a\ong with a load Q,,
nonsway-resist" u
· mg Co1umns, then the Euler buckling load wil\ be
( 14.5.9)
where Ko is the act I ff ·

ua e ecuvc length factor based on actual frame members.
If one · o f the colurnn 10 be based on the actual column load p.,.
. wisbes· the d esign
then an adJusted fJ · 1
e ecllve ength factor Kn must be used. The Euler equation becomes
2
P.
"
=-K~LEI-2
1r
( 14.5.10)
2
Solving Eq, 14.5.10 for 1r El / L2 and substituting into Eq. 14.5.9 gjves
K=Kh:"
,, o +
P.
Q: (14.5.ll)
u
where P,, is the actual factored gravity load to be carried by the frame sway-rcsisting col-
umn, and Qu is the total factored gravity on ali the " lcaner" columns whose !-way-res is-
tance must be provided by the column carrying P,,.
Example 15.3.4 employing this concept is given in Chapter 15 on the design of rig id
frames.
Dìagonal Bracing
When cross-bracing is used, it is generally assumed that it can only act in tension; i.e .. the
diagonal which would be in compression buckles slightly and becomcs inactive. Undcr a
horizontal force F lhc diagonal brace in Fig. 14.5.3 must carry the force
F (l-LS.I~)
Brace force =-
cos
- (Y
and the elongation of the brace, ~ cos a, is
(brace force)(brace length ) {l-tS.13)

Elongation = (area of braci.') E
Figure 14.5.3
Deformalion of the bracing
member. t------- L - - - - !
or
(14.5.141
Solving for F, using cos a = L/ Vh2 + L 2 , gives

F = AbEL2 . L\
(h2 + L2)3/2 04.5.\SJ
Since F = {3/l according to Fig. 14.5.lb,
U4.S.l6J
Substitution of f3 = "'i.P,,/ h inro Eq. 14.5.16 and solviJJg for Ab gives
[ I+ ( hL)2]3/2 "iP.,
(tYE 04.5.17)
AISC Requirements for Frame Bracing*
lt is always implied whenever the frame is defined as a braced that the AlSC requirement ~
bracing is satisfied. AISC-Appendix 6 gives the requirements for the different typès of Co~
u1m1 bracing thai qualifies the overall frame syslem lo be categorized as brace-d. There
two types of bracing: nodal bracing and relative bracing. Nodal bracing involves restrainiare
the columns against a rigid abutment. Relative bracing utjli7.es diagonal braces and she!
walls to reduce the relative lateral sway between nodes of rigid frames. Figure l4.5.4 shows
both types of column/frame bracing.
The objective of either type of bracing. according to AISC-Appendix 6, is to allow
for the design of members based on the length between brace points and using an eftecti,,e
length facror K = l.O. Theoretically. it requires infinite stiffness to achieve a complete
non-sway condition.
*In the design reqL1irenJen1s sections of this d1~p1er q, is 1he mength reduclion (resislance\ fac1or.
Section 14.5 Bracing Requirements-Braced Frame • 769
~--lF====
. ure 14.5.4
ftes of column bracing.
(a) Nodal br•dng
(b) Rela1ivc bracing
The design requirements for rhe relative (diagonal) bracing involves both stiffness
and strength Both · Th
. · requ1remen1s must he satisfied for adequate perfonnance. ese
requ1rements are as follows.
1. Relative bracing
(a) Strength requirements:
The required brace strength is defined as 0.4% of the required axial compressh·e
Slrength, using either LRFD or ASD. AlSC-Appendix 6.2 gives this requiremenl as
follows.
l\,r = 0.004P, (14.5.18)
(b) Stìffness requirements:

The brace stiffness {3b, requirement was chosen to be twice the criticai stiffoess,
when the relative sway between nodal points is at 0.002L and is givcn as follows
I(2P,)
f3br = °;j; ·Lb (LRFD) (l4.5.19a)
f3b, = n( :}ASD) (14.5. l 9b\
where <f> = 0.75 (LRFD) Iì = 2.00 (ASD)

2. Nodal bracing
(a) Strength requirements:
l\,r = 0.01 P, (14.5.20)
(b) Stiffness requirements:

The brace stiffness f3br requirement was chosen to be the most severe case " ·ith
multiple braces, and is given as follows
f3b, = ~(SP,-)(LRFD) l14.5.21a)

,.P L1,
f3br =
8P,,) (ASD )
n (-Li, ( l-L\21M
where cf, = 0.75 (LRFD) O = 2.00 (ASD)

EXAMPLE 14.5.1
Determine the area for the diagonal brace shown in Fig. 14.5.3 required to co
.
unbraced frame ofExample 14.2.2, Fig. 14.2.6a, mto a braced f rame. (a) Use Eq.nven the
14 5
and (b) Use AISC-Appendix 6. · · 17
Solution:
(a) For a frame with fg = 2100 in:4. le = 796 in. 4. L = 36 ft, and h c:c
14 ft
braced frame buckling load from Example 14.2.l is • the
Since there are two columns, 'I.P,, = 2Pcr· Substituting "i.P., imo Eq. 14.5.17 gives the
required area Ab of the bracing as
[, + (~)2J 12
2(3.60)2E(796)
G!YE(l4) 2
( 144)
2(7.6 ) 312 ( 12.95)(796) -, .

= 6.6( I96 )( 144) = _.3 sq m.
(b) Use AISC-Appendix 6 for relative bracing requirements.

(i) The required horizontal brace force
ibr ~ 0.004P, (14.5.22)

The required strength P, is taken robe the design strength of both colum .
braced frame. ns in lhe
P,. = L<l>P,, = 2co.9)(10,600) = 19,080 kips
Pbr = 0.004(19,080) = 76.3 kips

ibr(a11gle) = 76.3(38.6/36) = 81.9 kips
Assumming Fv = 36 ksi for the brace bar.
81.9
Abr = 0_9 (36 ) = 2.52 sq in.
(ii) The required borizontal stiffness for the brace
f3br ~ 'il(2P.)
L:
l (2(19,080))
f3br = _
0 75 14
= 3630 k:ips/ ft
AbrE 2
f3br = lcos 0 = 3630 kips/ ft [14.5.23]
br
Section 14 6 0 verall StabilityWhen Plastic Hinges Form
· • 771
Rearranging iv . .
g es the requ1red brace area as follows,
Ab, == -~?30( 38.6)

29 ooo(~)i -_ .
5.55 sq m. controls
' 38.6
The brace area - . . .
in. forWl 4 x ~equrred is abou1 25% of the column cross-secuonal area (21_.8
74
a high Ih ). lt is noted that the example unbrace<l frame was very flex1ble wuh
1 ber an usual effeccive length facior K of 2.32: thus a some-what heavier than
usua race was requircd. •
~__o_v_ERA_L_L_S_T_A_B~IL_ITY
_ W_ H=E:.-=..N~P~L=A~ST~I-=C~H~I~N~G~E~S~FO~R~M~-- - -- - --
General
Thìs chapter has fo ·u d . . . .

se f e se pnmanly on basìc concepts of frame stabìlity, usmg rhe smgle-
1. ory_ rdame as an example. AISC-C2 states. "Except as permitted in S.ection C2.2b,
equ1re siren<>ths shall b d · · · ·· d
two-story frames " th e etermmed usmo _., a Second-order analvsis · . . . . For one- ,an
_. . ., e second-order PI:,. eftecr rarely affects the design, however. \\hen
pladSIIC ~nalysrn IS used as permìtted under AISC-Appendix I , consideration of second-
or er effects w11l be im . · 1 d · - 1· · J · J ·
Tradit. li · pracnca an w1JJ offset anv • advantage o usmg~ p as11c ana ys,s.
iona Y, m one- and perhaps two-story lightlv loa<led framcs. the P~ effect has bee.n
neglect d ( · . · ·
e seemmgly w1thou1 detrimental effects on the structure).
effe For multiS!ory braced frames, the design of the bracing system mus_t include the P ti.
e~. For multistory unbraced frames, che p I::,. effect must be included directly 111 the ca\-
culations for maximum strength.
Braced Frames
Braced frame.~ are usually designed to cause any plastic hinges associared w ith the failure
me~hanism to fonn in the girders. For one- and two -story frames designed using plastic
des ign, the PI::,. effect must be included under AISC-C2. ATSC-Appendix I requires the
braces to remain elastic under the service Joad . Also. the required axial streng111 for
col~mns and compression braces shall not exceed <f>.-(0.85/-~,Ag) - Tbc wlumns ,~re the11
des1gned as beam-columns in accordance with concept~ treated in Chapter 12. Dcs1g:n pro-
cedurcs for one- and two-story braced frames are presented in Chapter 15.
Multistory braced frames may be designcd in accordance with Plastìc Desig11 <l
Braced Multistory Sree/ Fmmes [14.44].
Unbraced Frarnes
According to AISC-Appendix-1.5.2 for moment frames. the rcquired :i.xial ~,rength o f

columns shall not excccd 4>c(0.75P"A ~ ). This is a cautionary limit ~ince linle resean:h has
been done to explore the inelastic rolé;tional capacity at high Jc,,e1~ of ax.ial fmc:e -
The treatment of plastic analysis for rnultistory unbraced frames is hcyond Lhe scope
of this text; there is cun-ently (2008) no gencrally recogni2ed at-cc pt:1ble procedure for surh
an analysis. The reader is referred to work of Cheong-Siai-Moy. O,c r. ;md Lu J l-t.19\.
Springfield a nd A<lams [ 14.3 l ], Liapunov I 14. I 6 J. Danieb a n<l Lu I 1-D'., n and Ld, le~-
surier [ 12.50, 12.511 for techniques of evaluating the ~,n;'ngth o f muhi:.tory 11nbr:1ced
frames.
SELECTED REFERENCES
14.1. W. F. Chen and E. M. Lui. Stabili1y Design of Stecl Frames. Boca Raton, FL:CRC Prcss, 1991.
14.2. John E. Goldberg. "Buckling of One-Srory Frames and Buildings," lournal of the S1ructura/ Div; .
ASCE, 86, STIO (October I960). 53-85. Also Tronsoctions. 126 ( 1961 ). Pan Il. 482-515. s,o~.
14.3. Theodore V. Galambos. "lnfluence of Partial Base Fixiry on Frame Stabiliry." .lounia/ ofrhe s,,.,,
Divi.<io11, ASCE. 86, ST5 (May 1960), 85-108. Also Tran.wcrion.<, 126 ( 1961). Pan Il, 929-969 e,~,.,
14.4. Joseph A. Yura and Theodore V. Galambos. ·'S1reng1h of Single-Story Sreel Frames," louma/ oÌ•h
S1ruc11m,I Division. ASCE, 91, ST5 (October 1965). 81- 101. •
14.5. Le-Wu Lu. "'lnelastìc Buckling of Sreel Frame<." Jourrwl of1/u Strucwml Division, ASCE, 9l, S'J'6
(Deccmber 1965). 185-214.
14.6. Alfre<l Zweig and Alberi Kahn. ·'Buckling Analysis of One-Story Frames," loumal of the St,i
Divisio11. ASCE, 94, ST9 (Septcmber 1968), 2107-2134. Disc. by Adel Hclmy Salem, 9S,
1969). 1017- 1029.
Sì~;~z.1.
I
14.7. Niels C. Lind. ''Simple rllustrarion of Frame lnsl.àbili1y," Journal of the Struc1uru/ Di\•fa·it,,,. ASCE
STI (January 1977), 1-8. · 103,
14.8. C. G. Schilling. "Buckling of One-Story FrameS:" Engilleaing Joun_wl, AISC, 20, 2 (Se.:ond Quai,
1983), 49-57. Disc. by Dan S. Correnri, Alfred Zwe,g. John Spnogfleld. and author. 21,4 (Founti "
ter 1984), 207-215. Quar.
14.9. Alfre<l Zweig. "Force Method for Frame Buckling Analysis.'' Jmmwl ofStrucn,ral E11gineerir, AS
llO, 8 (Augusr 1984), 1893-191 2. g. CE..
14. 10. H. Schol1,. "P-Delta EffecL in Elastic A nalysis of Sway Frames.'' fouma/ of Stmcwra/ Engineerin
ASCE, 1 l3, 3 (March 1987), 534--545. Errata, J 13, 12 (De<:ember 1987), 2525. Also REF 12.54, g,
14.11. H. Scholz. "P-Delta Effec1 under Repeared Loading," Joumal o/Strucrural Engineering. ASCE. 116
(August 1990), 2070-2082. ,8
14.12. Eric M. Lui. "A Practical P-Dclta Analysis Mechod for Type FR and PR Frames,'' Engineering Jo~ 1
AISC, 25, 3 (TI1ird Quaner 1988). 85-98. ""' ·
14.13. Victor Levi, George C . DriscoJI, Jr.. and Le-Wu Lu. ·'A nalysis of Restrained Columns Permilled 10
Sway," Journal ofthe Srrucwral Division. ASCE. 93, STI (February 1967). 87-I07.
14.14. Alfre<l Kom and Theodorc V. Galambos. ''Behavior of Elastic-Plasùc Fr:uncs... loumal of tlre Sr
Divfaiun, ASCE, 94, ST5 (May 1968). 1119-1142. l'IWur~I
14.15. Harold Swirzky and Ping Chun Wang. "Design and Analysis of Frames for Stabil.ity," Jouma/ o/il
S1rucrura/ Division, ASCE, 95, ST4 (Ap,il 1969). 695- 7 13. u
14.16. Sviatoslav Lìapunov. "Ultimale Strcngth of Mulrisrory Steel R.igid Frames." Jouma/ ofrlir Sr,·r,c·t, 0 1
Division. ASCE, 100, ST8 (August 1974). 1643-1655. "
14.17. Francois Cheong-Siat-Moy. ''lnelastic Sway BudJiJ1g of Mul1is1ory Fr.unes:· Jouma/ ofthe Sr,.,,c,urat
Divìsian, ASCE. 102, STI (January 1976). 66-75. ·
14.18. Francois Ch~o~g-Siar-~oy. "Muhistory Frame Design Using Story Stiffness Concept.'' Joim,a/ of the
Srrucruml DrvlS/on, ASCE. J02, ST6 (Juoe 1976). 1197-1212.
14.19. Franc~'.s Chcong-Siat-Moy, Erkan Oz_er, and i:-Wu Lu. "~treng1h ofSteel Fr!mes under Gravity
Loads. · Jo11mal ofrhe S1rucr11ro/ D1v1s1on. ASCE. 103, S16 (June 1977). 122.,-1235.
14.20. Le-Wu Lu, Erkan Ozcr, J. Hanley Daniels. Omcr S. Okten. and Shosuke Morino. "Strenglh and Drift
Characteristics of Srecl Frames," Jo11mal ofthe Sm,oural Di1·isio11. ASCE. 103, STl I (No,·embe
1977). 2225-2241. r
14.21. Ali A. K. Haris. "Approximatt Sriffness Analysis of High-R.ise. Buildings:· Jvumal oftlre Sm,rn,ro/
Divisio11, ASCE, 104, ST4 (Aprii 1978). 681 -696.
14.22. Regin;1 Gaiotti and Bryan Stafford Smith. "/'-Delta An.1lysis of 8Hildi11.g Structures.'' Jounu,/ o/St
rura/ Engi11eeri11g. ASCE. 115, 4 (Aprii 1989). 755- 770. mc,
[4.23. Zia Razzaq and Moossa M. Naiin. "Elastic los1abili1y of Unbraced Space Frames." Jouma/ oftlie S
rum/ Divisio11, ASCE. 106. ST7 (Jul y 1980). 1389-1400. rruc-
14.24. Don;ild W Wbite und Jerome F. H:1jjar. "Application of Second-Order Elastic' Analysis in LRFD·
Research to Practicc:· E11gi11Nri11i; ]01111111/. A\SC. 28, J (l'omth Quaner 199 1). 133-148. ·
14.25. Chu-Kia Wang. "Stability of Rigi<l Fra111es with Nonuniform Members." Jo,mwl of the Structura/ o·,.
111
sion, ASCE. 93, STI (February 1967). 275-294.
14.26. 011ar P. Halldorsson and Chu-Ki;r Wang. "Stability An:tlysis of Frameworks by Matrix Methods."
Joumal of tlte S1ruc111ral Dil'isio n. ASCE. 94, ST7 (July 1968), 1745- 1760.
14.27. Vincem 11,Jehri nger, George Pierson, and fames G. Orbison. "Computa-Aided Analysis and Design 0 f
Stcel Frames," Engi11eeri11g J01m11il. AlSC. 22, 3 (Third Qumter 1985). 143-149.
14.28. M. Ojalvo anà V. Levi. "Co!umns in Planar Continuous Structures," Journa/ of t/1e Stmcmm/ Div;,;,
ASC E. 89, ST I (Fehruary 1963), 1-23. . tn.
14.29. Vietar Levi. George C. Dri,coll, Jr.. an<l Le-Wu Lu. "StructuraJ Sub:issc mblag.es Prevented irom s... ,..
Joumal ofrhe S1ruc111ral Dii•isio11. ASC E. 91, ST5 (Octoba 1965). 103- 127. ~\.
Selected Referencea • 773
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Concepts a~d proccdures developed in_ previous_chapters are combined in Lhis chapter bi.
the use of_ 11lustrauve examples. Plasn_c analys1s 1s exLendcd from the continuous bea~
treatment 111 Chaprer 10 to one-~tory trame~. T he reader 1s assumed to be familiar "- •th
elastic stacically indeterminate analysis methods.
~here are four approaches chat can be u sed for designing one-story framcs: ( J J ela~t,c
analys1s according ro AISC LRFD Mechod; (2) plasnc (111elast1c) analysi~ accordina
0
ATSC LRFD Method; (3) elastic analysis according to A!SC ASD l'v1ethod: and (4) pi·",l,(lt '.
(inelastic) analysis according to AISC ASD Method.
P_lastic design is li~ely the method of ~ho!ce_for one-story frames consisting of rolled
W sec11ons. When sect1ons used have thcir hmtt states controlled by stabilit) llateral-
torsional buckling, locai flange buckling. or locai web buckling). facLored Ioad ela,ti ·
analysis will be the preferred method. Plastic analysis req11ires cons ideration of the p ~
effect, even in onc-s tory frames.
15.2 PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF ONE-STORY FRAMES
As di scussed in Chapler I O for conrinuous be::ims. the pla tic ,:trength of a structur.: ma
be obtained e itJ1er by using the equilibrium method. or the energy mcthod. In hrace~
frames. whe re joints cannol dispiace (i.e .. no sides,\ay). the plastic strengrh ma, he
obtaincd cxaçtly as fo r continuous beams. For unbraced frame~ the side wa~· merha~i,111
create~ a SCllllC\.vhat more complicated analysis than that for continuou~ he:1111,. The
1ollowing examples are intendcd to illustrate principlt'..-; of plastic ::inalysis for onc-~tor,
unbraccd frames . ·
A more extended treatmcnt o f plastic an:ilysìs i ~ il\'ailable in Pfastic Drsiwi 111
Steel [ l 5. l ), in boo ks hy Becdle l 15.2] and Mas~onnet and $ave l I 5.3) cb oteJ cn~ird,
to plast ic analysis and clcsign. and papers by Beedk [ 15.41 and Estes l 15.5]. ·
774
Section 15.2 Plastic Analysis of One-Sto ry Frames • 775
\\,e lded muhistory rigid frame. (Counesy Betnlehem Sceèl Corporacion)
Equilìbriu m Method
As discussed in Sec. 10.2. equilibrium must be satisfied at every stage of loading from a srnaU
load until the coUapse mechanism has been achieved. When a sufficient number of plastic
h.inges ha\·e been developed to a.llow instancaneous hinge roiations without developing
increased resistance, a mechanism is said to have occun-ed.
776 • Chapter 15 Design of Rigid Frames
EXAMPLE 15.2. 1
Determine the plastic strength for the frame of Fig. 15.2.1, using the equilibrium
l"l\ethOd
Solution: ·
The elastic moment diagram shape is shown in Fig. 15.2.1 b. Por ease in solution . .
11
desirable to show che diagram with a horizoncal baseline as shown in Fìg. 15_2_1~ s often
ing overall frame stability is adeguate, the collapse mechanism is Lhat shown in Fio· ~ssulJ\.
The simple beam momenc for the girder is .,. 5-2.lc.
W,,L
M= -
" 4 (a)
which when superimposed on the moments at the ends of the girder (H x h) .

equilibrium when the mechanism occurs, givcs for
8Mp
w = -·
" L
From the concepts of plastic analysis it mighc have been expected that only tw
0
tic hinges should be required for a collapse mecharùsm. since the struccure is s _Plas.
.111d etemunate
. . h h' ' .tat1ca11,,
to the first degree. ln thts case boe corner tnges ,onn simultaneou . • . .
.
t he honzonta I base reacuons
. . D epend'mg on thc ratio of h s1;\, Stn~o
are equal an d oppos11e. . ..,_
10
the m.idspan plastic hinge. or the two corner pia.stie hinges fom1. IL however, h/L is 1 - Ctther
corner plastic hinges occur first and che structure has reached its collapse conditio:~;f ~he
beam and columns are of d1fferent cross-sectton the srructure can be designed so th h_e
tive momenr plastic hinge occurs first. This should be the objective. The occurrenc efil>Osi-
. . f . b·1· .
t 11e corner plasuc hmges creates overall rame insta I Hy prior to utilizing the f1
e irstof
strength of the girder; such a result should be avoided. exurai
_,,. Factored
_ {
1
-J w•...- load
~~
lI-- L __j
lJ
(a) (b) Bending Momcnls
Plasric
hinges
- H
f-- h -t------ L ------l- h - . . j
Figure 15.2.1
faample 15.2. I (e) Mcchanism (d) Expanded moment diagram
•
,...
Section 15.2 Plastic Analysis of One-Story Frames • 777

exAMPLE 15.2.2
Detennìne the plastic . ..

apply ah . Slrength of lhc same frame as in Exa.mple 15.2.1 except m addmon
onzontal load O 5W h th ·1·b ·
method. · n at l e lop of the column (see Fig. J 5.2.2a). Use e eqm I num
Solution:
Again, two plastic hing . ·h 1 . · · · · dd.
fiona1 mechan1sms . ar es s .bou d previde the collapse mechamsm. Th1s urne, however. . .a 1-
f0 1 I . e poss, le. as shown in Fig. J 5.2.2. lt is possible thai (a) plasuc hmges
2
a 11md a alsopoims and 4 (Fig. 15.2.2b); (b) plastic hinges fonn at points 3 and 4 (Fig. l5.2.2c);
(e) pi ti h. ·
. as e mges forni at points 2, 3, and 4. Tue !asi situation would occur only 1f
two of the hmges formed ~irnultaneously.
(a) Pia.S t ie hinges at points 2 and 4
WnL
M ., = - 4 (a)
~~uilibrium requìres the positive momcnt Mp at point 2 (0.5W11 h - H/z) to equa.I the neg-
attve moment M P at point 4 (Hh):
MP = 0.5W,,h - M p (b)
Wh 4MP
M
P
=-"-·
4 '
W
"
= -h- {e)
Further, in arder that Eq. (e) is valid, the resulting moment at point 3 cannot exceed Ml':
M3 = M, + ½(0.5W h) 11 - Mµ (d)
W11 L W,,h W,,h W,,L

= - - + - - - -- = -- ~ Mp (e)
4 4 4 4
Equation (e) requires W"L/4 < W,,h/4. which means if L < h pia.stie hinges fonn at
points 2 and 4. lf L > h the pia.stie hinges will form at points 3 aod 4.
i
rn - i -, - i
0.5W w,
I
I I
--, ... - • I
i l. E/=Coost. I I
I
I I '
- - I'
I
5
1
0.5W,- H
I
H '
I
I--- L __j Mechanism I Mechanism 2

(a) (b) (e)
1 - ~ M,
o.st~ _jh 2 4 S
Figure 15.2.2
Example I5.2.2. (d)
778 • Chepter 15 Design of Rigid Frames
(b) Plastic hinges at points 3 and 4. For this, Eq. (d) is to be used letting M
3
"' A#
p,
Mp = M, + ½(0.5Wnh) - MP
(f)
Mp = Wn
- (L + h
)
8 (g)
(h)
Thc above analysis has assumcd thc same moment of inenia (consiant M ) t
girder and column. lf the girder and column are differenr. a combincd mech~isor botti
plastic hinges al points 2, 3. and 4 could be acnieved. m With
•
EXAMPLE 15.2.3
Determinc the plasric strength W,. for the gabled frame of Fig. I 5.2.3 using the Pnu'l'b .
. . I h . I . ..-, i t rrun,
method. Ali elements of rhe frame are rdenrrca, avrng a P ast1c momem strength M
200 ft-kips. P of
So/ution:
Equilibriurn requires a comparibility between rhe moment diagrams of the com
loadings as shown in Fig. 15.2.3b. The moment due to H may be 1hough1 of as cpo~01
""" mg. w h I'Ie Ih e o ther two components are causmg
1u d. · . bendin aus1ng
t
·
negauve positive
moment diagr~ms for the componc~t~ are s hown on a horizontal baseline in Fig. 1 2~e
The maximum so-called pos111ve moments, M, 1 and M .<2 are · c.
M_. 1 = 7.5W,.
Ms2 = 0 ..5W,,h = 7.5W,.
Severa! possible collapse mechanisms musi be considered.

(a) Consider a s idesway mechanism (Fig. 15 .2.3d) with plastic hinges 31 po·
and 6. Equilibrium requires al poinr 2: tnts 2
(a)
and at point 6:
(b)
Thus
MP = Ms2 - Mp = 7.SW" - MP
Mp = 3.75W,. (e)
{b) Consìder a cornbination mechanis m with plastic hinges at pomts

· 5 and 6
(Fig. 15.2.3e). At point 5,
Ms = Mp = Ms1 + ¼M!2 - H(h + 3.75)

7.5 Mr
Mp = 7.5Wn +
4 w,, - 15 (15 + 3.75)
Mp = 4.17W,,
1.5'
w,,
2- _1--,.
5 -1 7.S'
M, a 20() ft-k1p, 6 7
El • Consi
f-----
.
3o·-o·-- - -j
1
15' ~ 1t
---1
LJ
(a)
H(h .,- 1.5)

n
t W, W. t
(e)
6 7
o~ b l
l-
0.511'.
051? t
(bj l..oadings fo, momem
diagr.,m eomponents
(d)
(e) M, = 200
figure 15.2.3 . M, = 200

Gabled frame analys,s-
( ~) Col\apse mechanhm mo=nt d.ia~r.im
Example 15.2.3.
(f)
A~tu_ally, the mechanism consisting of plastic binges at points S and 6 could have been
eh_mrnated as a possibility by comparing the tota! positive moment al points 3 and 4
(Ftg. 15.2.3c) which will indicale that point 3 will achieve a plastic hinge before point
5 can auain it.
(e) Consider the mechanism with plastic hinges at points 3 and 6:
M3 = Mp = Ms1 + ¾Ms2 - H(h + 3.75)

3 Mp
Mp = 1.5W,. + (7.SWn) - (15 + 3.75)
4 15
Govems
The largest Mp, or the smallest Wn , fora mechanism to occur indicates the goveming one.
.
A check may be made by detennining che collapse mechanism moment diagram assummg
S
MP = 200 ft-k ips. Thus

200 .
Wn = - - = 34. 2 k1ps
5.83
H =-
MP
= -200 = 13.33 kips
15 15
M, 1 = 7.5Wn = 7.5(34.2) = 256.5 ft-kips
M.,2 = 256.5 ft-kips
At the criticai locations, the collapse mechanism moment is
M2 = 256.5 - 200 = 56.5 ft-kips < MP 01(

M
3
= 256.5 + ¾{256.5) - 13.33(18.75) = 200 ft-kips = MP
M4 = 256.5 + ½(256 .5) - 13.33(22.5) = 84.5 ft-kips < MP
Ms = 256.5 + ¼(256.5) - 13.33( 18.75) = 7 1.0 ft-kips < M,,

M6 = 13.33( 15) = 200 ft-kips = M,,
The final collapse mechanisrn moment diagram is shown in Fig. 15.2.3g. both as it would be
from graphical superposition and as it would be if the net moment is plmted on a horizorua1
basetine. I
EXAMPLE 15.2.4
Determine the plastic moment required for the frame of Fig. 15.2.4. Consider (a) unif
gravity Ioading Wn alo ne; and (b) uniform gravity loading in combination with uniform~';
eral loading.
Solution:
(a) Gravity toading only. The simple beam rnoment is
Wn L 2 tv,,(75)"
M. = - - = - - - = 704w ,, (a)
.I 8 8
Fora properly designed frame, the plastic hinges will occur at the ends and midspan of lbe
girder:
M,, = M) - M,,
I u111 L2
M 1, =
2 M, = l6 = 352w ,, tb)
and the supe.rposition o f the bending moments due to the loading components is shown in
F1g. I 5.2.4d.
(b ) Combined gravity and lateral loading. There is an additional component of
loading as seen in Fig. I 5.2.4e which contrìbutes an unsy mme rrìcal effect of the same
bending moment sig n as caused by the gravity uniform loading . lt may be observed from
Fig. l5.2.4f that the maximum moments will occur slightly to the left of point 3 andai
point 4. One could mathematically solve for the exact location and magnitude of the plastic
_\ w·.
1 1
_1111111B111j1j1il!li!lt11jJj
0.4 w • . ·-
..._ El = c:onst.
L L ~ 75"-0" j
(a) Case J
(bi Case 2
(e) Cmnponcnts of loading..- C,\se 1
3 4 5
(d) Momcm diagr.nn-Case I
,r.::,"',
i, L
.i_ - - - ~ --
t w·;/· "';L t
(e) Componcnts of loading- -Casc 2
766.5 ....,
w L~
_.. / ~ ~ 704 " ,
0.4wJ/ ./ (;,t midspan)
- -"- = 125w,,
2 M"
Figure 15.2.4 2 J
Example 15.2.4.
(O ~fomcm rli:Jgr:1m-C:is.: 2
moment. However, for design purposes one may use a graphic1I constrne1ion ancl divide
the maximum value of 1he parnbolic rnrve by 1wo to estahli~h thc horiw ntal line H/1. ln
other words. equalize the posi1ive and nega1ive moment~. The monien( at poinl 2 is obvi-
ously less than that al poìnt 4 so 1ha1 no plaslit· hinge will form al point ~-
By scaiing, the maximum ordinate of the parab()hl near µoi nt 3 is 76811',.. In which
case,
768u•,.
M,, = ~ = 38~W,r (l')
--- -
The uniform lateral loading causes about 9% reduction in gravity canying capacity, Or
natively it would require a section having about 9"/4> grea1er momen1 strength. aliti.
•
Energy Method
Just as discussed for beams in Chap1er 10, the energy method may also be u!,,C(j for lhc
plastic analysis of frames. For cenain frame arrangements. the energy rnethod 11.·jlJ
found easier. The following examples show how lhe energy method may be applied l0 .::
~me structures prcviously analyz.ed by the equilibrium method.
EXAMPLE 15.2.5
Repeat Example 15.2.1 except use the energy method.

So/ution:
Thc mechanism is shown in Fig. 15.2.5.. The plastic hinge locations are assumed and· ,rorn
ç
the geometry me angles 9 are estabhshed. Tue extemal work done by the load equal~ lhc
internal strain energy of the plas1ic momcnts rnoving rhrough rheir angles of rotation:
External work -= Internal work
W"OL == Mp(O + 28 + 9)
2
exactly as obtained in Example 15.2.1.

•
w.
l
~
~~ _e
Figure 15.2.5
Examplc 15.2.5.
EXAMPLE 15.2.6
Repeat Example 15.2.2 using the energy method.
Solulioll:
Thc possihlc mechanisms are shown in Fig. I 5.2.6.
(a) Mechanism I
ln
0.5
h
J_
-n-~
-
w.
- 2
I
! w.
.
4
1
Il
·-y\1-
I
l
I
.J
l
-,
I
I
I
ti f!
I
I
I
•
1
'\ l
...,_;
~(I
I
-1
FigtJrc 15.2.6
Examplc 15.2.r,. Mrch>nism l
- -~ ~ ----; - ~ -- -- - :- .- . ' - .
Sectior, 15.2 Plastic Analysis of One-Story Frames • 783
0.SWn!Jh = Mp(9 + 8)
4MP
w =-
" h
(b) Mechanism 2
0.SW,,eh + w,,e!::. = M,,(W + 28)

2
RM,,
w =--
" L + h
The result are identica} to those of Example 15.2.2.
EXAMPLE 15.2.7 •
Repeat Example l5.2.3 using the energy methoù.
Solution:
The possible mechanisms are shown in Fig. 15.2.7.

(a) Mechanisrn 1
0.5W,.( 150) = M ,,(20)
M,, = 3.75W,,
. (b) Mechanism 2. In order to treat this more complex mechanism. the concept of
s
in ra~taneous center is used. When plastic hinues form at points S and 6 three rigid bodies
remain Which rotate as the structure moves. se;ment 1-2-3-4-5 rotates aboul point I: seg-
ment 6-7 rotates about point 7; segment 5-6 rotates and translat.es an amount which is con-
troll~d. by the movement of points 5 and 6 on the adjacent rigid segments. If the segments
are ngtd, poìnt S' is perpendicular to line l-5, and poim 6 1 is perpendicula.rto line 6-7. Thus.
0.S W,
- 2
--i1s
6
7 _J,s·
Mechanism 1
L- 30'-o"--l
X
\\j11'
l
IS
\
figure 15.2.7
Example 15.2.7. Mechanism 2 Mcchanism 3
the points 5 and 6 may be thoughl of as rotating about point O, the intersection of lin
and line 6-7; i.e., rhe instantaneous center. e l-5
The first step in the energy method using the instantaneous center is to detenni .
location; since point 5 is 22.5 ft horizontally and 18.75 ft vertically from poim I th ne •ts
.
caI d1stance . O f rom pomi
to pomt . 7.1s ' e Vectj·
X 18.75
X = 25 ft
30 = 22.5'
Next, a reference angle fJ is established arbitrarily as shown in Fig. 15.2.7. 8
ponion, the angle of rotation with respect to point O is 30/ 2. The rìgid-body segrn/ pro.
. angle 38/2. By mverse
rotates through th1s . . as d.1stance o-5 ·1s to l-S, thent 5~
proponion
tion of rigid-body 1-2-3-4-5 about point I is rota.
I
;j o 8
a= -
i4 = 38/ 2' 2
The relative plastic hinge rotation a1 poinl 5 is
!!.+30=2{J
2 2
The relative plastic hinge rotation at point 6 is
30
fJ +- = 2.58
2
To compute ex1ernal work done by the applie-d loads, the vertical distance moved
due to rotation of points 3 and 5 and the horizontal dis tance moved at point 2
requ1re
"d. -
The vertical displacement of point 3 equals the angle of rotation times the horizo tal
projection from points 2 l o 3. The load at poinl 3 moves venical.ly through a distance n
(}
2 (7.5) = 3.750
The load at point 5 moves ve ni calfy through tbe distance
(}
= I 1.250
2(22.5)
The foad :11 point 2 moves horizontally through the distance
~ ( 15) = 7.50
The comple te energy equation then becomes
0..5Wn(7.58) + W,,(3.756) + ¾-~(l ì.'250) = M p(20 + 2.50)

18.75
Mp = ---::- W., = 4.17W,,
4.~
the same as from the equilibrium metbod.

Section 15.3 AISC LRFD Method-One-Story Frames • 785
. (e) Mechanism 3 Th .
W1th line 6--7: · e mstantaneous cemer is found by intersecting the line 1- 3
X 18.75
30 = U' X = 75 ft
lf 6 is defined by F"1 I
5
distance 0-6 is f &: -2 -7, then the angle of rotation with respect to O is 6/ 4. since the
tance 3-1 the a oulr t•mes the distance 6-7 . .Since the distance 0-3 is three times the dis-
' ng e 3- I 3' . ..,,../
Th - ts = 4 (3 times the rotation angle about O}.
.e external work done by the various loads is
Load at 2,
0.SWn (438) (15) = -22.5 - Wil
4
Load at 3,
W,, (438) = -22.5
(7.5)
4
-W,,6
Load at 5, ()) 7.5

W,, (
4 (7.5) = 4 W,,8
The intemal strain energy is
Momem at3,
Momentat 6, Mp 8 ( + 48) = Ml' 458

Extemal work = Internal work
11
22.5
W 6( -
4+ -
22.5 7.5)
4 +- 4
(
=MfJ l+ -
p 4
s)
W., ( 52.5)
4- = M ,, (9)
4
52.5
M 1, = W,, = 5.83W,, Govems
9
The result is identica! with Example 15.2,3.
•
15.3 AISC LRFD METHOD-ONE~STORY FRAMES
There are two approaches that may be used under AISC Load and Resistance Factor
Design: (I) elastic analysis using factored loads: and (2) plastic analy~is (referred to as
inelasLic analysis in AJSC-Appendix J) using factored loads. TI\ese two approaches are
compared in severa! example-s .
Plastic analysis is pennilled under AISC-83.1 for steels having :.i yield slress F_,. noi
exceeding 65 ksi (AISC-Appendix J .4). The followiJ1g other conditions musi be saListìed:
l. In regions where plastic hinge rotation is l)e.cessary 10 reach the plastic strength
collapse rnechanisrn, locai flange buckling must be precluded as a limil state by lìmi1ing
b1/2t1 ~ Àp (AISC-Appendix 1.4), where for llange.s of 1-shaped sections
(15 .3.1 )
2. The web locai buckling limit state must be precJuded in beams and be
columns by limiting h/tw s Àp (AISC-Appendix 1.4), where for webs in flexural al'll-
·1
ax1a compress1on, . -
(a) For P.,/(<l>bPy) 5 0.125:
(15.3.2)
Àp = [ #:(1.12 -
Fy
191 (
= -------:==
2.33 - -P,,-)
cf>bP_,. ~
2.33 - - P.- ) ]
t/>bPy (15.3.J)
[1.49#: = ~=]
2'.
Fy
_ 25-==3
3. The factored axial compression farce in members of frames is restrict.ed.

(a) In bmced frames (AISC-Appendix 1.5),
(15.3.4)
(b) In unbraced frames (AISC-Appendìx 1.5),
05.3.5)
where P,, is the axìal farce in columns "caused by factored gravity plus factored hori-
zoncal loads."
4. The column slenderness ratio L/r may not exceed 800/\/Fy, ksi (AISC-
Appendix 1.6).
5. Ac plastic hinge locations associated with the plastic strenglh collapse mech-
anism, cxcept in the region of the last plastic hinge to forn1. thc lateral-torsiooal buck-
ling limit state must be precluded by limiting L b !:: L pd (AISC-Appendix. l.7). where
for I-shaped sections, having compressìon flange equa! to or larger than the tension
flange . and bent about the major axis,
(15.3.6)
where Mi/ MJJ is positive when momcnts cause rewr e curvarure. and negatjve for single
curvature.
6. In the region of rhe last plastic hinge to forni . and in regions not adjacent 10 a
plastic hinge, the ordinary flexural strength requireroents of AJSC-F2.2 apply. as discusse(!
in Chapters 7. 9, JO, and 12.
7. For beam -columns, the f:iciored second-order n;oment M,. for use in the imtr.ic-
tion eqnatious of AlSC-H! must satisfy the P t. effects L-\JSC-C2. 1) and frame stabilit\'
(.AiSC-C' i .2}. As previously stated, long practice w iti1 pia.stie design has specificali~
negie..u d thc P Cl dfect in one-story frames. ·
K ro, fkxural composite members (see Chap1er i(;:. the nominai moment strength
M,, rnn::.t b:- cornputcd using pl,1stic stress distribut10·1s i__ .~e· on.lance with AISC-IJ.2. In
ar,.-,H .ja '!C~ with AJSC-f3.2. h/ t,c cannot exceed 6-1-01 ' · _
s.; ,_._,,
Section 15.3 AISC LRFD Method-One-Story Frarnes • 787
EXAMPLE 15.3.1
Design a rectangul· f
0 .8 kìp/ft snow ar rame of '.S-ft span and 2S-ft height to carry 0.2 kip/ft dead load.
I
wind of 0.4 4 k' ;;d, O. I ktp/tt gravity directional wind load, and horizontal uniform
bracing is pro ~pd dl. Latera! bracing frmn purlins occurs evcry 6 ft on the girder. and
·
analysis unde · on the columns every 5 ft. Use A9 92 steel an d p I o.5/lc
viL e by wall giris ·
· r oad and Resistance Factor Design.
Sol1'tion:
The frame is shown in Fig. IS.3. l
(a) Pactored load . b' .
, _ com inauon accon.ling to ASCE 7 Section 2.3
Case I: Grav1ty load
w,, = l.4D = 1.4(0.2) = 0.28 kips/ ft

Case 2: Gravity + wind(Case a)
W,. = l.2D + 1.6S + 0.8W

= l.2(0.2) + l .6(0.8) + 0.8(0.1) 1.6 kips/ft
Wu1, = 0.8W = 0.8(0.44) = 0.352 kip/ft (horizontal)
Case 3: Gravicy + wind( Case b)
Wu = l.2D + 1.6W + 0.SS

= 1.2(0.2) + 1.6(0.l) + 0.5(0.8) = 0.8 kips/ ft
w,,,, = 1.6W = 1.6(0.44) = 0.704 kips/ft (horizontal)
lt is clear rhat lhe gravity loading only load case is not criticai and will noi be considered
further.
. (b) Gravity and wi.nd-Case 2. Using frame analysis as in Example 15.2.4. the loca-
tion and value of the maximum moment is determined.
Tbc moment variation in the girder along the horizontal line 2-4 (~ee. Figure 15.2.-4)
can be e.xpressect as
W 11X W 111,/1
.f x ) = -2( L - .\') + - 2 -
(
2
(
1- -L
X)
O2 klfl deaù loaù } Service

0.8 k/ft snow load loads
O. I klft wind (includes girder weighl)
/
-1 EHF.t-f"_....&_..,._--"'_::::'~~.='_:::=_=:~~
25'-0"
L
/ 75'-0" - - - - - ,
Assume
Fieure 15.31 L 0.44 k/fl wind hinged
E;ample I 5.3.1. bases
and
J(x)mu
M u =2-
Location of the maximum value of f(x) can be derennined by obtaining the derivative
. f, . or
thc expression above, equating it to zero and soIv10g or x.
2
df(x)
- -=
WuL
--WuX
_ Wuhh
L
=O
dx 2 2
2
L W uh h
Maximum value occurs al x =2- ~ L
2
For lhis case:
= 75 _ 0.352 ~ = 36.6 ft
X 2 J.6 2(75)
/(x)max = ·
16(36 6)
· (75 - 36.6) +
0.352(25)
2
(
I -
36.6) = l 181 ft-kips
2 2 75
Therefore,
Required <PbMp = 1181 / 2 = 592 fi-kips
Required Mp = 592/0.90 = 658 ft-kips
(e) Gravity + wind-Case 3.
/(x)max
Mp = 2
X = 75 - ~ 252 . = 32.8 ft
2 0.704 2(75)
0.8(32.8) 0.704 (25)

2
( 32.8)
/(x)max =
2
(75 - 32.8) +
2
1-
75 = 678 ft-kips
Therefore,
Required </>1,Mp = 678/2 = 339 ft-kips

Required M,, = 339/ 0.90 = 377 ft-kips < 658 ft-kips Hence Case 2 controls
658(12)
Required Zx = - - - = l58 in. 3
50
Try W2! X68. Zx = 160 in. 3. M,, = 50(160)/ 12 = 667 ft-kips, o r a deeper or heavie
sectìon if deflection is criticai factor. Check the flange locai buckling lìmits ;
AISC-B4 o
bi= 6.04) s (~
( 211 r
= v&
f;..
=
ksi
9.19)
OK
(d) Preliminary section selected as a beam-column. Use Eq. 12. 12.2 or 12.1 21
10
selecr a satisfactory preliminary section for combine.d axial load and bencling. ··
secf•on 15.3 AISC LRFO Method-One-Story Frames • 789
Por a W2J , es-11mate
·
p = 0 _0005 . _ _ ,
Check: pP = 0 • and K L,quiv - 50/ 4.78 - I0.5
u
5 6 5
.000 ( 1. ) = 0.031 < 0.2 use Eq. 12.12.2
p + 2_
_!__ _ 0.031 ~
2p"
8
Mu)>x- + 592bx
2 8
Required hx ,,,; 0.00148
From AISC-Table 6- l
K L,·quiv = I 0.5 fl ' find W21 X83 with p = 0.00125 and bx = 0.00134 for
(e) Check later· 1 1 · . .
havc used 1 . . a_ - ors,onal buckhng for W2 I X83: r/>1,M1, = 735 ft-k.1ps. In order lo
wìll be w/ a:c/plaShc analysis Lb must not exceed Lp,I (Eq. 15.3.4). The minimum Lpd
en I MP = -1, giving
Lpd = [ 0.12 - 0.076(::)](:Jr,.

-_ (O.12 + O.076( -1) ](29,000) 1.83 .
~ -12 = 3.90 h
This means that th I

.
b racing .· e co umn lateral bracing of 3.5 ft is adequate. while the be.am lateral
of 4 O ft is si' htl . d . .
b d . · tg Y ma equate. The minimum r,. that satisfies th1s reqmrement can
e etermmed as follows. ·
. (L1,,, = L1,)F,, 4( 12 )(50)

M tn r, = · - - -- - - - = l.85 in.
. 3500 + 2200 (Mif M") 3500 + 2200( - 1)
Try W24 X84 with rY = 1.95 in.
(t) C_heck the W27X84 as a beam-column according to AJSC-HI .1. Thc effective
l~ngllt K_, tor bucklìng in the piane of the frame must be determined by ··structural analy-
si_s" according lo AISC-C2. l, and may not be le~s than unity. Using the alignmcnt chans.
F1g. 6.9.4
G A "" lO ( estimated for hinge al bottom of column )
I/ L for colurnn I /25

GB : - -- -- = - - = 3.0 ( top of column)
I/ L for girder I /75
From Fìg. 6.9.4b, unbraced frame find K, = 2.25.
Axis of bending K2 L = K,L, = 2.25(25) = S6.3 ft
At this point, the G factor may be adjusted as explained in Sec. 6.9 to account for inelast ic
behavior. Using AISC-Table 4-2 l. in whìch the stiffncss reductìo n factor is based on the
available strength of the column~ the reduction factor r,, is de termined to be I .O for
P,J A 11 == 2.5 ksì: no correction needed.
n 2 E/ 1rè(29,000)2850
P - - - - - -- = 1787 kip~
el - (K2 L)1 - (56J X 12) 2
Using the sway amplification factor B2 011 the enùre momc nt as a conservative treatment of
the P tJ. effect,
I
B2 = - -=-- = - - -- - 1.03
L P., 1 1.6(7s)
- -~- I - 2(1787)
,,C.,Pe2
Examine the slenderness ratio.
__ . = -1.0(3.5)12
KxL,
- - = 20.3
rx 2.07
K,L,. 56.3( 12)
_ . _. = - - - = 63 > 20.3 controls
ry 10.7
From AISC-Table 4-22,
K,L,.
For - -=63 </>,Fc, = :n. 7 ksi
ry
Check che beam-column inceraction equation (AISC-Hl.l). Eqs. 12.10.1 or 12. to.
2
According to AISC-C2. I b, ·
and
6 6
1. = 0.074 < 0.2
(33.7)24.8
Use AISC Formula (Hl - lb), for uniaxial bending,
Pu Mux
- - + --:s; l l12.I0.2J
2</>cPn rJ,bMnx
Mn, + Mt1 = 370(1.60) = 592 ft-kips
Mux = B2(Mn, + Me,) = 1.03(592) = 613 ft-k..ips
Note that in plastìc analysis the combined gravity plus faterai loading is used: thus, M
and Me, are not separately computed. Magnifying the combined moment using the sw~''.
amplification factor is conservative, but permitted (see User Note in AISC-C2. I b). Th~
Eq. 12.J0.2 becomes
0.074 613(12)
-2- + 0.90(50)244 = 0.037 + 0.67 = 0.71
If the shallower W24X84 is desired. </>M 1, = 840 ft-kips. l11e K,L,J r_, = 68.9. p~ =
2
1486 kips, B 2 = 1.042, and rJ,Jcr = 31.8 ksi. The strengt.h criterion. Eq. 12.10. 2.
becomes
61.6 l.O42(592)
- - - - + - - -- = 0.77 < I.O OK
2(31.8)24.7 840
Recheck Eq. 15.3.2 for h/ tw Limìl. For P,,/ (</>1,P,,) = 61.5/(0.90(50)(24.7) ] ~

0.055 < 0.125 lim.ic.
h 640 ( 2.75P,,)
- !f . I - - - = -640- [
I - 2.75(0.055) ) = 77
lw ~ ,f>bP1, V50
The actual h/tw for W24X94 is 41.9; well below the limil.
Use W24X94.
•
-~
lt is clear that th .
pletc the design Of Ih e PI). effect 1s not signiticant (less than 4%) in chis frame. To com-
necessary, in a m e fra~c. the knee joint muse be investigated. providing stiffeners if
anncr Sllntlar to Example l 3-8.1.
exAMPLE 15.3.2
Redesign the fram

14.S in. actuat <le ~ of Example 15.3. l (Fig. 15.3.1) if the column cannot be deeper than
pt · Use A992 steel and the LRFD Method.
Solution:
For lhis solution the
The factored loads column and the beam will have different pla\tic mornent strength~.
· appear in Example 15.3.1, part (a).
(a) Select for 1 . ·
are many . 'bi P asl!c Slrength using loading Case 2 ( l .2D + I .6S + o_sw ). There
Poss1 e sol utio s · · · ed ·
Examp\e I 5 3 1 th · . n u_s1ng vanous siz.es of columns. lt has beeo detemun m
th
8
girder and ; 5 at e •nc\astic design is govemed by minimum r.l values: 1.65 in. for the
th
45
and ry "° 2 _ i~~- for e Column. So, try a Wl4X6I section having ,J,MP = 383 ft-k1ps
The plastic desi .
gn moment c/>bM P ( + M) required for the girder is (see F1g. I S.3.2)
<PM,,,rcqu;,,d(girdcr) = ll 81 - 383 = 798 ft-kips
Zx,r~quir,d = 798(12)/(0.9)50 = 213 in.3

27 84 r
Try W )( gi <ler, wilh ,J,MP = 915 ft-l<.ips ::md r. = 2.07 in.
For making a · . > . · l
th corner connec11on, the two members should have appro,(lmate Y
,1. e s_ame flange width. In this case both have I O-in. flange width. To fully utili7.:e the
'l'bM == 915 ft k" h ·
t1> MP _ · •ps, per aps the column can be reduced to Wl4X48 havmg
29
b P - 4 ft-k1ps. Thc plastic strength for the girder will become
Required <f>bMp == 1181 - 294 = 887 ft-kips

5
The mo l suitable is W27X84 girder, wìth <f>M" = 915 ft-kips.
(b) Compute the column strength and the ratio P: /cf>P . For this unbraced frame use
the alig h " " f
frame, nment e art. Fig. 6.9.4, to evaluate the effective lengch factor in the piane o the
GA :::::; IO ( estimated for hinge at bottom of column)

• I IL for column 484/25
GR = - -- - - -- == - - - = 0.51 (top of column)
I/ L for girder 2850/75
Fi~ure 15.3.2
Fa;tored load collapse _
moment diagrams for plaslic
311
alysis on Example 15.3.2.
assuolìng Wl4X61_ columns
75'
I 2s· I
(-'- ., = 383 ft -ktpS ).
"l'f>i'flp (a) Gravity loading (b) Gravity plus wind loading
. . .. .
I • ~ . , ,. - - . - -• - • • • ,• ._ ' • •. • • • . " •
. . .. :, .' . . .
' . ~ . . . .. ·_ .,.- . , . .. ' .
From Fig. 6.9.4b, unbraced frame. find Kx = 1.8.
. fbe d. KL K.,L.,- 1.8(25) 12

A xIs o n mg - =- -= 5.85 = 92.3
r rx
Since thc axial load on the column is low and rhe slenderness ii- high, there Will be
adjustment in Kx for inelastic effect as discussed in Sect. 6.9. no
K,L, 1.0(5)12
_._. = - - - = 31.4
ry 1.91
Since K,L.Jr,. > KyLy/ry, the major axis controls <f>cFc,
<f>cFcr = 24. I ksi

The axial compression effecc of the beam-column interaction equacion is
~=~ = - -
6 6
-1.-- = 0.181
<f>cP,, l/>.,1-~,A g 24.1 ( 14.1)
Since this is less than 0.2, AISC Formula (H .1 -lb), Eq. 12.10.2 applìes.
(e) Compute the sway amplification factor B2. Again, as in Example 15.3.1. u •
th
amplificarion factor on the tocai moment in the inelastic analysis of the frame In ~,·set e
. · ~ au~
mg Pe2 use the unbraced length KL of l.8(25) = 45 ft
2
7T2El 1r (29,000)484
P ,2 = (K2L)2 "" [45(12)]2 = 378 kips
Using the sway amplification factor B2 on the entire moment as a conservative treatm
entof
the P il effect,
I
B 2 = - - -- = - - - -- = 1.18
P,,, L __
J.6_(_75_)
- LPt2 2(385)
(d) Check the bearn-column interaction criterion. Use Eq. 12. I 0.2.
ll2.L0.2]
Note that in plastic anaJysis the combincd gravity plus lateral loading is used: thus. M
and Me, are not separately computed. fn the plastic analysis. it was assnmed 1he full pla;'.
tic moment strength of the column was developed whe n the c/>1,Mr requìre,nent for the
girder was computed. Since the actual c/>bM,, of 915 ft-kips for the gìrder exceeds lhe
requirement of 887 ft-kips. one could compute the actual column cf>&Mr that is utili?.ed and
find M,, utilized is 266 ft-kips. M,,x would Lhen becomc J.18(266) = 313 ft-kips. This
ex.cee<ls the design strength of the Wl4X48. Increasc the column to Wl4X61 h,win,,
<l>&Mp = 383 ft-kìps and &1 = IO in. ~
Recompu1ingforWJ4X6J,r = . , - .· - .
lx= 640 in4. P =
2 6 8
. ~ 5.98 Hl., li.xL.,.jrA = 90.8,<J>,.Fc, - 24.7 kst, A~-17.9 m ..
• 2 k1ps, arid B; = I.IO. Thus, Eq. 12.10.2 becomes
-~ ~ - I.I O( 266)
2(24.7)17.9 + -~ = 0.069 + 0895 = 0.96 < I OK
ihe design is consider . . . . .

mates the mo ed adequate smce 1he hinoed-ba.~e as,umphon certamly unders11-
ll\ent reMraint and lateral stiffncss of ~he frame.
(e) e heck shear i I h . . ·
Example 13. 8 _1_ n e knce reg,on using s1itieners as necessary. as 11\ustra1ed 111
~ 2 7X84 for the .
---- -- ~~ ~ ~ f or the column. •
EXAMPLE 15.3.3
Redesign ihe rcctan I .

uring l . gu ar !rame of Example I S.3.1 using AlSC LRFD Method 1d1/11J111
. p as11c ana/ysis. Use A992 steel.
Solutio11 :
(a) Factored lo· d Th · I

I ·s·-3 · I , pan (a) The a s.· e facto. red load combinations werc compu1cd m Examp
· e
on] for th · gravny plus wmd (Case 2) was de1ermined 10 rnntro l. Design he rc
y at case. The fac tored loads are
Case 2: Gravity + wind

w" = 1.20 + 1.6S + 0.8W
l.2 (0 .2) + 1.6(0.8 ) + 0.8(0.1) \.60 kips/ ft

'tvuh = 0.8W = 0.8 (0.44) = 0.352 kip/ ft (horizonrnl )
t
(b) S ructural an alysis. Elastic analysis o f the s1ruc1ure unde r facto red load s is
~eeded; assume the El Jor rhe column a /Ili girder a re equa / , as was a ssumc:d in
,xample _l S.~. l. Statically indetermina te analysis is used to nbcaiu the factored
moments tn Fio
• •
0
·
15 3 3 l 'h
• •• · ·
. I . ·ct th
e deta1ls of static ally inde terminate ana ys1s are o uts1 e e
th
scope of is text: many sta ndard references are availab le . * Accorùing to AISC-C2. I b.
two anal~ses are needed : one for the gravìty p art ( 1.6 0 kìps/ft) . and o nc for the s way
part . (ho n zo nta l 0.35 2 k ip/ft). The alternative of usin11. a se cond-o rde r analysis to
obtam Mu is not used here. ~
(e) Select a preliminary tria! sectio n. Negkcting the rnagnitìcation effect. the maxi-
mum factored mmnent (M + M ) ·•
n1 fr I~
M,,, + Mc, = 6 14 + 58 = 672 ft-kips

a nd th c fac tored axial comprcssio n P,, is
P,, = 1.60(75)/ 2 + ( 53 + 58)/75 = 6 1.5 kip~
*See for cxample, Chu-Kia Wang ,u1d Charle, G. Sal mon. /111m d11c10,:v S1rnc,111·al A11alysis. Englewor,~ Cliff, .
NJ: Prentice-HalL !ne .. 198~: C. K. Wang. /ntrrmediore Stmctural Anafrsis. New York McGr:1w-H.1ll _Boo~
Co nipany, 1983: C hu-Kia Wang. Str1tcwral Aual\'sis 011 Micrr.><·omputus. New Y(Jrk: Macmillan Pubh shrn~
Cùmpany. 1986. ·
. --~--_- ·_ . . . -- - - ' . . -- ~-~ ... ~ .. . . .. . ·.. . .. . ' . . ·. ' , . ., '

,à = 0.79' forW24X84
i
,l u,1cral d eflec1ion
w, ., 1.60 kipilft
\··; :""'"' ,,
~1 I
A
B
I,
,,
l.t:: / 1
75 '-0"
e
D
I,. I ,.
L-
l, = I,
~ - ---l
75'-0"
e
,,
D
614 6 14
51 1
Figure 15.3.3
Design under LRFD without (a) Eia.stie facwrcd momcnrs M,.1 ( b) Elas1ic facwred rnornem, M
using plaslic analysis: (gravily - nonsway pan) (wind - sway pan) ''
Examples 15.3.3 and 15.3.4. Load Case 2 l..oad Case 2
Use Eq. 12.12.2 or 12.12.3 to sclect a satisfactory preliminary section for combine<! axial
load and bending. From Table I 2.1 2. l , and for W24 sectìon: estimate p = 0.00()5 and
K L,quiv = 2.25(25)/4.78 = 11.7 ft.
Check:pP,, = 0.0005(61.5) = 0.031 < 0.2useEq. l2.12.2
I 9
2pP,, + 8 M,.xh.,. ~ [12.12.2]
0.031 + '!_672 b,. I.O

2 8 .
b, :::a: 0.00130
From AISC-Table 6-1, find W24 X84 with p = 0.00133 and hx = 0.00123, based on an
estimated K L eq 11;1, = I J. 7 ft.
Try W24X84: <f>hMJ> = 840 ft-'kips.
(d) Check column action. The effective lengLh factor Kx in the piane of the unbr-acec
frame is detenni.ned for lg = l e exactly as in Example 15.3.1. Thus as before
K., = 2.25 (unbraced) Ky = I.O (braced)

KL K L
1 1
2.25(25)12
Axisofbending - = ---· = - -- - = 69
r r,. 9.79
KyL_,, 1.0(5)12
- - = - --=31
l'y 1.95
Sect·
ioo 15.3 AISC LRFD Method-One-Story Frames • 795
Since KxL.,/rx ::::,. K L
)· y/r,., the major axis contro!,- <J,,.f~,-
The . KxLxf'·• = 69 '1>,F~, = J 1.8 ksi

ait1al compression ff
e ect of the beam column imeracti(m equation i~
~ _ P,, 61.5
4> p - - - - - == - - - = O.o78
. ,. " <l>,.FnAg 31.8(24.7)
Since this is less than O
2
(e) C · · AISC Formula (Hl-lb) applies.
ompute nonsw· . .
I.O. So, K xL~ == 25 ft ay n\a_gn11ier 81 . According to AISC-C2. I b, K 1 1s set 10 equa!
for Che ax1s of bending.
2 2
p _ TT EJ 71 (29,000)2370
,i - (K1L)2 = [25(12 )2] = 7540 kips
B I = - -- e,,, -;;,: I
l - P,,/ P, 1
For members subje t d 10 . . . .
mate p = P. ee axial compress1on B 1 may be calculat.ed usmg first order esll-
" m + P1, =
61.6 kips
B, = ___1._o_ _ = 1.01
- 61.6/7540
Since 81 = 1·01 it means the maximum moment is close to the end ofthe member.
K..t -_ <20• Compute
25,
the sway magnifier 8 2 . Using K L .
X _\
= 56 ft, for the axis of bending
~P,2 = L -rr2EI = 21r2(29,000)2370 == 2970 kips

(K2L) 2 [56(12) ) 2
1 1
~ = 1.04
L.., P,11 120
- ~p, 2 2970
(g) Check the beam-column interaction equation, Eq. 12.10.2. AISC Fonnula (H 1-1 b ).
~+ Mux ~ I.O
2cf>,.P,, 4,1,M,,
M,,x "" B1M111 + B2 M1, = 1.02(614) + 1.04(58) = 687 fl -kjps
The interaction crìterion becomes
0.078 687
-
2
+-
840
= 0.039 + 0.82 = 0.86 < I.O OK
(h) Check local flange buckling. locai web buck.lìng, and latcral-to rs io nal buckling
limit states. The W24X84 is a compact section sincc i,, < >..,, of AlSC-84. For thc latcral-
torsional buckling, Lb = 3.5 ft < L,, = 6.89 ft and c/>1,M,, = <f>i,M,, as assumed. Had the
laterally unbraced length has been larger, the possibility of M,, less t.han M,, wou\d have
been considered earlier in the design process. Note that the girdcr with Li, = 6 ft also lms
M11 = MP.
Use W24X84 (revised belowL:
(i) Reduction in end moment according 10 AISC-Appcndix 1.7. When the .

. . . li d b
hons of AISC-Appendix I 3 for using plastic analys1s are salts te ur pfuu/c· l:\Jl)d1•
. · . · una/
1s not used, the beam-column (and the beam) may be propon10ned for "'nine-te hH,,
·
th e negaltve moments pro<luced by gravity loadmg · · f
al pomts o suppon. provided
m ,ut
the maximum positive moment is increased by one-tenth of the averagc ne ath41
moments." g tt,e
In this design. the condirions for using plastic analysis are met. ~us, instead of ,\,f
614 ft-kips, 0.90(614) = 553 ft-kips could have been used. The posnive momeni .,uf
then have increased to 511 + 0.10(614 + 614)/2 = 572 ft-kips, which exceed"''CJuld
reduced negative moment value 553 ft-kips. In this case. equalizing the positive and n s_
. k.
lhe
egai_l\·t
moments would be appropriate to give M,., = 563 f t- 1ps.
If M,.1 = 563 ft-k.ips were used in the design, the section could be reduced
W24X68. For that section B1 = 1.02, B2 ~ 1.06, M,. = _63? ft-kips, Pu/ct,,,P,r = _ 10
0 10
and <PbMp = 664 ft-kips. The beam-column mteractton cmenon, Eq. 12.10.2, AlSC F 2-
0
mula (Hl - lb) gives r-
630
O.l02 + = 0.051 + 0.949 = 1.00
2 664
(j) Examine alternate calculation of magnification factor B2 using Eq. 12.11.12. AISC
Formula (C2-6b). The lateral load deflection Il H at the top of the frame is computed as 1 .
02
for the loading in Fig. 15.3.3 using W24X68 section for both beam and column. The 1~ fin.
tored load shcar 2-H in the story is 0.352(25) = 8.8 ki~s, and the tota! factored gravity ~-
1
2-Pu = 1.60(75) = 120 kips. Equation 12.11.12 then g1ves Oad
l
=- - -- - -1~2~0:--- - - = 1.05&
1- - - - -- -
LPn, l -
RM 2,HL/ D.H 0.85(8.8)(25) ( 12 )/ 1.Q2
which is the same value computed using the other method.

(k) Conclusion.
Use W24X68. The knee joint stili must be checked for shear, and reinforced wi1b stiffe .
ers if necessary, as illustrated in Example 13.8.1. n
•
EXAMPLE 15.3.4
Verify the adequacy of W24X68 determined in Example 15.3.3, using the Direct Anal\'s
Method of AISC-Appendix 7. ' is
Solution:
(a) Governing load combination is the same as before: gravity plus Wind.
( 1.2D + 1.6S + 0.8W).
(b) According to AISC-Appendix 7.3(2), when the ratio of second arder drift 10 lì .
order drift is less than 1.5, notional loads are 1101 req!1ired in conjunction with other late~;
loads. Therefore no notional loads are to be used smce the computed B2 in the previous
example is equa! to 1.06 which is less thau l .5.
(e) Compute the reduced flexural stiffness El* according to AJSC Fonnula (A-7-2).
Using the section W24 X68 determi11ed in the previous exampk, the values are
Py = AeF_,. = 20.1(50) = 1005 kips

Se<:tion 15.3 AISC LRFD Method-One-Story Fremes • 797
pk 61.6
py = Ì005 = 0.06 < 0.5
El*= 0.8-rbEI,., 0.8(1.0)E/ = O.SEI

(d) Compute the . .
magn1ficauon fo.ctors B 1 and R .
2
K_,L" 1.0(25) 12
-;;- = 9.55 = 31
K>.Ly 1.0(5)12
-;; =1.87= 32 governs
aM 4'Fcr = 41 .8 ksi
4'Pn == 4'FcrAg = 41.8(20.1) = 840kips
Reduced p - 0 &(
<2 - · P,2) = 0.8(2200) = I 760 kips
B2 = ~ _ _ _I_ _
""'P - 120 = I.07
I - ~ 1- - -
LP,2 1760
P,, = 61.6 kips
Pe, = 0.8(P,1) = 0.8(5820) = 4656 kips
8 I 1
1 = -1 - P.,
= - - -
61.6
== 1.01
P,1 4656
M.,x = B1Mn, + B2M121 = 1.01(563) + 1.07( 58) = 633 ft-kips

nd th
a e column-beam interactìon criterion, Eq. 12.10.2, AISC Formula (Hl-2b) becomes
61.6
- + 633 = 0.99 OK
2(840) 664
W24X68 is adequate.
•
AMPLE 15.3.5
Select
th W sectioos for the column of the frame of Fig. l 5.3.4a, contaioing rigid jo!nts at
e tops of columns A and D. The tops of columns Band Care to be considered pmned.
5 bases of columns A and Dare restrained such that G = (k // L)coJ (kl/ L)t,e.am =
3Tue
. . Tue Slructure is braced in the direction perpendicular to the given frame, wilh each
column braced at the top and bottom. Use A992 steel. (This example illustrates the
unbraced frame concept discussed in the latter pan of Sec. 14.5.) Use the AlSC LRFD
Method.
Soluti-On:
(a) Compute factored loads.
P,, 1 == l.2(20) + 1.6(60) = 120 kips

P,,2 = l.2(35) + 1.6(100) = 202 k.ips
P, P, P, SeN içr. loads

DL
l W16 X 57
i l P, = 20 kip,
60 kips Ll
r
15' I\
I= 75M
B e D
P, = 35 kips DL
100 kips /.J..
l Hlngc Hinge
e= ·
35
L.__ J_6_
·-_
o _ _--1 _ __ _J6
_'-
_ o_ _ --4_ _ _ J_6'_ -_
o_ _ -i!
35
G= ·
(a) Ac1ual frame
{j,
202k
Factoreo
loads
Neglect moment here: as:sume as hinge _ __ _ _ __ __,
(b) Sidesway Pt1 effects
A.! l20 + 202

A
o o
Figure 15.3.4
Frame of Example 15.3.5. (e) &juivolem sidesw~y rcscrainc system
(b) Design of columns Band C. These columns are designed as pinned-end columns
within a hraced system; thus, K = 1.O. The bracing is provided by the rigid (ramino
between the girder and column at points A and D . ,,
K_,L,. = 15 ft; P,, = 202 kips
Selcct from the AISC Manual "Avaìlable Strength in Axial Compression" q,t P,, tah\es.
Find W8X3J: [ <f>cP,, = 230 kips ) > P,, OK

Check the section:
K,.L,. 1.0(15)12
__:___:_ = - - - = 89 </>,Fcr = 25.2 ksi
r_,, 2.02
[</J, Pn = <PcFc,A g = 25.2 ( 9.12) = 230 kips] > ( P,, = 202 kips) OK
Use W8X3 I for incerior columns Band C.

.:,eclion 15.3 A1SC LRFD Method-One-Story Frames • 799
(e) Design cxteri

~ec. 14.5. These co\u or columns A and D using Yura's method t6.55l as discus!=.ed in
'."le~or co\umn$ A an;';; musl brace the entire a5semblagc. In order to resist sidesway lhe
'" F1g. 15.3.4h. To st b' . deve\op combined Pt:. moments of 2(202)A = 404A. as shown
4 046./ h at the top ; ilt-ze the systcm requires development of a hori7.ont.al bracing force
vide the bradng, e:ht:e frame. Since rwo identica! exterior colmnns are intended to pro-
the tota\ sidesway xter'.or column must contribule 202il/ h. Thus on columns A and D
moruen11s
. . mnment = (202A)
Tota! sidesway - - - h + t20il = 322t:.
11
The above neglects end . .
umn bases. 1 h moments thal may be devclopcd by the partial restramt al thc col-
.
llsetf ° 1
were en .er Words· • th e extra bracing forcc required is 1he samc as 1f · th e mcmbe r
arrying 322 k.'
Pu = 322 k'tp th •ps. Thus, when the ex.terior columns are designed to carry
s ose colu ·
Th K f •nns Wtll brace the entire system.
e x actor to u f . · ff
ness of th se or columns A and D in the frame will depend on the s11 -
ose colurnns· · ) 30 f
= l.0(lS = • a~sume lo ~tart that K_, = 2.0. Then K_J,.x = 2(_15 =
KyLy
si.on" where K
frarnc .
l. 15
ft. Use AISC Manual tables "Available Strength in Ax.,al Compres-
Y Y is tabuiated vs <PcP,,. Since the P. = 322 kips musl be canied only for the
t;
action, K L . 11 • _ •
AXJ'al C ~ x govems for design to carry 322 kips. Smce the "Ava,lable Strength m
ompress1on" . bi . .
K. .L. == K L la cs_are based on KyLy, one must enter tbc tables w1th an equwalent
>> ·' .J( rxfr_v). Usmg those tables, find
EquivalentKvLvforWlO =~ = )3.9ft· Gives Wl0X45

. . 2.16 '
Equivalent KyLy for W 12 =~

2.64
= tI 4 f
. t; Gives Wl2X40
Por the Wl2 secti h · .. · 1

• on, t e tables "Available Strcngth in Axial Compress1on gl\·e on Y
W l2X40 Which · 3· f
h' cames much more load than requi.red; ti)' a lighter Wl2 X :, or
w _ich there is no tabulated load. Check that br/ 21 ,s; 95'VF.c and li/ tw ~ 253/ \fF... are
sa11sfied. · 1 ·
th
Por e Y·Y axis (minor-ax.is buckling). the actual P., o f 76 kips must be carried.
KyLy 1.0(15) 12
-;; = 1.54 = 117;
c/>cP., = c/>cFcrA 8 = 16.5( 10.3) = 170 kips > 120 ki.ps OK
For the x-x axis. the e nd restraint must be evaluated:
'2:-1/L forcolumn 285/ 15

Gl(>p = - - - - - - - = --- = 0.90
2, T/ L for girdcr 758/36
:he alignment chart, Fig. 6.9.4b, is based on far ends of girders restrained. When the far cu<l
is not re strained, as assumed here, the G factor shou\d be increased: multiplied by two when
the far end is hinged. Thus,
Glop == 0.90(2) = 1.80

Gbottom = 3.5 (given)
·---- - - - ·-- -
. - . . . . .
.
From the alignment chan, Fig. 6.9.4b, find Kx = l.72.
1.72( 15)12
KALX
- -=- - -- = 59· 4>cFcr = 34.9 k SI·
rx 5.25 '
c/>,.Pn = cf>cFc.Ag = 34.5( 10.3) = 355 kips > [ P., = 332 kips) OI(_
Check AISC-Appendix 1.5, Eq. 15.3.5.
[0.75cf>cAgFy = 0.75(0.90)(10.3)50 = 348 kips) > [Pu = 322 kips]

This satisfies AISC-Appendix 1.5.2; note that the 322 kips is not the true column load bui
rather a pseudo load such that the columns A and D can have adequace lateral stiffn .
when interacting with the beam to provide che sway resistance for the entire assembJaess
. ~
Thde es1gn acceptable!
Use W12X35 for exterior column .
. (d) Repeat the design of columns A and D us!ng ?eschwindner's method l14.42].
In th1s method, the actual factored load Pu = 120 ktps 1s used on columns A and D, bui
che effective length factor Ko becomes K,, given by Eq. 14.5.11. In pan (b) above, the
ef~ecrive length factor K (now called K 0 ) was found to be 1.72. That value ìs 00~
adJusted, as follows:
[14.5.11)
120 + 202 = 2.8

= 1.72
120
Try the Wl2X35 obtained in pan (e).
KxLx 2.8( 15) 12

-- = - - -=97; cf>Jcr = 22.6 ksi
rx S.25
[r/>cP
11 = </>cFcrAK = 22.6(10.30) = 233 kips ] > [Pu = 120kips)
Because of the low slendemess ratio (i.e., 59) of the originai column, the answer using the
increased Kn is less conservative than using che increased load for design.
Try Wl2X30. Check locai buckling limits,
br 95 )
( 211 = 7.4) < (
V'F,, = 13.4 OK
li =
-;- 41.8) > ( 253
r.:: = 35.8)
( NG
w VF"
There is a potential web local buckling problem: Q may be less than I .O. lnitially assume
Q = I.O,
238/15
G10p =2 "" 0.75(2) :::: 1.51
758136
½o1tom = 3.5 (given)
Section 15.4 Mullistory Frames • 801
From alìgnmcnt chan .
· Fig. 6.9.4b. tind K_, = 1.68. whi.:h lcad~ 10 K,, = 2.75.
KxL, 2.7S( 1S) 12
- - = - - - - = 9S
rx 5.21
~).L)' I.O( 15) 12
---- = - --- - = 118 Controls !
ry 1.52
,f""c, = 16.1 hi
Check li/1.,, accordin,
gtoAISC-E7.2(Eq~. 15.3.t 1015.:U)usingf 16.1 ksi.
,: < (1.49~ = 0 = ~ = 63.1) OK

Thus, Q = LO.
[<f>J~, = <PcFc,Ag = 16.1(8.79) = 142 kips] > [ P,, = 120 kips] OK

Check AISC-Appendix l.5.2, Eq. 15.3.5.
75
[0. <t>,AgF" = 0.75(0.90)(8.79)50 = 297 kips) > [P,, = 120 kips) OK
This does satisfy AISC · "'O
k' Th · ' . -Appendix 1.5.2; and here the check is against the actual P,, ot '""
tps. e next hghtest W I 2 will not work.
~!_2~~~ •
d . When lateral load acts on a systern such as the frame of Fig. I 5.3.4. the same proce-
ure 1s used as illu t - d · , · · · · I --· · ·
. · s rate IO Ex:ample 15.3.3. The factored grav11y load elast1c ana ysis 1s
made for the nonsw ·1 ·
1 · I · I · 11··
, and cause · ·· ay
cal ·ti s uation (assuming the frame and loadmg are re· atl\'e y symme
· · d1-
s
. ' in igni icant sway). Then the factored ]ateral load elastic analys1s 1s ma e
Wlthout the g ·1 1 d · · .
. 1. th rav, Y oa . Wheu the sway rnagnifier R2 is computed, the total P,, partlcipat-
1~g ? e p Il effect is used in ~ Pu, including the loads on columns lJ and C. However.
P, mcl~dcs only thc contributions of those columns actually resisting ~way: i.e.. column5
A and D 111 this example.
5.4 MULTISTORY FRAMES
The d esign
· ° f ·
mult1story ·
frames, either braced or unbraced. is outs1de the- scope 0 1- l h.is
t;t. ~raced multistory fr~mes have been designed u~ing Allowable St~e~s , ~esign_
( orkmg Stress Method) smce the earlie.st design of steel struc tnres. Plas11c Dt::sign 1
st
°
multi_ ory braced frames was accepted by AlSC with che adoption of the 1969 _AISC
Spe~"ijication. The theoretical and ex.perimemal background, developed primanly at
Lehi_g? University, was first presented to the engi11eering profession in l 965 [I ~-6 1-
Adciitional background materiai is available in che work of Driscoll and BeedJe l\).?) ,
Lu l l S.8], Williams and Galambos [ l 5.9), Goldberg [ 15.1 O], and Yura and Lu {15. I I].
h
T e design procedure is well-described in Pia.stie Design of Bmced M11/tiSlory Steel
Frame.i· [14.37].
Regarding unbraced multistory frames, procedures are continuing to be developed.
AISC LRFD and ASD Methods [1.15) do not resnict the number of stories. and the Pil
effect must be considered. Presently (2008), there seems to be no practical accepted proce-
dure for using Plastic Design on multistory unbraced frames.
. The SSRC Guide [6.8, Chap. 16) coniain.s exccllent 1reatment Clf met~c!ds _io cvaJuai.
trame -tabìlily for multistory frames. Background on unbraced frame st~b1l11y 1s availabl~
in lhe Lehigh Leciure Notes ( 15.6]. Driscoll and ~eedle [15.7]. and _Damels [ 15. 121. 0 ~
studies on the s1al>ili1y of unbraced frames are g1ven by Chcong-S1a1-Moy [ 15. I 3. I S. S
1
14. 18(, and Cheong-Siat-Moy and Lu ( 15.14(. •·
SELECTED REFERENCES
15.1 . AISC. P/a.,-1i(· De,ig 11 in Steel. Ne"'' York: Amcrican lnsliturè of Steel Cons1ruc1ion. !ne.. 1959.
15.2. Lynn S. llccdlc. Pla.<ti,· D,•sig11 ofSreel Fram,·.,·. New York: John Wiley & Son,. !ne .. 1958.
15.3, C. E. Mas-onnèl and M. A. Savc. P/a.wic Anuly,1-is a,ul De-<ìi:n. Voi. I, Beams and Frames. Waltham
MA: Olaisdell Publishìng Compaoy. 1%5. '
15.4. Lynn S. lkcdle. "Pla,1ie S1reng1h of Stecl Frames." P mceedi11gs. ASCE. 81, Paper No. 764 (Augus,
1955). Also Transaetiom·, 122 (1957). I 13!>--1168.
l5.5. F.dw:lr<.I R. Esres. Jr. "Design of Muhi-span Rigid Frames by Plastic Analysis:· Proceedings of ,','ati<ma/
Engin,,ering Cmif,r,mce. A!SC. 1955. 27-39.
15.6. George C. Driscoll. Jr., el al. P/astic Desig11 of Mulri·Sto,y Frame.<. \..ecrure Note,. Fritz E11gineerin~
Laboratory Repéut No. 273.20. Lehigh Univer,.ity. Beth)ehem . PA. 1965. -
15.7. George C. Driscoll and Lynn s. Bcedle. " Rescarch in Plastic Desigu of Mullistory Fr-. ime,;· E"lli•1<-trin
.Jm,nw/, AJSC . I, J (July 1964). 92-100. - g
15.8. Le-Wu Lu. "Design of Braced Mulli-Story Frames by thc Plastic Method." E11gìne,·rin1: loi,rna/. AISC
4, I (January 1967), 1-9. ·
15.9. James B. Williams and Theodorc V. Galambos. "Economie Srndy of a Braced Multi-S1ory Steel Frame·
Engineering Joumal. AISC S, I (January 1968). 2-11.
15. 10. John E. Goldberg. "Latera! Buckling of Braced Multis<ory Frames." loumol oftlie Strnrn11-.,/ Di,•ision.
ASCE, 94, STI 2 (December I 968). 2963- 2983.
I 5. 11. Joseph A. Yura and Le-\Vu Lu. ''Ultimare Load Tests of Braced Muhistory Frame,,:· louma/ of 11,,
Structural Division, ASCE, 95, STl O (Oclober 1969). 2243-2263.
15.12. J. Hanlcy Danie!s. "A Piastie Method for Unbraced Frame Design," E11ginuri11g Joumu/, A.ISC, 3, ~
(Octobcr 1966). 14 1-- 149.
15. 13. F. Cheong-Siai-Moy. "Srìffness Design of Unbrac-ed Steel Frames." E11gi11e<"Ying Jour,,al. A.ISC. 13
1
(Firsr Quarter 1976), 8- 10. '
15. 14. F. Cheong-Sial-Moy and Le-Wu Lu. ··S1iffness and Strengrh Design of Mullisrory Fr-àmes:·
Publications, lntemarional Associatioo for Brid;;e and Structural Engineering. 36-11. 1976. 31--47.
l 5.15. Francoi s Cheong-Sial-Moy. "Frame Design Without Using Effeeriw Column Lengrh: · Jo,m,a/ (!fili,
Structum/ Dil•ision. A SCE. 104, STJ (Ja.nuary l 978). 23- 33.
PROBLEMS
Ali problems are to be done in accordance using the AISC LRFD Mcthod. Use rhc plastic analysis option under AlSC-
B3. I, if applicable, only when specifically assigned by the instructor; otherwise use cla~tic an:ùysis. Ali given Ioads are
service loads.
15.1. Design using W shapes an unbraced rectangular over 1he 18-ft he ight. Latera! bracing occurs
frame of 60-ft spaa as shown in the accompany- every 5 ft on the gìrder and 4.5 ft on tb.e
ing figure. to carry uniformly distributed gravity columns. Include. if a~signed by the instructor
dead and live loads of 1.5 and 2.5 kips/ft. respec- the design of the koee region at the top of th~.
tively, not including lhe weight of tJ1e g irder. Use column as discussed in Sec. 13.8. Use A992
a lateral wind load of 0.8 kip/ft acting uniformly stecl.
t ,;==== ====;i
18' El ~ const;mL
L Hingc
G = 10
Probleni 15.1
- - - - 60'- 0"
. - . ..,___
~ .· ,. t:.. r . ,· - -
/ ' . . .....__ ..------:---- ~ ... ' ' '" .. \ .... ~t ;,.. ' . .
Problems • 803
1s. 2- Design for the conditions of Prob. 15. 1 except
assume the moment of inenia for the beam to be
three times that of the column. piane of the frame sueh thai columns theare brace<l
minor _at
a,m,.
bouO m with respe.c1 to of
l)esign using W shapes the unbrace(! rectangular the top and
K - I O Assume ali 1-oints at the tops
and that y -: _· . ·. full moment . .
res1stmg. Use
frame of t~e accomp~ying figure to carry uni- columns are ngid . 1.e.. y
fonnly distnbuted &rav_uy dead and live loads of l.4
and 2.2 kips/ft, respectJvely.
- ·r Use a lateral Wind load A992 stee). . le connec-
b 15 3 exccpl use s,mp
of 0.8 kip/ft acting u~,onnry over the 14-ft height. 15 4 Design as in Pro · . · ) the tops of columns
Assume the strucnire 1s hraced perpendicular to the · · t1ons
. ( assu me as pmned
.
a1 · · con-
. .d moment rcs1sung
BG, CH, and D/, ~llh ~~1
neciions only at A aod
Problem 15.3 q 11l l

I- - -- - - 4@ 30' = 120 "O'"
- - - --I
_______, _ _ -~--- .
16.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
-
Steel framing supporting cast-in-piace rcinforced concrete slab construction was bistorj.
cal~y _designed on lhe assumplion thai the concrete slab act:' independenlly of the stee] in
res1stmg loads. No consideratìon was given to the compos!Le effect of lhe steel anò con-
crete acting togethcr. This neglect was jus1ified on the bas1s that the bond between the con.
crete tloor or deck and che top of thc steel beam could noi be dcpe.nded upon. Howe, ,
with the advent of weld ing, it became practical to provide mechanical shear connector~"1~
resìst the horiwnial shear which dcvelops during bending.
Steel beams encased in concrete were widely used from che early 1900s uotil the de,eJ.
opmen1 of lightweight malerials for tire protection in the past 50 years. Some such bea.ii _
' u
were designed compositely and some were not. In the early 193Os tmdge constructìon be·~a
to use composite sections. Not unti I the early l 960s was it economica) l o use composite c~n~
slruction for buildings. However. currcnt practice (2008) utilizes composite actio n in nearh
ali situaiions where concrete and steel are in contaci. borh on bridges and buil<lings_ ·
Composite consrruction, as treated in this chapter. consists eìther of a so~Lid cast-in-
place concrete slab placed upon and interconnected to a steel rolled W section or ,,·elded 1_
shaped girder, as shown in Fig. 16. l. l. or most commonly, the concrete slab is cast upon
Sluct
shear
conoec1ors
Figure 16. I . l Widc- 11ange

Conventional composite beam
s1eel-concreée beam.
804
- -
....~ - - ..- - .
Section 16.1 Historical Background • 805
Shear stud connectors on 11 · . .

order lo mak.e sleel . angcs ot hndge girdcrs to be embedded in lhe concrete slab in
e· G . Salmon) section and
concrete slab act as a unit (i.e., rnmr>ositely ). (Photo by
co\d-formect steel deck p·

The comigatiotls ( .b. ( ig. l6. l.2). which itself is supported o n a steel l-shaped section.
· ri s) may b ·h
When the ribs are . · e eit er parnllcl to or perpendicular 10 the supponìng beam.
10
ness slab supp .. dpad~allel lhe beam, the behavior is essentially that of a variable thick-
01 ,e irectly h
W section " .· l on l e steel beam. When thc ribs are pcrpendicular 10 rhe steel
, ., pecia treatrn 1 · . ·
construction a ct· en is required. The many varieties of composite sreel~oncrete
Th
re 1scussed
.
· h s
m t e tate-of-the Art Report f 16. l ].
e composite bea · .
8 to Js ft b t m ts one havmg a wide tlangc (concrete slab). typicaJly spanning
- e ween parallel b . . . , L
stant across th .d eams. Ordmary beam theory, where the stress 1s assumed con-
1 th
Plate theo; . ed~ of a beam at a given distance from the neutra! axis. does 1101 apply.
Y m. tcates
(steel sect·1011 . the stres.,
0 · d ecreases t he more d1stant
· · 1s
a pomt · f rom tIle sii·r1· part
m th1s case) 0 f h b . . • . · ·
forced e '· t e eam. S11mlarly to the trea.tment of 1 -secno ns lll rem-
oncrete an ec · 1 . . .
' 7wva enr w1dth 1s used in piace of the actual width. so that ordmary
(a)
Figure I 6. 1.2 . .
composite secllon usmg
fonned steel deck. Steel
beam supporting deck a~d _
slab inay be parallel to nbs ot
fonned deck (as m b.)_O(
,rpendicular to the nbs.
iA!SC-J3.2c)(Adapted from
AISC Conunentary [ I . 14])
~.
(bì
ì
806 • Chapter 16 Composite Steel-Concrete Construction
beam theory can be used. An excellent summary of the factors involved in obtainin .
1
effective width is given by Brendel r16.2J and Heins and Fan (16.3]. Vallenil)/. ~'
Bjorhovde (16.4] have reviewed the effective width in the context of LRFD and the useillld
01
steel deck to suppon the slab.
Viesl [ 16.5] , in his 1960 review of research. notes thai the imponant factor in <:
posite action is that rhe bond between concrete and steel. remain . unbroken. As desio~ orn.
began to piace slabs on top of supponing steel beams, rnvest1gators began to '-ludy h.
behavior of mechanical shear connectors. The shear connectors provided the interac ~ e
. . t· llon
necessary for the concrete slab and steel bearn to act as a unlt", 1.e., no s 1p between the
. d be con.
crete and steel beam paraIlei 10 tbc beam. For the earI1er encase ams Ibere had been
ficient contaci area between concrete and steel so that friction provided the neces:~f-
mteraction between 1he two materials. ~
The State-of-the-Art Report of 1974 [ I 6.1] provides an overall survey of 1he sub·
of composite cons1ruction including bibliography. Hansell. Galambos. Ravindra Jeq
• . t • , ' anct
V1est [ 16.6] have provlded the background for Load and Res1st~nce Factor Design_ lyenll
and Iqbal [16.7] have provided a modem review of composite construction in buildi,:
design, and Lorenz and Stockwell (16.8] and Lorenz [16.9] have provided treatment 0 f
basic design concepls for Load and Resistance Factor Design.
A thorough treatment of steel-concrete composite construction in the context ~,
Eu.rocode 4 has been developed by TABSE [16.42].
16.2 COMPOSITE ACTION

Composite action is developed when two load-carrying s tructural members such as a con-
crete floor system and the supporting steel beam (Fig. I 6.2. I a) are integrally connected
and deflect as a single unit as in Fig. I 6.2.1 b . The extent to wh1ch composite action .
developed depends on the provisions made to insure a single linear strain from the top ~~
the concrete slab to the bottom of the steel section.
In developing the concept of composite behavior, consider first th e noncomposite
beam of Fig. 16.2. la, wherein if friction between the slab and beam is neglected, tlie bearn
and slab each carry separately a part of the load. This is funher shown in Fig. 16.2.l
When the slab defonns under vertical load, its lower surface is in tension and elon!!ate- a:s.
while the upper surface of the b eam is in compression and shortens. Thus a discontìnuit 1
will occur at the piane of contact. Since friction is neglected, only vertical internal force~s
act between the slab and bearn.
Figure 16.2.l
Comparison of deflected
bcams with and without (a) Deflected noncomposile
~
~ = (b) Deflected composite
beam bcam
composite action.
Section 16.2 Composite Action • 807
M(slab)
(
F====:::::::jTC
e'
( ( _l_T,
.
M(bcam)
M (bcam)
figure J6.2.2 . . .
straìn varianon m coinpos11e
t,ealll~- (a) No interaction
(h) Pania! interaction (e) Complete intcraclion
st
When a sy em acts compositely {Fig. 16.2. J b and 16.2.2c) no relative slip occurs
between the slab d b I
surface of the 1. ban eam. Horizontal forces
.' 'shears)
\ . . are develo""d
r that act on the ower
,
. . , s a to compress and shorten 1t. wh1le s,muhaneously they act on the uppcr
surtace of the beam to elongate it.
b By an examination of the strain distribution that occurs when there is no interaction
. etween the concrete slab and the steel beam (Fig. 16.2.2a). it is seen thai the total resist-
mg moment is equa! 10
( 16.2. I)
th 1t is noted that for tltìs case there are two neutra! axe~; one at the center of gravity
?f e slab and the other at the center of grnvity of the beam. The horìz.ontal slip r~Sult-
th
mg f~om e bottom of the slab in tension and 1he top of the beam in compresSIOll 15
also md1cated.
Con~ider next the case where only partial interaction is present. Fig. l6.2.2b. The
neutral axis of the slab is closer to the beam and that of the beam closer to the slab. Due to
th
e_p~ial interaction, the horizontal slip has now decreased. The resull of the partial inter-
15
a~ti~n the panial development of the maximum compressive ar1d tensile forces C' ~nd
T ' in the concrete slab and steel beam. rcspectìvely. The re~isting moment of tbe section
would then be increased by the amount T' e' or C' e'.
When complete interaction (known as full composite action) between the slab and the
beam is developed, no slip occurs and the resulting strain diagram is shown in Fig. l 6,2 -2c.
Under th is condition. a single neutra\ axis occurs which lies be.low that of the slab and above
th
at of the beam. ln addition. the compressive and tensile forces C" and T", respect_ively: are
larger than the C' and T' existing wìth partìal intcraction. The resisting moment ot the lully
developed composite section then becomes
"IM = T"e" or C"e"

16.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The basic advantages resulting from composite design are
1. Reduction in the weight of steel
2. Shallower steel beams
3. Increased tloor stiffness
4. lncreased span length fora given number
A weìght savings in steel of 20 to 30% is ofrcn possible by taking full advantage of a com-
posite system. Such a weight reduction in che supporting steel beams usually permits the
use of a shallower as well as a lighter member. This advamage may reduce lhe height of
. h a
multistoried building significantly so as 10 previde savings m ot er building materials such
as outside walls and stairways. The overall economy of using composite construction
when considering total building cosi appears to be increasingly favorable [ 16.10, 16.11).
The stiffness of a composite floor is subsumtially greater than that of a concrete fl00r
with its supporting beams acting independently. Normally the concrete slab acts as a one-way
plate spanning between the supponing beams. In composite design, an additional use is made
of the slab by its action in a direction parallel to and in combinarion with the supporting steet
beams. The net effect is to greatly iocrease the momenc of inertia of rhe floor system in the
direction of the steel beams. The increased stiffness considerably reduces the live load deflec-
rions and, if shoring is provided during construction, also reduces dead load deflections.
Assuming full composite action, the uominal strength of the section greatly exceeds the sum of
the strengths of the slab and the beam considered separacely, providing high overload capacity.
While there are no major disadvantages, some limitations should be recognized. In
continuous construction, the negative moment region will have a different stiffness because
the concrete slab in tension ìs expected to be cracked and nor participating. In generai. it is
considered acceptable to assume the moment of inertia to be constant through both positive
and negative moment regions, using the positive moment composite section moment of
inertia AISC-11. Tension in the concrete is neglected.
Long-term deflection caused by concrete creep and shrinkage could be imponam
when the composite section resists a substantial part of the dead load. or when the live load
is of long duration. This is discussed in Sec. 16.12.
16.4 EFFECTIVE WIDTH

The concept of e_ffective width is useful in design when strength must be determined for an
e lement subject 10 nonunifonn distribution of stress. Rcfe1Ting to Fig. 16.4.1, the concrete
slah of a composite secfjou is considered 10 be infinitely wide. The intensity of extreme
fiber stress f c is a maximum over the steel beam aud decrea~es nonlinearly as the distance
from the supporting beam increases.
The effective widch bE of a flange fora composite member may be expressed
( 16.4.1)
where 2b' tirnes tlle maximum stress f c equals the area undcr the curves for fc- Various
in\'estigators, including Timoshenko ancl Goodier !]6.1 2] and vo n Karman [16.13}. have
derived expressions for the effe.ctive width of homogeneous beams having wide flanges:
and Johnson ancl Lewis 11 6.1 4,! have shown such expression' are val id for beams in which
the flange and web a.re of different materials.
T he analys.is for effective width involve s theory of ela ticity applied to plates. using
an infinilciy long continuous bcam on equidistant supports. with an infinìtely wiùe 11anlt~
Section 16.4 EffectiveWidth • 809
Actu.al e,ttreme fiber

comprc~sive s1re5s l
for infini1c.ly widc flange
figure I 6.4. I .
Actual and equ1vi1lent stress
distribution over flange
width.
having a small th· kn

by the eq . •e ess compared to che beam depth. The total compression force canied
u1va1ent system b h
Th . ' must e t e same as that canied by the real system.
for servi e prac11cal simpl'ti
1 · · design purposes are given by AlSe -13 . l a thesame
. icat10ns tor
ce 1oad ca\cu\at.1ons as for nominai
· · ·ture ·1s tmmment.
strength calculations when ta1 · ·
l. For an i111 · ·
erior g1rder, referring to Fig. 16.4.2.
L
hE s - (16.4.2a)
- 4
bE s h0 (for equal beam spacing) ( l6.4.2b)

2 · For an exterior girder,
L
bF, s -
- 8
+ ( distance from beam ceoter\ (16.4.3a)
10 edgc of slab }
J~E S
1
, 1
10 + (distance from beam center) ( 16.4.3b)
· to edge of slab
lnterim· girder
wilh ~l:.,b extending
I ', I ~ ~· .... ~ ' 'I

I~ 1..I 7f/,g I "
Fi~ure 16.4.2
Dirncnsion~ govemmg
.
efiecti": w1dth bE on
composite steel-concrete
oearns.
I t~'-~. _J__ '•I ~ ~J
- E. lerior g ìrdcr with stab
txtend.ing only on on., side
b
L" beam span

"
.
- ·------ --· - --- -- -- -----
81 O • Chapter 16 Composite Steel-Concrete Construction
The American Concrete lns1itu1e (ACI) Code [ 16.15] has long used the followin
effective flange widLhs for T-sections: g
1. For an inrerior girder, refening 10 Fig. 16.4.2.
06.4.4a)
(for equa) beam spacing) ( l6.4.4b)
(16.4.~l
2. For an exterior girder,
l
bE :s; bf + 12 <t 6.4.Sa)
bE :S: bf + 6ts ( 16.4.Sb)

bE :s: b1 + 0.5(clear distance 10 next beam) ( 16.4.Sc)
These 2008 ACI Code effective widths are identica) to AISC e ffective widths used prior 10
the 1986 LRFD Specìfication. The present AISC rules are simpler; elim.inating the bearn
flange width bf and the slab thickness 1., as variables.
16.5 COMPUTATION OF ELASTIC SECTION PROPERTIES

The elaslìc section properties of a composite section can be computed by the tran;;.
formed section method. In contrast to reinforced concrete, where the reinforcing bar
steel is trans formed imo an equivalent concrete area, the concrete slab in d1e composite
sectìon ìs tran~formed ìnto equivalen1 steel. As a result, the c oncrete area is reduced by
usmg a s lab w1dt.h equa] to bEIn, where n 1s the modulus of elashc11y rallo Es/ E,.. E, is
the moduluJs of e lasticity of s teel. taken as 29,000 ksi. and Ec in psi is given by the ACI
Code [16.15]. as follows:
06.5.1 )*
whe re w is the ùensity of concrete in pcf and f~ is in psi . Since the AISC Speci.ficarion
uses stress in ksi forali formulas, AISC-12.1 b converts Eq. 16.5.1 approxima1.e ly to the fol-
lowing for Ec in ksi:
( 16.5.2)*
Note the VloOO

is 3 1.6: thus. Eq. 16.5.2 gives E, about 4% lower than the ACI Code. Fnr
normaJ-weight conc rete. weighing approximately 145 pcf. Eq. 16.5.2 gives Ec in ksi as
Ec = 1 7 5 0 ~ U6.5.3)*
Within thc accuracy that the modulus or clasticity of concre te may be predicted. either thc
ACI Code f 16.15] value or tbe sugges1ed value of A ISC -12. I b is acceptable. The modulus
of elasticity ra tio 11 is commonly takcn to the neares t whole number. Table 16.5. 1 indicates
practical value~ usuaUy used in cornputing elastic sectio n propenies.
*For Sl units. giving é, in MPoi.,

E, = w'·\0043) VJ~ Uo.5.1\
E, = ,,,, '(0041) VJ: (1 (1,S~)
E, - 4600 \ ~ ( 1(,5..l )
whne w i, in kg/ml and / ; ,s io MP:l.
• 41 Il'- ___ • • - - - . - .. _ ... --

, --._- I •
Section 16 5 . . . .
· Computat1on of Elast1c Sect,on Propert1es • 811
-----
TABLE 16.5. 1
----
f~
(psi)
3000
Practical Values for Modular Ratio n
·- - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - -
Modular ratio
n = EJEc
~ - - - - - - - - - -- -
fc
(MPa)
350() 9 21
g!
4000 2 24
450() 8 28
7!2 31
500o
7 35
600o
6~ 42
Effective Elastic Section Modulus

A complete beam ma be . .
plate on the top Y C~)nsidered as a stee\ mcmber to which has been added a cover
11
only when the topa~:~· T~ts _''cover plate" being concrete is considered to be effective
usually ignored i , . ge ts m compression. ln continuou.~ beams. the concrete s\ab is
n reg1ons of n . · . . .
crete slab, present .. ' . egat1ve momem. lf 1he neutra\ ax1s fa\ls w11hm the con-
in compression. practice ts lo consider only that portion of 1he concrete slab which is
AISC-13.2 permit . f . . .
ef~ective slab width s r_e in orce~ent paral!el to che s_teel beam an~ lymg_w1thm the
10
remforcing ba be mcluded m computmg propentes of composite secuons. These
itive momen; rs ~sually make little difference to the composite section modulus in the pos-
region 3nd their effect is frequently neglecte.d.
EXAMPLE 16.5.1
Compute the elaslic . .

assuming f'. = section properties of the com_pos!te section sh~wn in Fig. _16.S. I
AISC-13. I a.e
3
OOO psi and n = 9. Use the effect1ve flange w1dth accordrng lo
Solutiott:
First. detenn· ft' . .
. me e ec11ve w1dth (AlSC-13.1 a).
IJE "' L/4 = 0.25(30)12 = 90 in. coritrolI
bE = bo= 8(12) = %in.

The width of equivale l I 1s
· /?Efn = IO.O ìn. The computation of the momentof ·mert1a
·
/ t a b out the center 'of n stee
· · .
· gravuy of the W2 I X62 1s shown. as follows:
MomentArm
Transformed from
Area Centroìd
A y Ay Ay2 lo
Element ( ìn.4 ) (in .4 )
(sq in.) (in.) (ìn. 3 )
Slab 40.0 53
+ 12.495 + 500 6245
W2 \X62 o
18.3 o o 1330
Cover plate -1.Q _.l
- 10.995 - 77 ....Mfl
65.3 + 423 7091 1384
lx = 10 + Ay1 = 1384 + 7091 = 8475 in.4

+ 423
Y = - - = +6.48 in.
65.3
lir = lx - Ay 2 = 8475 - 65.3 (6.48) 2 = 5737 in.4
y, = 10.50 - 6.48 + 4.0 = 8.02 in.
Yh = 10.50 + 6.48 + 1.0 = 17.98 in.
The symbol 11, is used for th.efully composite uncracked tramformed .fection moment of
inertia. The elastic section modulus Sconc referred to the top fiber of the concrete slab is
Sconc = lir/Y, = 5737/ 8.02 = 7 15 in.3
The elastic section modulus S1, referred Lo the extreme fiber at th.e tension flange of Lhe
steel section (in this case the cover plate) is
Sir= lir/Yh = 5737/ 17.98 = 319 in.3
The addition of a cover plate at the tension flange brings the neutra! axis down and per-
mits more economica! use of the composite section. However, the cost of welding a
cover plate to the rolled section usually exceeds any materiai saving; thus, a cover plate
is rarely used. •
7
'II
I
I
I
I
N
~( S:l -C·
~,. 30'- 0"
~,. xi X X
Beam span
-·
"'•
:i:, ~
N
:S
J
I
rl_____
Figure 16.5. J
Composite st ction foi
Example l ,,.5. l.
.. - -- - - - . , -- ... ... . . • \ l'

• • I' • I • o ,~ ~ \ • ... ,t' "
Section 16_6 S .
ervice load Stresses with andWithout Shoring • 813
---
16.6 SERVICE LOAD STRESSES WI
~ N D WITHOUT SHORING
The actua( stresses lh
upon th e manner of
Th .
· at resuh .due to a g1ven
constnicl!on
e s1mples1 construc . .
- loading on a composite member are dependent
s_uppon the concrete b l!on occurs when the stcel beams are placed lirst and used to
I
(Le., by itself) suppon: ~be formwork . In this case the steel beam acting noncompositely
fonns are removed a d . Wetght of the forms, the wet concrete, and its own weig}lt. Once
<lead and live load nl· concrete has cured, the section will act compositcly to resist ali
wi1houc temporary s_,P aced alter lhe curing of concrete. Such construction is said to be
S IOr,ng (.
Alternative( 1.e., unshored).
P0 rtcd on tempo Y, to reduce . th e serv1ce
· load stresses, the steel beams m ay b e sup-
rary shorin . 111 . .
are carried by th h g, wh1ch case. the steel beam, forms, and wet concrete,
t he section acts e s ores· _- Aft er cunng · of the concrete. the shorcs are removed and
struction. compos1tel
· Y to res1st · ali loads. This system is called shored c o n-
The following exa I .1

two systems of . mp e llustra tes the difference in service load stresses under thl!
construcuon.
E.><AMPLE 16.6.1
For the sreel W2 t X 62 .

stresses consid . wicb th e I by 7-in. plate of Fig. 16.5.1, determine the ser,1icc load
tion uses tem enng lhat (a) construction is without le1nporary shoring. and (b) construc -
. porary sh Th
the system aft h ores. e dead- and live-load moment M1, to be superimposed o n
er t e concrete has cured is 560 ft-kips.
Solution:
The composite secti . . .
on properl!es as co mputed m Example 16.5.2 are
S,op = 715 in.3 ( top of concrete)
Sbottom = S1, = 319 in.3 ( bottom of steel)
The noncomposite . .
follows: · propert1es lor the steel section alone (see Fig . 16.6.1 ) are computed as
7.0(10.995)
y= 3.04 in.
7.0 + 18.3
Yb = 10.495 - 3.04 + 1.00 = 8.45 in.
W2\ X(>2
fi gure I 6.6.l
Sc~I section for
f;xample 16.6.1. ~- IX 7
.
- - ....__
_ --- ---- - - - - .. . . ·..
ls = lo (W21 X62) + Apy2 - Ay2

2
= 1330 + 7.0(10.995) 2 - 25.3(3.04)
= 1330 + 846 - 234 = 1942 in.4

1942 . 3
S,, = _ = 143,n. (top)
13 55
1942
S1 b = = 230 in.3 (bottom)
8.45
(a) Withour Temporary Shores. Weight due to the concrete slab and steel beam,
w (concrete slab), (4/12)(8)0.15 = 0.40

w (sreel beam) = 0.06
0.46 kips/ft
MD (DL on noncomposire) = i (0.46)(30) 2 = 51.8 ft-kips

51.8(12)
= 4.3 ksi
J;op = S,r( steeJ section) = 143
Mv 51.8(12)
- -- = 2.7ksi
fbouom = Ssb(steel section) 230
The additional stresse~ after the concrete has cured are
ML 560(12)
fiop = nStop(composite) = 9 (?JS) = 1.04 ksi (concrete stress)
where the stress in the concrete is 1/n times the stress on equivalent steel (transformed
section).
M1, 560(12)
fbonom= s = 319 = 21.lksi
lr
The total maximum tensile stress in the steel is
f = f(noncomposite) + /(composite) "' 2.7 + 21.l = 23.8 ksi
(b) With Tempora,y Shores. Under this .:onditJon al] loads are resisted by the com-
posite section.
. Mo+ Alt_ (560 + 51.8)!2

j 10r ""' s:;,i: composite) ·-= - 715 ( 9)
= 1. 14 ksi on concrete
(560 + 5 l.8)12
·;:;. --- --~··· --- -
Str>.:S'., distrb,itit•n~ for both wilh ,wl w itllout shorès ,ffC' gi.v~n .in Fig. 16.6.2. Since the dead
load was ~m,Jl in this cxampk, use ot shores gave insigidi-:..:ir.1 reduct.ion in service load stress.
\ Vhel'l? ,h.:L~r ~kibs are used, mt- dead load strcsse~ :nay becrn11e ss high as 30%, in which case
u"'ing ",f ì;u 1lbt,!g shorc,: v,t il )'T:X<t' r, i:ignific:mt diffe,"t·\Kt •
... . ·--·-... . ·--· . .

Section 16.?
Nornina1 M . .
oment Strength of Fully Composite Sect1ons • 815
4.3 ksi
f ure 16.6.2
S~~ice Joad stresses for
ixarnple 1.6.6. I.
-E-I
L_ t - 1 X 7 2.7 21.1
(a) \\lithout shores

23.R 23.0
(b) \\'ith shorc:-~
--
16.7
NOMINAL MOM~TRENGTH OF FULLY COMPOSITE SECTIONS
The no111inal strength M
momem) de nd
. .
" of a composite section having its slab in compress1on (posmve
..
A "" h/t 1. pe s on the y·ield stress F,, and section propemes · (mc· Iud'mg slend ernes,·
,o Orthe Web) fo th Ib . ' I f
shear e 0 nncctors provid· . r e stee . ea1n, the concrete slab strength f r, and the strengt 1 o
Th . 1
•ng t 1e mterface shear transfer between slab and beam.
e nonnnal stTe ti ( f
applied IO desion ,' . ng 1 commonly called ultimate stre11gth) conce.pts were ll"SI
0
Posite C . • practJce as recommended by the ASCE-ACI Joint Commitree on Com-
. onstructton (16 16) df . 7] U .
strength . · • an ·urther modified by Slutter and Dnscoll I 16.1 . lt,mate
was rev1cwed 1· 0 th s · f
Load and R . e late-of-the-Art Repon [ l 6. l ). and treated m the context o
T , . ~tSlancc Factor Design by Hansell et al. [ 16.6].
b ~aduionally, since thc Joint Committee Report [ 16.16] the desì!!..ll of composite
weams as been based on nominai moment stren<>th even thoue..h Allowable Stre~s Design
as used Load and R . .,, - . ..
·
flexural members · eststance
h Factor Desion O
ìs particularlv• ada_pted to ustne.
• -
~·omposite
·
conven them into· asince t. e concepls of strenoth o

are easier to understand w1thout try mg to
Th . service load based Allowable Stress Design. ..
moment)e_1sn~mrnal
d ·ct d ·moment strength . M 11 when the slab is in compression •
(po~1uve
iv i e into two categones according 10 AlSC-D .2a, depending on web slen-
demess, as follows:
1. For h/tw -s; [3 . 7 6 ~ = 640/~]

M,, = nominai moment strength bascd on plastic stress distributjon o n the
composite section (plastic moment)
r/>1, = 0.90
2. For h/tw > [ 3.76 ~ = 640/~.}:
M,, "" nominai moment strength based ou superposition of el.1stic stresses
(shown in Sec. 16.6), considering the e ffects o f shori.ng. for tbe limit
state of yielding (yie lding moment)
r/>1, = 0.90
. Since the elastic properties and effects of shoring have been treated in Scc. 16.6, Lhis
sect1on focuses on strength based on plastic stress distribution. lt is noted that ali current
ASTM A6 W shapes satisfy the limit for Case I.
The nominai strength M,, based on plastic stress distribution may be divided into
two ~eneral categories: ( I) the plastic neutra! axis (PNA) occurs in the slab: ancl (2Hhc
st
pla ic neutra) axis occurs in the steel section. When the PNA occurs in the s1eel section.
th
e nominai strength M11 calculation will differ de pending o n w he ther the PNA is in th~·
flange or the web.
The concrete is assumed to develop only compression forces. Although concrete -.

able to sustain a limited amount of tension, the tensile strength is negligible at the stra~:
occurring when nominai strength is reached.
Case 1-Plastic Neutra] Axis (PNA) in the Slab
Referring 10 Fig. 16,7.lb and assuming the Whitney rectangular stress distribution* (Uni-
forin stress of 0.85J~ acting over a depth a), the compressive force C is
C = 0.85f~abE (16.7.1)
The tensile force T is the yield stress on the beam times its area:
T = A , Fy ( 16.7.2)
Equating the compressive force C to the tensile force T gives
A 5 F,,
a = - - -- (16.7.3)
0.85f~bE
Accordìng to the ACl-accepted [16.15, Sec. J0.2.7] rectangular stress distriburion
the neutra! axis distancex, as shown in Fig. 16.7.ld, equals a/0.85 for.f~ ~ 4000 psi. Th;
nominai moment strength Mn, from Fig. 16.7.lb, becomes
(16.7.4)
When the slab is capable of developing a compress ive force at least equal to the full vield
strength of the steel beam, the PNA will be in the slab, the common si1ua1ion for fully ~om-
posite secrions. Expressing the nominai strength in terms of the steel force gives
d
M,, = A_J ;,( 2 + ls
(l) (16.7.5)
-
2
The usual procedure for computing nominai strength is to assume the depth a for the rec-
taogular stress distribmion will not exceed ts ; i.e., use Eq. 16.7.3. lf a is vetified to 11o1
exceed t, , Eq. 16.7.5 can be used to obtain nominai strength M,,.
Jn the past, Case l has been refem!d to as ·'slab adeguate": meaning thai the slab i~
capable of deveioping in compression the full nominai strength of lhe sreel beam in tension.
-·1, i-,e 0 .85 ~é

,es 0.003
--~- e - 1,·
'!,I F)' !
Figure l 6.7.1 C~~e I Ca-.:e 2 S1rain whcn
Plastic ~rress distrib,, tiM a l P!t1~tic r.,ta 11ra.i Pl~~ti r:cutral nomin:il
nominai J!107nen ~str('ngd; C'ro:,'···· i~is ·.-•ilhin 8"~S ,, i!h~r' s1reng1h M.
M,,. (PNA = p!:n!ii:: liCutral s~iit;fi ,a:, ,tct: !~<:"~ìl ìs rea.ched
axis) (h) (r) (d)
""
*'For ih,:; Jc• i'. /0-~'ti'Cl'i\ ()1 lht: r •.Jf'i....l!p ;J[ l'tp:.u n~ lh..: tn.1t _-fo,tn hU\Jl'" et ,~01npn:-,x1\lt.: ~t.reS.S. by a ru,.'t:Lll!:Ulllr
s, •···· •J.• vibu i0n, S<'e for cxrur11''" . I.'hu Ki 1 \V"r~. Chade, (;_~:dm::-n ,v,J .lMé l',oçhkra. Rei,,Jim·,·,I C,mrr,·1,
O··u,,n /•Il ··~ {\.\'i \~y. 2006, Ch.1p. iì
.. ~ -----.. ·- ~ . . . ---· ' ..

Section 16 7 N . . . • 817
· orrunal Momeot Strength of Fully Composite Sect1ons
Case 2-Plast· N
Le eutral Axis (PNA) in the Steel Beam
lf the depth a of th · k h
st ress d"1stnbu11on
. . ew·11
Slress block as determined in Eq· . 16.7 .3 cxcceds the ~lab thu:: ne". e
· h I b1 is
1 b -
e as shown in Fig. 16.7. I c. The compressive fori:e C, m I e ~ a ·
C" = 0.85J;.b,:t, (16.7.6)

The compressive force 1· h . · . 1· h b • above the
. . n t e steel be::im rcsultmg from rhe pon,on o I e eam
neutrat ax1s is shown in Fìg. 16 7 I .. C
TI . . . e~,.
tensile force T' which is now less than A ·'F -' must eqtJal the ~um of the c.:om-
. leforces:
press1ve
T' =c.. + C, <16.7.7)

Also,
T' = A,F.,. - C_. ( 16.7.8)

Equating Eqs 16 7 7
· · · and 16.7.8. Cs becomes
A.,f~. - C,
c,. = - -- -
or 2
A ,F,. - 0.85 f~b1)s

e_, = - - - - -- - - ( 16.7.9)
2
Considering
Case 2 is thc compressive forccs ee and es , the nominai moment Slrenglb M 11 for
M,, = C,.d 2 + C,d2 ll6.7.10)
where thc moment arms d 2and d 2are as shown in Fig. 16.7. l c. .

. When the Case 2 situatìon Oi.:curs, the steel beam musi be capable of accommodatmg
plaS!tc S!rain in both tension and compression to achieve the nominai strenglh cou<l1t10n.
The lower lhe PNA occurs in the stcel sec1 io n the more locai buckling may influence the
behavior. As indicated earlier in thìs section. in order to use the plastic stress dìstribution at
ali, A[SC-l3.2a requires the web A :s; A .
. When the tlange of the steel seciion adjacent to the slab is in compression. rll~re
mi~ht be concern regarding flange locai buckling. The combination of concrete beanng
st th
agam e cornpression flange and the shear connectors used to attach the slab a 11<l Sleel
bea~ together eliminates flange locai buckling as well as lateral-torsìonal buck.ling_as con-
tro\hn~ lìmit states. AJSC-13.2 addresses only the issue of web locai buckling: 11 I!- silcnt
regardmg flange locai buckling.
EXAMPLE 16.7.1
Determine the no mina\ moment strength M 11 o fthe colllposite seclioo shown in Fig. 16 -7 ·2 ·
Use A992 steel, r:
= 4000 psi, and 11 = 8.
Solution:
Assume the plastic neutra) axis (PNA) is within ù1e slab: i.e.. t.hat a :s; 1s (Case I).
A_,.F1, 10.6(50) .
a = · - = - -- - = 2.60 111. < r., OK
0.85J;.bE 0.85(4)60
C = 0.85f~abE = 0.85(4)(2.6)60 - 530kip,
818 • Chepter 16 Composite Stael-Concrete Construction
I
Wl6X36
I
.L-
Figure 16.7.2
Example 16.7.l.
T = A.,Fy = 10.6( 50) = 530 kips ( checks )
Arrn d 1 = <!_ + t - ~= 7,925 + 4.0 - 1.30 = 10.63 in.

2 2
The nornmal rnoment strength Mn is 1hen
= Cd1 = 530(!0.63)f2
M,. =· 470 ft-kips
•
EXAMPLE 16.7.2
Deterrnine the nominai rnoment strength Mn ofthe composite section shown in Fig. 16.7.3.
Use A992 steel, f ~ = 4000 psi, and n = 8.
Solution:
Referring to Fig. 16.7.3, assume the plastic neutra! axis (PNA) is within the tlange (i.e., Case I).
A,r:i 47.0(50) r
> 1,,
]
a = ,
o.8st ,.bt:
= - -- - = 9.60 in.
o.85( 4Hn) L· = 7.0 in. NG
Since the concre te slab is only 7 in. thick, the slab cannot develop enough strengtb to bai-
ance the te nsion force A sFv capable of deve loping in the steel sectìon: thus the PNA will be
within thc s1eel section: thus. Case 2 applies. Using Eq . 16.7.6.
(,. = 0.85/;. b,J, = 0.85(4) 72 (7) = i714 kips
1- - ---- i>.- =72"' - - - - --,

!r - !-- - - ·------- ----,I
-·--1-
1, !- ;--
• 0 ·, " 1
,'. " '"
I
··,7:7gz--
•
1'
t:1
!1-· - W36Xl(l-l
~
I
t
ri
:;=f
C.J3"
"i'
I I
I
:
1e ·' ._ _ ,:_·
0.8SJ,'
----.;
-
....,.._...__
--- -
r·,
- - ------
l ~·
-- - ----'>......~
-''----- - ---l-
~-· .. } ì 95"'
· "" ·,5
I
ss·· /
}
_1._____ __J.Ll..1.
7.27"
_ ;1.,?2i?o ! - -~ - -~ ··- ...L

Figure J6.7 3
Example I 6. 7.2.
I F,-1I
ii- F,--
. ------._._... .... _ .. . ... .-•. ' . ~

Section 16.8 Shear Connectors • 819
Using Eq. 16.7.9.
., = ~~~------
C. - 0.85 f~bEt., 47.0(50)
i- = - 1714
= 3 18 ktp~
.
2
Assuming only the flan . -
01
tion of the Ila g I ge the W36 x 160 (b 1 = 12.00 in.) i, in wmpression, the por-
n e'/ 10 the neutra! axis is
d1 = __50(12.00) - <
--2!._R_ -- O·-53 lll. [t_ -
1
= I .OJ_Q in.)
Thus. the PNA is w·u.

I th . - .
the steel be f ltn e flange . The location of l11e centroid of the tenMon pomon of
am rom the bottom is
_ 47.0(18) - 0.53(12)35.76
y =- --'----
47 0
. . . :.(. ___;___ -- 5,2 ·
l ·- m .
. - 0.53 12)
Refernng to Fi 16 7 3 . -.
g. · - , the nommal composite momem strength Mn from Eq. 16.7. IO i s
M,, = C,di + C,d 2
= [ 1714(23.95) + 318(20.18) ]/12 = 3960 ft -kips
•
_The nominai Slrength M,, has inherently assumed thac she.ar connecwrs will pro,·ide
Suffi1c1ent shear trans < • l I b
.' ,er at the slab-to-flange incerface t0 develop however much ot t 1e '' a
compressive strength th t · · . · I d · h, ·te I
be . · a ts requ1red lo balance the tens1on torce deve ope m l e ' e
am. Shear connectors are treated in Sec 16 8
Th · . · .
. e nomrnal strength M" is independent of whether or not the sy~tem is shored dur-
rng construction Ev th h · · .. · d· S 1•· (:
.
the nominai stren· then
· houg serv1ce load stresses are d1f'ferent, as illustrate 111 ec. ,J. J.
g 1s t e same, shored or unshored.
16.8 SHEAR CONNECTORS
T~~- I h .
. nz.onta s ear that develops between the concrete slab and the steel beam durmg
st
loadrng _mu be resisted so thai the slip shown in Fig. 16.2.2 will be resLrained. A fully
s
compo ite section will have no slip at the c.oncrcte-steel interface. Altl1ough !>orne bo11tl
may develop between the steel and the concrete. it is not ~ufficiently predictable tu pro\"ide
th
e required interface shear slrength. Neither can f1iction between Lhe concrete slab :1.11d th ,_,
steel beam develop such strength.
st
fo ead, mechanical shear connectors are req11ired (AISC-13.2cl). cx.cept for the totali~
concrete-encased sleel beam. Some mechanical shear connectors are shown in Fig. l6.8. I .
The o nly connectors specifically provìded for in the A/SC Specijìcario11 are ~,ud shear con-
nectors [AISC-I3.2d(3)] and channel conoectors fAISC-13.2d(4)l. Currently ('.!008). nearly ali
shear connectors are headed studs.
ldeally. to obtain afully composi1e sectio11 the shcar connectors should he stiff enough
to provide the complete interactiot; (i.e., no slip at ù1c ìntcrfacc) shown in Fig. l6.~-~c. This.
however. would rcquire that the connectors be i11tini1clv rigìd. Also. by refe rring !O lhc sheaJ
diagram fora uniformly loaded beam as shown in Fig~ l lÙ!.2. it would be inferred. thcorct-
ically at least, that more shear connectors are required near the end:,; or
the span whcre 1J1c
shear is high, than near midspan where the shear is low.
Consider the shear stress dìstrìbution uf Fig. 16 .8.2b wherein 1he $tress Vi musi be
deve loped by the connection between the slab and~beam. U ndcr elastic l'.Ondìtions the ~hear
st
ress at any point in the cross-section will vary fro m a maximum al 1he support tli ,.e ro at
ILJ Headcd stud Hooked srud
~
H,
L - -",
(a) Studconneclors
l, "1 Flex ible

/ channcl
'·
.L.
-,,,-
fb) Channel connedor.
Figure 16.8. L
Shear connectors.
! (e J Spirai connector
!LJ (d) Anglc conncctors
Unifonn load
Ji!lìll!l!lllll!ll! ! jjl-
Momenr ~ M~ ~
I- .r ---i
-,.
Figure 16.8.2
Shw ~
Shear variation for uniform
Ioading and distribution of
shear stress over the depth of
a steel-concrete. composite
section.
l- t i==;-3 (a)
midspan. Next, examiJ1e the equilib1ium of an elemental slice of the beam, as in Fig. 16.8.3.
The shear force per unìt distance along the span ìs dC/ dx = v 1b1;: = V( y dA)/ 1. (The f
./y d.4. is commonly give n the symbol Q ìn elastic beam theory; this should not be confused
with the nomiual connector strength Q,, 11sed below.) Thus, if a given connector has an
allewabie servìce load capacìt)' q (kips), the maximum spacing p to provìde the required
m ength is
q
p = (16.8.1)
V{fydA )/ 1
f
whe,<: v ,iA is rhe s~alical momcnt of the transformec: ·~ompressive concrete area (the
J.l:ò i ì.'l.k~n abour the neurral axis ot the composite SèCtJ.JD. EGuation l 6.8. l is based on
i:'l.1,;ir ~J.:!<1rn theory ,mcl a fu!ly cumpo:;ire section.
d,.
h - ~---1r-c+dC
~
'i ,ure I 6.8.3
f !\ce required from shear
por . I d
.,oonector~ 111 scrv1ce oa
1evel,
1:_ - . ·- - ·-
-section
·CG of composite
T + dT
Unti! recent years E

[ l 3) ~qt · . i::,.· ' q. 16.8. l was. used to space shear connectors.. AASHTO-6.10. lO. I .2
-- ·~ llres usmg 1 .
range of fi . ......,: 6.8. I to des1g11 for fatigue. a service Joad hmtt state relatcd to the
orce apphed m th·1 . .
AASHTO asor I . ' s case the range of shear Vr resulting
. from hve Joad (and 1mpact).
. equircs a strength limit state check.
Accordmg to the 1 . . . .
·strength share equa\\ ·111 s rength. .hmJt state' the shear conneccors at nominai moment
steel h . . Y lransmnt1ng the shear at the interface between concrete slab and
earn. Th1s means f · · d
transf 1h . " re ernng to Fig. 16.8.2a, that shear connectors are requ1re to
st
tance ~:2 e _compres ve force deve)oped in the slab at midspan to the stcel beam in lhe dis-
' smce no compr~·· · f,
mome111 ex1 .sts The
. . f I 1 -
·--.,s1ve -orce can ex1st m the slab at the end o t 1e span
. w 1ere zero
concrete can develop,
· nommaJ
namely shear transfer strength cannot cxceed the maximum force the
V' = Cmax = 0.85f~.bEt., (16.8.2)

where b is th ff ·
T E e e ecttve slab width and 1, is the slab thickness. When the maximum force
max that can <levelop i11 1h I· · · 1· · ti
will be e stee ts less than C nia, . the maxunum shea.r trans er srreng l
V' = T,nax = A,F_,. ( 16.8.3)

where A is the e 0 , .
s · r ss-secttonal area of the steel section.
Thus, when the no mina] strength Q" of one shear connector is known. the total number
N of shear connecto · d be . . · ·
rs requtre twecn pomts of maximum and zero bendrng momcm t~
N == Cmax or
Tmax
whichever is smaller ( 16.8.4)
Q/1 Q,,'
Thus, the strength is achieved when the tota.I number N of shear connectors is placed
between the maximum moment and zero mome111 Jocations. Uniform spacìng will be the
st
simpte procedure, because the number of connectors rather than the spacings affects the
strength.
The determinati on of the connector capacìty analytically is complex. since the shear
connector defonm; under load and the concrete which snrrounds it is also a deformable
materiai. Moreover, the amnunt of defonnation a shear connector underg.oes is dependent
upo~ factors such as its own shape and size. its locati on along thc beam. the location of the
maximum moment, alld the manner in wbich it is a\tached 10 tJ1e top tlange of the stee\
beam. In addition, any particular shear connector may yield su11ìciently 10 cause slip
between the beam and the slab. In thc latte.r case the adjacent shear co1rnectors piçk up the
additional shear.
As a result of the complex behavior of shear connectors. the ir c apacities are not
based solely on a theoretic.il analysis. In order to develop a rat1onaJ approach. n number of
research programs, summarized by Viest ( 16. L 16.5), were undertaken to d evelop the
strengths of the various types of shear con.nectors.
lnvestigators detennined that she a.r co nnectors will not fai! when the avernge load
per connector is below that causing 0.003 in. (0.076 mm) residuai slip between t:onnrtt·
and steel. The amount of slip is also a function of the strengrh of the concrete that sur-
rounds the shear connecror. Relating connector capacity to a _specified slip may be realistic
for bridge design where fatigue st.rength is importanr, but li 1s overly conservative wìth
respecr to failure loads. So-called "ultimate" capacities used prior to 1965 [ 16. \ 7] were
based on slip limitation, giving values about one-rhird of thc strengths obrained when fail-
ure of a connector is che criterion.
When tlexural strength of the composite section is the basis for design, the connec-
tors must be adequate to satisfy equilibrium of the concrete slab between the points of
maximum and zero moment, as discussed in the developmem of Eqs. 16.8.2, 16.8.3, and
16.8.4. Slip is nota criterion for tbis equilibrium requirement. As stated by S\utter aud
Driscoll [ 16.17], ·'the magnitude of slip will not reduce the ultimate moment provided that
(I) the equilibrium condir ion is satisfied, and (2) the magnitude of slip is no greater than
the lowest value of slip at which an individuai connector migh1 fail." Studics by Ollgaard
Slutter, and Fisher [ 16.19] and McGarraugh and Baldwin f l 6.20] included the effect of
lightweight concrete on scud connector capacity.
A li research work cited above was based on experime ntal work that used solid slabs
or steel decks rrom t1at steel plates. Most of composite steel tloor decks used in buildings
today are formed and have a stiffening rib in the mi<ldle of each deck flute. Recent rcsearch
by Ra mbo-Roddenberry and others [ 16.47] concluded that shear stud strength equations in
past AISC Specifications are unconservativc. The stud strength whcther the deck was per-
pendicular or parallel to che beams, is higher than those derived from either pushout or
beam tests for studs ernbedded in modern steel decks. Also, because of the sriffener, studs
must be welded off-cente r in the deck rib. Rambo-Roddenbe rry et al [ I 6.47] have shown
that s hear studs behave diffe rently depending upon their position within the deck rib. The
"weak" (unfavora ble) and "strong" (favorable) positions are shown in Figure 16.8.4.
Two currently acce pted expressions for the nominai strength Q,, o f shear connec1ors
are as follows:
1. Headed steel s111d connectors welded to fla11ge (Fig. 16.8.1 a) . Load and Resis-
tance Factor Design (AISC-13.2) gives essentially the expression developed at Lehi1th
[ I 6 .19], and subsequenlly modified at Virginia Tech l I 6.47) -
(16.8.5)
where A.,0 = c ross-scctional area of stud shear connector. sq in.

F-;, = specifìed minimum te nsiie strength of a stud shear connector. ksi
Ri; = 1.0:
(a) for one s1ud welded in a steel deck rib with thc. deck orie nted perpendicu-
lar to rhe steel shape:
(b) for any number of studs welded in a row d irectly to the steel shape;
(e) for any number of studs welded in a row 1hrough steel deck with the deck
m·icnteò parallel to the steel s hape and the ratio of the average rib wìdth to
rib dcpth 2cc 1.5
Figure 16.3.4
Weak ~nd strong ,ru.d
po~nion, i 16.47)
•-- - - ~ - . :· ... . &. -• \ I ~ ~ '

Section 16.8 Shear Connectora • 823
R.~ = 0.85;
(a)
~or two studs wclded in a i;tcel dcck rib wiLh the deck oriented perpcndicu-
ar to the steel shapc:
(b) for one s t ud we]ded through steel deck with the deck orientcd parallcl to
th st
e eet shape and the ratio of the avcrage rib width to rib depth < I .S
RR = 0.7. for three or more stud s welded ·m a M.ecl deck nb
· w1t
· h l he deck
R _ onented pe d' 1
rpen cu ai- to the steel shape
1
1' - I .O for st uds welded directly 10 the stee l shape ( in other words. not
thr
ough stee) deck or sheet) and having a haunch detail with not more
th 5
an 0 percent of the top flange covered bv deck or sheet ~tee] clo~urc,
RP = 0.75: .
(a)
for st uds welded in a composite slab with the deck oriented perpendicular
to the beam and eniid-li1 ~ 2 in.;
(b) for stu ds welded through steel deck. or steel sheet used as girder filler materiai.
and embedded in a composite slab with the deck oricnted parallel to d\e beam
RP = 0 -6 for Sluds welded in a composite slab with deck oriented perpcndicular
to the beam and en11d-J11
. < --, ·1n.
e,,,;d./u = di st ance from the edge of stud shank to the steel deck web, mea•mred at
rnid-height of the deck rib, and in the load bearing direction of the stud (in other
wo rds, in the direction of maximum moment fora simply supported beam). in.
w,. = weight of concrete per unit volume (90 pcf s U\ . s 155 pd)
Ec- = modulus of elasticity of concrete, ksi
= (wl.5)vfic, according to AISC-12. lb. using /;. in ksi. Fo r normal-weight
Concrete having density w = 145 pcf , E,. = 1746 \l'f;.. Note that the ACI
Code [16. 151 gives slightly different values us ing E,. = lt't.533\/J;.. with
f~ in psi instead of ksi.
2 · Channel connectors (Fig. 16.8. 1b). AlSC-13.2O(4) gives for the nominai connec-
tor strength Q",
Q,. = 0.3(,1 + 0.51 11,)L,.~ (1 6.8.6 1
where Q,, = nominai strength of one channe L kips
IJ = channel flange 1hiclo1ess (Fig. 16.8. 1). in.
'w= channe l web thickness, in.
Le = length o f channel. in.
J;. = 28-day compressive s trength of conc rete. k s i
Ec- = m odulus of elasticity of concrete (detìned following Eq. 16.8.5). k.si
Connector Design-AISC LRFD Method
The nominai s trength Q,, of the conne<:tors is directly usl'd in thc AlSC De:;ign M ethods.
AISC-l3.2tl requires " ... the entirc hori z.ontal shear al thc interface be twec n the slt'el
beam and the concrete s lab shall be assumcd 10 be transferred b y shcar connector<· F or
fully composite sections, the no minai horizo ntal shear strength V,,1, to be provided by rnn-
nectors is the s m aller of Eqs. 16.8.2 and 16.8.3.
The section may also be des igned as pania/I~· mmJ>osite. whcre the forces utili,e d
ofthe internal couple are less than either thc nominai comprcsi-io n strcngth avaibhk fro m
the concrete, or the nominai tens io n !;trength availabk from tht s tccl scc1ion. In pania\ly
composite sections, the strength 2-Q,, of the shear connectors determines the magnitlldc
ot' 1he forccs of 1he iniernal couplc and nominai momen1 strength M,, . and corre~pond.
ingly thc rcquircd ll()minal ho~izontal ~he:11" s1rength V.,11. Lorenz an? SiockweU p6_
71
have discusscd stresses m par11al composite bcams. Brndford and G1lben f1 6.44] hal'e
providcd re~·ent work on parlial in1erac1ion under sustained loads.
For thc positive 1110111cm sìtuations ( i.e., compression in the concrete slab). thc shv.r
strcngth V,,h requircd is, thereforc. the .wu1Jte.~1 of the followi.ng:
1. V,,h requìred = 0.85 J;bf.'ls {16,8 2)

2. \~,h re~uired "' A ,s, [l6.83j
3. V,,1i required = IQ11 provided
When 3. applies. the numbe.r of connectors controls 1he nominai strength M,, of tbc section.
As s1a1ed carlicr, and as specilically stated in AISC-13.2d(6). the strcng1h ""~ mu,;
be provided ·' .. . cach sìde of the poinl of maximum moment ..... 10 the points of rero
moment. Funher. AISC-13.2d(6) statcs that thc connectors sholl be distributed uoìformh
between the point of maximum moment and the point of z.ero momen1. This is ··unlcss mb.
erwisc specified", whatever that may mean. As long as adequa1e strength is pro\'idtxl.. rht
spacing of the connectors is not important.
The nominai strengths Q,, for stud and channel connectors from ATSC-IJ.2dt3),m!
(4) are given by Eqs. 16.8.5 and 16.8.6; values for common ~tud diametcrs and ~ome c~,1 1.
nels are given in Table 16.8.1.
When a formed steel deck is used (see Fig. 16.1 .2) with shear studs embedd,~ io
the supported concrete slab. reduction factor~ musi be applied to Q,, in a.:cordance ~ià
AISC-J3.2d(3).
In the case of conlinuous beams (also see Sec. 16.13). the longitudinal reinfort".~,
bar steel wìthin the effective width of the concrete s lab i~ pennitted (AISC-13.2d(2)l 10 i;
assumed to act compositely with the steel beam in the areas of negati\·e moment. Th, ,OIJI
nominai horizomal strength V.,h needed from shear connectors betw,-en the interior suppon
and each adjac.ent poinl of inflection (zero moment) equals the tension forcc a, a.ilab!e frum
the reinforcemcnt (since the tension in the concrete is neglec1cd).
(11>Kì1
where Ar = tota! area of adequatcly dcvclope<l longitudinal rei.nforcing steel "ithi11

the effectÌ\'e widlh bE. of the concrete slab
r;., = minimum specificd yield ~11'1!1-s of the reinlì)n:ing ~1ct'I
EXAMPLE 16.8.1
Determine thc numbcr 1)f ¾-in.-diam X .l-ìn. shcar stu<l ,·onnecrors requircd tll d.:,ek•p tht
fully composite scc-tion of Fig. 16.8.5. Assume the applìe<l loading is unifonn :mJ 1)-,.•
henm is simply supportcd. Use A992 sted. f,'. = 4000 psi. 11 '" S. and I.oad ami R'-"''·
tance Factor Design.
So/lltion:
Using Eqs. 16.8.2 and 16.lU.
(lf
V,,1r "" Tma~ = A_,r;. = 47.0(50) = ::?J50kips
Il
16 8
Il TABLE - -1 Nominai Strength On (kips) for Stud and Channel
Shear Connectors Used with No Decking
----=- (Rg=Rp==1.0) and Normal-Weight Concretet
Concrete strength
f~ (ksil
Connector
3.0 3 .5 4.0
l/2" diam X 2• hcaded stud
9.4 10.5 11.6
5/8" di.am X 2-1/2" hca"- ·' d
J/ 4 • • "CU SlU 14.6 16.4 uu
d1am X 3• headed I d
7/8" . su 21.0 23.6 26.1
diam X 3-1/2" headed s1ud
28.6 32.1 35.S
Channe1 C3X4.I
I.l, Channcl C4X5.4 10.2L,.• 11.SL,. 12.7L,
11.lL, 12.4L, 13.SL,
Channcl C5X6.7
1l.9L, 13.3L, 14.7L,.
t AISC Formul (13 3
USed f a · ), Eq. 16.8.5, usect for studs and AISC Formula (13--41, Eq. 16.8.6.
• or channets. Studs, A108Type 2, F! = 60 kai.
Le = Length of channel, in.
h, e 72"
0.8SJ,'
lf
'l!Jirt' 1-F _ /
-T
Sym. abou1 q_ span

1/ . ~- = , I
figure 16.8.5 ~
E,iamplc 16.8. 1. ~ _ _ ~_j- -~ing momen,
d1agram
nd
As ~ou from the analysis in Ex.ampie 16. 7.2. the neulral axis is located within the steel
section: thus. Cmu < Tmax. The force in the concrete to be carried by shear connectors is
17 l4 lcips.
The nominai strength Q., per connecto r, from Eq. 16.8.5 or Table 16.8.1. is 21.0 kips.
The number N of shear connectors required for each half span is
1714
N = - - =66
26.1
V se 66 - 4l-m.-diam
. .
X 3-in. studs per half span.
•
Connector Design-Elastic Concept for Fatigue Strength
The 1992 AASHTO Specification ( 1.3] requirements for fat igue are based \argely on the
work of Slutter and Fisher [ I 6.21 ). For fatigue. the range of service load shear rather than
strength under overload is the major concem. Fatigue strength may be expressed
log N = A + BS, ( 16.8.8)
where S, is th~ range of service load horizontal shear; N is the number of cycles lo failure:
and A and B are empirica! constams. The equation used for design is shown in Fig. 16.8.6.
- - . - ·-- - --- .
2S 175
20 140
i
,,,,
~ 15 105 e,,,-
IO 70
5 35
Figure 16.8.6 7
6
Fatigue strength of stud shear 10' IO' 10 10
connectors. (From Ref. 16.21) N cycles
Since the magnitude of shear force transmitted by individuai connectors when s.er.
vice loads act agrees well with prediction by elastic theory, 1he horizontal shear is calcu.
lated by the elastic relation VQ/1. Fatigue is criticai under repeated application of servi
load; thus it is reasonable co determine variacion in shear using elastic theory. Tue spaci ce
of the connectors will vary along the span in accordance with V. n~
For cyclical /oad, Eq. 16.8.1 gives
(V.n"" - Vmin)Q Allowable range LZr

V=
,.,, - - - I - - = p ( 16.8.9)
where p is the connector spacing. AASHTO-6.1 O. I 0.1.2 L1.3] gives Eq. 16.8.9 a,
IZr
p:S-:-- (16.8. 10)
v,,
where \/1.,. = horizontal fatigue shear range per unil length, kip/in.
Zr = allowable range of load per connector, lb/stud connector
2
= ad2 2c -5·5d
-- (AASHTO 6.10. 10.2)
2
:i: = indicates the sum of Z, for connectors at the section is to be used.
d = stud diameter, in.
a = 34.5 - 4.28 log N
EXAMPLE 16.8.2
Redesign the shear conncetors for the beam of Examrl: I 6.8.1 (Fig 16.8.5) using the ser-
vice load stress fatigue requi(ement of AASHTO with f in .-diam X 3-in. stud connectors.
Design for 500,000 cycles of loading of live Joad. Wbether or not the beam is shored, onlv
the live load is the cylical load. Use unjform live load of 3.5 kips/f1. a spacing of 6 ft f~r
beams, a beam span of 45 ft. F, = 50 ksi, and = 4 ksi. J;.
Solutio11:
(a) Loads and shears. For the fatigue requirement in AASHTO-6.10.10.1.2 only the
range of service live load is needed. At the support with full span loaded,
V = !wL = 0.5(3.5)45 = 78.8 k.ips
Using pa11ial span loading of live load.
Max v(ad point) == 3.5(45)(0.75)(0.375) = 44.3 kips
Max V(at midspan ) = ½wL= !(3.5)45 = 19.7 kips

] 40
.?1
'~
-, 20
Spacing 5•
1-- -
6@11"
4 srud<
per space
figure J6.8.7.
s1ie.ar ra11ge d1~grrun and ~tud
pacing accordmg lo elast1c
}aiigue 1heory used by
,AASHTO-Ex:unple 16.8.2.
The envelope sh ·
dead load h · owing the range of live load shear is given in Fig. 16.8.7. lnclusion of
s ear woulct change b01h v. · I
the bean . h max and V.nin by the same amount at any sectton a ong
(b;· owever, (Vmax - V.nin), that is, the range Vr would not be affected.
Compute elastic composite section properties (n = 8) (see Fig. 16.8.S).
Effective slab width bE = bo = 72 in.
Arm from
Effective CG of steel
area, A beam, y Ay
Element (sq in.) (in .) (sq in.)
Slab. 72(7)/8 63.0 2 l.5 1355 29.120 257
W36XJ60 47.0 9760
110 1355 29,120 10.017
2
lx= Ay + lo= 29.120 --è- 10.017 = 39,100 in.4
_ 1355
Y == lÌO = 12.32 in.
lr, == 39,100 - 110( I 2.32 )2 = 22.400 in.i

Y1 = 18.0 + 7 - 12.32 = 12.68 in.
Yb = 18.0 + 12.32 = 30.32 in.
S = 22.400 _ .
1 _ - 1767 m.3 ( concrete at Wp)
12 68
S 22.400
b = Str = _ = 739 in.·3 ( steel at bmtom)
30 32
Detennine the static moment of the effective concrete area about the centroid of the com-
posite section,
Q = 63.0(y 1 - 3.5) = 63.0(9.18) = 578 ìn. 3

<
(e) Detennine the allowable load for ¾-in.-diam X 3-in. smd connectors. AASHìo.
6.10.J0.1.2 gives an allowable service load range Z, per connector based on fatìoue,
~ 1or
500,000 cycles of loading as
a = 34.5 - 4.28 log N

= 34.5 - 4.28 log(500.000) = 10.1
2
z, = ad 2 = J0.1 (0.75) 2 = 5.68 kips > [
-5.Sd
2
- = 1.55 kips
]
01{
The AASHTO allowable values are based on a slip linùtation.

(d) Detennine spacing of connectors. Use 4 studs acro.,;s the beam flange width ai
each location:
~Z, far 4 studs = 4(5.68) = 22.7 kips
Using Eq. 16.8.1,

~z, 2Z,
p = --=
\I., ( V.nax - Vmin)Q/ I
where 1/Q = 22,400/578 = 38.8 in.
22.7(38.8) 881
p=
<vma. - V.nin)
Thc values are computed in thc table below and the spacing ìs determined graphically 00
the shear diagram of Fig. 16.8.7.
p v, p V,
(in.) (kips} (in.) (kips)
Il 79 20 45
14 61 22 39
17 51
V,.= Vma, - Vm,n
The fatigue service load criterion requires 8% more connectors (68 vs 61 per half
span) than the procedure based on strength.. •
16.9 COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS CONTAINING

FORMED STEEL DECK
Composite flexural members may be made using formed steel deck. as shown in Fig. 16.1.2.
The formed meta] deck may be placed perpendicular io or parallel with the supponin!'.
beam. Furthermore, the beam may ucrnally be an open web joist. Typically. the deck pia,;
varies in thickness from 22 ga. (0.0336 in.. 0.853 mm) to 12 ga. (0. l 084 in., 2.75 mm). The
deck rib height typically is I ~. 2. and 3 in. for spans of. say. 8, I O, and 15 ft. As shown in
Fig. 16.1 .2. the thickness of thc conc rete slab above the top of the tìbs must be at \east 2 in.
AISC-13.2c and the embedment of the stud connectors into the concrete above the top ofthe
,ibs must be al least I ¼in.
When the steel -deck ribs are perpendìcular to ù1e steel beam. the stud s1reng1h Q"
may have to be reduced from thai given by Eq. 16.8.5 by a reduction factor as e~plained
I ,4f ~ - - • .,_ f I
Sect·
ion 16.11 AISC Examples-Simply Supported Beams • 829
earlier. Easterling G"bb"
1
in steel d k ' •ngs, and Murray ( 16.43 Jprovide a study of strengLh of shear studs
. ec on composite beams.
Fui) treatment of f · · · h
·scope of th"1s chapter Thonned steel . deck supported slab composite beams 1s outs1de d l· e
ticu\ar\y - h rd· e reader 1s referre<l to Grant, Fisher, and Slutter (16.23]. an par-
posl·1e open-web
Wlt rega
·.stto LRFD design, 10 Yinnakota· Foley' and Vinnakota [16.24]. Com-
[ 16.26). l'wo-wa Joi s ha~e been treated b~: Tide and Galambos [ 16.25] and Rongoe
[ 16 291 Y acung composne ,labs w1th steel deck have becn treated by Pùrter
· , and design s ;r1 . · bi f
ASCE. The s ~i . pe:,!J ca1~ons and Comme111a0•_[ 16.2_7, 16.2~) ar~. availa e rom
Buck e ~ al consideral!ons regarding Lhe design ol "stubgJTders are treated by
n r, Dcv11le, and McKee 116.30].
~10 DESIGN PROCEDDRE-AISC LRFD ANO ASD METHODS

The design of com · b · · h "·M f
h . posue eams 1nvolvcs providing suffident plas11c strengt 'I-' · p 0
bt e c~mpoSite section to equa) the faciored moment Usino rolled W shapes. loca!
uckltng ordina ·1 ·15 · " I k d
w hen the PNA ·ns Y · I hnoc a controlling limit state althou<>h
"' h/1 ,,, should
· be c iec eh
1. in e web, and because the compression flange 1s attached to l e
concrete slab lateral · . · · · Th ·
1.t is
. requJTed
. thai -tors1onal buckhng is precluded as a controlhng lrnut state. us.
<PbMp ~ M" (LRFD) (l6. I0. la)

M,,fflb ~ Ma (ASD) (16.10.lb)
where <Pb = 0.90 and nb = 1.67 fora composite beam.

. . In generai, the design should be started by assuming thc plaslic neutra! axis (PNA) is
th
Wlthm c slab (Case l- Fig. 16.7. I b). Thus. using Eq. 16.7.5, the required area A, for the
steel section ìs
(LRFD) ( 16.10.2a)
(ASD) (16.10.2b)
Typically a/2 can be estimated as 1 in. for pre liminary design.

In addition to the strength requirement under full dead ru1d live load. AISC-13. lc
requires that when temporary shores are not used during construction. the steel section
~Ione must have adequare stre ngth " to support al\ loads applied prior to the concrete attain-
mg 75% of its specified strength f'..."' For this condìtion. locai buckling of the beamele-
ments and lateral-torsional bnckling mu~t be considered.
16.11 AISC EXAMPLES-SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
EXAMPLE 16.11.1
Design an interior composite beam for the floor whose pian is shown in Fig. 16.1 I. I assuming
the beam is to be constructed wichout temporary shoring. Use 50 ksi. J;. = -+ ksi ( 11 = 8). a
4-in. slab, and the AISC LRFD Method.
r~
2R'-O"'
i--- 4@8'-0" = 32'- 0"
I
~
l.L = 200 psf
Figure 16.1 1.1

Beam framing pian for
Examples 16. J I. l and
16.12.1.
L~__.___._______.
Solution:
(a) Compute factored and service loads.
Loads carried on steel beam:
concrete slab, 11 (0.15)8 = 0.40 kip/ft

beam weight ( estimated) = 0.04 kip/ft
service dead load = 0.44 kip/fr
foctorcd dead Joad = 0.44( 12) = 0.53 kip/ ft
Load carried by composite action:
service livc load, 0.2(8) = 1.6 kips/ ft

factored live load = 1.6( 1.6) = 2.56 kips/ft
(b) Compute service load and factored load moments.
Mo= l(0.44)(28) 2 = 43ft-kips (service load)
ML= ~( 1.60)(28) 2
= 157 ft-kips (service load)
M,, = ~ (0.53 + 2.56)(28) 2 = 303 ft -kjps (factored)
(e) Select the section. Use Eq. 16.10.2 assuming the PNA (plastic neutra! axis) is
within the slab. Estimate a "" I .O for prelimina.ry selection.
.
Requ1red As = (d M" a). [16. I0.2a]
'Pb F, 2 + '-' - 2
From Eq. 16.I0.2. tbe design s treng1h 4>bMn provided can be computed as A_,. times the
denominato.r. Fora given value of ( rs - a/2 ) , <PbM,, can be tabulated fora steel W sec1ion
for any given yield stress; such 1abulated infomiation is given in che A.!SC Manuu/. Tous.
for the 4-in. slab and estimated a of I in ..
Ts - %= 4 - O.SO = 3.5 in.

Section 16. 11
AISC Examples-S1mply Supported Beams • 831
Required A., = 303( I 2) .

o.90(S0)( 7 + 3_5) = 7.7 sq m. (forWl4)
Required A, = _ 303(12) _ ..
. 0_90(S0)( 8 + J.5) - 7.0sqm. (forW\6)
:Usmg AISC Manual, Tab 3 " . . ..
19
mg with Y2 = 1 _ I 2 le - Composne W Shapes-Available Strength m Flexure enter-
., a = 3.5 in. and requircd c/>M,, = 303 ft-kips, find
WJ6X26
<hM,, = 327 ft-kips As = 7.68 sq in.
WI4X26
<l>bMn = 302 ft-kips
A, = 7.69 sq in.
The tabulated values .
PNA to top of t 1 selected are for the PNA within the slab (that is, YI = d1stance fmm
and more ace s ee thbeam = O m. · )· When these tables are ava1lable,
· · use w1·11 be faster
thetr
(d) urate an putting estimated d into Eqs. 16.10.2.
Compute the I· ·f .
T 6 26
P as 1c neutra) ax1s location and check strength.
ry Wt x : Properties of the steel section alone are:
A, = 7 .68 sq in. lx= 301 in. 4 br = 5.50 in.

d = 15.70 in.
Determine effective width of slab:
bE = ¼of span = 0.25(28) 12 = 84 in. co11trofa
or bE = beam spacing = 8(12) = 96 in.

The compr · f · . . .
. are esSive orce m the concrete' assuming a
sceeI sectton, < r' , and the tens1on force m the
C =:: 0.85f~bEa = 0.85(4 )84a = 286a

T = A,Fy = 7.68(50) = 3841:dps
Statics requires
C=T
a = 1.34 in. < 1., OK as assumed
T he nominai moment strength M., is
Mn = r(~ + 2
t - ~)
" 2
Mn = .,-8.4(15.7
1
2
- + 4.0 - -
1.34) I
2
.
- = 358 ft-k1ps
l2
<P1,M,, = 0.90(358) = 322 ft-kips > (M,, = 30 1 ft-k.ips) OK
Note that Mu has been revised to include the correct beam weight.
(e) Check the strength of the steel section to supporr construction loads (AISC-
13. lc)_ This check is required when shores are not used. Assume adequate lateral support is
provided during construction such that Lb :5 LP and the. section is compact
for locai buckhng; therefore <PbMn = cf,1,Mp, and cf,1, = 0.90 for the steel section ac~ing
noncompositely. There are no AISC-prescribed constrnction loads. 1t is prudent to consider
that
• some of .the we1 concre1e Joad should be treated as live load. say 50% of it face0111.
PItshed by usmg an average overload factor of I .4). Further. other construction live Joau
the order of 20 to 25 psf should be included (20 psf used herc). on
Slab = 0.40( 1.4} = 0.56 kip/ft

Construction = 0.02(8) 1.6 = 0.26 kip/ft
Steel section = 0.026( 1.2) = 0.03 kip/ft
'Wu = 0.85 kip/ft
M., = ½(0.85)(28) 2 = 83 ft-kips
tf>bMp for Wl6X26 = 166 fl-kips > 83 ft-kips
(f) Design shear connectors. The compress ive force in the slab must be carried bv
shear connectors. -
C = 0.85 f~hEa = 0.85( 4 )84a = 287a = 287( 1.34) = 385 kips

Since a < t.,, V,,1, will be based on the 385 kips. which does equa! Tn-.,., =A F
~ · )·
Using ¾-in.-diam X 3-in. headed studs, Q11 = 26. I kips/ stud from Table 16.8.1. Tbe num-
ber N of connectors required to carry 385 kips is
\1,,1, 385
N =- =- - = 14.8. say 15
Q,, 26.l
which is che number of connectors required for the region becween maximum 1noment
and the support (zero moment location). Thus, 30 studs are needed for the entire
span. Using a uniform spacing with two s tuds at each locacìon, the spaci_ng p required
would be
L 28(12)
p = N =- - - = 22 in.
15
Maximum p = 81., = 8(4) = 32 in. (AlSC-13.2)
Minimum p = 6(diam) = 6(0.75) = 4.5 in. (ATSC-13.2 )
Use W16X26 section of A992 steel, along with 30- ~-in.-diam X 3-in. headed stud conne.
ctors over the entire span, spaced at 22 in. The connectors are to be placed ìn pairs sta~
at the support. :
EXAMPLE 16.11.2
Design an interior composite beam to span 30 ft wìth a beam spacing of 8 ft, using the m.in-
imum number of ¾-in.-diam X 3-in. stud shear connectors. The slab is 5 in. thick. The
beam is to be constructed wìthout shores. The beam must support a ceiling of 7 p~f. parti-
tions and other dead load of 2:'i psf, and live load of 150 psf. Use .A.572 Grade 50 steel and
J;. = 3 ksi (n = 9) concrete. Use the AISC LRFD Design Method.
Soluti011:
(a) Compute factored loads and bending moments. The dead load and moment that
musi be carried by the steel beam alone during cons1ruc 1ion are
5-in. slab. i (8)0.15 = O.SO kips/ fl

Steel bearn (assumed) = 0.03
0.53 kips/ft
· -·· •v.
11
AISC Examptes - Simply S u ~ Beems • 833
Mo • ~(0.53)(~ f - 60 ft-l.ip,
M,., "'" 1.2(60) a 71 ft-lìP'
The panìtion and ceìlin de
ite section are g ad loaws. and the live load that mui.t be ~aniod by w OòmJIOI,·
Li,·e load 0.15(8) = 1.2 lìp~/ ft

Panitions 0.025(8) = 0.2
Ceìling 0.007(8) = 0.0S
1.45 kips/ ft
ML= i(l.45)(30) 2
= 163 fi-kìps
w.,2 == 1.2(0.25) + 1.6( 1.2) = 2.22 kips/ ft
Mu2 == 1(2.22)(30)2 = 250ft-kìps
M., == M,.1 + Mu2 == 72 + 250 = 322 ft-kips
(~) Select the section. One could use Eq. 16.10.2 assumìng the PNA (pla!>tic neu-
tral ax ) · · h"
is is Wtt ~n the slab and solve for required A_. as illustrated in Example 16.11. I
(p~ e). Altematwely, ìt wìll be simpler to use AISC Table 3-19...Composite W Shapes-
Av~ilable Strength in Flexure." Equat.ion 16.10.2 is tabulated for the steel W shapes for
vanous values of Y2. Estimate a ::::: I.O for prelìminary selection as in Ex.ampie 16.12.1.
For the 5-in. slab.
Y2 ~2 = 5 - 0.50 = 4.5 in.

= 1.
1 -
Required </>M,, = 322 ft-kips

Find:
Wl6X26 4,M,, :::. 356 ft-kips
WI4X26 <J>M11 = 330 ft-kips
The tabulated values selected are for the PNA wìthin the slab (that i,;;, l'l ::e· distance from
PNA to top of steel beam == O in.).
(e) Investigate the Wl6X26 further. For fully composite action, computc tllC' plàS!i~
neutral axis location and check strength.
Try Wt6X26: Properties ofthe steel seclion alo ne are:
A_( == 7.68 sq in. I., = 301 in.

4
t, 1 = 5.500 in.
d = 15.69 in.
Detcrmine e ffcctive width of slab:
!
"" = ofspan -"" 0.25(.30)12 l}(\ in. c,1111,-,./.\·
or bF. = hcam spacing - 8( 12) .::a 9h in.
The compressive force in thc ~oni:rctc. :l!-.!,t1mi11~ r1

section are
e - o.Kc. 1:.1,,__.11 n.i,(~(-' )()()11 ~~9.• ,,
T -::i A,F,. "' 7.68(50) • ~lU "-if'"

Statics requires
C=T
a = 1.67 in. < ,, OK as assuniec1
The nominai moment strengih M,, is
M
N
= T(!!_2 + I
<
- <!_)
2
15.69 1.67) I .
M
n
= ·384 ( - 2
- + 5O-
·
-
2
-
12
= 384 ft-kips
[4>bM,, = 0.90(384) = 346 ft-kips] > [Mu = 322 ft-kips ]
The Wl6X26 section is adequate aç ajully composi/e section. However, when a minimum
number of shear connectors is desired and only partial composite action is used, the stee\
section usually must be heavier. Try Wl 6X 31 section.
(d) Minimum number of shear connecmrs required. The maximum spacing p along
the span is
Maximum p = 8ts = 8(5) = 40 in. (A[SC-13.2)

L 30( 12)
N =- = - - - = 9 spaces
p 40
The connectors would be in pairs which would mean 20 connectors for the 30-ft span. with
5 pairs (I O connectors) located between midspan and the end of the beam. When
¾-in.-diam studs are used, I O connectors provide nominai strength LQ,,.
L Q,, = 10(21.0) = 210 kips

Since the force in the slab based on connector strength is less than the maximum steel
force,
T.nax = AsF.v = 9.12(50) = 456 kips
the plastic neutra! axis (PNA) is within the steel sectio n.

(e) Locate plastic neutra! axis (PNA) and compute nominai strength. Check if PNA
occurs within the flange,
= 210 kips
~Q,,
Max farce in flange = t1b1 F_, = 0.440(5.525)50 = 12 1.6 kìps
Tmax - 12 L.6 = 334.5 kips > IQ,.
Thus, PNA is in the web. For equìlibrium of internal forces. rekiTing to Fig. l 6.1 l .2. com-
pute the compression force in the web.
2'.Q11 + C1 + Cw = Tmax - Cr - C 11•

210 + 121.6 + c = 334.5 - cli'
111
2Cw = 2.9 k.ips

Depth to PNA frorn 1.45
= = - -- - = 0.11 in.
insìde of flange F,.rn, 50(0.275)
PNA from top of slab = I, + 1/ + 0.1 l
=5 + 0.44 + 0.1 l = 5.55 in.
Section 16 11
· AISC Examples-Simply Supported Beams • 835
a= 0.91• 0.455.
,re J6.1 l.2 W\6 X 31 _

inple 16.11. 2, showing
,s dis1ribu1ion to obtain
t ic neurral axi's.
Y1 = 5.09"
b Locate the centroid Yt of the poni on of the steel section in tcnsion measured from the
ottorn of the steel section,
Area, A Arm, y Ay
W section 9.12 7.94 72.4 1
Flange -2.4:, 15.66 - 38.07
Web - 0.03 - 0.45
15.39
6.66 sq in.
-33.90
- .-,
in :
33.90 .
)'1 =- - = 5.09m.
6.66
(t) Compute the nominai moment strength M,. . Since the 'ìQ,, represcnti~1g.
strengl'1 of lhe shear connectors used is less lhan lhe force in the concrete wheo there LS fu\ly
me
composite action, force IQn is taken equivalent 10 Cc = 0.85 .f~/Jea, the concrete farce rep-
resented by the rectangular stress distribution in the concrete . That means
LQ,, 2 O
a = = - -I- - -- 0 .9 1 .in.
0.85(3)90
Referring lo Fig. 16.11.2, tak.ing internal moments nbout the point of action of T,
gives ~
LQ,,: M,, 1 = }:.Q,,(d - 5.09 + '·• - a/ 2)

= 210( 15.88 - s.09 + 5 - o.91/ 2) uI
= 210( 15.33)i}: = 268.3 ft-kips
Cf M,,, = C1(d - 5.09 - r1/2)
= 121.6(15.88 - 5.09 - 0 .440/ 2)~
= l 2 1.6( l0.57)~ = 108.3 ft-kips

l
Cw: M113 = Cw(d - 5.09 - t1 - 0.11 / 2)~
= l.45( 15.88 - 5.09 - 0.440 - 0.055)11
= 1.45( I0.30) fi = l.2 ft-k.ips
M,, = M,, 1 = M 2 + M,,3
11
= 268.3 + 108.3 + l.2 = 377.8 ft-kips

<PbM,, = 0.90(377.8) = 340 ft-kips
After correcting che dead load for the WJ6X31 section, the factored moment M becn....
. . u -~
321 ft-k1ps. Thus, <f>bM,, > M,, and the design 1s acceptable.
The designer should compare the economics of the Wl6X26 using connectors
devel~p a fully composite section wilh WJ6><31 using_1he minimum 20 connectors ne~d:
for th1s span length. To obtaìn a fully composite secuon the force to _be carried by shear
connectors would have been Tmax = A.,Fy = 384 kips for lhe
Wl6X26 section. The number of ¾-in.-diam studs needed would be
384
N = = 18.3 say 20 for half the span
21.0 '
Thus, the 40 connectors rcquired for fully composite action can be reduced to 20 using par.
tial composite action with the nexc heavier secrion.
(g) Check the strength of the W 16><31 steel section 10 suppon construction toad,
(A1SC-I3. lc). Rcfer to discussion in Example 16. 14.1, part (e). Assume constructìon li\'e
load consiscs of 50% of the wec concrece (accomplished by usmg an average overload fac.
tor of I .4), plus 20 psffor other construction loads.
Slab = 0.50( 1.4) = 0.70 kip/ft

Construccion = 0.02(8)1.6 = 0.26 kip/ft
Steel section = 0 .031 ( 1.2) = 0.04 kip/ ft
w,, = 1.00 kip/ft
Mu = ~(1.00)(30) 2 = 113 ft-kips
cphMp forW16 X31 = 203 ft-kips > l 13 ft-k.ips 01(
Use Wl6X31 section (Fy = 50 ksi), with 20-¾-in.-diam connec1ors over the entire s.pan_
spaced at 40 in. •
16.12 ASD EXAMPLE-SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
EXAMPLE 16.12.1
Redesign the composite beam of Example 16.11. l (see Fig. 16.11. l) using the AISC ASD
Method. The materials are F,. = 50 ksi , f;. = 4 ksi (n = 8). and a 4- in. slab.
Solution:
(a) Service load bending mome nts. From Example 16.11. I.
MD = 43 ft-kips
M L = 157 ft-kips
(h) Select steel section. Use Eq. 16. l l.2b. assuming the PNA is wìthin the slab.
Estimate a = I .O in for prcliminary selection.
The required allowable ~tre ngth M 17 = 43 + 157 = 200 ft-kip&
R equired As = F (d ) [16.i l.2bl

_.\' -+ r - -{I
n ? r, ?
H l; ~ -
Section 16.13 Deflections • 837
Required A "'~(12) .
' SO ~ = 7.63sqrn. (forW14)
l67 (7 + 3.5)
Required A _ 200(12)
s - SO = 6.97 sq in. (forW16)
w<& + 3.s)
Using AISC-Tabt 3
Y 2 = fn - a/2 ""e -19 "Co .
3 5 . ' nd mp~slte W Shapes-Available Strength in Flexure" with
· tn. a reqmred M,,/0, = 200 ft-kips, find
WJ6X26
Mn/ !l = 217 ft-kips A, = 7.68 sq in.
WJ4X26
Mn/0. = 201 f\-kips As = 7.69 sq in.
This is identica) to th .
( e) Compute the e sections determined by the LRFD Method.
1 .
P aSnc neutra] axis and check allowable strength.
From Example 16. 1l.l,
Mn = 358 ft-kips
Mn/0. = 358/1.67 = 214 ft-kips > (M,, = 200 ft-kips) OK
(d) Check the allo bi str . .
Loads val . wa e ength of the steel sectton to suppon constructton loads .
ues are obtatned from Example 16. I L 1.
Slab = 0.40 kips/ ft

Construction :::: 0.16 kips/ft
Steel Sectiou = 0.026 kips/ ft
Wa = 0.582 kips/ ft
Ma= ~(0.582)(28) 2 = 57.4 ft-kips
Mp/ !ìbforW16X26 = LlOft-kips > 57.4ft-kip~ OK
(e) Designing the shear connectors is identica! to the LRFD Mcthod.
Use Wl6X26 of A992 steel along with 30-14-in.-diameter X 3-in. headed stud connec-
tors over the entire span. spaced at 22 in. The connectors are to be place.d in pairs s1a11ing
at support. •
16.13 DEFLECTIONS
The deflection of a composite beam wil! depend on whether it is shored or unshored dur-
ing construction. Creep and shrinkage of the eone.rete in the slab also affect the result. Cal-
culation of deflection requires obtaining the elastic cracked transfonned section moment
o f inertia ltr for the composite beam, and if unshored. also the elastic moment of inenia of
the steel section alone.
When the steel beam ìs shored from below during the hardening of the eone.rete sbb.
the composite section wil\ carry both the dead and lìve load. However. if the steel beam is
nor shored, the steel beam alone must ca1Ty the de.ad load.
When Ùle construction ìs wirhout shoring. the tout! deflection will be the sutn of the d1.:ad
load deflection of the steel beam alone and the Jive load deflection of the composite ~l"d iun ·
V.:hen sh?ring provides the support during the hardening of the concrete ~lab, the
compostte sect~on resists the entire load. Account should ~ taken I~ rellect the fact thai
concrete 1s subJecr 10 creep under long time load and thai shrmkage w,11 occur. This inel
l!c behavior may be approximated by multiplying the mo~ulus ?f elasticity ratio II b;\
1tme-dependen1 factor such as 1wo ; 1hus re<lucing 1he e_ffecuve w1d1~ bE/11. The result is a
reduced moment of iner1 ia / 1, to be used for computmg tb_e susramed ~oad (dead load)
detlecnon. The Jive load deflection would be computed usrng che elas11c cracked trans.
formed section moment of inertia.
B_ecause the concrete slab in building construcrion is norm~lly n_ot too thick (sa),
t., :$ 6 m.) creep deflection is oiìen not considered. The AlSC Specijìca11on l l.15 J give 00
indicarion of any concem with creep of a concrete slab in composite construction. However
as discussed in Sec. 7.6, AISC-L3 stares "Deflecrion in srructural members and structuraÌ
systems under appropriare service load combinations shall not impair the serviceability or
the srructure."
The ACI-ASCE Joint Committee (16.16] recommends using E,/2 as the sustained
concrete modulus of elas.ricity instead of Ec when computing sustained load creep deflec-
tion. AASHTO-6.10. I. lb [ 1.3) uses Ec/3 insread of Ec. Such arbitrary procedures can at
best gìve an estimate of creep effccts, probably no better than ±30%. The steel scction
exhibiting no cr~p, and representing the principal carrying element. ens ures 1ha1 cree~
problems will usually be minimal.
More accurate procedurcs for computing deflections to account for crecp and
shrinkage on composite steel-concrete beams are available in a paper by Roll [16.31].
and particularly in Deformation of Concrete Strucwres by Branson [ 16.32). Lampon
and Porter ( 16.45) have treated deflection prediction for concrete slabs reinforced Witb
steel decking.
EXAMPLE 16.13.1
Compute lhe service dead and live load detlections for the composite beam consisting of
Wl6X26 with 4-in. slab designed in Example 16. 12.1 (see Fig. 16.13. 1).
Solution:
Regardless of whether the selectìon of the steel section has been done by Load and Resis-
lance Factor Desig n or by Allowable Strength Design. the deflections must be compured
for service loads acting on the elastic section.
b, = 84'
1- ------ 1, = 4" I; CG "t sJ;,b
e---,-+,---=------,
-.-- 1·_/_
l
it .
~~\
,
- ~ .
(""i !
-
_:-
- oO
"?
- \
Compo~1tc sect 10n
ncuu al ax,s
"--/ Wl6X26.l,=301 in!

Figure 16.13.1
Beam cross-secLìon for l rl~ CG ol steel secuon
11, = l015in..t
(composite section)
Example 16. I 3. 1.
Section 16.13 Deflections • 839
(a) Compute the d . d .
dead load is 0.44 kip/ft .e~ ,load deflectton. From Example I 6.11. I, part (a). the service
unshored. ' an ali must be carricd by the steel beam alone when the beam is
A01 =~ _ 5(0.44)(28)4(12)3
- 3&4E,J, - 384( 29,000 ) 448 = 0.47 in., say ½in.
The beam can be camb
amount of deflectio . _ered or the slab can be thickened toward midspan so that this
(b) C n is cornpensated for during conslruction.
. ompute the live lo- d d fl .
hve load is 1.2 kips/f Th·. a e ect1on. From Example 16.11. I, part (a), the service
composite moment \ . ,s )~a_d must_be carried by the composite section; thus, the ela<;tic
Referring 10 Fig ~ inertia 18 _requ1red. Compute composite elastic section properties.
16 3 1
· · · determme effective width bE (ASCE-13. 1).
bE = *of span = 0.25(28)12 = 84 in. controls

or
bE = beamspacing = 8(12) = 96in.

The width of equivale l I I 1. b . . - .
sccti n s ee s dn = 84/8 = 10. 10. The momenl of 10en1a and elast,c
on modulus values are computed as follows:
Moment arm
Transformed from
area centroid
Element
A y Ay AV lo
(sq in.) (in_) (in.3 ) (in.4 ) (in.4 )
Slab 42.0 78.8
9.85 413.7 4075
Wl6X36 7.68 o o o 301
49T 413.7 4075 379.8
lx = lo + Ay2 = 380 + 4075 = 445S in4

_ 413.3
Y= _ = 8.32in.abovecentroidofWl6X26
49 7
11, = lx - Ay2 = 4455 - 49.7(8.32) 2 = 1015 in_4
Often some of the dead load, such as partition loads and other items placed after the con-
crete slab has cured, acts on the composite section.
5wL4 S(l.6)(28)4 (12) 3 . .

~ l, L :,, -38_4_E-b/-1, - - - - - - = 0.75 m.
384(29,000)101S
As discussed in Sec. 7 .6, it has been traditional to consider that live load detlection
exceeding U360 may cause cracking of piaster. On tbc other hand, the ACI Code l I 6.1S]
restricts the live load plus creep and shtinkage deflection to a maximum of U480. Tbus, in
the absence of any specific AISC limitation, a limit of approximately U400 will likely give
satisfactory serviceability for rhe floor system. ln this case,
L 28( 12)
OK
Aumit = - - = - -- = 0.84 in. > ~LL
400 400
--
One may conclude that deflection will not cause concem. Note that U400 is ,u,r an AIS
limit. lt is the designer's responsihility to establish any limit. C:
In the solution above, the full thickness of the slab was assumed to be comribu .
to the elastic stiffness of the composite beam. However, there is some uncenainty a~ing
. k ness o f the slab rhat 1s
t he rh1c . actually contnbutmg
. . to t he s11'ffness o f the comp Out
.
. %~
beam. The ATSC Manua/ adopts a more conservative approach by assuming that h
thickness of the concrete slab that is contriburing to th_e s_uength is also defining the st~ff~
ncss of the heam. So, regardless of whether the beam 1s fully composite or paniallv e
posite, the elastic stiffness of rhe composite beam is determined using the depth, or°~-
rectangular stress block a. The moment of incrtia computed using a for the concrt e
thickness is defined as the lower bound moment of inertia ll,b• because the acte~e
.
momentof mert1a . would be always larger. fu, can b e determrne . dfrom AISC-Table _ U,,J
3 24
as follows:
LQ,, = 26.1(1s) = 392 kips

a 1.34
Y2 = L -
'
-
2
= 4 - --
2
= 3.33 in.
Enter AISC-Table-3.20 with these values.
= 781 in.4
By interpolation: fu,
SwL 4 5(1.6)(28) 4 (12) 3 .

!:,.ll - ----
- 384E,!Lb 384(29,000)781 = Q.98 IO. > ( !J.Jimi1 = Q.84 in.] NG
The authors believe the "exact" deflection probably falls near the L/400 limit.
I
16.14 CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Traditionally on continuous bearns thc positive moment region has been designed as a
composite ~ection and the negative moment region where the concrete slab is in tension
as a noncomposite section. However. some composite action has been known to exist in
the negative mornent regi on. Continuous composite beams have been studied by Barnard
and Johnson f 16.33], Johnson. Van Dalen, and Kemp [ 16.34], Daniels and Fisher
[16.35], Hamada and Longworth [16.36. 16.37]. and Kubo and Galambos [16.38). Kubc
and Galambos extended the treatment t() plate girders (that is. beams ha,·ing h/ rll.
exceeding 970/ 'VF,,).
Accordùig to AISC-l3.2b the negative moment strength is determined for the stee
section alone. AISC allows for calculating the negative moment strength using the cou\
posite section. which accounts for the reinforcement contribution. However to analyz.e th,
beam as a composite section, tbe fotlowing conditions must be met:
I. The steel bearn is compact and adequately braced.
2. Shear connectors are provided over the support region.
3. The slab reinforcement is within the e.ffective width bE and properly developec
When the steel reinforcing bars in the concrete slab are utiliz.ed to comribute to coir
posite action. the force developed by such bars must be transfened by shear connector
The nominai strength developed would be
T,,(for - M region ) = A.,F\T (16.16.
C,,( for + M regiùn) A:F_w (16.16.

Section 16.14 Continuous Beams • 841
where A.,·, =-~ tota) area of l . ,
w· h' ongnudinal reinforcing steel at the interit)r suppon located
' it tn the effective flange wìdth bE
A, = lotal area 0 fl . . -
1h . ongnud1nal compression steel acting witb the concrete slab al
e'dlocat1on of max·1 rnum pos111ve
· · moment and 1ymo · wn · h'm \h e e ffec1·1ve
W! lh bi; o
Fyr = specified rninim · Id · · ·nt · I

um y1e stress of the longnudmal rei on.:mg stee
Thus, lhe nominai l h . .
negar·1 ve moment zone is s rengt V,,1, for which shear connectors must be prov1ded m the
Vn1, = A s,·Fvr (16. 16.3)

Ln the positive mon1 11 .
• .
compos11e .
sectton e r zone,
pro · when. compression steel is included in the computanon of
. steel . s
press,on pcrties (plasuc neutral axis), the nominai strength V,.112 from lhe com-
1
Vnh 2 = A ~Fy, (16.16.4)

The tota! horizontal ·h · f · · t· · ·
s ear orce between the pomi of zero momenl and thc pomr o maxi-
mum moment is the smallest of (O 85/' A + v ) A F and L-Q AISC has no spccific
menti on 0 f th . . · e e 11h2 , , \'. "· . .
. e compress1on remforcement in the positive moment zone; thus, mclusion of
V,,1,2 1s optional.
As discussed in Sec. 16. 7, the usual limit state for composite sections in the positive
moment ~ones is crushing of the concrete at the top of the slab. This assumes no ~hear con-
nector fatture, no longitudinal splitting because of inadequate reinforcing bar develop-
rnent. and no shear failure in the slab. In the negative moment region. the usual limit state
1s flange locai buckling l 16.371.
. Regarding the lateral-torsional buckling limit state. the usual provisions for nonco111-
pos1te steel sections apply to the negative moment regions of continuous composite beams.
The limits on ,\ from AISC-B4 for the flanoe b
and web .locai buckling- limit states must be
applied in the negative moment zone.
EXAMPLE 16.14.1
Compute the plastic neutra.I axis (PNA) location and the nominai strength M,, for tbe sec-
tion of Fig. 16. l 4. I subject to negative bending moment. The W 12 X26 steel ~ection is of
A992 steel and the reinforcement in the s\ab has F,., = 60 ksi.
Solwio11:
(a) Determine the plastic neutral axis location. The concrete slab will be in ten~ion:
therefore. none of the concrete is assumed to be effective. The reinforcing bar~ contnbute
fioure I6.1-U
cimposi1e section for
nè!!ative bending of Ex.ampie
IO - #5 bars
FJ, = 60ksi
WI 1 X16
~,
~
_I_ --::V-,--- b ;
\-------4 f
6.490'
16~14.1. including pla~tic F . ; SO ksi

1
stress distribution al:, ording
(a) \b)
to AISC- 13.l b
- 842 • Chapter 16 Composite Steel-Concrete Construction
11111111
lhe nominai tcnsion strength T,,.

T,, = A,,Fy, = 10(0.31 )60 = 186 k.ips
The maximum nominai compression farce in the W 12 section is
Cma, = A ., Fy = 7.65(50) = 382.5 kips
Since Cmax exceeds T,.,. the PNA is within the steel W 12 ~ection. In which case the,1
equi·1·b ·
1 rmm requirement may be expresscd,
orce
T., + T, = Cma,. - T,
2T, = Cm•• - T" = 382.5 - 186 = 196.5
T, = 98.3 kips
Assuming that the PNA is within the flange of the W 12,
Ts 98.3
From top of flange to PNA = F,bJ = 50( .4 )
6 9 = 0.30 in.
The assumptìon that PNA is within the flange is confirmed sìnce 0.30 < (11 = 0.38 in.).
Thus, the distance PNA from top of slab is
PNA = t, + 0.30 = 4.0 + 0 .30 = 4.30 in.

(b) Compute the nominai mo ment strength M 11 • Locate the cemer of gravity Yi of
ihe compression force C, in the sceel section, measured from the bottom of the Sleel
section,
Area, A Arm.y Ay
Wl2 section - l.95 12.07 -23.5

Flange - 7.65 23.24 in.3
5.70 sq in. 23.24 in.3
23.24 .
V1 = - - = 4.08m.
· 5.70
Referring to Fig. 16.14. I, taking internal moments about the point of action of e
gives J
T"': M,,1 = T,,. (d - 4.08 + t_, - 2.00)

= 186(12.22 - 4.08 + 4 - 2.00)È
= l86(10.14) È = 157.2 ft -kips
T~: M112 = T, (d - 4.08 - 0.30/ 2)
,,. 98.3( 12.22 - 4.os - o.30/ 2) TI
= 98.3(8.12)f2 = 66.Sft-kips
M,, = M,, 1 + M,,2
= 157.2 + 66.5 = 224 ft-kips
<f>bM,, = 0.90(224) = 202 ft-kips
Note that for composite action in the negative moment region. shear connectors musi be \ISt
1hroughout the entire region. The required LQ,, equals the force T." in the reinfol\·emen
Section 16.15 Composite Columns • 843
When parf1al .
cornpasne acf ·
location and the nornj al ion is used, LQ" will be less than T,,. In such a case, the PNA
n moment strength are computeo usingLQ,, instead of T_". •
16.15 COMPOSITE COLUMNS
A composite column ca b " . .

steel shapes and . n . e defined as A steel co\urnn fabncated frorn rolled or bu1lt-up
filled with ·st enc,ased in Slructural concrete or fabricated from stecl pipe or tubing and
ructura concr t ,, A
a steel w se 1- . e e. n ex.ampie of the former is shown in Fig. 16.15. I, where
e 10n 1s encased · . . . . .
bars and th · m concrete; the concrete rnust contam long1tudmal remforcmg
ese must be s d .
column. · urroun ed by latera\ lles in the manner of a reinforced concrete
The steel secrio .
· the column must nb must
w1se e.I. •
compnse at least I % of rhe total cross-sectional area. other-
Furlon [ l 6 39 e e stgned as an ordinary reinforced concrete column. Rcsearch ~y
16 4
·ty
l R g h·- ' - 0] and others was reviewed by Task Group 20 of the Structural Stab1l-
esearc Counc·1 h ·
. f d · 1 • e aired by Furlon11.
th e bas1s - tl6.4l). This· SSRC Task Group Repon forrn,-
· or esign of composite columns under AISC-12.
Limitations
In order to qualif . . . . .
. · Y as a compos1te colurnn, the hrn1tat1ons of AlSC-11.2 and 12 must be
sausfied:
1.
A,~ 0.0IAg (16.15.1)
2. Fora concrete encasemem:
(a) Longitudinal reinforcing bars must be used; \oad cairying bars must be con-
tinuous al framed levels (wherever a beam or slab frames to the column );
other longitudinal bars used only to restrain concrete may be interrupted at
framed levels.
(b) Latera! ties must be used; spacing of ties may not ex.ceed the smal\est of 16
longitudinal bar diameter, 48 tie bar diameter. or 0.5 the least dimension of
the composite section.
(e) Area of lateral ties must beat least 0.009 sq in./in. of bar spacing.
(d) The minimum required area of steel for continuous longitudinal reinforce-
mem shall be 0.004Ag ·
(e) Clear cover of at least 15 in. is required.
3. Concrete strength J;.:

(a) Normal-weigbt concrete: 3 ksi s .f~ '.'S IO ksi
(b) Structural lightweight concrete: 3 ksi s J;. s 6 ksi
Longitud,nal
T ies. reinforcing bars
commonly __
#3 bars
fii?Urc 16.15 I
c~mposite column section_:
rolled steel shape encased m
concrete.
111111111111
4. Maximum yield stress of steel used in strength computations is 75 ksi for eith
structural steel or reinforcing bars. er
5. Minimum wall thickness / for concrete- filled pipe or tubing:
(a) For each face width b in HSS rectangular sections:
1!_:,;: 2.26 /E
t \) F, (16. LS.2>
(b) For outside diameter D in circular sections:
Q_:,;: 0.15
I
/Ef~
'.J7; 06.1S.})
Nominai Strength
To account for slendemess effects, the AISC equations for composite columns are based
on a modified form of rhe equations for steel columns in AlSC-E. The yield strength
becomes a modified strength Pe, and the e lastic stiffness of the column is defined by an
effective elastic stiffness EI,11 defined in what follows.
The resis1ance and safety factors adopted for composice columns are rather consen,.
ative in order to account for the uncertainty of composite columns and the use of ultimate
strength of two different materials in defining the capacity. The factors are as follows:
cf, = 0.75 (LRFD) n = 2.00 (ASD)
The nominai compressive strength shall be determined according to AISC-12.lb as follows
I. When P, ~ 0.44P0
P,,[ 0.658(~)] (16.15.4)
2. When P, < 0.44P,,

P11 = 0.877P, (16.15.5)
where Pe = 1r 1
(Ele.ff)/(KL) 2
(16.15.6)
For fiUed composite columns, AISC- I 2.2b defines;
P, = AsF,. + A s,F,.1 + C2AJ'. (16.15.7)
where C 2 = 0.85 for inegular sections and 0.95 for circular sections
E l,tf = EJ, + Exls,. + C_,Eclc (16. I5.8)
Ci = 0.6 + 2( A .; ) :s; 0.9 (16.15.9)

· Ac + A,
For encased composite columns. AlSC-12.lb defines :
P, = AsF, + As,F_rr + 0.85A,.f~ (16.15.10)

Ele.lf = E,.!, + O.SE/"· + C1EJc ( 16.15.11)
C= O.I + 2( A,.:, AJ 0.3

1 :s; (16.15.12)
whcre A
<· == area of concrete
A,
A _
= area of longitudinal
· · .
rcmforcing bars
J- gross arca of st I
E _ cc shapc, pipe, or tube
,· - modulus of cl · ·
1 • , r.:: · ast1c1ty of concrete, ksi
( W " ) V f'.
normai ,._. whcrc W i.s the density of concrete in pcf (i.e .• 145 pcf for
E _ -weight concrete) and J:.
is in ksi
·• - modulus of elasticity of sreel
F_\ == spcci fted · · .
F _ . _ mimmum yteld stress of steel shape. pipe, or tube
>'' - spcc1hed min' · . . . .
., _ , . _ tmum y1eld stress of long1tudmal remforcmg bars
j ,· - S(lee1hed "8-d· , · strength of concrete
_ - ay compressive
1
•· - momem of inenia of concrete section
/' : momem 0 f_ inenia of steel shape
" moment ot inenia of reinforcing bars
The AISC MwuwJ . .
,trengths ,J,Pu ami P/ ll contams tables for concrete filled HSS sections giving axial
C . " · Note that cf,,. == 0.75 for composite colurnns.
omposne bcam col d .
( 16..a61. AISC-l..i d • umn es1gn has been treaied by Uang. Wattar, and Leet
tio n cu . . efines thc method of trearing composite beam-columns. An imerac-
rve Mm1 1arto reinfor ò , ·
,tub·111-1 . ce i:oncrete necds 10 be developed. while accountmg for the
- Y requm:ment
. of th I . . .
e co umo. The nommal strength of the secuon 1s 10 be deter-
mmed u~mg plastic str. , d' . .b . . . .. .
., . · · css 1s1n u11on or stram compat1b1hty. AlSC-12 1s to be used to
uch:rmmc thc nominai . . . I . .
AISC-l-t. ax.ia streng.th of the cross-section, using Pu as determmed m
SELF.CTED REFERENCES
16. 1. h~n 1\1 Vie; 1 Chainn· n --e · steel-Concrete, Construcnon:
· · Repon of the Su
' beommmce
·
.· a - ompos11e on
lhc Siate-uf-thc-An Survey of thc Tasl. Committcc on Composite Construction of the Commillee on
Mcml- nf thc Strucrural Divi.sion. Jo1m10I t>( ilre Srructura/ Dil'isi<m ASCE. 100, STS (May 1974).
108. IP9. · .
16.:!. Gottfncd Brcndel. "Strength of the Compression SI ab or T-Bcams SubjtX'l to Sìmple Bending:· ACI
Joumal. Proaeding.<. 61, January 1964. 57-76.
16..3. Conrad P. Hctn.s and Horn Ming Fan. "Effecti,·e Composite Beam Widlh at Ultimate Load.'' Journol of
Sm,o uro/ l>iiiJion. ASCE. 102. STI 1 (Novembcr 1978). 2 163-2 179.
lhl'
16..i. Ces;ir R. \'allemlla and Rcidar Bjorhovde. ''Effec tive Width Criteria for Composite Beams." Engineering
Jouma/. AISC. 22, 4 rFounh Quaner 1985), 169-175.
16.5. h-;m M. ViesL ..Review or Research on Composite Steel-Concrete Construction:· Jouniol ofrhe Strucrural
Dnision_ ASCE. 86, ST6 tJune 1960). 1-21: Also Transocrio,,s. ASCE, 126 (1961 ). Part Il, 1101-1123.
16.6. Wiltiam C. Han.sell. Theodore V. Galambo~. Mavasandra K. Ravindra. and Ivan M. Viest. "Composite
Beam Critcria in LRFD.'' Joumo/ o(rhe Srrucru;a/ Dfrisinn. ASCE. 104, ST9 (September 1978).
1409- 1426: DiK 106, ST2 (Febru~ 1980). 571- 572.
16.7. Srini,~ H. l~ engar and MohammaJ lqbal. "Composite Constructìon." 811ildi11g Sr11,cr11ral Design
11,mdbook. Chapter 23. Ne.w York: John Wile~ & Sons , 1987.
16.8. Roben F. lorenz and Frank W. Stockwell. Jr. ··'Concrete Slab Srresses in Partial Composite Beams and
Gtrden;:· E.nginetring Jounwl. AlSC. 21, 3 (Third Quaner 1984). 185-188.
16.9. Roben. F. l.orenz. "Understandìng Composite Beam Design Methods Using LRFo:· Engineering Jour-
nal. AISC. 25, I (Second Quane.r 1988). 35-38.
16.IO. R,)ben F. l.orenz. "Some E.:onomic Considerations for Composite Floor Beams." Engineering Journal,
AISC. 20, 2 !Second Quaner 1983). 78-81.
16.11. M:irl. C. Zahn. '"Tbc E.:onomies of LRFD in Composite Floor Beams." Enginee,ing Journal. AISC. 24,
'.! (Sccond Quaner 1987), 8 i-92.
16.12. S. Timos.hcnl,;o and J . Goodier. Theon· oj Elasticiry. New Yorl.; McGraw-Hill Book Compaay. I.ne .•
1959. Chap. 6 .
16.13. Thcodore ,oo Karman. -Die Minraeende Breiue." Augus1-Foppel-Fes1schrift. 1924. (See also Co)lected
\\ or\.., o fTheooore ,on Karman, V~lume li. p. 176.)
q
16.14. John E. /ohnson and Alben D. M. Lewis. ·•s1rucrural Behavior in a Gypsum Roof-Deck Sy,1em ··
Joumal ofrh, Stnu'IUm/ Di\•i.,ion, ASCE, 92, ST2 (Aprii 1966), 283-296. ·
16.15. ACI Commictee 318 (ACI 318-0~). Building Code Requirrmenrsjor Rei11forc;d Co,icre,,-_ Farmingi
Hills. Ml: Amcrican Concre1e lnsti1u1e. 2008. on
16.16. Joint ASCE-ACI Commiucc on Ct>mpo,i1e Construc1ion. 'Tentativc Recommendations far the I) .
and Cons.1ruction of Composite lleams and Girder, for Buil<lins~... "'Jow·,wl "f the Strucwra/ Di\;~!)!&n
ASCE, 86, ST12 (Dccember 1960). 73-92. - ·,s,o,,...
16.17. Roger G. S luuer and Gcorge C. Driscoll. "Flexural Strenglh of Steèl-Concre1e Composile Bean,s_"
Jounia/ o( the S11·uctura/ Divi.>io11, ASCE. 91, ST2 (Aprii 1965). 71-99.
16.18. Peter Ansourian amJ Jack WiHiam Roderick. ··Analysl:i of Composite Be.-\m~:· Jui.n1al u.f tht~ Stru . .
Division. ASCE, 104, STIO (Ocmbcr 1978). 1631-1645. "'""1
16.19. Jorgen G. Ollgaar<l, Roger G. Sluner, and Joh.n W. Fisher. "Shear Strength of Stud Connectors in li h
weigh1 and Nonnal-Weight Concrete," Engineei-ing Journ11/, AISC. 8, 2 (Aprii 1971 ). 55--M. g l·
16.20. Jay B. McGarraugh and J. W. Baldwin, Jr. "Ligh1weigh1 Co11cre1e-on-Srttl Composite Bearn,;·
E11gim·eri>1g Joumal, AISC. li, 3 (July I97 I). 90-98.
16.21. Roger G. Sluner and John W. Fisher. " Fatigue S1renglh of Shear Connectors," Highway Ru~arr·h Rrc d
0
No. 147, Highway Research Boanl. 1966. pp. 65-88. '
16.22. Charles G. Schilling. "Bending Behavior of Composite Hybrid Beams;· J,)1m1al of ihe S1ructura/ l)i\,;.
s,on, ASCE, 94, ST8 (August 1968), 194S-1964.
16.23. John A. Grani, Jr.. John W. Fisher, and Roger G. Sluttcr. "Composite Beams wi1h Fonned Steel Deck"
Engineerint Joumal, AISC, 14, 2 (Firsi Quaner 1977 ). 24-43. ·
16.24. Sriramul_u Vinnako1a._Chri_s1opher M. Foley, and_ Munhy R. Vinnakot3. --~sign_of Panially "'Fulty
Composue Bca ms. wnh R,bhed Me1al Deck, Using LRFD Spec1fica11on, . E11g111eenng Jo,m,a/. AISC
25, 2 (Secon<l Quaner 1988), 60-78. '
16.25. R. H. R. Tide an<l T. V. Galambos. "Composite Open-Web Steel Jo isi.:· Engineering Jo,m,al. AlSC ,
(Januar)' 1970). 27-36. · ' 1
16.26. James Rongoe. "A Composi1e Girdc r System for Jois, Supporte<l Slabs." Engineerin8 Jo1mu,/, AlSC 21
3 (Second Quarter 1984). 155- 160. · ·
16.27. ASCE. Specificationsfor the Design and Co11struction of Composire Siabs. New York: Technica.l Cou _
cii on Codes and Standar<ls. Americ an Society of Civil Engineers. 1984. n
16.28. ASCE. Cnmmenw,y on Speòfi,t11io11sfor the D,•si1111 and C1m.<1r11c1ìon nf C,>mpo.<ìte Slahs. l\c,., York
Techmcal Counc1I on Codes and Standard<, Amencan Soc,cty of C1v1I Engmecrs. 1984.
16.29. Max L. Pone,. "Analysis ofTwo-Way Acting Composite Slabs:· ./01m1al ,ifS1111t111rt,I E11gi11eerin~.
ASCE, Ili, I (January 1985). 1- 17. "
16.30. C. Dale Buckner, Danny J. Deville. and Dean C. McKee. "Shear Strenglh of Slabs ìn Stub Girder,."
Jouma/ of the Srructural Division, ASCE. 107, ST2 ( Febmary 1981 ), 273- 280.
16.31. Frederic Roll. "Effects of Differemial Shrinkage an<l Crcep on a Composite Steel-Concrcte Stnic-ture."
Designing /or Ejfecrs of Crt!ep. Shrinkage. Temperature i11 Conc,·ete S1mc111res (SP-27). D,troit. Ml:
Amcrican Concrete lnstim1e. 1971 (pp. 187-2 14).
16.32. Dan E. Branson. Deformalim, o.f Co11cr-,1e Sm,c1111,,s. Nr w York: McGmw- Hill Book Company, (ne.. 19n
16.33. P. R. Barnar<l and R. P. Johnson. ·'Pla,tic Behavior of Contìnuous Compo~i to B-,ams." Proa,ding.,, ·
lostiturion ofCivil Engincers. October 1965.
16.34. R. P. Johnson. K. Van Dalen. and A. R. Kemp. "Uhima1e Strenglh of Contjnuous Co mposile Beams."
Procadìngs of the Cnnference 011 Strncn,ml Srcelwork. British Consm1,·1ional S1eelwork A,sociation.
November 1967.
16.35. J. H. Daniels and J. W. Fis.her. "S1a1ic Behavior of Continuous Cornposi1e Bea111>.'' frit~ Enginfe,-;11 ~
l.abomro,y Report No. 324.2. Le high Unìversity. Bethlch.:m. PA. March 1967. '
16.36. Sumio Hamada and Jack Longworth. '' Buckling of Cùmposile Beams in Nt.gati\'e Bcnding:· Joumo/ of
the S1ructuml Dii,i.1"io11. ASCE. l00, STI I (November 1974\. 2205-222~.
16.37. Su mio Hamada and Jack Lougwonh. "Uhinwe S1rcng th of C ù ntinuous Compo,i1e Be.·irns:· Jo 11 nwl of
the Struc1111·a l Divisim,. ASCE. 102, ST7 (July 1976). J,163- 1478.
16.38. Masahiro Kubo and Theod<Jre V. Go.lambos. "Plastic Collap,e Load of Cont ìnuous Cornpositc Phie
Girders:· E11gi11eeri11g Joumal. AISC. 25, 4 (Fom1h Quartet 1988). l-<5- 155.
16.39. Richar<l W. Furlong. "Stre.nglh of S1ed Enca~ed Concre te Beam ColumnS:' Jo 11mal o(rhe Stn,c-turu/
Divi.1·io11. ASCE. 94, STI (January 1968). 267-2~ I.
16.40. Richard W. Furlong. "AJSC Column Pes ign Logie Makcs Sense for Composi1e Columns. Too,"
E11gi11nri11g Jo 11mal, AlSC. 13, I (F ir,1 Quancr l''.l76). 1-7.
16.4 I. Task Group 20. Strucwrnl S1.ibility Rcsearch Council. "A Spc,·ification tor the. Design of S1eel-Con,rete
Composi1c Columns,'' Engi11eerì11g Jo11mal. AlSC, 16, 4 (Founh Qu:me r 1979). 101 --115.
16.42. IABSE. Compmi((, Steel-Co11crct<' Co11stmc1io11 ami Eurocode 4. Short C ou.rse No1es, lmernation:il
Associ:11ion f(>r Bridge and Sm,ctural Engineering, Brussels. 1990. 19 1 pp.
16.43. W. S amud E:1s1erl ìng. David R . Gibbings and Thomas M. Murray. 'S1re ng1h of Shear Studs in S!t-el
Deck on Composite Beain;; and Joists," E11gineait1.~ Joumol, AISC. .\O, 2 (2 nd Qu;irter 1993\. -14- 55.
Problems • 847
16.44. Mark Andrew B
Loads .. J 71ntd ford and R. lan a·1lbe .. ·
,. ' ow c,/ of Structura/ E . . n. Compo~,te Beams with Pania! lnterac1ion Under Sustaincd
16.45.
\l,,Jliam B. Lampon and M ngmeenng, ASCE. 1111, 7 Uuly 1992), 1871-1883.
Steel Dcck· ., ax L. Poner "D 11 · p d. · ·
16.46. Chia-Mingmg, ACI Srr11~ 1 11 · e ectu)o re ,cuons tor Concrete Slab, Reinforced with
Uang S · "'" ourn,1/. 117, September-Oc">bcr 1990, 546---570.
l..oad , · amer W. Wau:ir d .
4 MethOd for LRFD Ste 1 · an Kenncth M. Lect. ..l'roposed Revision of thc Equivalent Axial
nd
( th Quaner 1990). 150- 15; a Composite Beam-Column Design." E"ginurinii Joim,al. AISC. 27, 4
16.47.
M. D. Rambo-Roddcnbe 'w
5
.
Shear Connectol'll-Data ::· ·.. · Easicrlmg, aod T. M. Murray. ·'Behavior and Strength of Welded Stud
ver,11y, Blackspurg, VA. 2 {;;r Rel'Ort No. CE/VPl-021(14, Virginia Polytechnic lns1i1u1c and State Uni-
pROBLEMS
AIJ problcrns are to be done according co the AIS .

given loads are service loads unless othe . . . ~ LRFO Method or the ASD Method, as indicatcd by lhe instructor. Ali
· rw1sc md1cated.
\6.1. For the case (or cases) assigncd by th .

. e tnstructor
compute the locatton of the transfo d ' 16.3. For the case (or ca~es) listed for Prob. 16.1 and
. . . rmc compos-
ne secuon neutra! ax1s and moment of . . assigned by the instructor, select an economica! sire
me-rt1a In.
Refer to the accompanying figure. of headed stud shear connector from Table 16.8.1,
determine the tota! number oeeded to develop a
fully composire section for che beam., and speòfy
the spacing. Assume the simply supported beam
Slab
Steel Fy span equals 4bE.
ts bE f.'e
case section (ksi) (in.) 16.4. For tbe case (or cases) assigned by the instruct0r.
(in.) (ksi)
select a W section to design aful/y composi/e sec-
2 WJ2X26 60 4 72 3 (n = 9) tion for span BD of the accompanying figure.
4 W21X44 50 4 84 4 (n '= 8) Assume for simplicity that the s\ab ìs the only
5 W24X55 50 4.5 90 4 (n = 8) dead load to be considered. Alrn, select an eco-
6 W\8X50 50 5 72 4 (n = 8) nomica! size of headed stud shear connector from
7 Wl8X50 50 4 72 3 (11 = 9) Table 16.8.l, determine the total number needed
8 W24X76 50 4.5 72 4 for the beam. and specify the spacing. 10 develop a
(n = 8)
9 W24X94 50 4.5 72 fully composite beam. No shoring is to be used:
4 (11 = 8)
IO W21 X 62 50 5 96 therefore. assume thai during construction wet
4 (11 = 8)
Il W21 X 147 50 4.5 96 4 (11 = 8) concrete of 75 psf is live load and that an addì-
tional constmclion \ivc load of 25 psf may a.et. The
final composite beam may nOI have \ive load
•. h , - -.. - -- 1 detlection exceeding U360.
t-·1- -- - - - - - - - - ;I
Uve Slab Beam
Fy ts f'c
J I "-----w =<ooo
Load
Case (psf) (ksì) (in.)
Span Spacing
(ft) (ft) (ksi)
2 100 60 4 36 8 3 (11 = 9)
Prnblems !6.1 , 16.2.and 16.:\ 4 80 50 4 36 7 4 (11 = 8)
5 80 50 4 40 7 4 (11 = 8)
6 80 50 4 40 7 .. (u = 8)
16.2. For the ca~e (or cases) listed for Prob. 16. 1 and 8 125 so 4.5 40 8 ; (n = 9)
assigned by the instructor, compute the location of 9 125 so 4.5 -12 R 4 (11 = lS)
plas tic neutra! axis (PNA) measured from the cop of 45 8 4 (r, = ~)
IO 125 50 4.5
the slab. a s well as che nominai strength M,,. 45 9 4 (n = 8)
Il 125 50 5
Assume the sections ru·e fully composite. Referto the
12 125 50 5.5 48 9 4 (11 = 8)
accompanying fi gure.
I 6.5. For the case (or cases) given in Prob. 16.4 assigned Jive load of 25 •psf may
•
act.
.
Tue dead load deUec11on
,,,. .
.
by the instructor, select a W section to design a before composite acuon 1s euect1ve may not ex
pmtially composite section for span BD of the i in. and composite beam detlection resulting ~
accompanying figure, using lhe minimum number of superimposed dead load (i.e., ceiling and panitioornns)
d"mm headed srud shear connectors. Specify and live load may not exceed U 360.
4I-m.-
.
number of studs and the spacing. In addition to the

slab dead load, using a ceiling load of 7 psf and parti- J 6.6. Design a composi!~ encased w_ shape coluJJ\JI 10
tion load of 25 psf. No shoring is to be used; there- resist a factored ax1al compress1on load Pu of 900
fore, assume that during construction wet concrete of kips. Tue effective length K L = 12 ft, Fy = 50 kt.i
75 psf is live load and that an additional construction for structural steel, and f~ = 4.5 ksi for concrete.
A
r ---
C=;J B
6@ Beam spacing
I
!):;:J
Assume simply
supported spans
C I)=:(] --,D,___,___.,___.,___ ..,___
Problems 16.4 and 16.5

Framing pian.
849
850 • Appendix
TABLE A1 Approximate Radius of Gyration

r r
r_i_,7" r,r,:0 42h "'\. f I t
x.l- b-l I" , ,=029h
•, =029h L I _j_L
I-/, --l
= 0.42h I; 1... l
1-1>-1
r, •OJ III
' , •04M
il_..i,~, ,, • 0.3711
$ I r, = 0.4()/, ,·, =-Wlmeb
1...J
.I
11
h =- ;in" -~ for2 L I!I r, • 0.21!1,
r-h-f I
-,,- r
r, =025/i
--- -- J,
,, "0.42h
r,, = sante' a~ H' h r,= 0.3111
~aT ...JL- -1 for 2L I ...i

j Hl+
H.
..L-.:l
+ I'" -lo-
h H
~,EO.J.SH,.,
hi
::r:--r
t--1>-t
...Jl- -1
r ,=0.~911
r\ =0.~IJ,
[ ~ ] r,=O..~lh
1-1>-1
r--r
t--1>-t
,, r , = o.,llt r, = 0.451,
Il
l ~ r, "' O.liii r, E040/t
,·, = 0.2351> ,, = 0llh
r.= 0. 197/t
1-lt--J~ ::::::!.b _J.
,, =0 .1-J/,
2
1±±-f.- I
f-+JJ r, = lU6h
-i/,,-
IJ
r \ ;;:. U .i.~h ,, = 0.31lh
r_. = (lJ~/, ,·, = 0.l2h
~. "
zT r_= 0 .1~
1,
~
r b
l--1, - !
~
J]I[J
1 t-"b· -1
· -I ..L r =O l l h
=iE-
:
,~1-~
h ,: .. O.WI>
= 1>-,0:1, n.o:n 3-'f1 + -
I
h
-1
' · ~(I <6J1
,, : ( l()!)h ,·, = 039'1
IJII[-_J
-if_L.,
rb-t ,
c0..•2/1
1-,,- 1
r, • I' •M
,.),..- - :
f. I & 0.2(/t
/,((11<} + 002, ) JH-t'.- ì.
.J , L -1
I & (I <\t,
1·I
Ii
I:I , , = 0.3Sh
' - 11-l
t- /, --;j_ I = O 1911 71' r7 r .
I: 1-~~-·J_I__.__1_:·:_:_~_-~_~_: "_
I
7
_.._~_,_:~2-·4_; -•_:-_:' JI
-~_-_r=
, , ~ u~1-t:'lit
I, r. li \" /,
•, • O•!Jt
•. -- o: ,
J 4.l V/ d(fol Brl{/;1 l;r'Q il r.tl(} Voi 1 N , lor , 19Hl,p 50t

IJ· ed by por!T i• un.
Appendix • 851
TABLE A2 Torsional Properties
O = shear center
G = centroid J = tol'5ion conu.n1, c•.= w,uping con<Wd
I, : polar inoment of inenìa abolle <hear cen1er
J:-½{2b1} + /11!.>
I h2 , b 3h1 h 21,.
C~= ~ = f 24 "'4
l p = , , + ,,.
IP= ,,. + '·· + Ay~
J =½<ht} + ht!,)
e = _!_ ( 1,J,} + h1,1.)
• 36 4 "
"" zero for ~mail I
e•. ,: J_
36
(l,1,)1 +l:llj)
= zero for small 1
., =Whr} + 1,,)
Cw-
. - IJ'>J1,l (3/,rJ +
12
2/~l~ l!2(1 ,
61,tr + '"• 4
+ Ai: - <11.A)
rh"h'
q= ·- -
41 ,
A F5 J-shapcd 1ncmber requiremcnrs. 5 18- 5 19. J3. IO hole be3.ring <lrt-nglh requ,rcmcnts.
Abdel-Sayed. G r"<fC. l(J4. 316 523-527 102. 1().1
Alx>lirz. /1. l.èon. 720. 7,U F4 1-shapcd member requircmcnrs. 454-457. J4.2 connection, in ~he-ar requiremen1s. )91-191
Ad:uns. Pe1t·r I•.. 2(,6. ~ 15, 6()4, 605. 6 17. ()46, 5 18- 519, 523-527 J4..l blo<.'k shear f:tilurc modcs. 69. 6(,()
(>47, 751. 772. 771 F6 1-shape<l 1ncml,cr rcquiremcnts. 45 1 J6 \plice (;Unnr:ct;on rcquir~ments. 5 I 1
Acbms. Srlley F . , r l60 F9 T-t>cam rcquiremcnts, 457--458 J7 bci1.ring ,tn...,,gth conllOCIJOn requircment,. 51 1
Adlun. Scshu \ hi~ .•, • Rao. 261, 3 16 F13.I hole reduction requiremenrs. '40-34 1. 348 HO O:in~r :uld "eb ronl'iCèuon desri:n
Agen,kov. t-lennir.~ J7 7--!2 F13.2 proportioning limi1s requirement~. 523 34'..l-Wi, 556. 6?4, 696--099. 702
Ahmed. Salahudd,n . 7:'.9, ì4 3 G J shcar rcquirtmcnrs. 340-341 l..\ 1:.eam d~OL'tlilm req utrem.:nt,. 3~.\--33~
Ainso, Heino. 7'.!0 741 G2 shcar requirements. 340. 538- 540. Ales. Jo,cph ~I . h. ~W. J77
AISC 2005 De,i~,, ~I ;fica1w11fDr Struc,urn/ 551- 552. 554, 555 Alip1men1 ~han.< lorcffixli\'C lcng1h <KL1. 16:.---268
Stnl 811ildin,e, G3 tension licld acrion shcar rcquiremenr1. Allen. D f .. .~:1!. 360. -~1
BJ design ba~i , n.i~iremcnr,. 424. 655. 785 547- 548, 553 Atlo"abit" ri:~i,tancc 1R,i), IQ7
B3.6 simplè co:•,, .. •ioo,. 658 H I bcam-colurnn safcry rcquircmcnis. 357. A.llow:::.bic ,trcn~lh de-;ìgn tASUi. 20 ~I :-+- 25.
609. 626. 7116 ~ì - 28
84 buclhni èe, , ,quiremenl!l. 55 7. 841
A{.~C ~{":--:,fo.·J:1,,n,. ~-i--.:!5. JO
86 cksig11 r,'qJ,r .r.i,._6:56 H2 beam-column safcty rcquiremcnts. 357
be-dcb. s.,·e Re.,m,
Cl srabi liry ,:.:,, r <•,mn:mcnrs, 786 Il composi re mcmber design ""Jum,men1,. 808
bolh. s."< Htlll..;
C2 design rcq•, lft 'lgtb calculations, 598. 12 composile axia l n,cmha rcquircmcnrs.
t-'1.>!u•·in~. -"' t' Cl,lU['lll~
6 10 . 614- 61' "!<-026. 760. 762. 771. 786 HIO. 81 1
connec-tit,n,. ,ee CC\noe..:1ion,;-,,
D2 design rcn,;_,,. ,;rcmber rcquircmenrs. 72 13 composirc Ocxural mcmbcr rcquircrncnt,.
LRFO con,r:in.'d IO. : 7-~~
D3 1cnsion ar,•., r· :,1uu~:nen1.,. 60. 65-67, 73 185. 786. 809. 81 1. 815.817. 819. S22-8I4.
:1umin:tl ~l~Hgth ( H, ). 25
EJ compres,h c , 1 : r,gth requirements. 255. 828. 840
salct) f. 11:1t1r { 1)). ~4-:1~
256, 403. (>l•l 14 composire combi ncd axial fkxural mrmba
h:n\ ion n1<111t-:r- , .v, Tl·n~:on mr:l1l'CI'
E4 compre"" ,. mc .;:tn requi~mcms. 26!. requiremcnts, 845 wclds. ,u \\'cl,ì,
403-404 J2. I groove wcld requìremcnts. 185 Allo, stceh. :is
E5 singk -nxJe < ,. ,;,ress:on member J2.2 fillc! weld requir,:mcnrs. 183- 184. 555 /\m~rican (\ ln,·n.1r ln,1,1u1~ 1AC'IJ. $1() 8 11. S~6
requireme, 1,, • • Y 260. 403 12.3 plug and sl<>1 weld requiremcnrs. 1~4 American ln,(ilutc -.)f StttJ Ct\JJ, irnc-tioo \AlSC)
E6 buih·up COU\ .. ,1nn member J 2.4 weld s111,ng1h n:quircmems, 183. 187. allO\vJbk ~,,~1~~th Jc:~tt!O (,\ SD\ ~p..,:ifkarioo .
requirernc111, ::i'i-25'1 189, 191-192. 2 10-2 11 .X"-21. J~.15. JO. ~~-'-:?55
E7 .<lender èleme,,1.- reqo;remerus, 256-257. J2.5 combination weld requireme111s. 19() 19 1 h1:.;.11lH."l)hllllfl de...:1fll. {,(l~1-<,.i5
259. 295. 300-lll\ 3CS. 403. 557 J3.2 bolt hole size requiremènls, 60. 78 Desi_i. ,• 11(h~;dt• S,·ric.,. 71~
F! flcxurc r~qu•r~· ~nt,,_J25. 428-429. 610 13.3 bolt hole ~pacing requircmcnr>. I().I frJme tiradng l<'<lUH'CO\Cnt>. 7M-771
f2 doubly ~y11,n« n,
1-shaP<,'d rcquircmcnts, J3.4 cdge disrance rcquiremcnts. 104-105
J3.6 1ension rod requirem~nrs. 78, 709
load :md n.·,"1.:.lJll·e fa1.1t,nk",ign tl Fk.l>l
spt.·t:itk.1tw11. !2-24. 15--27. ~'+---15~. 3,.& \..._\,.k\
325, J27. 42'- 426. 451,786
F3 doubly <ym1.,e1nc 1-shapcd rcquiremenls. J3.8 sliJKriricnl rnnnection requircmcnr,. phls1i~· tkfnnu:u;0n w1dth'thl.~Lnl'S~ 1111111,
328. 428 11 1-113 ( .\). ~<)7 ~%
853
854 • lndex
American lns1i1u1e of Steel Construction (AISC) Minimum De,·ìgn lo<ids for Buildings arui Other base plarcs. 729-733
(Cmrtinu,t{) S1r"c1urecr(7--05 standard<). 4, 7-12, 25-27, 30 tille! welded, 200-201
Plnstic De,ign III Stee/, 774. 802 Specijications for the Design and Construction groove wclded, 197-199
plate buckling and post-bucking strengths, oJCompositt Slnb•. 829. 846 plug welded, 206-209
299-305 Statc-of-the-An Survey on Composite <lot welded. 206--209
safe1y factor ( fl). 24-25 Construction, 805-806, 815,845 Azad, Abui K., 56 I. 585
simple shear connections. 658-659 Task Commit~ oo Structur:al Safecy, 21, 31 Azizinamini, Atorod, 658, 740
Specijication for Structurul Sttel Buildings. Task Committce on Wind Force,. IO. 31
20-21 , 30, 54, 68. 97. 110-11 1, 258. 276, Amecic:lll Standard beams. 12-13 B
303- 304, 343, 432,484,718,764.838 American Welding Sociely (AWS) Baldwin, J. W., Jr., 822. S46
Stee/ Constructio11 Manual. 30, 63.266, 718. A5.I SMAW •pecifica1ions, 40 Bansal. J., 424,476
723. 728 A5. l7 SAW specilications, 40. 41, 164 Baranda, Heman. 349,361
stiffener design requiremenls, 696-697 AS.18 GMAW spccifications, 40. 165 Bamard, P. R., 840. 846
stiffnes, reduclion factors, 266--267 A5.20 FCAW speciticalions, 40, 166 Barney, George B., 603,646
tension-field action design, 546--549 A5.23 SAW specificarions. 40, 41. 164 Barsom. lohn M., 43, 48, 54, 57
yicld stress width/dlickness limils (A,), 293- 297 A5.28 GMAW specifications, 40 Barton, M. V,, 374, 407
American lron and Stcd Institu~ (A ISI), 15, 30, A5.29 FCAW specitications. 40, 166
Base plates, 728-735
48. 295,299,303,553.585 A5.5 SMAW specifications. 40
axial loads, under, 72'}..733
compression member spccifications, 295, 303 DLJ specìfications, 40, 187
coluinns. 728- 735
Nor1h American Specificatior: fnr rhe Design Qualification Test, 180-181
design equation, 731- 132
of Cold-Formed Sreel Structurnl Memhas, Standanl Symhols for Welding. Bravng ami
pian dimension. 730
30. 48, 299 No11des1ruc1ive Examina1io11, 174_ 181. 229
rcsisti.ng moments, 733-735
Pmposed Crireriuj'or Load ano Factor Design Struc111ra! Weldi11g Code . 54, 57, 177-178,
thick.r.ess. 730--733
ofStnl El11ildi11g Structures_553, 585 183, 228
Bose shear farce design method. I0-1 1
American National Standards lns1i1u1e (ANSI). 4 we!ding symbllls. 17.1-175
Aminmansour. Abbas. 626-627_647 Baslcr, Konrad. 520. 522, 524, 531.533, 539.
Americ,m Railway Engineering and Maintenance 54 1- 542_ 544. 549, 552,553,555. 585
of Way Assor,alion (AR EMA), 6, 20. 30 Ammar, AJber1 R.. 469, 47S
Bateman_ E. H.. 89. 154
American Sode1y tor Tescing and Materials Ammerman. Douglas L 658. 739. 740
Ba,ho. c._89. 154. 657. 712. 739
(ASTM) Anand. S. C .. 603. 646
B3lhon. Leander. 26 I. 316
A6 specificaiions, l2. 3.,-36. 5 l Anderson, John P., 255. 263, 3 14
Bat.son. Gordon 8 .. 720. 742
A 7 steel specific;Jtion;. 33, 72 Aoderson. Katherine E .. 561, 585
Angle of rota1io11 (8 ). 324-325 Beam-culumns. 16. 357. 591-654. 752-754
A36 sieel. 34, 35. 37_42. Sri. 187 AlSC ~B6 de.sign requireinent.--. 656
A5'.\ pi pe "ee.l, 35, 37. 56 Angleof1wist {,J,). 3{-6--367
,\lSC-C'.2 de,ign required strent!th
A242 hiih-strengch low-olloy steeì. 33, 35. 37, Anglc-shaped beam&. 12-!3
Angles. 63--64. 66li-674 ukulation,_ 598. 610. 61 4-(;-l7, 625~26
55, 56
..:oom.::(tio,J strength, 660- 6 74 A!SC-lil ,afery requiremenrs. 357_ 609. 626
A30'1 carbw ste.èl, holts. 39. 56, 87. 88. !42. 148 AEC-H2 safety rcquirements. 357
A:12 5 high -s1renglh ;<ed, bohs. 39-40, 5(). 87. e<."ci:nrric she;1r ùrl. 670---67:
!l;::'l(tJr;\J ttefonnat'i1..""ln anù srrengrh. 660---n';O
A.l'.sC ,bign_60~-MS
88. 9i , 94. 14 1. 142
hoìes ~~a.ggered in. 63--[/+
t>racc<! fr.imes. 610---01-1
i\373 ,1et'l , 33
tr.nsion and shçar on. 6---:2...t.;7 ..'. ~-ri1eria. 609-614
A44 I high-$treng~J1 sted. 42
wdd capt1city. 67:)-674 dmxt analysis method, 609. 623~'.!5
A449 qu~n:;hcd ,rnCT t.:inp,ered .sted. holts. 39.
An1oni. C::11z:k-~ M ._,-J',t j6: cftc.:me k ngth mcthod. 618---<,19
56. 87. 8~
Appt!'?.O~T~i;cr~a V.$. R.. ,~v9 • .:~7iS tir,,-order mcthod_ 625-626
6 .490 qutrn.:-hc1..i ~md V.:rnp1.;.T.!d t,lloy, bolts. :19.
LRFD. 609-<S IO. 62(>...645
.10. 56. w1. s~. 91_1..:c ·'.rhitr~ ?"."i,:,!• i•· -tl,·Hc v·,t.,;. Z6- -~;,
1ueti, ,;l}..J)7 ;J -; __ ·~S. "'i5- I ~.4. a,1bn,,-«1 frJrnes. 614---6~6
,~S(X) ~teeL 35. -~7. 5-:",
A.5(\l nibm;; steel. 2·,. :iG ~ff«·O: ..~ r,,·i ' A -~ f1S-r.1·, ··· "'~ .X•!ll!~fl.!.~, ion and. 59!-596
.:\ ~(>2 t.lfb1)tì ,l,H!.-1~ llH •J,,;, 8f. effi:,:t;,c ,~ir-:'"- 1 ; ;_-, \:~:, : ~{
~:. '- ; t>endìng. 607-609
ASH) ~1e-~L ··.5 :l~ying si.,;,i:,rc. !~<
t,, ,~cfn,11~, .610--01~
e:, ,, ' stJR lC~) vJ.lu~,. 597-598
.,\), ~ :J.lk~~· l\i~d. }5, 57. }:3. j j :·.,:t ~i~).. .)9 o '
A529 , le,-1. 3S. ; 7. :i:'1 il..'.it...,.·t" "-ir..:"-..S ;)7_9-g 0::. ,;~ -:,<.'!tflh (~,11,). 609-610
• ifo ,,,.,al ~-qua1i<,1,s for. 592-596
A~'J 2 l-iir:h-~ ti:.;.;upJh \W~L :;,;, "; 7. 56 ~h ' i(.h-. \~7'--!l~fl
:';i •• , ~u,_~kHng. 752-754
A~88 wea!.hcrin~ :iet..L 35. J1, .<.s. ~r.. :ér' ,..",i--Ìf.!l'ì1t~:_;_ L/J i:~Pl,; !)'.!Ill ' . ... ,-- ~.:. ~.-
,\.606 \ hd'l .,md Rl Hp !-ittA!L J!,, 37. :,{:, .~l.-.1\!", ton 10, 16. 591-592
A60ì ~h-:r.:.t ~~nd ,.;u;p si--., ,~i. J"l' A'SCr· t... "-.Srn..._-: k,,~,, Crn1,n.1\,:-•~~ l:,,. , , .•, ~s,,t;J.nce fo<:l(>r design (LRFO\.
i~{,11 ~h~ct S'i:t.':c'i . -~·,: :_},-':,J~ .~ ' ; 1t{,~;[I j.t), ,;(,:l ' -~IC. (>16-645
A6 ! 8 wnin~i ,,et-i )6 3; 55 µ :1:X...1: )l ?-~l~'• ·f ,r:r ,. ·) J-:. ~- "• • , •- _. l · ,.l m:1pdica1ion. 59<>-<,03, 610-617
A7W hr:dg~ t·cnv.::.H...:uo;t :;.i(-<·l. 3{,. :~7. .;3 ~1:.., '-.,f-:. i .(.t')t..:;r ,¾1'1. ,:!} · ·,L,f'1 n:'\.° t ': • ,:_:,r.j..__.. \'•'., ~8:~ ,.,~,-.-e\ frame~. 610-61~
.A~52 qucm..:i;1:.d ,3 tid 1e n1p·:r~é l(>\\·-ath.hv ;ittte ,\ :\Cf:~Ar~· ,,.,: ('. , .Tli~ 1;:1~ • ~~, < r.,;J,r,_ ,~. ~i,J :-nome nts ~,nd no join1 translation.
~ieel. 1(>. }"i' :;~. 56 C1.W.:'\tJ 111.· (:; 1_1 .,t··.
Xh,, h,H, 599--601
A91 J N1gh-:o:tre.ngrh lowrjJ{vì .c.t('r:i, ~61 .>i ~:-._., Asia:,: F.n haq.~ ·l5:s. l ! ' 1 "~d.t..~wsv. o0:!:-603
5]_ lk7 A~s.Ji Ma!;),,,., ~]2. ~ ;.., ,:nt,le l"~arv;)1urc without end trnm,latìon.
.·\9tì2 h1gl1-~lr~n~~.!..h 1ov.--,,f?ov q ci..·:. <,n. ·1 :. ' !> \ \~,-~1zti0i1 of s,~te ~inc: Hrnm\ a f 1.:"~l''(''°i,!:JQn ~?6--599
A l~ )8~t~i~~h-t-t,t ,;g:l1 low-ullo)' .,tt"C,1• ·.:-~kl-:·ut,~J. llllici,h (;\,\ $ 1ilnJ. 5. ~ ~:! .•O.~,: S , ,wt>r,1c-ed fr.unes. 614---617
.,h. •,o al.•., , ASCE-.\ASHTU Jo::u C-arrm: r.:c- ~..,rilht,JJ ~lr~·oglh ( r.. ). 60J-607
A lOi i i,igh-,1.n:ngth iuw- ailoy "ì.t{!•?I. h\•t- n... !lr ò ,\ s,a,ieh, Ahoih.i.,v:•. 2~~ ~ 1 4, .,59, , IO. 71 l. fai.ture t>~ cornt>ined l:>cnding and tor>iun.
36. J'i. 56 ,.I(), 742 (,O..l-605
&1il oy prop{;rtir.--.~, 38 A L-.:.UI ~.• T;-,~hio. bffi. ()...;.7 rnk:r.1\.-lion equations. 605-607
c-ad \011 ,tee/ propertic,_-'~- 3'I Au,1i,1. Wailtr J.. 4 I 7. •176. ~9 I . ,,()I. 6-16 piane or bcucliug insmbili1y. 60.H,OI
f.1,1c11el'. 39 --•O -\\,Ofll' R Rich,1rd, .',3: . 360 ..o!le-<!ttlcclion cqua1ions for. 752- 7~
high-,1rcnglh luw-,,lloy sreel propcni-.s. 34- 37 ,>.v,:ry. J .e;aie K.. 71 ~- 742 11.1q"fr><' k>ading, 59-1-596
,tructurJI stecl dcsigoa1,ons. 33-40 ..\x.i,1f compre~.~~<'1l ami bendrng. 16 ~. .qual l'H1J n;un-.enh wi1hou1. ~%
Amelic,111 Sncie1y o f CiYil Enginc,·rs \ASCE). ,\,iJI 1c1hiun on holts. IJ5- 13R unequ3f e n,I moment, witlk>ul. 5~
s,,e a ll'fl ASCE-A ASI 11'0 .lc,int Commiuees Axi.111) i<';:Jed m<·mbcrs_ )<)7..,109. 729-7'.\J_ Sr,• uniform. 5\15
Ad Ilo- c ornmittce on Serviceabili1y nl:w Bcam·C01u,nns U,lbl ,lù~iJ fr~llllt"S, f\14- 62(,
Re,c,,r< h 332, 159 balanccd conncctions. ?.02-206 AISC , 1at>ility analy,i,. bl7 b~
lndex • 855
amplilird li~t-or-der clastk aoalrsis.
616---{,17 P>rtially compact section.<, 328
mong-axis. 424--4J 1
,ccond-ordcr analysi,. 61 7 •hear on rolled beams. 340--341 symmetrical shapcs. 321-)22
Beam line. 657--MR sidesway web bucklìng. 345--346 tcnsion frnm, 149-154
Beam,. !2--16.121-364. .19 1- 397. 431-483, slender sec1ions. 32&.-329 1on-ion. 369- 370, 383-388. 604--M5
484--515. 5 Il<-520. <>74-678. M 1--722. torsion in hllerally .iable beams. 391-396 flc,ure analogy for. J83-388
~06-~07. 817--1319. 82')--lì43 web crippling. 344-345 re!iabili,y index (/3) valucs. 386--387
11
AISC-f I Ocxur~ ,p,:d1ìca1io11,. 325 ;°:nem gradieni_ factor ( C,). 428--43 l. 432--433 thin-wall open cm-.s sec1inns.. 369---370.
AISC-f2 ,rx-cilkat!on,. -115. 327 P o; Ile defommt1on w1dthllhicknes. ratio limit,; 605
(A,). 327
AISC-f-3 Sf"'l'ÌIÌCalion,. J28 weak-axis. 45 l-452
,"ISC-Fl .1 hote redut·lio1, ,reritìcations, plnst!c neutral ac,-es, ( PNA), 81 7-819 xc piane only, 351-352. 369-370
340---34 l. _l.j~ plasuc strength (momem. Mp), 323-325. yt piane onl~. 35 ! . 370
484--493 Bennen. Richard M.. 72. 84
AJSC-G I rolled -sp<:CÌIÌCalion,. J40-34I
,\lSC-(ì.2.1 rolJt~d ,pecifica1ions. 3-JO plate girders compared 10. 518-520 Bennens. lan D., 69.l. 741
purlins. 321 Bcrnoulli·s theorcm. q
,!.\lSC .J I O tfangt· a1h.l web ,·onnc.·ction design,
rolled, 337-348 Bertwell. W.. 665. 7-10
.l-i:\- 346
seated, 674--<>87 8e.ss.emer pr<x:css. 3
AISC-U dellcc·1ion ,pcl'iticatiom. 333--334
sections, types of, 14- 15 Bia,ial bending. 356--359. 472-476
allowablc s1rcngth ùc, ign iASDi. .l3 l -332,
serviceabilj1y of. 332-337 allowable str~ngth design (ASD),, 357--358
_\4!--J-13. _144---1-lX. 396-397. 43 I s!\apes, 12-13
bi;;,~i:il bt·11ding. 357---3-~8 1-,haped .<echons. 472--476
s!\ear on. 337-343 latera.l-mrsinn.11 buckling. 472-476
conccntr:ueJ loacb on roHed be:1ms.
shear strength (V.). 340 loaJ ami resi.,,t:mcc iactor design (LRFD)_ 357_
_q-l- 348
,imply supponeJ_ 829-837 473--4 76
t-shapcd heam,. 4JI
splices.511-513 nomina.I ~trength. 356
la1crally ,upporled bcams. 331 --332 striogers. 321
loc"I web vidùine. 344 Bijl:iard. f-ran< S. K.. 69.l. 741
Slmcturnl sted, 12-16 llijlaard. P. P.. 62. 83
,afr1y factor \ ! l ) ~JJ I 1ee-shap..-d. 12--13 Birkemoe. Pel~r C . 659, '560. 740
shear on rollcd b.:Jms. 341- 34_1. torsion in, 391-397 Bimstiel. Charles. 607. 647
:-.idcS\1o.1ay Wl!b buckling. 346-<~48 wide-llange (W). 12- 14, 323 EIJorho,·de. Reidar. 6~. 83. 255. 314. 609, M7.
torsion in la1er,dly S1;1blc beam,•.196--397 yield stress width/thickn~ss ratio Liaùts (A,)_ 326 65~. 740. ~06. 845
\\.'eb rrip1>l ing. 345 Beam-10-beam connecbons. 721-722 Blcich. fricdrich. 239- 240. 25~. 278. 293. 3 IJ.
Arnerican standnr<l. 12- 13 Bca,n-10-column connee1ions_ 691- 721 40L 403_ 417, 55&, 750. 764
angle-shapcd. J'.!- 13 column-web d.irect, 720-721 Block ;hear Mrength (u•.,t 68--{,9_ 660
t>cnding. 16. 32 1-322. 349-3W ~nd-plate. 717-720 .AlSC-J4.3 moJes. 69. t\60
a.,,ial compre"i<n1 and. 16 pryingac1ion. 709-717 reductiun cc_,dlicien: (Ua,)- 68--69
biaxial, J5f,-.J-i9 splic-beam tee. 709-717 Blodgm. Om,;,r W.. l t.S, 182. 218. 278. 315. S6J.
fle~ural 1he" r1. 322. _\-N-'.156 sti lfeners, 694-709 r,i2. 67r,, 702- ì 03. 728. 735. 739
sec1io11 modulus tS). 3n AISC requirement, (or, 696--{;97 B0licd jl,iLih, ste Jolnt:,
syrnme-tric:111-lhtpes . .'.\2 t- 323. compression regìons, 694-697 Boltcd piatt: g_iJdciS. i ~!--182
brncingt 423-42~. ,iht)-471 horizonlal. 694-701 Bolts. 39-40,87--160. 711- 712
buckling, 345-3J~.•,.~t-l S.1 plates. 701-709 1\3\lì (rarbon steel) propcrtic,. 39, 56. 88.
hueral -tor,:r:,fl'', ..i·{ ,.--433 cension rcgions. 697-701 l -12. ~48
sideswav w. i··. 't.45-348 venical. 701-706 .'1.325 (hign-strcngth stcd) p1upenics. 39--40,
camikver. -13~\ Bearing stìffeners, 55&--557 56. ~0 . ~7. 88, 9 i. 94. l~!. IU
channel-shaped. I. . ' Bearing screnglh (R.). 99. 101- 103, 114 .~.o.14? 1(4tifrchr-d .ind tè'!\'J)Crcd ,,cd )
collapse mecha;i,•,:,. J;t.1-.3.; 5 _48~--193 bolt design. 99. 101- 103. I !4 propemr:~. _1.q_SA. ~7. Rt~
composite. 805-'l'.'·, iw, ~37--840 hoJes. 101- 103 .-\-+90 (èllend,cd ,m,1 :~m,<,«"1 oll-,y I
composite con~t's:~o<i. 30(>--807, 829--843 Bearing-typc connections. 8ì. 90. 105--109, ;,mpc:rt,e,. 39. 40. 56_87. 88. 9 ! . 142
concentraled IL>U<l. ap;ilic-J 10. 343-348 115-116. 122-124, 139-l40 aP0\\ 3.blc- -~"·~ngtli d2.s.tgn tASD }. l 1-+-111
continuou,. 41~---:_: < 41;-1-5 lS. 840--,,43 ASD method. I 15-116 he ,.rin,z:· ryl)e' c-~nrit·ct:,,1t<:, 1: 5- 1i6
conlinuou~ conn::c-,-:V~•··. ,c;,91--7 22 combincd sh~ar and tensìo11 of. 139- 140 ,de!y fa.·t0- lfl) l ;..
beam-w-ht."':.i!l'l' J1 f -11 2 LRFD meLhod. 105-109. 139-140 s!.tp-,...-1L~ CC)r.flet :Jttl:$ l l.J- 1i:-. ' ! 6.-117
beanH0-rr.•v· "· 69 1- 721 ultimate strength (plastic) analysi~~ 122- r24 ,~([f,1 ll.!!":l'!!C'H 011. i .) ~-13f.
deilectìon. 80~..,: .·;?--S.!O Beaulieu. Denis. 6 I 7,647 l>a,c,og , 1reaith t il.). "'9. •01-'03. l l4
tlexural the,lf}, -"!"-- ,t,.~ Becker. Herbet1.292.315 t,~~rm~-lype -~,m rit..:t1\·m..,. !f 90. f(l,5 ~109.
girde-rs. 7-8. 321 Bec<llc. Lynn S .. 29. 31- 94. 154. 244. 245. -11 3. : 1s-116. j~=- 1~.i. 1r>- '4CI
girts. 15. 3'.! I 314. 486. 493. 513, 603.646. 687. 68'). 690. .; f'mbircd hca; J!~tl ten..,a)1l ot l .-~q
-I ~f:.
holes in. 348---J ~ç. 693. 717. 741. 774,801.802 J.l~--i 54
hollowsrructura;~,. ·;\l'SS't. ]2-13 Bend-buckling, 528-534 eitTccitri•. loaj~. q,...:-: ~~
J-shap,ed. sr::e 1--, !:;tp. cl m~~rbers Bending e,:.remric ~ìt:ill', 11-1- 1.::·•
jois1s. 15. 16 (phowJ. 321 analog:y bctween lorsion .-md llcxun~. 38~--388 ~·IJ(ti ...· t -..ccto.r) .1:1ai y ,i!,. ! I R- 121
latcral suppon. ·i 1,.,-.J l : heam-co!umns. 603--605. 607-609 pl'°11L (uitim:.:_- 1;,trrngth} a.rniy:-.1~. t·:! 1-1 :!-1
lateral stability .)f Jè'è- '32. 391-397 beams. 321-322. 349-359. 424-4_\I, -151-15: ~in~k-lin·:: fJMentr~. I ~l-i.- l -:.~
liotels. 15, 3 2 1 biaxial, 356-359. 472-476. 607-609 failur~ :nat~.:~. 98
load aod resiswnc~ f,;çlt'r des;gn (LRFD). combined planes (Wlsymm~tric'11 s.i:ctior1s}. eah-aciz.:-d i;,·;.~;}-.;!.n;-n~t1:, ~<,t.~.J.;)
)25-331. '.\.;._'}-}:li. :J.l.' -34/i, 391-396, 352. 370 Ì-iìgh-~trenglh~ f< ".'. gy...:9o. ~n-9:.. 135~ ns
flexural 1heory. 322. 349---356 !H~(Cf~ l"f. ~9--90
424--43 I. 473--47(,
biilxial bendirg. ?5 7 neutral axis inclination, 35:!~-356 rns:aHatio'.:1 ifli!ihuJ:•, '·•li. 9::'., tJ:3-95
principal axes for. 352 .'.lÌlèrnau ..,t~ Jc-,i~,:. (ls
compact ~ecnon~. 325-327
momenLs (M), 149-154, 285-287. 349-350 .:.ihbf3:h~,1
l\·:'t:'~)CI~. 9)
concenlrated ;"ads ,,u mlled beams,
piane of. inscabilily in. 603--604_ 605 dirè::I tL~si...\n JrtLiiC:ltOr, 95
343-346
pla\C girder ,trength. 549-551 nul rnta.lion. 9 2. 95
design strength ',j,Jt, ). 325-326
plate stability and, 283-287 s.r\U~ '.l;,.th:. 9}. 9:;
1-sh:iped tJca,n,,, -124--43 l. 4 73--H6
shea.r combined wi1h. 549-551 :v:-l,· H~lh~·Hi.tt. 40, 9:-t- 9.J
Ja1er-.illy ,up;x,r1~J t,2;1.ms, 325-3'.\ I -.·.-;, fL•rt!f;,_ ;t-i-1,:Jy, ~ ~')
loca! web yie!dmg_ 343-344 shear stresses due to. 369-370
stress (u). 351--352 ! ' ·I' ' I apte<l-ri!\ X\/
OOlll' Olllp:ltl -..:Clt(>:h. 326-327
856 • lndex
Bolts (Cm,rù,ued) 1hickncss effecls, 5 I Conndiun Structuml CtJmmtntaritJ, 8. JO

lnad and re.<is1ance fac1or design (LRFO), welding elfects. 50-51 Canrìlever beams, 433
99-109, 111 - 1 IJ, !26---128, 139-1 48 Brockenbrough. Rnger l., 43. 46, 57. 676, 741 Carbon <teels, 34-37
bcaring-typc connec1ions, !05- !09, Brown University, <lomc roof. 17 (pho10) Carpmacl. H .. 161. 227
139-140 Brown, Jack H .. 658. 739 Carsksddan. Philip S., 534, 585
boltspacing, 103, I 05 Brozzctti, Jacque~. 658. 74() Carter, C. J., 675,676, 743
combincd shcar and tension nf, 139-148 Buckling. Se, alxo Lateral-torsional buckling CarteJ". Charlcs J., 368. 407
design mength («.). 99-103 A ISC proYisions for pi ate strength, 299-305 Cast lron. structural uses. 3
cccentric shear and. 126-128 a!lowable strength design (ASD), 431, 447-451 Castagno. L.. 164-165, 228
edge dislance. I 04 h<ams. 354-348, 413-483 Castigliani, Carlo A., 255, 314
end distance (L,). I0}-104 ben<ling, 528-534 Cayci, M. A ., 62. 83
hole bearing strength, 101-103 coellident (k), 290 Celebi. N.. 605, 646
resistano, factor (f), I00 c:olumns. st:e Columns Chan, Peier W.• 349, 361
slip-criticai conncctions, I I 1-113. 140-148 compression member,,, 30S- 313 Chang. r. K .. 368. 407
load-defonna,ion relationship, 122--123 cri1ical stress (Fc,), 248, 290 Channel sections, 12-13, 368, .171, 452-454
machine, 39 design of membcrs affoc1cd by. 305-313 bc•ms, l 2-1 3
nomina! strcnglh ( R.) . 95-99. 114 Eogesser's modulus lheorics, 239-240, 240-242 lateral-torsional bucklìng, 452-454
prestrcss cffcc1s on. 135 elastic, 236-238, 287-293. 417-421. torsìon in, 368, 37 !
prclcnsion requircmcnts, 9 1-93 .5.16-.539, 75!-759 Ch"'l)y V-nolch Ics!, 43
ribbed, 89 coefticicnt (k). 290, 53~ Chen, Min-T<c. 388,407
shcor strength (F,,,). 98. 100-101. 114 columus, 236-238 Chen. Wai-Fah. 255. 258,259,314,316,601,604,
slip-criticaljoint~. see Slip-criticai c:onnections diffcremia! equation, for, 4 17-421 W7. 608. 609. 616. 617. 646. 647,658.693,
split-tceconneclions, 711-712 Eulcr's lheories for, 236-238 695. 720. 7:19. 741. '142. 743. 750, 772, 773
structural. 87- 160 p!a<CS, 290-293 Cheng, Jung-June R .. 659. 660. 740
1ensilc stress arca, 97-98 pure shcar, under. 5J6-5J9 Chcong-Sim-Moy. Frnnfois. 604, &!7, 646,647,
rension strength. 711-7 I2 slope-deflec1ion rncthod of ana!ysis. 751. 765. 772. 773. 802
unfinishc<l. 89 752-759 C he,aon. Eugtnc .. 62, 65. 83. 140, 155
Boresi. Arthur P.. 44, 365, 368,406 stiffncss coemcient (d,), 752-754 Chia,;J. Kah Chi og. 110. 154
Borg,miller, J. T., 718, 742 iransvcrse Joud (q), 2~7-288 C'hilllì. iames. 537. 360
Bower, John E .. 349. 360 flange,. 519- 523. 524-527 Chong. Ch"°i K .. 345, 360
Bowman. M. D .. 743 frame~. 7S 1- 7.W Chong. Ken P., 561. 585
Bo, girder. 5 18 hisiory of. 236-238 Chopra. Ani! K .. 10. 11. 15. 32
Braccd frames. 262, 610-{•l 4. 750. 751-752. inel.»1ì,_c, "139--243. 266-2.68. ,;22-424. Chow. Hsueh-Licn. 759. 773
754-756. 71>4- 77 !, 80 I. Se, aho Frame< 539--54{), 75 I C luis:opher. Richard. 693. 717, 741
b».aclng rcquirc.mcnts. 764--771 ;,tljw~tment fac?or (,e) 1~f ~lignm•!nl. Chu, Kuang-Han. 373. 400. 407. 759. 773
cifrcliYe length (KL). 262. 748 266-268 C hucomei. G~c. 261. 3 I5
elastic buck ling. 754-759 doublc modulu~ d1è01-y. 240- )-t2 C11'C'u)a, secér,ns. 1o"ion in. 367
da~ric smbihty of. 750 dl.,ctive length (K/,). aèjustmeni fo;-. Cia,l. J. W., .;17, -B3. 454. 476. 477
momcm nugnilicatiou, 61()-6 14 266-268 Cl"rke. /'.:. J.. 460. ~ 77
rnuhis1ory. 801 frame:-.. 75ì-7:.i9 Chp nnglc,. 660
plas1il- hinges. 77 ! late i:;,! hra.cin~ r~q;_:j;e:~·· 1erjff. -t 22--424 Clo~iih- R. W.. lfi, I S. '.l2
, lo~*(kn~c?ion rr...::th~xl \i! analv:-b. i:S..t- 756 pui e t.h~ur. u' J ~r. 5?.tf--5.!l;') (' (,J:(mg, 54
s1rengJ:, of. 751 - J'.'2 · Sha.~k.y CO\h,.ept fr,r. 242--2.1' Ca".i.m ~vmvur 55. 5i
Bracillg, 4 2J.-4 24. "-60-4 71. 764--77 1 '~ni?en: 1r,t,Join~ t,~tn..-f• .!39-240 C'(X~f<Uit:, \. H.. 6 , ~ 2. 83
AJSi: n·41.1frc11 :~:n~ or. 71.~:~- -77 1 ~~~---·!~l tor:)r•·,al. 4 1.3-4lJ. 510 s,~
(\1J, of 0,dtm i h-a,·rice _(or Srul Buì/dmgx
ax1.:!f .,11-:nitLh ::-'1d 'itifla:.:-: t . ..i 7{) L!~:t .,...J..[<'::i,·; ;!)..-!_·'d . 5!9-52., ,an.1 ~-'"rd~n ~64-
be~tn st~:h;Jit~. 465-47U i:J:Jd. l:1f. C'Ml .ln·~/'Ì< 691. , :7. 741
diagon~L 767....,(,b !oJ.1_: ~r,fl tt(;i'i-:ance 1 ...·: 10: de~dg:1 d...:Y:)), 1,.\,i'Un <:,;uk~ lf:J.l
iW3 t~t~. ~,~4- -~!.lP3 M -:'
frarrle-;;. 164-~.'71 in< :.._i 7'1'0t",;..ik•;1j ;...,,r -le.., ;zi .105-,' •,
ine!a:-.t,t: tJHg ,• t\ 1{!ilt':!l~1f•1!), ~;,n-J ...,,:! ; Ìtlté ~""Ck't '• i!~ -~J. ~:_- _:; ..; <. •• : y'
ine!a<.:dr ;;.1eel ht:,;:~,~ ,!7,). -'J I 1 ·~;;}-/" . $!, l.11. --t~ rr-c!ti: 1· ,..._1,.;Q · . , : •• i
latera1 (iei.ign ...Jt.Q . /71 .. ..~:. 4

nod:t~ . 4 ()/H-{,~·. 7fJ r ,•,,u1:;.· n,v·r, •,•,.. ·_tJ:.t~·tO \1V.,' !.X' S•-1
pci•1', 46f\ 465 nPrmna; ·~;,\."-t.:"~11,•\ · ,,. . 'r.,,' '~~ 1 .. ,:i4']
rdati~c, ~65--16(~. i6'1 ~,1:-.. :·:. ·.:It r"·I ~~·!,\! ' ù"1".'" -40
:-.priag .:.ons..aro ( ::?\ ?t ,'\ )-k" . .'tj 9,-·,-. t, '{,r'. .- ;4 "\ ~-. J I .L.414. 460-465. 556-557.
sl iff~ner m..,mbc.!, fl'f. · f,5- 7 ~7 i;<,, 8~3- 845
.,;1iffnc..;3 ri,;:{ jU'! eO :"1rn11 . . .,t,...1. ··,(.:.·, ,,,:, .. ., .:. J,Y, ..!f 6 " · ,y. -~ , 1.h J esign (ASD). 274-275
Brrn.lfr,rd, M:.1.r'i-.. f\n(!h·,., J.J:! -l r, tr...tt _.,,.-:, lt, "...... ... : ~·t• •, '• .,,, :,, :rl. ?t>S-274
SH. 847 ,ff1 '. • ~' _......,q . ~'\'}_"'. \l"!.L' , • ,, :' 1~-7,5
Brady. G. W.. 6J. Mi '', Ìl ri-11g fig,jt',1t) 'f,( / \, ~~-- ;,r 1fs 'ners. 550-551
Brandes. J. L.. 70'I . 747. \,.,(!,,,, ,'19, ~-..B- ; ,, k1.·. 11,.,-4,,5
llran,H. G. Don,lu. !14, \54. 2 1n. ?.211 ~,ir~t.ci l ~J~· R2'.J, t; :, \\••:.i· ~'t>-150. ~M-268, 413-41~
Brn11,on. Oan E .. 838, 84b rii,;,•• tt,-..:,. ;\.,i~t., i<. ,,~n ,.:;: ;.g9 n t 1it'r d ~~li~. ~~6-238
Brcndel Goillricd, ~06. t4 j
Brt:nn.o.n. Paul J . 349, ><, I
~ · ,HÌOJl'\g ;..t ~'°\
20, ~ 0 ·,, • 1,11.:. ~19- ~4J. '.?66--268
1
;·;u,°l(.l,'r, ~, . ., .. !"1al IJt·,,:i.;.u f!~l",ti)i.,'- 1•. 8, t-.'., ~n 1, ~l·· 1 ~ton,iona1.-ll3--'14
Brc.,lcr. Bori, . .'i6 I. 585 ~~u ~l!!t t.-.·v-->, lJ. ~ : J1,I) •'lh>II!\ t\.,i s. ~48-250
Bridge. Ru,,.._.11 Q. 268. 3 I6, 46 11 , 7l '.i11lkr, L<lrnc J.. !XY. 2 10. Li-i wea)..1,is. 2~7-248
Bnuania Bridge. ì fj~II J\/ÌOi, , 161, !6~ l •' 1l l.lO l't't--iori~. 2:58
Bn11le rmc1ure. 48-.51 «.:M t , Hl' . ~-n- i45
dynamic loadin~ c ffecr• . .51 c't' li lt>I NCing, 258-259
Jumcll"r tearing . 5 1, 52-5'.l
e ç<K1tirn1(111, hcam<olumn conmx·tions. 691-7?1
multiaxial ,tre,, t'ftècts, 49- 51 Cal, C. S.. 607. <..i 7 ,·nucaI ,tre·" ( F, 1 ). 2"8, ~53-257
temperature dfoc1,, 49 C all, St.:ven M .. 059, 7..\0 dn,,blc .in~ k s(X·tions, 257- 158
lndex • 857
cffwivc lcnJ.!lh fKLJ. 261 - 268
ahgnmcnl ch:1r1 ,. 263- 2t,8 nominai rnornen1 strcn ih (M
br:1ce<l frwne, , 262 partially com . 8_ ,). 815- 819 Cnnvenlional frame c:on 1rrucLù'.'tn (!ilimple or
inrlas lìr bchavior. 266-26k I '' J)0'11e S'<:IIOnl, 823-824
P llllt1c 111:urral acce~, (l'NAJ 8 I< partfally rcsrrained, PR), 390
unbr;,oeèd frame,. 263 scrv,cc load ( , .,...819, 829 COOJ><'r, r e1cr B., )49. 361. 536. 558, S115
Engc,,crs m,~_lulu, 1heo11c,. 2~9_ 240 ()- ·h .. </) >Lresse•. 813-815, 820--821
24 24 s ear tonnecu:,rn, 80S 819-828 Comcll, C. AJlin, 23, 31
Eultr', L'rilical load. 2.1~ · -2 ~hored, kl3 ' Corner joi01s. 170
1a11iccd. 271>- 2~2 • imply supponed bcams, 829---837 Corrosion rc.,isiancc, 33, 55-56
lo<1t1 01nd re :,.i-.1 31\L't !ac:lor <.Je~ign fLRFD) C <1:,h;, 806, 816-8 I 7, 83 7-840 Cr•cb in wclds. 11 80
256- 261. 2r,8 274 · omprcss,on mtmbcr~. 13-14. 23<>-320 Craig, f .. 164, 22R
a\i~I com11re.,i1on ,u1d. 257. 258 _268 _ Al~C-E.3 spoc1fica1ions, 2.SS, 256 Crane girders, irnpact pmvi,ions for. 7-8
274 Crawford, Sheiwood F., 11 7, 122. 124, 154
dei..1f-.n :.-.trl"'ng1h (t/,, ,~,). 256 Al~C-E4 specificntions. 261
reducr ion fanor (Q). 251'>-25 7 AISC-E5 <pccifica1ion,. 2S9-260 Crcep. 47, 8.17
.-olled I\_". S. aod M) ,hapc,. 268_274 AISC-E.6 ,pecifica1ions, 258- 2S9 Cri1iral m ess ( F.,) , 248. 253-257, 290. 294-295
non·syrnmelnca l ~c,:rion~. '2bl AISC-E7 specificaiion,. 256--257 259 295 Cruss-<ectional members. 13. 14. SR
«-,,idual ,lrC"· 243-25.l 300-303, 305 ' · · Cross-secrional shape facror (f) . 323
re.,1ram1 far1o r (Cl. 261> AJSI <pec ilìca,ion,, 295,303 Cruz, En,c,,-,o F. 11 J ' ·
,;ifcl)' foc1or ( lì J. 274 ax,ally lr,adcd, 268- 274 Cuk, Pe1<r E.. 605, 646
Sh3nle) 1:onccp1 for. 242- 243 huckling. su Butlding Culver, Charles G.. &J7. 647
,ht,ir tffcc1. 275 271< tulumns, 239---282 Cuni•. Latry E., 718. 742
,ingk-,u1gle scc1io1>,. 259- 261 criiical "re~s (I'~,). 248, 253-2S7, 290, 294--29S Curve,. 253- 256. 284-287, 428--431 . 432-433.
597--59&
SITCOj!lh, ~38- 239. 145- 251':>. 261- 265 nominai mength ( P.). 25-4--255_299-
300 b.!am--column cum,nure (CM) values. 597- S98
a, ir.l lowh . varie<!. 255-256 paral>ohc eurve1. 254-255
column strength, 253-256
bucUing 011d, ~J 9. 247- 250 plasiic dcforrna1jon wi<l1h/thickncss Umi,
la1ernl-1orsional huckling, 428-43 1. 432-433
Cllf'\L'S, 25'-256 ( A, }. 297- 298 s
momem grJdìcn1 facior 1c.). 428--431. 432-433
dfcc1iw lcngrh ( KL). 261- 268 pla1cs. 283- 3 JJ
pla1c bcnding 111omen1s (M) •nd, 284-287
d fcc1ivc mooulu, und. 246--247 rciidual 11rc,s, 243- 245, 245_ 253
nominai ( P.), 254- 255 shear effm, 275- 278
p;·ir:,bo lic equation, 253-25() , len~<mc§S para.me1er (A,), 2S4. 291 - 293
D
re,idual m~>< ar.d. 245-253 s1ab1lny, 2S3-256, 21B-290 Dagher, H.. 261. 3 Hi
,lcndcme,, p.uamcrcr (~,). 254 >lrtngfh, 238-239, 245-253, 290-293, m-l0S Dailey. l<onald H .. 675. 741
~kndernc,, IJIÌO (K/Jr). 238-239, 245-246 rypes of, 13-14 Daly. Michacl J., 349. 361
ICC- iì.ec"IIUn~ . ! ) 1-258 uniform, 287- 290, 2%-293 Daniecl<, J. Hartley. 751 . 772, 773. &02. 8-lO, 846
1ububr , ections, ~59 C }~clll SlJ'CS\ wid!Mhiclrncs.< limits (A, ), 293-297 !)'Apice. M . A .. 558. SRS
web direc1 conn,·cdo:is. 720-711 .oncrete memhers. see Compo!.lle con!;truction Da"v;n, Da,id, 349..161
wìde-llange (l-l-•h,ipc<l) sec,io ns. 243-245 Connoclions. 258-259, 390, 51 )- 513, 655-747. Daugher1,. Brian K.. 349, 361
Compo,irc bcai>h , ~o~ ..80<,, 829, 837- 840 Su "l.to AlSC specilications Da,·cnpon, Alan G .. 10. 3 1
AfSC design lw, s:,,, angle >1rcng1h, 660-674 Oavids, W., 26i . 316
dctlection ( :i 1 ~ 11 -84() beam line. 657--058 Davie,. J . Michael. 469. 478
equiv3lcnt Wi~•jt. r11J-806 bcam-10-beam. 721 - 722 Davi.on. J. Buit-k. l'>S8. 739
plas1ic neulra! , 'e,, (PNA), 829 beam-10-rnlunrn. 691- 72 ) Da"e. lohn L , 224, 229.536. 585
Coruposilc con.,·. . <-•!. 04-848 bohed. see Joinrs 011wson. Ralph G .. 304. 316
ttdvantage-15 ,i:,\ -ta: i.·~1nr:1grs. ROS column ba~ plate., , 728-735 de Buen. Oscar. 765. 773
AISC-11 de,,;·n -~quiremr,nt,, 808 rolumn connec1or spacing, 2.~8-259 De Jonge, A. E. R .. 89. l54
AISC-12 ;i,-iai rr, . .nber rcquireme nts. 810, 811 conlinuous, 691-722 de Vrie.,,. Karl. 417, 47~
AlSC-13 lle:,,,r., 1 :•,-,r,1ber ,e.quiren1en1., , 185, end-plalc. 717-720 Dcad (D ) loao,. 4. B
fully remainell (FR), 390. 655 Dead lr,adi. 4
786, 809, :<11 ~.:i. 81 7, 819,822- 824
828. R4fl • panially res1raìncd (PRJ, 390, 656--057 D~p bearns. <e,, Pl•ie Girders
pla1c girders, su Pla1e rirders Ocflwion ( 1 ), 332-.l35, 74S....i50. &Ot>--807,
AlSC-14 com,·,a -., ~xiill and llexural member
rigid-framc knec,, 722-728 837- 8..\0
rcq uircn.1~ 1:.
si,a1cd beam. 674~87 llearos. ~06- ~07
Amerirnn Cc·, ln<111u1c (ACI) Code,
shear, 65~74 comJX'site bcams. ~37-K40
810- 8 1 l. s:. òrift ()a1 cril.l). 74S...750
simple, 390, 655-656, 658--074
ASCE S1a1e--d ' •-Art Survey on Composile s:cn keabihry of heiHns, 3..U- J.l 5
splices. 5 11- 513, 735- 739
Construc-t10:, ''•J.,. $06 , 815. 845 slabs and. S37-840
spli1-hcam 1cc, 709-7 17
bcams. 806-~il,, e•7-8 19, 829- 843 Ocfonnmion ( 1 ). 1~2--123. 189 r,60---070
,1iffcner., 694-701
composite ac••-m. 1'06-807 ~mglc. connecti(, n i trength. 660--6 70
uiangular bracke1 plates. 687-691
composite beJ~,, . 1105-805. 829, 837-840 fle xural, 660--670
wclded. ut Joi01s
composite colL1r.1m, 84.l--MS lo,d "'h11ionship.<. J'.!2-12:1. 189
Connec1or,;, ., ee Shear cnnnector~
con1inuou~ bcc1rr:., ~4{\..&43 weM<. IR9--l\16
Con,idère. A.• 238. 23~240, 3 I 3
detloc1ion ( ll j. ~Oo--801, 837- 840 Dcha ginJer. 51 R
Cominnous bcams. 432-433. 484-5 15. 840--84~
design pmcectun:,, 829- 83 7 Drr-Avani:i-ts.iatl. Norirc Gam-Vemi. ~~9. 361
AlSC spccilications, 484
ASD. 829- 37 allowable sl1englh design (ASD), 509- 510 De.•ign. 1- 3. l(>-11. 20--29. 583- '>R4
design srrentth (<f>;Mp) , 829 composi1e cons1ruc1ion, 840--843 allowablc strength de$i~n (ASOl. 20-'.! I.
LRFD. 829~'-36 elaslic analysis. 507- 510 24--25. l7- 2X
sak1y fa~tor !Obi- 331. 829 infroduc1ion 10,484 bllo;c shear fon:<' nmhod. l O- I I
effec1ive widlh (b,) for, 808-810 la1eral-1orsion•I buckling, 432--433 huilding codès. 20
nanges. 808-809 load and resi11ance faelor design (LRFD). foc1or, of sofety. 24--èR
girdm. 804, 809-810 493-508 lirsf-order =ond-mi>men1 rcliability
elhstic section ( F.) propen:ics, 810--8 I 3 plas1ic analysis. 493- 506 method~. 21
effocti\'ç ,cct ion modulus. 8 I 1- 813 pla<lic strengch, 484--493 limit s1a1~_.., 21
uncr.icl ed 1rnns<ornia1ion momen1 of splice,. 51 1-5 13 load and rcsi~tançt' factor ~ ,gn (LRFOl, 21.
iuenia (/"), 812 stafically indètcmùnate, 484--493 22-29
formed , ree! déCI:. 805. 1!28-829 Continuous rnnneclions, 691-722 philo,ophies of. 20--14
fùlly compo,iì< ,ec1ìons. 8 19-823 beam-to-beam, 721-722 prindples. 1-2
hi,rory of, ~<}4- 806 bèam-to--column, 691 - 721 procedur(. 2- ~
858 • lndex
De~ign (Cm1tim1t>d)
skelch. 583-584 conlinuous bcam,. 432-433 Faus1ino. Norbeno L.. 140. 155
spe,:ifications, 20 framcs. 262--263. 748. 759 Felton. J.,,wis P...W9, 4()7
.stccl srruc1ures. r. J inelas1ic column bchavior, 26&-268 Fenn. R., 181,228
Design Criteri a. ASCF.-AASHTO Join, lareral-lorsion&l buckling, 432--451 Fieldins, D. J.. 558, 58S
nonuniform momcms, 432 Fteld-weldcd connec1ions. 174. 175. 671
C'ommittec on, 349, 360
unbraced member<, 432-451 Fillct wclù.<. 171. 112. 182-185, 187-189
Design slrenglh (<f,R,,). 21-22. 71-72. 99-103,
Effective nei areA (A,). 65-67 191-196, 200--201. Se, a/.,o Weld., ·
189-196. 265. 325-326. 609-{iJO, 829. Su
a/so Nominai meng1h ( R.) Effoc1ivc rhroa1 (r,) dirnensions, 18S-186 allowable re>i<iaocc (Il.,). 197
EffC<:liVc width (bE) for. 808-810 •long edge,. l 83- l &4
AlSC-12.5 speciftcations for, 190---191
beam-columns (<l>M. and <J>P.), ~ I O composi1e coo.,1ruc1ion, 808-810 11Jlially loadcd membèrs conoect..i h)'. ~ ,
bcams (<PnMp). 325- 326. 829 flange,. 808-809 design shear strcngth (o/111.,,.). 192-193 201
bcaring. 101-103 girders, 809--81 O design meng<h (o/lii.), 191- l'l4
bolt,, 99-103 El Darwish, I. A .. 368. 407 effettive 1hro.al (<, ). 183. 184. 186
columns (t/>,.P,,). 256 Elas1ic (vcc1or) analy<is. 118-121 end relum,. 185
Elas1ic analysis. 507- 5 Hl lap joints, 181-188
load ,1nd resislance fac10r de.sign (LRFD), 21-22
shear ( ~~R,..). 10()..IOI. 192- 193 ASD merhod. 509-S IO bmit:11ion,. I82- 18S
tension members, 71- 72
LRFD metht1d, 507- 508 load-defonna1ioo rela1ionship, 189
lension. I OI Elasric buckling. _,,, Buckling maximum cffecti,·c ,Ìle. 183-1&4. 194--19(,
weld,. I89- 196 Ela,lic range, 42 ntinin1um e.ffecrh·e lcngth. 184
Elastic scction propcnics. 81~13 ininirnum sizc. 183
Des;gni11g with Steel Jvisls. Joisr Girder.s. S1<,el
Deck. 15, 30 composi le cons1ruc1ion, 8I0--813 nominai s1n:ngth ( R.). 187-189
Devìlle, Danny J.• 829. 846 dfective modulus. R11-813 Firs1--0rdcr method., of design, 11. 29-30. 6 ~
fisher. Gordon P.. 469. 478 16
uncrackcd lrànSformation momè'.nr ofinenia
DeWolf, John T.. 146, 148, 155. 472, 478, 729,
732. 735, 743
(/,,). R12 Fisher. lame< M .. 15. 30. 312. 361. ,!6()_ 477
Diagonal bracing_. 767- 768 El.:ctrodes for wdding. 40-41, 161. 163-164. Fisher. John W.. 51 . 59. 65. 83. 90. 94. 95. 122
186-187 154. 167. 22&.694. 710,717. 822.8:!S.829.
Die1s. Gordon R.. 671. 741 84-0. 846. 846 .
AWS specifica1ions. 40--4 I
Dillenbcc k, V. R .. 164--165, 228 Fixed-h.ise frame<. 760--764
base metal marching, 175, 186-187
Direc1 analysis melhod of design, 623-625 coa1ings. 161 , 163-164 moment mae:nifteat1on. 761- 1~
Disque. Robert O .. 266,31 S. 659. 740 Electrogas welding (EGW), 166 primary bcndioF- momen<s, 760--761
OUl-series joisrs, 15 Range<. 348- 349. 519- 523. 524--527. 555. 557.
Elccrroslag weJding (ESW). 166--167
Dobbs, M. W.. 399, 407 563--584, 698- 701. 7 I 2- 7 I 3. 808--SOO. Str
Elgaaly. M.. 261, 3 16. J45. 360
Dohrcnwend. C. O .. 472. 478 al.<o Wide-llangc (W) shapes
Ellifriu. Duane S., 403. 407. 457. 47g
Donnelly. J. A .. 182. 228 bcnding, stiffeners for. 698-701
Ellingwood. Bruce, 8. IO. 23. 30. 31. 332. 359, 360
Doublc-angle column secrions. 257-258 EI-Tayem, Adel A., 261. 315 huckling. 51 9-523. 524-527
Dou1y, Richard T., 693. 717. 741 compOsite èon':itrunion u5.ing. 808-&()9
End mùmcnrs in heam-columns. 594. 596
Downs. Tom. 607. 647 dfocuve -.·idth ( br }, 808-809
End-plate connecrions. 717- 720
Drif1 (.i ). 30. 748-750 holes. 348- 349
Energy me1hoà for plastic analy,is, 491--493.
Driscoll. OoorgeC.. 693,720,741.742. 751. 782-785 limi1 ,ia1e<, 519-52-'
772,773,801.802, 815. 8 22. 846 Encrgy-of-disronion yicld criterion, 44-45 n<,minal n1omen1 S1rell!'1h ( M, ). S2-1--517
Driver. Robert G .• 391. 407 Ency. William J., 368..l73. 407 plate girders. 519-5'.!3. 524-~27. 563-584
Orucker. D. C., 62. 83 Engesser. F. 238. 239-240. 240--242.3 13 propmtion,. 5~-5R4
Dunn, lian. 258,316.607. 616. 647 English. Gordon W.. 604. 646 ~i1..e (.'hang.e~. 563--~64
Ducrililv. 42 slendeme~~ r.ulo li.ntil~ Ar and A,. 527
Ep.srcin. Howard I., 68. 83
01<ctiliry 1ransirion 1empcra1ure. 43 Equihbrium method for plas1,c analysis. ~tiffC'ners for connections. ~~5. ~57. 698-iOi
l)umon1eil, Pierre. 265. 3 16 486-49i. 775-782 thicknes<. in ~pHt-tec c-onn~c.rion!-. ì l ~-713
Uux. Pere, E. 433. 477 Flaw,. 53-54
Em,opoulos. John C.. 256. 3 I4
Dyn>mic loads. 6-7, 51 Errcra. Samnel J., 469,478 Fkischer. \\'alter H.. Sii I. 585
Es1e,. Edward R .. Jr., i74, 802 Fk1ehcr. Th<>ma.~. 16~
E Estuar. F. R.. ~44. 3 14 Flcxurol Member\. ASCE-AASHTO Task
Euler. Lwnhard. ~36. 238. ~40. 3 t:\ Co111n1illet' ,>n. 53-l-536. ~85
[fanhquak< loads (f.). I0- 12, 2.l
furorod,• 4. 806. ~46 Flexural the"rv. 32~. 349-356
E,lsky. John T.. 469. 478 's ..
faick. DonaId R .. .,%. -107 Flin~. Russd l 7~9. 7-l3
En.sic, !mg. W. Snmuel. 65. 84. 822. 829, 846 ,..foor \1'brari1111.\ Dm' tv Htmum .,\cririrl. _\J~
Ecccnlric load,. 148--I 5~. 223- 227 Fiu\ c0re a,,: wel<ling (FCA\V). 16~. l65-lt\6
bohet'..1 ('Onnrc ti<)1\~, I 4S - i 54 F
Foky. C1tri,1ophcr M .. 8:?9. P6
inHiJI tcnsinn from. l4~- 1S:$ Facrorcd loads. n . 26-~7. n . HlO fonunko. C M .. I~ l. l ~8
linrs or welò& dcsii.neu fùr, 225--·227 Fe1ftl 11, ot' sc:ferv rrs}. '24 -<:ì Fouchc. f.dmond. I è>~
olanc ofweld;. appiic. ~6~- ~6-'. ~10-(i~h. 6S~-ò74. 72~-7:~.
..ingJe co,1nettiorn,. 67n- 6 ì ! I astcn,,r stcch .' 1'1-1() 748--7D. 7i-l- ~O,
Mlt~d c·<1r 0 u<!<:tiom,. 1l'ì- i J ,1 F:i,,1,:ncn.. W-4•). 37-.S'l, 9 ~ <i•). l~S-1.1,i. AISC.C2 d.:~lgn rt•qu\re-J stttn~th ..:a.kulnhon1:.
~la,tiqv~ck-1 ) Jn:ilysi, . i 18 l2 l. l 16- 223 11.;, .... JJ'-t ~e, a/,o Bulr, bi O, 61-l--l\l7. t,25--6:6. 760. 76:. 7it
:;r:~ !t"c'àifTiCT.I ç-f¾tlds. ~ 18 ,3 j Q ASTM proì'erue\, 39- IO. ~~ AlSC' ùc:.,;i~n for. 6\)1 ~2(1
, R' !) .mti. 1 ,,,. n~ oxial l(·1"i"n "" I 3~ I>:, tx:ani-,·,,lu;nn~. 610-6~6. 75·2..754
S'.1("';~ lhJ\., fa... )t·~~ . i2~-i.1,i
11 .. ·1:th I p!aMh: <lT•~t!~ ~1~. i .:J- L~~J. 209 -2 i(!
ccccntnc ,-.ì,~·ir, 12g_ I ~1..1 brnwl. ~(,2 f.l0--614. J.,o. 754--7~6. 71-1-ìll
hir;h-MrCt\ '• bGi!'- ç,_ ·., 01':lClll~. 7().1-771
'J!o .. 1, .... ; { ,.,n,,,_.f.. '.i. i~m~. ?d" 1i~. O/u...f/1' I nom!nttj .ftt~,12.th ( rt,t l)S 99 hud,linc. 75 1-759
' 'ci ·e ,,..,. r1ht:>1.:J ~,t:,. ,,·; c1,:s1ic. 75 1-759
nvet~. ~~- 1'\', ()0 '-; I fr.i,lkc' ,t~ng1h. 751-75~
., mgt:.. ;\,u:, , (: 'J1 inda,tic, 75 1
lyfk::, l •, l'f1~{.1;. 8~ ,lop,:-defk,·rìv u m~tho<l of aual)·"'·
nnlì11l<h~rl t,,>h,, rt!/ 7S2- 75'>
h 1l1;_•Ht" -.!t\'il~t}: ;_( 1/t ,tiffn,·,s ,.,,.,,rfa·kor (.J>). 75> 7:'-I
lndex • 859
cornp.1mon o( hrac~d :md u11brnccd. 748--751
Jrifl (la1c•n1 I deflec1,,.11. _\ ). 748- 750 Goldcn Gaie Bridn .
C l<l' be, ,uspensron bridge, 19 (pho10)
effr-.:tive lc11~1h I Kt). 262-26.l. 74K. 759 •o<. oer. J. N.. 3_74, 407. 808, 845 AISC-J3.4 e<lge diMance specificalitons. 104
fin•J-h,1se. 711'}-7"4 go,erùhan. Arvmd, 658, 739 AISC-J3. IObearing sucngth specìficatinns.
102. 104
gahlcd. 779 Graharn. J. D.. 344, 360.693. 694. 697. 701
rnn1, John A,. Jr.. 829, 846 ~nglc,. 63---64
Jo::.d an<l rc:-,b1:)n~~c 1,11: tor lÌ\!~ign ( LRFU),
Oravuy loads, 4, 26, 30 heams. 3411--349
7H5-~IJI
Grcen. Debol"dh L.. 736_743 bearin1: strenglh. 101- 104
mo11.enl 11ltl:J:!niiìcatu,1n, l>H)-617. 761-764
G~en, lloyd F., 659, 671, 740 boh. 101-103
plasti, ~n:,ly,i,. 77-1-X() I
dimension of. 60
pla,11<' hio~c,. 771-772 G~~ s. l.awrence G.. 332. 36!
Oangc. 348-349
rigiJ. 77~ - 72R Gn fhlhs-_lohn D.. 717. 728,742
Gn~lon, Gilben Y.. 83 gages for angles. 63
.. onc-~1ory. 774--SO I
hmg-slot1cd. 60
mulli,1111,-. 75 1. XOl - $02 Groove weld~, l70-l7I. 185, 186-187. 189-191. oversitcd. 60
rig,d-fr.uuc lnet:c,. 721- 728 197-199. Sr, n/<r, Weld,
shon-sloned. 60
,idc._,.ay. 750- 751. 798 oxially 10~ nicrnhers connec1cd by. 197- 199 stai;gered. 6 I ---64
si1npk ., ht.~._,r 1..·,1nrwc1ior1,. 6Sij- 6 74 cumplete J01n1pcnerra1ion (CJP). 170, l k 6• 190 s1>ndord, 60--6 1
, iability. 750- 751 . 759- 764 des,gn s1reng1h (,/,11.), 190-191
tc:n:,:.ion memberi, S9-64
da.,1i,-. 7S0- 75 I cfTcctive 1hrun1 (,, ). 185
we b. 349
pnm:try lx,:n,ling llH\OH.'nl'~ 759-764 load anù resi,1anee factor design (LRFD) Hollow structur•I stecl tHSS) beam,. 12-1)
~y.-ay m.,~nifo:r 8 1 • 762 76.3 189----191 '
Honl()t'c.-Cm..'OU~ sections. rorsion in. 366-368
unbrnctd, 26.,. o 1-1--{,26. 750-75 I. 756--759, nominalstrength ( R.). 186-187 Hoppe,. Bruce E.. 720. 742
771--772 panial joint penc1ra1ion (PJP), 171. 190 Hop1 ay. Jo,eph M .. 720, 74::t
Fmser. D(lllnld J ., '.!63, 26N, J 16 Grundy, Paul. 693, 741 Hormby, David E.. 659, 740
Frktion r.•duc1ion f:lclor ((,). 140. 1-12 Guide IO Desi~n Crittria for Bolted und Rfrt•tttl Horne. M. R.. 601. 604. 646
Joìnrs, 59, 65. 83, 90, 102 Hotchkiss. John G.. 36S. 373. 374. 390- 391. 407
Fric1ion-1ypc wnnccuon, . .<ee Slip-criticai
conncc1ion, G11id, to S1t1bilif),· CHsign Criterit1 /ur Mna/ Hot-forrned steel shapc,. l2-L\ 33- 3-1. 52
SrM'turr.,. 243,255.313, 265. 275--276, 277, Huang. Homg-Te. 717. 74-2
Frosl. Ronald \\ . J-19. 361. 512. 53-1. 5R5
Fukuml'lo, Yu,h,. 4~'.!. J77. (,05, N6 432--433. 452. 454. 546,558. 591. 602. 607. Huang. J. S .. 693. 694. 741
750. 764, R02 Huber, A. \\'.. 244. 145, .\ IJ
Fully re, tr:ti11cd 1rRl n,ornt'ntc(>nnectinns. 390. 655
Gupta. Ajaya K.. 659. 660. 740 Huber-von Mi.e,-Hencky yiel<l c rìtorion. 44
f'llrlon)?. Rid1.or.t w , li-lJ. 84()
Gurfìokcl. German, 2M. 3 I 5 1lybrid ginler. 5 I8. S.\4-536
G H I
Gaioni. Rcgin.1. ì'="il T'~
Haaijcr, Geerhard, 21. 31. 258. 291. 293. 314. 315 !-~ha~ mcmt,,....,-,. 12-14. ~68. 37.'-'\83
Galambos. Th, •X:c'f•' \ • H. 26. J I. 238. 24J, Hage. Sven E.• 6 17. 647 41 ti-1 17, -124---H I. 451-452. 45-1---157.
258. 259. ! 61 2~!. 266. JJJ, 314. 315. 316. Haij:rr, Jerornc F., 751. 759,772. 77J 472-476. 5IR-S19
32J. J25. •3' '~</. <96. 407.416.417,422, llall. Dann H., 255-256, 314 AISC-F2 sp,,,:ifica11ons. 4-26. 451
42.1. .Jtxl. 470 .; 1 i, 472. 476. ,n1. 536. 585. Hall, Preston M.. 228 A.ISC-F3 spe<'IJÌ(';,lìon,. 428
603. 605. (,ll6, ;l'\<i 6 16. 647. 7.51 , 764, 772, llalldorsson. 01tar P.. 75 I, 773 i\lSC-F-l ,pe,oflc.n,on,. 454---.J5ì
773. 801 , hO' , .'t: ~ : 5. ~29. 8-10. 845. 846 l-lamada. Sumio. 840. 84 I. 846 A ISC, F6 ,pcc11ìcatioos. -151
Ga1anakis. 10:1r11J ,. • ' I Hangers. 77 allowa blc str.,nglh de'1gn. 431
Galvanizcd h1~ _.-, n,.'h l>ùh, , )9-10 Hansdl. Wìlham C .. 806. 815. 845 beams. 12- 14. 41t\---ll7
Garreu.J. H .. J, ,t,7f.. 74 1 Hanson. Robcn D., 25R, 314 hia,ial benJm~. 472-4ì6
Gas metal are l"(·ldmi! iG MAW). 162. 164-165 flardash. Steve Ci., 68, 83 inel,htic ra1-...~_e~of. -' 26-429
Gaylorcl. Chark ' · -' ~. ,1,1, 472. 473. 478. Harichandran. Rnn,ld S.. 266, 3 11, la1cr.ll-1,,r\iù113l hu,·khng. J I 6-4 I 7, J 2J...J_\l.
518. 585 Haris. Ali A. K.. 751. 772 .JS 1-15~. 45-1-157. 472---476
Goylord. Ed'" ' : ·. ·, . 155..,61. 472. 473,478, Hai,,1cad, Gunnar A.. 607,647 litnit ~1~1t~,. .1~6--U l. .' 1~519
518,585. 7~1 -;, Han. Willar<l H.. 51 I. 5D lo~d anJ re~l:i.t:incc fo"'·tor cle,ign (LRFD1.
Gerard, GCNJ!C' ">f : 1 ; J I Aartmann. A. J.. 422. 432. 460. 470. 476. H7 -C4---r;L 4ìJ -..nh
Gcrc. Jamcd,·1.. • · ,. !()J.-10.l 41 7. 597. 695 Hassan. Karnal. 263, 316 n111110lo\ 1ni11~lri~. ~5.1.-157
Gcrslle. Kurt H ~.-i. l 15 l-latfield. Frank J.. 332, 360 pl;btir d<-fonrotion slenJ,mes.< rato<' limits ( ~,l.
Gcschwinllnc· lh, , F.. 765. 767, 77.l. 800 Hanori, Ryoji. 432,477 425
Gibbings. OJ\J~ ,: , >,,29 ~26 lfanrup. J. S.. 41 7. 476 pla,tic moment, ( .11,) J 17. 42J --12 S
Giever. Paul ~l .. , _ 31 Hauck. Georgc F.,603. 646 pu~ (S,i111-Venant'•) 1orMon. 36~..'7.\-l7-l
Gilbert. R. lan, 824. ,-.7 Hcchtman. Roben A.. 4 17. 476. 658. 739 s1rrng1h of undcr uniJonn momrnh.. J I 6--t 17
Gillen. Paul F... (.'·" '40 Hcins. Conrod P.. Jr.. 368. 391. 396. 407. 806. 84~ c.1r1"ll\~·a.\ Ì~ bendin~. -l.24-t .l t
Gilmor. Mirlrnel I ~5'). 660. 740 Hendrick. Alan. 718. 74 2 Wf'iOnll ,ul:,,C\ in. ~73-383,
Girders. 7--8. 181 !b:2, 321. 5 16--590. 804, 809-810 High-slrength bohs. 39-10. 87. 89-90. 9 1-93. warping lOnHm..'\7-1. .17~
beam. 321 135- 138 '"~'i\~-axi~ tx·nJmg. 4~1--t~ ~
box. 518 ASTM propcnics o f. 39-10. 87, 8S. 9 1 vield ~w,~ , lendi.'m~,~ rJtio limit, {.\,). ~:!7
composite ""~'i,uction using. 804. 809--8 IO ax1allen.sion on. 135-I 38 lmÌ,act \/l. 6-.~
cr.ane. 7-8 hexagon (he, ). 91 ASCE 7 pru- isil>n< 7 R
delta. 518 pretcnsion requircments, 91- 93 AASHTO fa,'lOr. 7
dfrclivcwidlh v,,. ). 809 -810 proof load. 92-93 lnadcquate wr ld j f1Ì1H pem.:1w1ion. I 7X
hybrid. 5 18 . .1.'+-53t, High-strength low-alloy s1eels. 34-., 7. 55 lnc:ompktc w1..·IJ fu-..i,,11. 178
Highway briùge loads. ~ ln~t.1.nmneou~ 1.:en1~r nf h,lt:ttioo. 121- 1~~-
plate. 181-182. ~1 6-590
Hill. H. N., 433. 452. 454. 4TT 7lt~785
Giroux. Lisa G~1ua!es. 65. 84
Holby. R.. 52. 57 lntcm\Cùia1f lr-Jn\\"l'~e , uff.:nen.. 551- 55~
G1ru. I S, 321 Jntem:1tiona1 .-\:-.~(t\· 1.111t\H for BrìJc.t· :md
G1,:ejowskì. M"rfou A .. (>()5, 646 Holes. 59-64. 101-104. 34K-349
AISC-D3.2 1ensio11 area speci1ìca1ion,, 60, 7J Stnomm,I En~i11ecri11~ I Ii\SBEÌ. Rll6. ~1>4
Glauscr. l:.rn,1 C .. 277. ~ 15 l11ternationol B,;;t,Ji,rg l~ •,h· llUC), I 1- 11. J~
Godfrey. H J .. .tl. 57. .l44. 360. SJ9. 585 AISC-Fl3. I reduc1ion spedfications.
340---'4 J. 348 loonuide,;, S,-.:rJ1~, /\ .. 65~. 7 3'l
wel. SubJ,h C .. ~58. 261. 314. 316 lqbal. MohammaJ, 806. S45
G..ilJbefJ!. John E . 37J. 3R8. 407. 75 1. 772. AISC-13.2 ;iu specifications. 60. 78
AISC-13.3 ,pacing spcdfìcauons. 104 ll<>h. Yt"hilo. ~-'~- -l77
XOI, 802
860 • lndex
lwankiw, Nostor R.. 597. 646

lycngnr. Srinivas,t H.. 806. g45 King. W. S.. 751. 773 Levi. Victor. 75 I. 772. 773
Kirby, Pa1rick A.. 658. 739 Lew. H. S., 8. 10. 30
lGshi. N.. 658, 739 l.ewis, Alben D. M.. JlOll. 1146
J l(j1ipomchai. Sri1iwa1, 261, 315. 422. 433,476.477 Lewis. Breu A. 659, 74-0
Jeffrcy, Paul K., 7 17, 742 Klingner. Richard. 432,476 LH-serie~ joiMs., J5
Jcnscn, Cyril D.. 344. 360, 681. 693 694 697 Klippstein. K. H .. 167. 228 Liupunov. Svia1oslov, 751, 772
701,707.741 . ' ' Knees. 722-728 L,bove, Charles, 258. 314
John Hanco,·k Center, Chicago. 34 (photo) curvcd haunch, 728 Limìl Siate,, 21, 59--00. 42(>...4)J
Johnson, C. Philip. 6.59, 660, 7 40 rigid-frame. 722-728 llan~e buckling, 519-52 3 • 511l--523
Johnson. John E .. 54, 57,806,846 shear lransfer in, 723-728 1-slJaped sec1ions, 426--Hl, 51 Jl.-~
Johnson. R. P., 840, 846 <quare. 723- 728 plategìrders, 518-519 -19
Johnson, Roben B .. 373, 407 straigh1 haunch {lapered). 728 serviceabiliry. 2 J
Johnston. Brucc G .. 43. 46. 57. 238. 242-24'1 Knosunan, Harry D .. 349, 36 l slip. 111
244, 245, 253. 266. 277. 3 i 3, J I4, J 15. 344, Kom. Alfred, 751. 772 tenston members, 59-«J
36-0, 368. 373. 374, 396, 406, 407 493 511 Korol, Robert M., 304. 316 weh buckling. 519
6(l5, 646. 658. 659. 671. nJ. n9: 74Ò. ·· Kr~p,, Roben R., 729, 743 Lin, Fung J.. 277..li 5. 396. 407
Joìn1s. SeP nl.">o Conoec1ions Kriegh, James D.. 659. 740 Lin. lihshya. 65&. 739
bolted, 65- 66, 87, 90. l I 0- 134. 139-148, 258 Krishnamunhy, N., 7l 7. 718, 742 Lìn. Philip H.. 3 73. 39<,. 407
nllo,~ablc strcngth design (ASD), 114-117 Kubo, Gcrald G .. 344. 360. 368, 373, 374. 407 Lin. T. Y.. 56 I. 585
bcarmg-type joinls, 87, 90, 105- 109, Kuho, Masahiro, 840, 846 Lind. Niels C .. 751. 712
115- \16, 139-140 Kukreti, Anant R., 718, 742 Lindsey. Stanley D.. 65~. 739
cornbined shear and tcn<ion of. l 39-148. Kulak. Geoffrcy L. 59. 65. 83, 90, 117, 122. 124. Linlels. 15. 321
148, 154 154,189,210,224,228,229,536,585.694, Liu. X. L.. 607. 647
ecccntric loads on. 148-154 710, 717, 736, 743 Live (LJ loa<ls. 4--6. 23
cccentric she>r, 117-134 Kuo. John T. C.. 368. 407 Lise loads. 4-{>
load and resistancc facto, design (LRFD), Kus.rnan. Ricbard L., 349, 36 l Lond and rcsìstancc factor tle•iin l LR.Fl)
105--109, 111- 113 2 1-29, 785-11()1 I
load transfer at. 7(}-71 I. advantagcs of. 29
slip-cri1ical, 87. 90. 9l-9J, 110--113. Lrunellar ,caring. 51. 52- 53, 54 AISC speòf,cation. 22-24
114--1 15. \16-1 17, 125-126, 140- 148 Lampon, William B.. 838. 847 ASD comparccl IO. 27- 28
tension mcmbcrs. 65-66 Lansing. Warncr, 396, 407 beams. see Beams.
reduction cocfficicnt ( U), 6S--67 L1pjoin1s, 169, 187-188 bolt.s. see BolL,
resistance fac1or (</>), 100. 189-191 Lmabce. C. P., 55, 57 columns . sce Column~
safcty faclor (0). 114. 190-191, 196 Larson. J. W., 349. 361 compres,ion membcr.-. se.- Colum.,, Pl,ac,
wcldcd. 66--<>7. l6X--170, 189-227 Lacerai displaceDJent (A) . 30 design Slrenglh ( </JR.). 21 - 22 ·
allowablc s1reng1h design (ASD). 196-- 197 IA1ter.il-torçional buckling. 413-4&3 facto.-,, of safct,, 24-28
axially loadcd membcrs. 197-209 allowable streng1h design (ASD). 431. 447-451 join~. see Joinfs.
bu11. 161. 16& bcams. 414-417. 432-433 ooe-Slory frame,. 785-$01
corner. 170 biaxial bending, 4 72-4 76 overload factor ( '\'). 21. 22
cccentric loads 011, 223- 227 bracing, 423-424.460-471 re.sistancc factor (d>). 22. 25--26
ecccn1.ric shear ami, 209-223 clianne-ls. 452-454 teosion member:-. Jee Ten~ion n~rnb(,n.
economie fai:tors for, 181 - 182 columo,. 4 I 3-4 I 4 wclds. «·e \\'clds
cdge. 170 cootinuou, bcanis, 432-433 Load-deforrnation relationship. 122-P, 1~
lap. 169. 187- 188 effcctive lèn~lh. 4 3 2-451 Load e.ffccts (QI. 21-23. 26 •· ·
load and resisrance facto, design (LRFD), elaslic, 417-421 Lood trani::.fer al lt!n~ion ,:onne(-bon!-, 70-il
189- 196 inelaslic. 422--424 Loads
quality (lf. 175- 178 1-shapc.d scclions. 416--117. 424--431. ASCE ì fac1ored load Combinauooi 2\ 2t
tee. 169 451--452. 454-457. 472-476 axial aod ~m\in~ combinod. .,,:r Beam<ot...,,
tem,ion members, 6b-67 latera1 suppon. 414--4 16 ax,al apphed to members. 197-209. 7:N. 'll
Joist,. 15, 16 (pholo), 32 1 lo;11J and resistan,·c factor design (LRFD). l•uckliog. HR ·
Johssaint, Dounld E., Jr.. 388. 407 424-431. 4.13--.14 7 concentrated .tpplied 10 beami. !-4l->'S
Jotnbock. J. R.. 4 17. 476 monient gradic.nt faclor t c.).
42 ~--l, \. cychcal. 826
Joncs .J. E. , 161. 228 432-433 dcad (Dì. 4. 23
Julinn . O. J.. 264. 759 SSRC Guide recommendations. 432-433. dyna1nic, 6-7
4.,2. 454 car1hqu.\ke (fl. 10-U. n
tee .scctions. 457-460 ccccntric. 148-154
K e lfr,·t 1Q\. 21-22. 23-24
weak-axìs ber.ding, 451-45 2
K- foc tors. 264, 265 zee ~e,ç-rions, 4 54 Eukr critic:t\. BS
K-serì~s joists, l.'i Latl,rop. R . P.. 69:l. 7 17, ì 4 I foc1ored. 21. 26- 27. 72
Kahn, Albcr. 75 1. 772 Lat1ice<l co lumns. '!76-'28~ frcquency di~trihution. 2~
K~lyam1ra1nan. V.. 3()4. 3 16 baltcn or luci1og !'late.s for. 277-278 gravity. 4. ~<~. _\()
Kt11 11,1h ~nel, Hai ~,111. 604, 606. 646 design or, 278--282 higlrway btìtlgeb. 5- 6
Kam in, ky. Eòmund L.. 6{J3, 646 shear e ffrct. 276--278 in1pacl ( f\. 6-8
Kanc. Tllomns. 21O, 228 L1wrcnc.,,. L. S. 26-1 , 759 li\'e (L), 4-6. !'.1
Kapp. Rkharò H.. 720, 742. L:iy. Ma.,wcll G .. 298, 3 I 5. .;22. 423. 460. pro<>f, 92-9'.1
Ka11frnan. E. J., 5~. .">'7 47()-471, 4 76,477 rain l'r ll'c (R}. 23
K.u,anagh. T. C.. 2M. 3 15 Lce. Seng-Lip. 259,3 14. t,OJ, 1)4t> ,l·nicl·. 2'.1. Sl.\-Sl5
Kc mp. ,\ , R.. 840. i:\,I<\ Lcet , Kennetlt M _ X-15 . 1!47 ,now (S), ~.1'.1
Ken1p11c ,. L,:on. Jr., 2o l. 3 1(i Leftler. Rowrt E., l 4Q, 351 ,i;uic. o- 7
Krnncd} D. J Lauric. Zl. 3, . : 10, 2'.N, '.\91. 4(l7. Lehi~_ ~lì UHI'';,;'"-.it\• .~:ttdu:~. 510. 5~3 !-t'2} -stmC'lm~ìl lle~ign ,md, '.\- 11, l0-~9
(#), 74/J Ll.·!\.11-;,;:,~u.:. t . \\'1lìiJ.-n11. ()17, t,4; 7" t, r ;; IMsi,>nal. .\88- .\Y I
J<.c11ned} lnhn B., 2(, ! J 1, Lc.011, H,~bcriu T.. 65~. -30, 7..;0 Jranswrs,·. !X7..2K8. S~- ~11(,
'(~l'r:r Rl>i'- "rl i ... ,i<J.t. <; 1\. lfH , t,03. 6Cfl, 646 Le~ik, D. r.. , te, ~'29 unifurin d1stribUll'd li,·<" vullk.·,. ~
hh ,M,41. R N . .'· 14 . 360. .-,,n 694. f,',J ì. 71) i L..:u. Kca,Clm, <,Q'1 ("-7 wind (W). \)- 10. ~-'
lndex • 861
JAnf"""''· Ana1ole. 400. 407
1A11iu1udinal sliffcnc,,, 557-559 unbraced frame.s. 61 4-6 17
Longnudinally S1iffencd Pla1c Girders. ASCE. Momcn1S(M) inteniction equaùons, 605-607
AASHTO Ta,k Commiucc on. 558. 585 bending (,l,f), 149-154. 2~~-287 322 325 monl<en1 (M,). 52>--528. 8 15-819
Long.worlh. Jnck. 840. 84 1. 841, 349- 350 . · -. • fully composite scc1ion<, 815--819
u>0n11•. Kcnne1h M .. 110. 228 r uJVaturc &radient facu,r (C ) 4' plastic neutra! acces, (PNAJ. 816-4\19
Lorcnl,. Robcrl F.. R!lti. 808, 824. 845 clastic (M), , 41 7.422 • · 28--01,432-433 platc girdeTS, 523- 528
Lo1hm. John E.. 388. 407 tlcxural lheory and. 349_ 350 shcar u~.).
98. 340
Lu. Le-Wu. 263. 315. 604. 606. 646. 751 764 forcc,. 121-12.4 shcar scctions (V.). 340
772, 77J. 801. 802 ' ' inertia
. • uncracked tran<,ormauun.
. r .
(/"). 812 tensile ( F'.J. 97-98
Lue. Tony. 403. 407 nom111~ •trenglh ( M.). 523-528. 8 15-819 ten;ion (T"). 59--<iO. 81. 97-99
Lui. !:.rie M.. 355. 265. 314. 316. 609. 6l 7 , 647 nonun1fonn. 432 1orsional mcmben. 391-396
750. 751. 772 • plas~c neuiral access (PNA). 81f>-8 l9 wcld.<. 186-189
Lullrcll. Larry D .. 46\1, 478 plast,c strength ( M,). 323-325, 417 424-425 Nonh A,ntrican Spt'nfluuio11f1>r 1he Du,gn
Lu12. l.cRoy A .. 460. 4 77 4 84-493, 689-691 . ' ofCold-f'orm~d Stul Stn,cwra/ Mm,b<-r.,.
Lyse. lngc . .144. 360. 368. 373, 406 539 585 platc curvature and. 284-287 J(I, 48. 299
~~~ I ' .. plate girdcrs, 523- 528 No,ch 1oughne,s. 43. 49,.50
Lyt1le. K. A .. 164. 228 pu~c ~orsional (M,). 374. 378, 380 Nms.40
rcsis!mg column bases. 733-735
M rotat,on (9) characierisiic,. 3 24-325 o
shape factor (f). 323 Ojal,·o. Morri,. ~91. 407. 42~. 41,0, 476. 477.
Macl>onald. Bn,~e D . 693. 741
• trcngih (ef,M,.) of tee flange,. 7 11 605. 646. 751. 773
MacGrcgor, Jame, G . 2\ 3 1. 617. 647
Machjne boli, . '\9 s1rc,nglh reduc1ion (h/ 1.,), 522-523. 528-534 Oktcn. Om<.'r S.. 751. 722
tcns,on and. 149-1 54 Ollgaard. Jorgen G .. 822, 846
Madi,011 Squar~ Gardon, cablc-,u,pended roof.
19 (photo) lorsional (T), 366- 367, 388- 390 O,nid' varao. Cym,. 227. 315
uniform, 4 I 6-417 Ondcrdonk. A. D.. 693. 717. 741
Madugula. M uri) K · .. ~()I , 315,316
Mains . R. M .. 707. 742 warping lorsional (M.,). 375, 378.380 One-Mory framcs. 774-801
Malik. Liocoln. 659. 740 yield (M,.). 323 Oppenht'im. lr"in~ J.. 695. 471
Mandell. Jame• A . :W9. 361 Moody, M. L.. 337, 360 Orbi,.,n. hmes G.. 751 . 723
~fonn, Allan P.. 7 1~. 742 Morgan. D. W.. 162. 228 O' Rourkc. Michacl J.• 8. 31
Mansouri. Ahduh•. ,, '.Jb H .. 337. 360 Mnrino. Shosukc. 751, 772 Orrhotmpic pbte girdcr biidge. 21 (photo)
Mnn11nl/or Ra,. , 2_,· !:.n~meer111g. 20. 30 Morris. Linden J ., 718,742 o·sneridan. l'ho!11'1S c.. 687. 68R. 689. 741
Maquoi. René 2 <: \ I 4 Mucller, Wcndelin H. m. 261. 3 16 Omcrt>ridgc Crossing. contiouou, tru,~ bndgc.
:.forino, Frnnk J :.•<, _;37_J60 Muhiaxial s1ates 11f Stress. 44--45 22 (photo)
Marsh. Jame, 11·.. _ 32 Mult'.uial Mres. effects on btitllc fr<1C1u,e. 49-5 1 O,·e.dnad foctor (-y). 2i. 22. 72
Manensi tc, 3~ Mult1s1ory Frnmcs, 75 1. 801 - 802 Oielcdun. Abaiomi O .. 95. 15~
Munse. Wiltiam H.• 62, 65, 83. 90. 140. 154, 155 Ozcr. Erksn . 751. 772
Ma$scy, Cnmplv'i. ''2 4.13. 460. 476. 477
Massonnct. C h,.. , .. ~ 186. 513,591,601 ,605. Murray. Thomas M ., 332. 359. 361. 675. 6 76.
606- 607. fi,I(, "ì ! -~02 7 I8. 729, 73 I. 742. 743, k22. 829. 846 p
MavA Charles . =· ·,315 Mutton, Bruco R., 460. 477
Pal. ShubClldu. l~'l. 2!0. 228
Maximum lifctmJ~, ,~t- , ~ 27 Pa.rabohc cquauon. '.'5.\-256
McCaulcy. Ro,,.__,., f> i;5s , 7J9 N Param:1~han1. fl.. 7.1.5. "743
McDennou. Joh,• i·. 2<-i . 116 Nadcr. Marwan N .. 659. 740 Parfin. John. Jr. 69J. 74 I
McGarrnugh. J; , ~... ~è'.! 8•16 Naim. Moossa M.. 751 . 772 Partial1~ rli.':,:U.tine-d ~PR ) momen1 conn~'"tiom._
McGuir~. Pewr J ., l' 4 77 Najcrn-Clarkc, F. Shi01a. 72. 1'4 .NO. 65tH>:'1
McGuirc. Wi!11 ,-:-. :'.! ls.Ì. 368. 406. 693. 717. Narayanan. Rangachari. 349. 361 P'a.,ror. Thon1a!\ P.. .J72. 47~
741. 764 Natarajan. Murugcsam. 534. 5N5 PJtel. Kiri1 V.. 6<>3. 741
McKee. Dean C. -~~''· 846 Narìonal B11ilding Code afCmuu/a, 9- 10. 30 Pcarson. K:u-1. 365
Mc Mu llin. Kun \ !. 6''1. 740 National Earthquakc Hazards Redut 1ion Progrw, Pekoz. r ,~•man 1:1.. J0-1. J 16. ~69. 476. ()(I~. 64(,
McNamara. Robçrt J l\! 7. 647 (NEHRP). 24, 32 Pem:e. Atan \\'.. 51. 5~. 57. 167.11:-:
McVinnic. Wùl'~,n W., 75 ì. 773 NEHRP Recomme11dcd Pm,•ì.<ìo"s /or 1/,e Peozien. lo<cph. IO. IS..12
Mcdland. l;m C'.. ..ti!J P 7 De,·e/opmtnt o/Srismic Reguln11111,sfor New Pho10,
Mehnnger, Vioc,:,1,. -;-~ l, -73 Buildi>1gs. 11. 32 he:urw l~n·\\<"'b _101~1'-. chan~l,c;. \\' ,h,tf"'=''·
Mehia, Kbhoi C . W. '; I Nei,, Vemon V.. 189. 228 ~md tubt-~. J~~
Melchcrs. Robcn E. 718. 742 Nei area {A. ). 59. 60--07 cahk·~l'"l)l:'nded r,·,of. f\bdi-,on S<.fu,m:-
Merchant, W .. 75 ! . ;7~ angles. 63--{,4 GJrdcn. 19
Mcn·itt, Frede,i(·k ;,.. 4'1'ì. 513 cffcctive (A,). 65..()7 l'flntin\.lou, tnc•:-. brid~c. Outcr"ndgr Cro~~lt1g,
Metal ioen ga~ \\'eld:ng (MIG), 165 reduction cocfficient ( li). 65-67 11
Miazga, G. S .. 1 JO. ~:9 s1aggcred holes cffecis on, 61-64 dome ruof. Bro,,n Uni,"o;11y. 11
Michalos. Jamcs 601, 647 tension mernbers. 59. 6()-{57 f.t~1c:m·•~- ~s
Miklucllin. P. T.. 39 7 40) Netherco1. Oavid A.. 422. 469. 476. 478. 658. 7.W tloor j,,1,ts :md si.:el Je,:~in!(. 11>
Milek, William A .. 511. 513 Ncwlin. David E .. 695. 741 g1r~r v. uh ~tud !1-heJr ùlflnr.:1<,11, tor l::a1c:ml
Mili Test Repon. 168 Nilson. Anhur H.. 469. 478 supJ>ùrt. 4S I
Miller, Eu2enc W.. 698. 741 Nodal b,acing. 466-467. 7M fohn H~"'-'-"'k C'ènt<r. C'hica~,,.•14
Minimulll Desi~" ltJlldsfor Buildi11gs ami Orha Nominai strfngth ( R.) multi,111~· iii;nl huilding twekkJ). 77~
Srrui·/ur,•,r (ASCE 7 ). 4. 8- 12. 25-27. 30 allowablc. 25. 80 <'flh<1tr,1pi< pl.w ~inkr briJ g~. 2 1
Miranda, Constanc10. 605. 646 beam-columns. 603--007 plat~ i;irdn, ,holl'ing \HldeJ ,1,ff,·11<•r,.. 5 1ì
Miskoe. w. L.. 22R bea,ing. 99 ri~HI fr.unc ,on~1ruL·1ion. 6~ò
Moment magnific.ttJ<m. 59<>-603. 610-617. 761-764 biaxial bending. 356 Scm, T~m·er. Chl1."'a!!r1, .:!
braced frame;. b I 0-614 compression (P.). 254--2S5. 299-.100 !1,bCà( \(Ud c.'l)nOL'tl,1r;, un l"imJi:c pn.lcf'. SO~
end momenis :md no joi111 tnmsla1ion, 599-601 columns, 254-255 ,p;iee 1n,ss n><,f. l -pj<.~111 Olli<'\" Bu,IJm~. 17
fixed-base frame.,, 761 - 764 plaies. 299-300 st.:d fr.&mel.\111 l ,ht'"' in~ e,tt.·n,,1 c.:olumn,. :,.,
,ide.w,oy, 602-603 (astene~. 95-99 ,ti."""f
stm.-1ur,il si,-.,1 fr.tm(',.,.lfl ten,11~1
)inglc curvuiure withrnu end rran,la11on, 596--59</ nanges. 524-525 n><h ••W
862 • lndex
~,ion bridac,
Goldtn Gala, Brid&e. •9 loftsitodinal. S.S7- S59 lbfflbo-Roclrbben). M. D_ 122."6
lffl>ÌOft.f,dd ICbOO 0ft plaie l lnlff, S42
"'""'· .SSS, SS7-559 Rin~. P. O .. 94. •S4
Pholoo (C,,.,1;,.,.,d) strcngth, bendin1 111d '1le>r combincd ror, Rao, N. R. lllaprajo. 244, 3•4
VK"l'Clld«• IN»: "-..ldcd unbrac<d n,ìd lrunr, s-19--55 • llaYindra. May-. L 23, 26. 3•. 3~ 359
749
......... fcld ICfÌOII. ~S'9 416, •76, S:16. 515.~. 647, b.&1s.'145'
~ unbnced rigid frame, •62 """'"· 519,523. 52S-S:W, ~549. SS5. SS7-S'9 Rlznl4. 2.ia. •n. , 78. ,s •. m
Piconl, Ow1e.. •62
Pienon, Gtoo)e. 75•. 773
woldod, •e•·•&~. s•1
Plain . 283-313,687-691, 70• - 709. 717-720,
R<Calftflllw llOCliom.. _ , . ÌII, 367...)M
lledf,eld, Rahon. 8. 31
Pinc~ira, Jc,st A.. 333,816 728-73S Rc:d&~ioo roeff'..,.. IU). 6 ~
Plncus. George, "60, 469. 477 .....i co,npreuio6or. 29(>-297. m bloclt . ._ , . (U.,), 61,.{!9
PinlJwn. Clwbon w.. 21. 3 • baie tOIUl<CIÌOOS. 728-735 bollCd teG<ion COllllffl>OM. 6S.«;
Pipe «<IÌOII<, • 2
Plrman. F. s.. -422, 476
bending, 283-287 cffcctive ae,-. bS--4>7
blactlias, 287-2'-'4, lOS--313 -lcltd lensÌOII C<MWICtiom. 66--47
PIHtic .,,,..y....
•2 •-•26.-49J...506, 77.wro• c0<1lkien1 (l ), 290 RcdocLioo ÌOCIO< C(1), 2:W..:!.S7
buring·typc conn«:tion,, • 2-4 22-• dèsign or m,mben ldfeclCd by. 305-3 • 3 RHwood. Richwd G .. .M9. 361
continuous banls, 493-506 ewtic (loQ!l, 290-294 R.egec. J. E.• 693. 694, 741
cne,gy nlelbod (o,, 782-785 slenderncu . - , . - (A.I, 29•-293 Relative bncin&, ~ . 769
<quilibriu.m mcthod for, 775-782 1n11,vene load (q). 287-2l!8 Reliabi.iry inob (/1). 2•-2~ :?6. 316-3'7
load and ruisu.nce fac10,- d..ign (LltFD). colllmn dèsicn and, 299-305 1teliabò•rty methoch. r.... -Ordcr ' " " " " " - - 21
785--40• critica• stress (F.,). 290. 294--295 Rentschler. Glc,,n P., 693. 720. 741. 742
one-srory frame,. 774---801 C"1VllUr<, 284-287 RescarchCouncil011RJ\'àedadllolw,d
, li1><ri1ic1I çon-,ion,. • 25-126 d.:s.ign, 305-l•l Sltlk'Ulral Joinu, 89
uhima1eS1ttnetJ,, 121-•2• end conncclions. 717-720 Re<W\.-h Council on s~ c.-
PIUlic defonnaliOII (A,). 297- 298. 327,425 plastic cleformation "'idlh/thickne.s hmits (A,). (RCSCI. QO, • S4
sleoocmcu ratio •imi,. ( A, ). 425 297-298 Res,duol <tre<s. 243- 24S, 245-lS)
widthllhicknns limits, 297- 298. J27 •hapc fa.:rors (Q). 299-305 R.,sistanct (Rl. 2•- 22. 26, •97
Plastic Duign in Sr,,/, 774, 802 stabi•it)', 283-290 all°"''"ble ( R. ). •97
Plmtlc O.sii• of Bra«d Multistory Stul Slill'cned ekmenL'<- 291. 298, 29'}-300. 30'.l-305 load (Ql di<uibutìon llld. 21-22
Fr-arM,, 771,773. 80• stilTcncr connectioo1,, 701-709 Rtsi!Unet f""'10r (4>), 21. 25-26, 72. 100. •19-191
Plà<ric hin~. 324-325. 485, 771-772 lop, 707-700 boli<, 100
Pl•.<1ic lk.-ulr.11 acccss (PNA). 815-819. s-29 venie••. 70• - 706 1..RFO. 22. ~ - 26
compooile beams. 829 ,1reng1h, 2')0..293. 299-305 lcas'°'1 manbers. 72
slah. 8•6--817 AISC provisòons for buckling alld po$1·
bucking. 299-:IOS
..eld.. •89-•9•
Ribbed bolu.. 89
sl«l be=. 817- &•9
Plastic unge. 42 nominol ( I'.). 299-300 Richard. Ralph M .659. 740
P•.asric strcng1h ( M,), )2~325. 4•7, 424-425, unifom1 cdg< compttssl()fl and, 290-l93 Rtett«r. l'lc-·i•k J.. 433,477
4&4--49) , 1>89-69• thiokness. 7 30--733 Rickcr. l.)a, id T.. 732, 743
oollapsc mcchani,m, 324-325, 48(>..493 cantilcver meth<,d, 730-731 Riel<-.. J•m<s M .. 6g, 8\. 659, MO. 7~
cominuou~. sta1M;al\y indctem\in;11e bc..ams. Jc,,iincqU>tion, 73•-7.12 Rf$"1 fr.unr Ctlft"°"'1>0n Cf~ <Cill'lined. ~ ~
4(14...49_1 yie•J hn<:approach. 731 RiVCt,. 88--ll9. 90--9 •
encrgy mcthod.~91-493 triangu•ar br.ocker. b87- 69• A..\02 (cart,or, •tccll rropcn;,,., n
cquilibrium m.:th.-.d, 486-49• uniform c"mprc.~s,on of. ~87- 293. .2'17 ,nnallahM. 89
1-shaped bcam~. 417. 424- 4 25 unstiflc ncd clemcnts. 29•. 297·-298. 299- :1<13 obsok .S<--.n<-e <1f. 90•.91
•21e1,,lly ,~1bk be;u,i., 32.1-325 virhl t.trc,~ w1dt.Mhid:ne.~ li1niL, ( >., ). 193-~97 ·~,,.. 01, 90
r..;'ut. R. li.. -¼O. 4 77. 478 Robc11., Tcl\"'-"C M .• .\44. "45. 3(1()
tri•niular hfocket p•atc.<. 6Kl)-69 I
P•atc girdcr,. •R•-182. s•6--591l Plug \\Cld<. 171. 112. •1!6.
20/>-209 Rot-,n,.....n. Antn11 R.• 264. ,•5
Roccler. C'hancs w_,~2. ,n. 1115, 741
h.·am, compared 10. 518-520 Point ~racing, •1~65
Rnllc. S T.. 41- 4,. 48. s,. ~i
hollcd. •s•-1s: Poi\..'<-\f'I \~ uoo (µ "t. 4~
Roll. Frcdcric. H~8. 8.it,
bo.,. :Il~ Pondin~. ,.16 .,.n
ood.ling . 51'1,.-~2,, 523-5)4. ~-'6-~-10 roro,. io,.., P. 12..~2 RollcJ(W, S.and Mi ro!"""' ...... ~ ; ,
11.r,~c' <l<l--S23. 524 ..\27 Poru,icy of wdd,. • JQ R"•k·d hc~m.<. ,,7 '\48
Port<r. I-fa• L.. ~,o. f,11\ 1146. S4ì an.,,.·a hk >1n,ng1h .ie-.p(A...'-l>I. 34•-341
r,u~ '"' ,, undcr. 9f...540 _\U.-348
,-eh, ~ t Q ~ ~~-~ H P<-."' ko, RIX'Cft A.• 311• . '41l7
, oncentratrd l<IJO<I, opp•icd to, 343- 3'11
J.,,t, <l ~ r,""'ctl. (ìruham. 43~ 471\
lold M d fC\l<lafl<."C fk"IO<Jtsip (I.RH)~
Oanvc,.. 5.9 ~V <2? 527..<~.<. 557. St, 1-<H,I Prandt• . •.ud\\lf, .19'1
34il-"IAI. "14\.~
i:}'hnd ~ I,... " , t ,;,f, \>ra) . Il 1,,nJ. 7U7 ; 1 •
l,,c~I -.·cl>) ,..Id,~. 34,\...\44
,,., ,..,,Uc..ri • u,. ~M ~I~ r1(\trr , c.:fTo..t, l'I t,r,h,•• ,~
l', ..mrr o'f Rr·tt·'1 /r; w ,,. .l'-I \ 1 \hrar nn . •,.r ~ -'
1ifTI (1· t...... ~ I'-' 41 1 3
#
i':':• •• .1...· ,, •• h ... tu, 1w n (h '"'}. Sll--'\23, l'n...Jrnrttvn•t.l h",n " ~ ·--· "'""' bl,c\·111~ .."\4~.\4A
1 ,~,
,~, rJf ,Jlr·,J ( n :, rw fnr I ,...,,,/ ,:11,I I ot ·, 1 /l !.,lii

"rii eni",.,1111p 1,u. 3,~
~ ~1 l
m,11,i11 , •1lu111 ,, ,rrc1,t:·lh • ~ 4i2.1 518. ., ,,,,I H ,,,,... ~ .,,, 111 · <-:. l ~.Q, •(<""-'>J. l<!\'Ql"'- ~~~ ,.,
R,01,oc l """". g~. lì-I"
5. < , l', )J,\0- ... '"' ,,.,,
11.., .... l)» od>.. 2\11, 314
• ., ' :-t"trtlllt ,), )\,, <·y l'\m t(11' • ~ 1 l 1l \ ('I)
R,• .,...... d,.,nC'.b(l.t.MC-
~ Op,N'{lo o:•1 I 1: t,; 1~ 1, ~ 1,S•t -,:i,-1 è l r,. t Rnth r, J M1-.i\at-l, ~~. ~' I•
f >iu im• ''1 n, ,. a... 11 t." . (1,7. 1 12. 1.111
& ..ii:'· "' ::1\ ' ·" ... 1
tl.Jr-:,:,··• ' .a to,.,,t,,:!, 4\;,, ' lh ~h J,""1 I n7. .\((I
fl •;e p•... , ~ • Q K,•"•1•f.J,•lud , IM. I~
•'. •1, •rn fU•Ì"f'1.'.., Mal, ""-"<f!· A,lfJL,r, 1:4, I~. ~\, llt,
... \!. ~-,
•,',[ '
•: , l I! I ~. 1:
1,..-1,- 1lll. : ~ ~- 11"- IIIO liii , 1"-
" \ i, ,
. ,~. '"· s~
lndex • 863
allowablc sirength design (ASD). 24-25
~ams ( n.J. 33 I. 829 ecccnlric. su Eccentric shc:ar
bolled conncctions. I 14 fosteners with no rhreads, 100--101 paumc1cr ( A). 254, 291- 293
columns. 274 now (T1 ). 369-370, 397 pia.stie defonnation limirs ( >.,). 425
wcldcd connections. 190-191, 196 lag. 65. 68 rario (Ur), 69-70, 238--239
Safe1y requiremcnt. LRFD. 22. 71-72. Su a/so nominai strength (T«l, 53&-549 web (h/1.,,) Jimitations, .523
Design Mrength plare gil'lkrs. 53&-551 yield srres. lirnirs ( A,). 427
Sag rods. 77 secrion strengrh (V.). 340 Slip-crirical connections (joinis), 87, 90. 91-93.
Saint Venan1. Adhémar Je.an Barré dc. 365 slrengch ( F.,). 98. 100--101. 114 110-( 13, 114-115. 116-117. 125-126. 140-148
Sak la. Shericf S. S .. 203. 229, 253 , tress on thln-wall open s«tions. 369-370 AISC specificarions. 110-J 11
Salama. A. E.. 337. 360 tension combined with. 139-148. 149- 154. ASD merhod, 114-1 15, 116-1 17
Salcm. Ade] 1-lclmy. 767. 772 672-<174 combined sh.ear and tençion of. 140-148
rhrcaded fa.srcners. IOI LRFD merhod. 111-1 13. 140-148
Sa lnion. C'har1C$ G., 16. 19. 30, 59, 162. 237,
rransfer in rigid-frarnc knees. 723-728 preicnsion requirerncnrs. 91-93
.122. 3.l.\ 396. 407. 4 15, 5 I7. 656,657.658 proof Joad, 92- 93
687, 688,689, 733. 7'39. 74 I. 793. 805, 816 yield srres, (T1 ). 44-45
Shear connecror.;, 805. 8 19-828 reduction fac:ror (k,). 140. 142
Salvndori. Mario G .. 417. 432. 476. 605,646 slip co,fficicnr (., ). 110
Sarnuel. Sanrosh, 457. 478 AISC design. 823-828
angle, 820 ultirnau, strcngth (plastic) analy<is. 125-126
Sandhu. Balbir S.. 256. 263. 114
e hannel, 8 I9- 820, 823 Slop<-<k:lkcrion rncthod o( analysis. 752-759
S:111::ithadaporn. S:ikJ a, 607. 608. M7 Slot wdds. 17 1. 172. 186, 206-209
S~ri,ley, Ed" ani F.. 7.15. 743 cyclical loads. 826
elastic design. 825-828 Sluucr. Rogcr G.. 8 I5. 822, 815. 829. 846
Save. M. A.. 486. 5 13, 774, 802 Smith, Bryan Stafford. 75 1, 772
Sm, ycr. D. A.. 3.17. 360 fatigue strength, 825~28
nominai streng1h (Q. ). 821-824 Smith.C. V.. Jr , 266. 315
Sa, '11, l,hwar C .. 607. 647 Smith, J. F.. 52. 57
S~yrd. S A. l,IJJ. 647 nominai strcngth (Q.J. 823~24
spacing, 820-821 Sncll, Roben R.. .H9. 361
Sn11i. John. 56 1, 585 Sno-.· (S) load,. 8. 2.l
spirai. 820
s~.vJ.r:. A.• 263. 316 SnyJer. Julian. 259. 3 14
stud, 805 (phoro), 819-820, 822- 823
1>-:,1, ,.lcr. I .co. 658, 733, 719 So!ral. lqhal s.. 601. ~7. 616. 647
Shear rnodulus (G) of elasricity, 45
Schrlling, Charlcs G.. 167. 228,522,523,534. Soumchniknff, l!asil. 396. 407. 657. n9
Shedd, Thomas C., 128, 518, 56 l. 585
56 I. 585, 75 I. 772 Spedfico1io11 /or Higliwny 8ridgt.<. 10, 30
Shdl-type stccl strucrures, 18
Schmidt, Ricbard J .. 44. 365. 368. 406 Sp(!(iflcacù,n for Stnu·wra/ Sul'I DiAildiugs,
Sherboume, Archibald N.. 304,316,344.360. 20-21. 30
Schol1.. H .. 6 17. 647,751.772 693, 694.697. 701
Schramm. R. E.. 181, 228 Specijit:otions fn r 1he Dui~n nnd Conttrur1fo11 of
Sherman, DonaId R., 245. 259, 3 I4 ComJ>o.<i1' Sla/J.,. 829. 846
Schreincr. Nonnan G .. 675. 74 I
Shermer, Cari L., 124, 154, 399. 407 Specific1tions, strucrur:il sr~I. 20
Schricvcr. W. R.. 8. 31
Shielded mera! are welding (S MAW). 40. Sp~tk. Rnben S .. Jr.. 8. 3 1
Schuh1.. Anuro E.. 75 1. 772
163-164. 192-193, I9(H97 Splices.5 11-5 13. 735-739
Schu11., F W., 62, 83
,,llowablc sircngth design (ASD), 196-19i Splir-he~n, ttc tonncetion,. 709-7 17
Scrivcne r. J. C .. 617,647
AWS A5. J specifi.-uions. 40 Spring cons1an1 (Il). 71SS
Sr aburg. Paul A .. 368. 407 AWS A5.5 specilications. 40
Sea.rs Tower. Ch,cngo, 2 (phoro) Springficld. John, 471. 47R, 7S I: 772. 77]
design shear strcngth (d>R,....). 192-193 Sputo, Thom;;s. 457. 478. 591. 647
Seatcd benm COl"l~Crion,. 674--667 cìcctrodes (E). 40, l 63-164
sriffencJ 6~l 687
S1obili1v. 2S3-256. 283-290. 305-J 13..,'.!~-33'.!.
lo•d and rcsis,ancc facto, design ( LRFLJ). 39 1_:397. 465-470. 55&-557. 750-751.
unstiffent-ll. 6 74-.6g I 192- 193 759-76-!. 786.
Second-order ct'fcc". J /, Sh,:,cmaker. W. Lee, 7 18, 743 Ser. al.,o Strut turai Stahih1y Re>t'~rch Cnuncil
Segc.din, Cedi M .. 460. 477 Short!d construcrion. 81~ (SSRC)
Sei,mrr ba,e sh;,;,r (V). IO Shrivas1ava. Sure<h C.. 255. 314 AI.SC-C I tle,ign <pccifièalic,n,. 7$6
Sdsm,, dcstg11 co-;ffic,,·111 (C, ). IO- I I Sirlcbouom. Omar M .. 44. 365, 368. 406 hcarins ,uffcncrs. 556-557
Seis,:rr• Ot<rg11 \fm111ui, 12•.n Skle,way, 345--348, 602- 603. 750- 751. 7Q8 bendin~. -'<' f Bendrng
Sei.m.w P,m faiun~~ f~r Slrtff!urc:I Sreel frnmcs. 750-ì51. 798 bracini,. 465-470
81<i/t!1'1/!,<. 24..u momelll magmfication. 5'>6·-6!13 huc~ !ictg. (('t' Bud:1in~
Selnc.. Rvnalò. i ti !. 128 "eb buckling. 345-348 rnlunms. 2$3-2~6. 5S6· 55i
Sen lc, 1<,aJ,. 23, 53- 5... ~;:qu s. 82l'-~21 S,c,., Avinadav. 397. 407 compr~.;-,.ic111 m~m~r--:. 253-2.._~. ~83- 190
con. 1,o~a,, con,!ruci,on. XJ3- 8i5. l\2:•-821 Simaan. Amir. 469. 47& fr•u>t<. 750-75 1. 7~9- 76-l
foti~l11. "itn.:ngt!·1<1nd. :U- 5,l S,·r,iu, Emi I. 8. I O. 30 I :tera! bcams. .\22-., :-~. .\91-,'17
stm• ,., :ql. S ! ~-ll I5. 820- 82 I
lype, i;.,t r)
$i,.1plc shear connoctions. 390. 655-"56. 658--07~ ph1e,. 283-190, .,OS-.!J,
S1·rnd.irJ dc\'i.,uon. 1t,
ungle strengrh. 660-{\ 74
Scrv,c.•. I ur_v ' 1 ~~-337 l•lock sheat·. 660 S!<.J1Wmd Sr,1·,·ifit.'ati<m\ fi',r lli.r:h 1r1n Rrld,r:n. 5.
bèUOh .,,_; .... :•; elip angles, 660 7. 20. 30. 8~ I, 8~5-81~
deOc.r·:i. , 1 !. n~-U5 ,i,wble-angle. 658-659 51anJ11nl S,·,•1b1d., {ur \\'eldinK, Rru:.111s artd
]imit L,,, "': srngle·plate framing. 659 Nonde.rt~uo, n F:..w·,11na1w,,. 1i.t. I S \. ~29
pontli:i:: ,t..- '· 17 reç fra mi ng, 659 ."-t~rk. J.tn W. 8 .. ()4J. 7-:1
Mre~~ tJ,~: , \ .{3? Simply •upponc<i beam<. 829-837 Sta,c-c\f-lh.: -An Sun t) i) n C11 n'IJ')OS.ite
Shah. Kmir ;, ;.4 ~ 3$ ! Sind:iir. G. M.. 54. 57 C"11<1n1cti,,.,. ~OS- XOn. ~15. S~5
St:ilc~ of !tiUC,,. .,·,·,~ Yid,i ,Lrtnglh
Shaolcv. F 1,.. - . 239-240. 242- 243. 3 n Sfoglr Span Rigid From'-' i11 Sue/, 728 7~ ~
Shape fad0r, O . '19--~05 Sinde-angle column s.:crions. 159-26 1 Sr:nlt0p.'rtlt-.... T~L'<lon,. IO. .li
Slabs. 806. 8 I6-81 7. 837-84_0 S:atic h•,11.I, . n 7
Sharma. Sa,)•,,';. ,r:. 64? ,
composite construrtron usmg. 806. 816--Nl7. Steel. ,·,·r Am,nc.m Snciet)' for Te~tin~ and
Sharp. M;,urk• '· . N . J J<,
837-840 M~rrriah ( ASTM ); litruetor.rl , rcd
Shear ( T) 5,·1rrl Cm1;1r11ctirm M-.mwd, .\O. 6~l
beam~. 337-H< deOection (~) and, 837-8~0
plasric neutra) aecess (PNA ). ~ l f>....& 1IS S1<·d dcc~in~. Ih t 1•ho1u 1. SO\ s1i:-s:9
bendin[t ,m~'>r ù :ò, •lrt'nglh. 549-551 Stet'I Joisr l!1\1t1u1e (. m.
I~• .lO .
block, 6!!-6'.1. r,,,u Slag inclusion. 179-180
Slavianoff. N. G.. 161 Sre.:J srmcture,, I. J. 11> ~- Su 111.<t• (\,mp,-.u,·
bock),ng ur,,f ·r. <; 1~~549 con~1ructinn
cenrer, 37() 17 !
Slenclcm<:ss rario. 69-70. 238-239. 254.
291-293. 425. 427. 523,527 <k,i~n Jnd. I• .1
~'Olumn;. elk~r ,,l <r:. 275-2711 I 3 fra~s'tl. 16-1~
llange buckling limi1< A~ an<I A,. 527
des,~n ,tn:oi,u, l,s,ft ./. JOI.J...101. 192- 9 sht-11-type. 18
864 • lndex
sp,:citic~1ions and building codes, 20

suspcns,on-type, 19-20 tensile (F!). 97--98 IOlld and rc:, i,ianc., fliC10f de,.,gn (l.JtFo
Stewan, William G., 337, 360 tension (T,). 5 ~ . 81. 97- 99, 101 Sumncr. Em~t A .. 718. 742 J. l'I?
Stiefcl, Ulrich, 8, 3 J tension members. 59-60. 68~9 Surry, Dal'id, 10. 31
Stiffened elcments, 291. 293-297. 298 2 99--300 usablc, 22 Sus~•ion-1ypc 1Jcel •truclure1, l9-2()
303-305 ' ' Stress S"·aondl, Petn, 1119, 228
nominai strenglh ( P.), 299--300 bending {u ), 351-352 Swanson, larots A .. 711, 743
pia.stie defonnarion wid1h/thickness limit, (À ) criticai (F"). 248, HJ-257 Sway L1J, 30
298 "' index (UJ, 337 Switz!.:y, Hlll"old, 21\-1, 3 I ~- 751. ìì2
plate con1pression, 29 J multiaxial effe,,1s, 49-5 J
shapc factor (Q.). 299-303. 303-305 residuai, 243-253 T
yield SlreSs width/thickncss limits (A,). 293-297 scrvice load (q). 813-815, 820-821 Tables
Sliffeners, 694--709. 765-767 shoear flow (Tt), 369-370 ASTM Slcel dcsignation, . J5--37
beam-10-column cormec1ions, 694-709 shear yield ( T ,). 44-45 beam--00IUJT10~
AISC requirements for, 6%-697 censite, 97-98. 295 avcrage vatues of p, b. 1111d b,
compression regions. 694-697 torsional. 373-383 cod!kiems, 627
horizontal, 694-701 yield. 33, 42, 293-297, 326 "alues for e,. -.ith nojo,111 ~ 5 9 ! ,
1ension regions, 697-70 I Slr(SS-strain curves. 41-42, 46-47, 47-48 beams
vcnical. 701-706 atmospheric temperature behavior, 41-42 defkction relalionship;, 333
bearing, 556-557 engineering, 41 moment gr.idien1 factor e, compari"""-
buckling cri1erion, 557 high-temperature behavior, 46-4 7 429
column stability criterion, 556-557 su-ain hardening and. 42, 47-48 par.ibolic s.,gment, non-uoiform beadut
web-tlange coooec1ions, 557 structural steel propcnics from. 4 1-42, 46-4 7 rnomtnl '-'• · 430
bracing provided by memhers, 765-767 1ension 1est for steels, 41-42 plastic defonnat.ion slendemc,,. l1bO
compression regions. 694--697 true. 41 limi1s (A,), 425
locai web yielding, 694 Stringers. 32 J pl~s1ic defonnatioo
web budJing, 695-6% Strohmcycr, A. P.. I6 I widthithickness r-~110 limns (l ,). 1~ì
web crippling. 694---695 Structural design, 1- 32 s~ction mòdulu, (S,. S, ) ,·alucs. 3~
flenges, 555,557, 698-701 SU1Jctural Engineers Associa1ion of Califom,o web li mii. I, /1, -.·he11 ~liffenen; an, ne~
intermedia.le t.ransve.rse. 551- 555 (SEAOC), IO, 32 used. 341
adjacenl panels. 553 Struclural Safoty. ASCE Tas~ Committee on. 21 . 31 yield s.ltt.~~ !,,:lc:ndcmess ratio ltmib. 1 J.. ,
A lSC rcquiremen1s for. 55 1- 553 S1ruc1ural S1abili1y Research Council (SSRC), 427
s1jffness requiremenL 554 243, 245, 254-25.S. 277- 278. 843. 846 yield stres.< widthltbidness raiÌ() Jimti.
;1reng1h requiremeni. 554 composite coluinns. Task Goup 20. 843. 846 ( A,) . .l26
1cnsion field actfon ami placemem or. 553 Gu;de. Jee Guide ICI S,ab;/;ty DniJ,?n Crjtr ria bolts
web-flange cunnections, 555 /or Me,a/ Struc111r~."i .illoo."Jble shear stress, l>earìng-ryre
plate g irders, 551-559 1:Hticcd colum11s. 277-278 connections. 141
bearing. 556-557 parabo!ic curv.,, 254-255 design strrngth ( ,t,R.). 102
imermcdime tranwers,,, 55 I - 555 Structural s1eel, 12-16. 33- 57, 16ì--168 cdge distances (AISC-J3A\. 104
iongi1udinaI, 557- 559 alloy. 38 marlcings. 92
;:,h:tcs, 701-7G'9 ASTM de,ìgnatior.s, 33-40 nu1ro1aùon. 95
tee sec1iom . 701 - 706 a1mo<pheric temf"'ra!urcs an,I. 41-4~ prel1'llsion rcqwrcmeni,. i AISC-H 11. O!,
,e:n<,1on regi-on,;. 697- 70 l !x,1lTlS, 12-16 propenics of. 88
colum11 s1reng1h, 7(X) brinle fracture. 48-51 bnttk frac1ure n,ks. :'i~
11.,-.;al flange benùing, 698-701 carbon, 34-37 C<.\lumn!rt-
w~b,. :i5~. 557--559. 69'1-696 cold-fornmi. 13. 47- ,8 adjusuncnlr, ,1f 1-estraini fac1or Gi.-.
'Stiffn~~-:; ~oeffi::icm (~). 752- 754 ~ornpic:...s.ion. ! ~-! -i incla.stk buclling, ~67
~uft 1,':*'sl d~ign c1iu.·riu n. 69- 70 corro~iun rcsi.\taucc. _";: t ~S--~6 ax,al comprc~,ion. 258
fa~1c n-,,. W --40 compo,i1e roost"'cllon
~;::~k·•~l: Frook W., k 266, 31 5, 7~/J. 729 . 731.
, .::. >!().), 824. f!45 faligue ,ir-eng~'l. 53- S4 modular rati,1111) ,-a1ues. 81 I
high :cmp,erau,rc:, and 45-4'
5t0;r,;,,1, s,: n.
1<!\l 263,316 nominai ,rrength (Q,) for qu(! and
S;o,11. R n:. 52. .57 higl1-,ueug1b low-~;;oy, 1+-37
hN -formed, : 2~13, 3.\ .'4
<·hannel shcar (1_,nnectJon>. 8~4
frame ,way ma!lnif,~atl\"lll fa<'.lor 8: .
.:!-trnm agìnj!. ~:;
la01dlar 1carsng, ~~--~.- ""n1panson or ,atue,, 7t,~
S-\i"arn b:u ~1,·ni!'JJ, ,4-.l, -17- lij 60
) ~· 1lb, l(;')JJ'I, t
'" }'l
rnr,1~1ial I.Ollghnes, 41-4~ f.<we• for hok, in 3ngle,, 11.1
':wll(th
mcn1her -. 12- 16 k,aJ.,
I ,:1s, JOO..i01 : l4 P"-'i'"r ,e,. 31-57 ,:ombmati\m'-. ~ti. :_7
~lr:i' n ha,Jcmnr, 47.... ~ umh-..rm h, r. ~
he1nr:· 111 •• ). '-IQ, iGl w,;. 114
' "~" , 1ra,n b<-ha,1d, .J !~2 plat~ IUfclCI'
i)l,,ck •li•:"-1 ((,.,) . 61, 6<l 1cn,,,,.,. U. 14
; , ·!1un:1~ :3~ 2~~-Y. 24~-- ~~t,
i'la.\ltc hud.hnjl c,>cffictrnt I l , I. • Il:
-.ca1hcnn1·. 3.ì ~~-~ 1na>Jmnm ""'' ,knJcmc" ,~ ,. l
, ..,11oi1rc, t..:1•<iing a;,d · hc. u- ~49 .~~ I " cld..~ 0 1,1v 167 l!l~ hm11allt',11,. ,!i,l,l
. omp,e, ,1,n rn<:rrtbcl'\, 231;.-239, Z4.~-~~ ], weld••w. 41i .1 t
;2'lf~ '.''IJ )<)<} .:;;_i; , lt 11drn1c,, rn110 hm,1, ,, anJ ~ \ : •
y1cld ,ir, 1~1.1. 31. 4 , ,4-1.~
l\tt'\'l':-... 2~<>. :"t~;~} '-tf'Cll)!.lh ,allK", ,,f M'.., '1 h• \ • , .
S<n11 lll'T•I 11, ldm,, C ~lr \~. 57. I 77- l 7~. I~1 1. 1, 11
<l<-"ll' . ne !),,"gn lter.gth I <H ".) ~51)

S11111l, J<'hn H. A. ~9. M. 81, <111, •1~ . I~ J , t,' ,
J:1,ll'"C.• 9< •)<.: 7Jll. 71' 1•b1r,
f.1tl~~t." •O 't4 rt~,11, ,k!,'fflllll1,>n • 1J1Mll1>.~ -
S t) Cr, I· I .1 17,476
h mi~ l:tt<:,. :! I hnut, tÀ,), ~
~ uhnll'~('s.l .r \\ Cldm,1\ \ \V). 11 '(Il l'll 111•
H~urn~:ru, Mc1,rteflh } •fJ
) t 'I ,1110.-.,Nr ,m:,,rth ,I.:,iin (/\SI)). IQ7 \ldd \lf\"\.• ,_ 111th'ltl.. l1le'>-• '-*' .....
!, mdn,4l, Nominai bllt·n° 1h ( H.,
\t·,, 1) /\WS /\~-I7 ' !)I'( ,1 "' 1uo11,, .JO, 41 11 l (A,), ~Q(> ~ l
11,,tùh· ,H., c:qu:.U1t)n. 2~.:' 2:'56 AWS A~ 1.1 w c, ific»11,,n, 40, 11, lb~ m,hu, ,,t i:,, 111111111 tr), Il~•
1i:..,w ~~~-491 J r,tffl ,tu-.,r ,trrnpm (J,H. .. '· 1•11 r;·h~l>thl> uiJc--, (,Il), !!>
111:.:c 1•u'111 r•, 5?.2 55 I cl.-.tr,klc, (Hl ~11, 11. l Il I , 1CTI,
plalc 291} 2'l1. 299 31/) p t1utul.11 Ìlu)., I·). lb~. l(.,.l J'«'l'<"RK'• 1•1. \S 1t-
JII<; I tr, ')ta JI (T)
lndex • 865
u,c-. ut. :07
rcn,irn1llh.·1nl ~ r <ipedficatum refcren('e1o:. 73 introduction 10 , 5K- SCJ
1t1r,i,m li mii na1es. 59--6() warping (v.,). 374. 378-380
hllàling c,,~tlt~irn1 (k) ,·alue, , 368 lo:idandr · f' Tur.<~Oltl1/ Anolysi., ofSrul Mmthtrs. 376, 386, 389
csi1111n:"' actor design (UlFD~ 71- 77
rdiJhaht)' i,ldo:, ( ,(l) ,aluc,. 386-387 AISC Sf)ee1fica1ion. 72-73 To,s1onal end resu-aints. 390-391
~lfe,,l~,. un. design flrength (,/,Rn), 71-72 Torsional moment (TJ. 366-367. 388-390
weld.1b1hl) chcm,cal an:tl) "'· 168 <>•crload rac10, ( y). 72 Toughncss of materiai,. 42-43
W~'.}1lillì,! rcs1sL:1nce ractor (f), 72 Trahair. Nichola.s S .. 39 I. 407. 422. 432, 4-0(),
dC1,,.lf'O\.k, . .l(l lo.«11ransfer ai connections. 7(}-71 469,476.477. 47R, 60S, 64b
') 111hol,. 17J. I 7J net= (A,). 59, ~ 7 Transition ~mperature. 4.1
wekh nominai sucnglh (R.), 59-<,0 Tnn,vcrsc loads lq). 2117-288, 594--596
beam-columns, 594-5%
allt•\\ ,ahlc rc,i",111,c ( R,. ), 197 reduc1ion coefficiem (Il). 65-69
rods. 77--80 ela,tic buclding under. 287- 288
J e" g" ,h,ar s1rcng1h (4,R•• ). 192. 193 uniform, 595
<ina)?n ,1rrng1h (</>R,.). l'J<l-191 saaggen:d holc,, efTects of. 61-67 Triangular bracke1 plate,,, 687-<>91
ei'lc,11,·c throat 1h1,·kn<·,,. 184 siiff=, design critcrìon. 69-70 design rccommcndations. 687-689
lilka n'IC~1l requ,rcme,m . I87 T~n.<ion •treng1h (7,). 5~. 81. 97-'19 101 pl:.stic Mrength ol. 689~9 I
lìllet liO. 18~. 192, 193. 197 711-712 .
Trìa<ial lo•ding. 49-50
linc<, 1>ropcn,c, a,, 219 bohs.97- 99, 101, 711-712 Tubular column <eclion,. 259
m1niu1uru , i1..e of. l83 Ice conncctions, 71 1- 712 Tung. T. P.. 417. 476
T.ill. Lamhert. :44, !45. 259. 3 14 1cnsion mcmbers. 59-60. 81
Tallin. A nJr< 33~..100 Ten,ion rese, su Stre<S·strain bchavior u
Tamberg. K t, 39 7. ~07 Thambira1nam, David P., 735. 743
Thin-wall smion,. 369-370, 397-40() Uang. Chia-Ming. 845, 847
Taylor. Arthu, C ~00. 477
closed. 397-400 Uenoya. Minoru..149, 361
Te:,ririg foìlurc Ni.l
combincd opt'n and closed pan,, 400 Unbraccd fr:uncs. 30. 263. 614-o26. 750-751.
Tcoctlge. '-' :'·"' i<!. 607. ò47 752. 756-759. 771-772. SOi-Ml. Sual<o
T<..: joinl<. ,r.q optn, 369-370
Frame<
Ti:e s,•ct1111:, I> I\ 257- 25R. )68. 457-460. sh~r llow (n). 369-370. 397
AISC dcsrgn for. 614-626
1>59. 701- 'tY,. 7()<)- 71 7 shcar s1rcs6cs due 10 bending in, 369-370 effccti\'C length (KLJ. 263. 748
bcam\, t ~ .. I 1 torsioo in, 369- 370, 397--400 dastk budding. 750- 751, 15f>..759
column ,. ·· i,-25N Thomas. F. P.. 89. 154 moment magnification. 61~17
llangel.h. _._,,_ 711- 712 Thomas, lan R., 693, 741 muhislOf). 751. 801-802
framrn.... l,,,,>«.110 11~. 659 Thompson, Elihu, 161 one-,1ory. 771- 772
l:lleraJ-1 •,·na.l bt1.:khng, 457-460 Thornton, Cliarles H., 52, 57,210, 229.675. 676, plastic hin1es, 771-772
nH)ITlC111 •:r,·r1~tl1 {<J>M,.) ofllangos, 711 710,711. 712. 716,717,729,731, 742.743 sid<,11oai. 75H-751
p<)•ing ·'<'•'"· 709-7 17
Thru-1hickllcss dirwion. 52
Thiirlimann. Bruno, 291. 293. 315,493.513
, Jope-lleOection m<thod of anal),i<. 75(>-75'l
strcnfth of. 752
split-hc! ~ .innections. 709- 717
Mi Oenu" ,, co nnc:ctions. 701-706 Tidc, Raymond H. R., 210. 228. 829. 846 Uncrack.cd 1ran,fomumon momen1 of in"-ni:a
Tic rods. 77 (10 ). Sll
ten, ion 'r<':a~:t, {,J,Rn) ofboh,.711- 71 2
Tiedemann, .I. L., 417. 476 Undercuuini wel11<. 179
1orsion r , 3t->8
Timmlcr, P. A.. 189,210,228 Under-strc~ngth design factoo-. : I
Tcmp< rJtu
Ttmoshcnko. S.. 283. 287,315.368. 369,373. -IO!. Unfini<h,-d l:>ohs. 89
auno<pl . e 4 1-11
403. -406, 407.417, 529,537.597. 695,808. 3-15 Ungar. Enc E.. 332. 361
briuk ., , 11:re cffects from. 49
Tob1aS1'0n, Waync, 8, 31 Uniaxi:il Joadin~. ~9
duett hl\ I r 1, i1io11. -B Unifonn ,ompr~"ion. 287-290. 290- 2Q3
Todhunter. ls,ac, 365
high. -1~ 17 llnstiffcned elem<nts. 291. :</.l-:9~. ~<lQ.-.,OJ
Tolaymal. Racd A.. 332. 360
>lrnctural •teèl beha,·ior and. 41-42, 45-47 Toprac. A. Anthony. 534. 585 nominai , wni,th (P.) 299-300
trJn~ill'Jl' .n Toroon. 365-412, 851 plasric tltfom»tion "'1JIMhK~n~, hmrr,.
Tempenog •!> allowable s1renglh design (ASD). 396--397. ( A,). 297-298
Tempie. M,,,, •IY l .. 20~. 229. 258 403-406 plat< com1>res.ioo. 291
Templ111. J. L S..li. angle of twist (~). 361>-367 sha]>C fa<'IM (Q, ). 29'J....\()3
Tensile , 1rcr.2;:. ( F".). 97- 98 bending and, 369-370. )8~388 ,icld -in:<, \\Ìdthithkl.ne<, lamit, ( À l 29.' -~i
Tensile stn· \ arca, 97-98 buckling, 400-406 Llpj,"1n Olliu Duikhnj!. <p31.e tru,< ro,,,I. 17
Tcnsion. I~· 1'.18. 139- 148. 14S-154, 672-674 channcl sccaion<. 368. 371 (pholol
a,ial. Di 138 circular section,. 367 Urdal. Tor B.. 400. 4r
bcarin•' -11 pe conncclions. IJ".1- 14() differential cquaaions for. 374-37R Urr a/' Hf<1,·,· Sha{'o in Tnuum ln»fi4 """"'·
ecccnl;Ìt .loat.ling. 148- 154 homogcneous sections. 3M-.168 51: 57
initìal. l-19- 15~ inlroduc1ion 10. 365-366
shear n1111brncJ with. 139-148, 148- 154, 1-shapcd scc1ions. 368. 373-JSJ V
6 72-674 la1crally srable beams. 391-397 VacharnJ1ltarhan. POfl',)11, WI, 4llJ
slip-ui tical .-onn<>etion,. 140-148 load and re,i,1ance facl<lr tlesi~n (LRFD), \lalknilla. Ce<ar R.. ll06. ~4~
Tension-J",eld nction. 540-549. 553 391- 396. 403-406 Van Dalcn. IC S-10. S4ò
AJSC design. 54<>-549 loading situ:uioni. JRS-391 \':In Jc r., fohu, r.. 1<. :,o
failurc condiuon of. 544-545 proper1ies. 851 Van Kun:n. R•ll'h C . (>(15. (l-lt,
nominai sllcar strcnglh ( , ") and. 540-549 pure (Saint Vcnant',. ,•,), 366-.\68. .'7.\- .\ 7J. ·'7S Va..arl><l\'i. 1)1•,i D.. 110. J,<J
optimulll direclion. 544 rectangular ,ccrinns. J67-J6H Vcallcuc: John R .. 1-lb. 1-1~. 155
pla1c ~ìrdcrs. 540-549 shcar center. 370-373 Wt11c:tlll<' 77
,hcar ,u-ength from, 544 shc:,r sires.«:s, 369-370 Vicrcntlccl w,, ,..d,k~I 11n1>n..·<J n~,J lrum,·
s1itk11-,r placemeot and, 553 mcsS<:5. 373-383 (photol. 7~<1
Tcn,ion n,cmber~. 13, 14, 58- 86 1tc seciions. .\68 Vic,1. h an M . 805. ~(lb. KI~- ~~ I. ~ 15
AISC-0 2 design spedfications. 72 thin-wall s«:tion!I. J69-:l70. ,\97-l(Ml v,nccm. Gc<>ri:1· S . 554. 5~5
AlSC-03 :arca ;pecitica1ions. 65-67 doscd. 397-400 Vmn.lota. Murth~ lt., N!<I. 841<
allo,11:ihk \lre11e1h design (ASD). 80-83 combined optn and dO<Cd P311'· 400 Vinn.,l ,~.,. Snnunulu. ~2<1, l\-lt>
hlock , hcar , 1r.:~1gth. 68-69 open. ~9-.'70 V1ri:in11 rC\·h ,1uJn--. ~~~- S-17
ero" ,cction,. IJ. 14, 58 shcar now (TI), .169- )70, .197 von Or:itl,L,. l'etcr. 8. 31
link, in. 59-M lt>ll Kcim1J~. ni..-.,.1t,re. lii\, lit,, lit~~- ~ 4'
866 • lndex
w joining proccsses, 162- 167 bcams. 12--14. 323

W:1ddel, J. A. L., 850 machines, 175 H-shapcd columns. 243-245
Walkcr, Alastair C .. 104, 316 metal incn gas (MIG), 165 Wid1hllhickness limits. 293-298. 3u,..32'l
Walker. William H .. 332. 359 positJons, 175- 176 plasric clcformatioo (A,). 297-298. 327
Wang, Chu-Kia. 30,333,657. 751, 772. 773, shicl<lcd metal are (SMAW), 40. 163- 164, yicld sucss(A,). 293-297. 326
793.816 192- 193, 196-197 Williams, Jan,es 8., 801. 802
Wang, Pins Chun, 264, 3 15. 751. 772 s1ruc1ural >1eel weldability, 167-168 Wilson. W. M .. 62. 83. 89, 154
Wang. Tso,ig-Miin. 349. 36! Sllld, 167
Wind (W) loads. 9-10. 23
Warncr, Marvin E.. 720, 742 ~ubmcrgcd are (SAW), 41, 164. 192, 197
Warping tor<;ion ( i•,.). 374, 378-380 Wind l'ort=. ASCE Task Comm,nec on. IO
symbols, 172-175 Wine, Gregory, 457,478 . )I
Warping torsional constant (Cw), 375 1esling me1hods. 180- 181 Win1cr. Georgc, 303. 304. 316. 460, 46S--l(,
Wasil. Bcnjamin A ,. 349,361 welds, ut welds 4 77. 605, 646
7 .
Watson. Paul D .. 181. 228 Welding Han.dbook. 38. 54. 57, 163. 182,228.243 Win1erton, K .. 161. 227
Watt~r. Samer W.. !145. 847 Welds, 52- 54 . 170-172. 182- 227, 670-674 Wiue\lttl\. JcU~. 693. 741
Wca1hering sred, 33. 55-56 AISC-J2,5 design sneng1h specifications. Woinowsky-Krieger. S.. 315. 529. sr,
A588 propenies, 35, 37, 55, 56 190-191 Wood. Brian R.. 617. 647
A709 bridge construction propcnies. 36, 37. allowable Streng1h design (ASD). 196-197 Wood, Evelyn. 8. 30, 31
38, 55. 56 allowable resistance (R.,). 197 Wood. J. D.. 167,228
corrosion resisrance. 33. 55-56 safety factor ( n ). I 96 Woodward. James H,. 255,263.314
Weaver. Ronald R., 422. 476 SAW process. I 97 Woolcock. Scott T.. 261. 315
Webs. 343-348. 349. 519, 523. 528- 534, SMAW process. 196 Wright. Richard N .. 332. 359
540-549, 555, 551- 55<), 694-697. 720-721 axially loaded member< connectetl by. 197- 209 Wrought iron. ittuctural uscs. 3
buckling. 528-534, 695-696 balanced. 202- 206
column-web dircct connections. 720-721 capacity for ongle conneclions. 670-674 y
cnppling. 344-345, 694-695 defecr~. 178-180
holcs. 349 crack.~. I 180 Yang. C. H.. 244, 313. 743
limi( SIHtes. 5 19 inadequaie joim penerr21ion, 178 Yee. Yokc Lcong. 7 18. 742
momcnt-.<l reng1h reduction (h/r,,,), 528- 534 incomplete rusion. 178 Ycgi.n. S.. 417. 476
nominai shear s:rcng1h ( Te,). 540-549 porosity. 179 Yield mumenlS (M,). 323
pl3tC girders. 519, 528-534. 540-549 slag inclusi on. 179- 180 Yicld point. 33. 42
rolkd bcams. 343-348 undercutting. I 79 Yield suength. 33, 42. 44--45
si<le$way buckling, 345--.>43 ccctutric shcar connecrions. 209-·227 energy-of-di,1onion yield criterioa. ~ S
s lenclerness ( li / 1.,,) li111ita1ion,;. 523 edge prepara1ion, 176 multiaJ<ial states of s.ius.s. 44-4S
, tiffeners for coMeCtinn, . 555. 557--559, (fl4....697 effecti,e •rc:s. 185--186 offset mcthod and. 42
1ension-field action. 540-549 ficld, 174 . 175, 6 72 Poissoù ratio (µ )A5
yid:!ing, 343-34-', 694 fillet, 171. 172 ì82- l85. 187- ì89. 191-1%. ~he;u modulus (G) of tWIIClty. 45
Wehl~bility ofS1ruc1urul ç(eel. 167.. -168 200--201 ,ncar yield stress (T, ) . 44-45
\Vdded Jùints. .s,_,e Joints naws. 5,-54 Yic Id stress. 33. 42. 293-297. 326. 427
We!ùed plst..: giid~rs. !81-1!':2 f12yi11g surfac.e. 1S6 slendem<ess ratio limit. ( A,). 427
We!ding. -10-4 1. 5~51. 161- 7.35 g roov~. ;70--111. J~< OP- :89 Us<l- l•H ~trengtb and, 33. -il
3ì\: , 16~-- 163 !97--19') "id1hllhickne.~s limiu ( >.,) , 293--297. 3:?6
br111le fraclure ~ffcc ts from, j l)-S I !:-imeH!ir 1c:·.i1 i!1g. 5~- ·r l. .54 Young. Ne<l W.. 659. 740
<lc!'ecis. 17~--J,~0 ìines, tr~atcJ 1;.. ?,~-:?lv ~ · 0 --217 \'u. Ching K .. 245. 314
ecooomit ~\ YJ inc. 1:Ìl--182 l0ad :md n:si.,ta11Ctf~·cv d:;:_;~~tiL\{rD. Yo. Wei-Wen. 605. 647
-?kclrCk~~(E},.!()-41,J, Itl t , l ~3-1 'S4. 175. 189-!% , u:it. Jo,c ph A.. 68. 83. 266, 315. 3~. 359.416.
1R6--IP <l..,·"tign :..ht:?r •a-;u .:-'h \ '-R-r. i • • <>:.?-l'·- j -n ~.-'60. H6. ~77. -'78. S97, <,09, 6'7, 659.
AWC:. S/k•:1fi<.at\<.>"S. 4-0-4 1 "'c-..:~;1 ·,i,r.\lgtr, 1,~F •.}. ì ... -:_ % 660. ì40. 75 1. 767. 772. 765. 79'J.80l.l!Z
h:1~~ m~w 1 ,nati;hing. !75, 'So-H:7 hllet ._..::o . i'>'-\~ti
é,t(j(', .JI.,' \",·{: ,..i!-• . t'
co::t\:'1J'· t /Jj l63--1 64
:!:w1.·:r l ;·.s (~{~ .,,·, ittJ ni~'(if,,._,i,~ •?tt~!h~"
l 'I)!
•t~J-~ :.U!'." t(.)4..,1' l

z
~1c\·t.:u.:;b, !EYù'' J&'.>-!67 ;,_ 1<:.: 'a J. ~, ,. ,c.- :,• 7.-'11-.n e~
::11>.i• J.. ! 58.31-i. s36. 585
i~(Jn)jl\;d, 1r, •:J! : ,"' ;~{\.-~-3 ... /,:ihn, Maò. C.. 808. ~5
t'u'( .:111\" e.re VC-.t\'~ l lòl :65~-- 166
1 \\..Sf 1 ~ .,\. ,•r;1l,,;:p·~:·, r, :f Z.:n<!"nini. R.tccanlo. 658. 74()
i,Jr~t. l(r l Z ''"'' · Paolo. 658. 740
• • . ·uon<. l3ter:il-tlw-,;iooal bucl..lui,. 454
7
·'.:,-·n.i;;ì :.1...- ,~i~!AWJ 152. i(A--IC,5
~~~cui v fiu -. ~~ ,-,1, h-4 r:,,:.c- .,• e-.:c ":, , =~•. llans. 161
0
i 1i, 10;} t>f• •61 . 162 ,,h·s. 1n .. · ,' ,l'U . Suipm~. 601. 646
iu:-.r~cti.•n ! 80- ·I f: 1:;,~,nt·,~:.:. \ . Z-,e.em~1j,·r. Pic1. 69J. 741
11.'.VS Qn,:/i-11Jc:, fr<,. I 8(1 Il; I .'ul. Willbm. ~I\O. 477
m...ii;.•1~tt..:- partit k. i ~! z,, .sl.1. P:mick D .. 5-1. 57
raJit\;.!J;1~ <.: 1$1
.me-cL A.. 1(,1. 316
Ulit".ì~:'HII( IRt .,..... ?"i: ;; Alrred. 751. 772
= fil k t u·cld kg ùim~n,ion. i.e . ,,,-c!,i sizc. 1n (Chap 'i l: lcni;tli !dinicn,icm par~Jk l to load) of plate (Fig. 6. 14.7):
" V t:c,, / G./ ~, ! / À 1Ch:.,p. 8). , ufft'n~ , ;pacing 1Chap I i J: ckpth or rectangular comprc,-ion sire» di,tribu1io11 in
concrete slah (Fig. 16 7. I l
(I_. = A r• A 1 . rnuo of w"-·b cro~,-,\.--Ctional urca A II io crv,s-secti on nrca A1 of compression nange. (scc
Scc l l .5)
/\ =-= .ir'~.l Of ( h \~ r_.•ri,\ S-::-et:tioo. ~eJ
~ cro,,-,e.:tional ar,,a of lJ,.,e m.:t.J
= gro~, <.·ro~(.-,c(:l1on~ I rlr ·a of b,llt1 1hr1 J(1\!d roJ df("'~ hdsc-d on mdJor diamc1c1
efrtcfr'.'C nt:l a t'cl A,. '.t tco~n,i1 ·· ier.,t...c-r
= gr,,,, <Jf eJ. of ,r . n 'llft'.
::: comprcs~ioo llan.~c. arc·1 (~, c. , l ,; 1
~ groy, .1rca of l.ìt)'\S -::-..•1. lHm
= grr,~, arca <".Uhiet.t h' -..Jie~ ; :,·k, 1 '),•_; , 6)
;=- nt:t arca.. "1c1 ,i!.· strt>· .., J \'~l " ,~,r,•uy,h :hrt·.11..led pt,rtJnP ('il !cnsion rod. net :trra throug.h hole~ ··il
tcr,~1on mc.·inher
A ,w = nel areJ .,ct·J upon h\ ,r.e:,r 1Stc '.le. l r )
A,,, nc-t J.re'3 a.cu;d up,,n hy tèrl!-,io·1 ('.'it:-= tìct -l.(")
.4{1 ; \\.\!h area. d1 ., for r<ikd I-\: ·'C"-'.d ~:J 11 • Ju._. h," pJale g:ird,:rs
b = width: heJm "1d1h ', ge \' 1dth. o,-, ~11,1on of pbtc 1>etJ><'Odic11l.1r tn ioa.J ù1rectio11 (Fig. 6. 1-1 7)
bi = l'lkc1ive \l>Ìdlh c,f un,iitten~d co;ni,;.•<si0n dcnll'nt (Sç( (1.18); cff.:,t,vc slah wid1h ((hJp. Ili)
"1 • b11, lldnge \\,idlh. u~uJlly for .-..1ccl \\ sè',:t1tm: f~r bc.Jn1 • ! :,,
b\. h\, width c,f , 1i[tcner
h,. (819)<1>.M.,. codi'1cicnt h,rpr:icL><'Ji 1.ks1gn. b 1 12. 12.1
b, (8 /Q ),t,h M.,; coen,ucm for pr:inical <.k,ign. f:ti 12. 12.~
IJ, magnit'ic:.ition facto r f()r mcmher in hrdced frame (ne> l~:h· ral tr;rn sl a! inri a1 c_
n J, {l i m . _~rnhcrì. Eq . 12. 10 1
Bi magnifica1ion factt,r for """) ana!) "' of m~,nh,or in unhraced :·rJ 11w. Eq, I 2 11.<J " r I 2 I i. I I
C . C,x, Cy = <listancc from ne.utral axh 10 cxtn:mc fih~r where \frcss i<. computL"tl: n1èa~ur~d in ., - or ,·-UirccfhH\
.1,·, o rdi ng 1,1 su b,cript
= fac1or to ace<>unt lor momcm g:r:,ù1c111 in bc,,ni , 1rrni:1h. C4 , . ') r,_ 11 ,mcl () /1 12; wi th n:spect to b('ndi ng
ahout x~ or v~ax-i.\. acc.;ording tu secl)nd ~uh~np1
f:Ktor ili JTHlffiE'" nl m::'lgniti,::..llion n.:--lr1tin~ to rnorncnt gradil·ut :rnd cml rc~ 1r111nl (ddi ned in Si..:l.'.s. 11 10
for LRfl) and 12 14 for ASI). also ·1ahk 12. \. I l. wi th rc,pccr to hcrHJ in ~ ~h<1ul , - ' " ,·-a x,". :iccordin~ to secnmJ
subscript
,- . . . ~ - .. . •:·. , . r· -. '. , , ... .

' . . . . '. -· . . . '' ' -, . .' . ' - ~:.. .: . '- . . .. ·. '• .. . . . ' . .
e,. = 1'"/ r, = web shear cocflìcie111
c.,. = torsional waq1i11g constanl (Chap. 8): cornpre,sinn forcc in wch of stcel scction (Cha _ lò)
d = ovcrall dcplh of sccuon: nominai l)olt diarnclcr p
d; = distan,·c lrorn 1>utsidc of 11,ui~e lo PNA (Chap. 16)
3 1
D = l:'1 / [ 12( I_- µ ) ] = Ocxural rigidi1y per unii length of pi ate (Chap. 6 Pan I( ancJ Eq. I 1.11.14: :
w1dth of tas1,,111.,r .hok lll h,· .,kducted <Scc . 1. .4)·. number of 1116s- of an ·lllC h ·In wcId SIZC
·
D, fac1or lO ac-co11111 for ecn,ntrtc load on s1ilfencrs. Eqs. 11.9.28 and 11.9.35
e = ccce11trici1y or load
E = lcnsion- cnmprl:ssion tnndulu:, of elasi.icity
= modulus of da1,lici1_y ot concret,.- = (1,- l.5 ), \/j,· w h ere w 1s
· Ihe dcnsily or concrete in pcf (i.e.. 145
pd for nnrm,J-wcigl'lt ..:oncretl'.) and J; i~ in k si .
E = modulus c,f el,1.qicity or .,tee!, 29.UOO bi
·'
Elejf = cffect ivc scitfm: , c;f a composite seclion
j' = stress due 10 di rect shear. Ph
f" = Slress <lue to 1or~ional mnmtcn!. 7 r; i p
fa = rcquired axial strcSs al « p0im using LRFf) or ASD load rnrnhinalion
lb = requircd bendrng ,tress a( :i pr·,m usmg LRFD or ASD load comhinalion
fhu.· = compressi,10-ten,101r , t-·t",s due IO re ~trainl of warping (latcral bending of t1angcs). ( Ebh /4) ( d ' <J,/ d/)
f~ = specified 28-d:iy ,o• opr,•<)''e strrngth of t·oncr.:i,>.
f, = required ,_.n,i!c stress '.! i ò ;>t·:nl ~,ing LRFD or ASD load combination
= façwrecJ nornial (Cumpn~s,1,m 01 tension) stress
1. = rcqu,red shc,!r sire•., ;,t a rolllt u<ing LRFD or,\ SD toad combinarion
Fb = allùwabk Ocxural stre~.~
FnM = no minai strcr.gl!, r,f the h a~e metal 1:x:r un(t arca
Fcr = criticai strcs~ in comprcssion: bucklrng sircss
F, = claslic critk ~l buck!ing r.r:C'ss
,. ~ = Eq. 12. 14. 11
FExx wdd me ral t~ns ik strengih
:=:;
F., = holt nominai tcnsik strengl h

f~,- = bol! 11om1n:1J ~hcar strcng1h
F, = residuai stress = OJ F,,
FS = faccor of safoty
f~ = tcnsik strcngth of scruefural stecl: tensile mength of base metal (Chap. 5)
Ft = tensile strcngth of boli marcrial
F~, = design siress limit on Ru,/'1h in tcnsion on ooll subjcct to combincd shear and 1ension. valucs in
Tahlc 4.14. I
= yicld stress: for beam flange. F,·b : ror column weh. F,.,.: for t1angc. F, 1: for longicudinal reinforcing
bars. Fv,: for sti ffcners. Fn,; for tension flange. F,.,: for web or weld metal. F;.;,,
g = gagc distance for t'astener holcs rncasured transverse to direction of load
G = shear modulus of elastici1y. E/[ 2( I + µ)]
h = unsupponed web height (For unsymmctrical scc1ions i1 relates to 1he compression sidc of lhc neutra!
axis.) (Sec AISC 84.2); ovcrall depth (fig. 6.13.1 ): distance between centers of flange, (Chap. 8); depth ofweb
plate Chap 11 ); story heighc (Chaps. 14 and 15)
li,: = cwicc the distance from 1hc neutra! axis 10 1he inside face of thc compression flange less the tillet or
corner radius
h,, = distancc between flange centroids
I,", = hole factor(F.q. 4.9. 1)
H• = factored lateral force causing sway dellection
I, I,./). = moment of inertia. àbou1 thc x- or y-axis. respectively
I; = momcnr of inenìa of one flange about y-axis (Chap. 8)
fg = girder momcnl of inertia (Ch~ps. 14 and 15)
IP = polar momen1 of inerti.i aboul shear center
= moment of incrtia of 1he cross-scc1ion,ù arca of a trans verse stiffencr as defincd following Eq. 11 .11 11
= trnnsfonned cracked sec1ion momenl of inertia of composite scction (Chap. 16)
= produci of inerti a, f xyd A (Scc. 7. IO)
= momcnt of inertia of compression nange about y-ax.is
= torsion constant
= \/PJEI (Sccs. 6.2 and 12.2): disrnnce from outcr face of Oange LO web toe of fill~1 (Sec. 7.8): plate
buckling coefficiem. Eq. 6. 14.28: spring constanL (Sec. 9.13); spring consmnt = ~ P. / h, Eq. J4.5.9
k, = coefficicnl in I, for welded 1-shape. 4 /Vh/;: (Tables 7.4.1 and 9.6.2)

K, K,. K,, K, = effective length factor (Scc. 6.9). with respccr 10 Lhe x-, y-, or z-axes, respcctivcly
K. = modificd cffective lenglh factor used in design of column supporting a "lcaner'' column. Eq. 14.5. J I
K 1 • Ki = cffective length foctor in piane of bending with no latcral translation anà with sidesway, respectively
(Chap. 12)
I. = lcngth: span
Lb = latcrally unbraced length
L,. = cle.ar distance in thc direction of the force (Ch,1p. 4)
L, = end distance measured in dircction of line of force (Chap. 4)
L,. = AISC: maximum laterally unbraccd lcngth for using M. = M,,. Eq. 9.6.3
L,,d = AISC: maximum latcrally unhraced length for using plastic analy,is, Eq.9.6.2
L,. = AISC: maximum laterally unbraced length for using M. = M, = 0.7F/>,
l,t· = lcngth of fi llet wcld
,,, = number of shear planes (Chap. 4); 11nifonnly distributcd servicc load tl•rsional rnoment (Clnp. 8J
m., = factored unìformly distribuied torsional moment (Chap. 8)
= smaller moment M1 and larger momc:nt M2 at the ends of a laterally unbraced SCf'-ment
= requi red monient using ASD load combinatirm
= momenc (absolute valuc) at 1/4. 1/2, and 3/4 points. rcspcctively. of lat-::rnll) unbraccd segmenl.
Eq. 9.6.11
= elastic lateral-rorsional buckling moment strength
= cquivalent cons1ant momcnt. C.,, M2 for beam-column in bracc.d frame subJect w ~;;d m()ments M 1
and M 2 only (Sec. 12.4)
M1 = latcral bcnding momenl 01i one tlangc. (EC,,./h)(d2<J, /d~')
M; = primary bending momenl from first-ordcr analysis
Me, = first -onler momem in sway ana.ly~is undc r H. forcc
Mm"" = maximum momcnt in 1he unbrnccd segment (Sec. 9.6)
M. = nominai momcnt strength
M~ = nominai momc nt strcngth in the presence of shear
M., = primary factorcd momcnl for the no translation case of hcam-column
M,r:c,M,,) = nominai moment streng1hs about .r- and y-a.xcs. respectively (Secs. 7.11 & 9. 14)
M". M,.,. M,,_.. = plastic mo meni strength. ZF,. with respcc11.0 1he x· and y-a.xes. according 10 ,econd suhscript
M, momcnt strcngth whcn extremc tiber reache.s (F,. - F, = 0.7F,.)
M, = pure 1orsional momenl (St. Venant torsion) (Chap. R)
Mu, M•.,. M,.r = facw red service load moment. about thc x- or ~·-axcs. according 10 second sub,cript
M•f = factorcd momcnt on onc flange
M,,, = warping torsional momcnl (lateral hending cffect) (Chap. 8)
M, = moment about .x-axis; bending momcnt from str..:ss cr, (Scc. 6.14)
M,. = torsional moment from shcai: stress T J_,. (5cc. 6.14)
M,1 = bènding moment from strcs, ,,, (S.::c. 6.14): momcm ahou1 _,·-axis whcn hiaxial t,cndim: is bcin~
considere.d (Chaptcrs Rand 9; Scc. 12.9): nominai mon1cnt strcng1h M. wh1.,n extrcmc lìhcr rcache,- (,:xcept fc;,
biaxial hcnding)
= bcnding mo mcnt or torsional momcnr at a location ~ alnng :ìxis of mcmbcr: for torsio n. /\f_
Il = modu!us of elastic ity ratio, E, / E, : numhcr of fostcncrs (Chap. 4) •
N = l)caring lcng1h (Scc. 7.l!)
N~ = numbcr of holts carrying lhc applicd lènsion
N, = notional la1cral load. Scc. 12.l l
p = pi1ch (spacing) of bolts; connector spacing (Chap. 16)· I/"'
Pbf - desi,.,, s1rc 1h Of I • 'l'cpn • Eq.12. l 2.2
- • ""' ng co umn web 10 resis1 a concentr led,
= . a ,actored load
Pii, requll'etl br,1ce strength
Pc, = criticai buckling load; comprcssion force 31 buckling
P,.. Pex. P,_.,. = Eulcr load """TT 2EA /( Kl/ )2 i ·
2 • g . r , or axis of bending (using two subscrip1s for biaxial bending)
P,1. P,2 ~ Euler load = rr EAg/(KL/r)- for axis of bcndln for use . . .
according 10 ihe sccond subscript g, wrth magnrficauon factors B1 and B2
P,, nominai strength of an axially loaded ·
configuration (Fig. 5.17.2) compress1on member. FcrA.;
, nominai strength of weld
= factored axial load (Sec. 1.9); fac1orcd reaction or load
= yieid load, F,,A O (Chap. 12)
= forni factor, Q"Q, (Sec. 6.18); IÌrS\ momcnt of area (i.e., statica) moment f y dA) ahout the neutra!
axrs lron_1 exJreme fi_~er 10 section at which elastic shear srress is computed, (see Sec. 7.7)
= shape lactor for s11ffened comprcssion elcment (Sec. 6.18)
= momenr of arca of one-half nangc about y-ax.is (Sec. 8.5)
= shapc factor for unstiffened compression elcment (Sec. 6.18)
,. "" radius of gyration, ~ ; radiai distance from centroid 10 point of stress (Sec. 5.18)
/'·I = distance from instantaneous ccn1er to a weld element (Fig. 5.17.2)
--= disrnnce from instantancous centcr to venical weld line
1"max = distancc to weld element fanhest from instantaneous center
,-I = radius of gyrarion of a section comprising the compression flange plus one-third of the compre~sion
web are;i, taken about an ax.is in the piane of the web; used in ASD. Eq. 9.7.14
r,., = effectivc radius of gyration used in determining L, (Chap. 9)
r., . r_\·• r.:. ""' radius of gyration abou1 x-, y-, or z-axcs. respectively
R,, 0
= required strength (ASD)
R, = moment ~trength reduc1ion factor for hybrid girder (Secs. 11.7 and 16.9)
Rx "'· coefficient to account for group effect (Chap. 16)
R, == re,istance of a bolt al any deformation D (Chap. 4); s1reng1h of a filkt wcld scgment per unii kn~h
(Sec. 5 17)
R,.u11 = ultimate shear load on an clement, Eq. 5.17.3
R"' = cross-section monosymmerry parameler (Chap. 9)
Rn = nominai srrength of onc fas1ener in tension. shear. or bearing: nominai reaction strenglh (Sec. 7.lìl
Rn, = nominai strength of bolt in tension
Rn,, = nominai srrength of boll in shcar
R,,w = nominai s1rength of weld per inch of length
Rµ "" position effccl facwr for shcar studs (Chap. 16)
Rpg = reduction factor for "bend-buckling" of 1he web. Eq. l 1.4.J
R, = di rect shear component of boli rcsistance . ?.lìl
Ru factored \oad per bo\t; factored load per unir length of weld; facton:d reacuon (Se;:.
Ru11 "' ultimate shear resistancc in a bolt. 'TuAo
Ru., factored direct shear on bolt subject to eccenuic load
Ru, '= faclorcd 1ension load on boh
Ruv = factored direct shear componem on hoh
R,JX , R,,,. -- t·actored shcar on bolt. in x- or _y-direction. rcspectively fili
lii. CC'l-Cntric fon"c on I t'I ",: '·
Id drl\"1.1
Rv = dirccr shear component Of bolI resis· iancc· . · shcar comronent
· Id , .· tance/n.•r umi leng1h . .,.
she.ir component ol we rcsrs ,,- f · n:il mo111L-nt fOI\-C on hllct "•"1w
. . . or v-componcnt o tro10 Il
= x-or y-direction component ofboh res1stancc•.1· ·. ·e (Cha ..,); distane,: front free <-dgc ,1)11ng l thin \\J
R,. Rv
s = s1agger of boll holcs measured 111 l~lC l~ne o~ ·~~- .. I .9)
sec1ion(Chap8);ba11dwidthfortens10n-heldlorc.c_TlSec.
r lO ,. or N1'l.c, ( /, (\11'/, e,), .i.: ·111J11Q:
s,s... s,. = clastic section rnoduIus. / / -:) (Table ·~· 18.1 ), wnh respcct ·
to subscript
= elastic section modulus of steel section alone. referred ro its tension flange
s.,
s.,. = elas1ic sec1ion rnodulus of composite sec1ion. fu/ Yb
= scction modulus s, re ferred wthe rnmpres_sion Oaoge. S_ ,,. or the compression l1angc, S,,
s_,.,. s., = 1hickncss: thickness of matcnal agams1 wh,ch boli bears
,, = effec1ivc 1hroa1 dimension of a wcld (Scc. 5.12)
= flange 1hickness; for beam.1,h; for column. t fc
IJ,lfb•IJc
,, = thickness of s1iITener; slab thickncss
"" web 1hickness; for bcam. t.",b; for column. 1,.,.
'u·· f,wh , lw, = tensile force; scrvice load tensile force: torsional momem or torsional service load niomem
T
base metal thickness (Tablc 5.1 I. I) (Chap. 8,.
"' required tension s1reng1h (ASD)
= iniliat forcc in boli rcsulling from installation
= nominai ~trength of a tension membcr
= factored !ension toad: factored
• .
mrsional momen! (required tensìon mength requìred tor ·
' SIOn Slrength (
1
u
= displacement in thc x -d1recuon · ( hap. ~ì
= tatcral dcflec1ion of flange
= reduction factor to account for shear lag (Sec. 3.9)
= stress rcduction factor for nonunifonn stress for block shear rupture
= shear stress: displaccmcnt in the y-direction
= St. Venant torsion shcar stress (Chap. k)
= warping torsion shear stress (Chap. 8)
V = shear; servicc load shcar force on a boli
Vr
= warping torsion shcar force in flan ge
v. = nomina] shear strength
V~
= nominai shcar scrcngth in the presence o f bending rn(l ment
v.h = nominai horizomal shear strength across imerface hetween slab and steel sectior1 in a composite beam
V,
= range of service load shear forcc. Eq. 16.8.9 -
v. = factored shear force
V,. V, = shear in the x- and y-directi ons. respective ly
w = uniform loa<ling; seivice uniforntly dis1ribu1e<1 load on heam; òisplaccmem in :-direction (Fii:. 6.14 ~,.
width of stiffener plale (Chap. 11): dcnsity of concrete, Eq. 16.5. 1
Wv , 1.VL = service uniform dead and live toad . respe<.:tivel y

w. = w./<Pb = rcquired nom inai unifom1 loa<l c ausìng c,1llapse mcchnni5m (Chap. 10)
11)"
= factored uniform load
w,4,,, = factorcd uniform hori1,1mtal load
w = total service load on a , pan; concentraled load o n bcam: wid1h of s1iffcncr Chap. 1l ); seat width (Chaii. rn
w. = W..lc/Jb = required nominai conccntrnted load ca using coilapse (C-hap. 10)
w,, = factored conceJltrated load
Xo, Yo = shear center distanccs from ccn1roi<l measured alc•ng LhC' x- and ,·-ax.e , . rcspcc1ivelv
y = detleclion al a Jocation z a long axis of member -
y = ccnter o f gravity (CG) of composite section rnca sl.lrcd from CG of grnvi1y of stcel W sectìon
}tJ = (V~/Vn)h
Y1 = 101al dc tlec1io n (including sccond-or,kr de ller uonì ot hcam -colu mn
Yb = distancc to bottom of stccl section from CC of ~ornpositc senion
y,..y, = dìstanccs from CG of 1hc secti on 10 the. c0 rnpn.:mvn ~ml ,rnsion c xtn: nie fihe~. rcsix,,çtil'ely
Z, Z, . Z, = plastic modulus. .fy dA, with rcsp~Ct lo 1t1e .,xr ~ ,nd1c.,ted hy s11bscrip1
a = constan1 Cl /(2ECw), Eq. 9.4.7:. ratio of \\'t'b y ,ct:.l M,e,t 10 flange yidd stress. F,u./F,1 . (Scr. 11.1):
P,./ P, or L P,./ L P, (Chap. l 2)
f3 = llcxure analogy modilication factor (Ch,1p 8J. A1, /A; . r.11.io or Wl'.h nvss-scctional area tll l'ru~s-,.x11,ll\ll
arca of thc compression flange ( Sec. I I .7)
/3b, = r~uired hracc stiffness (Chaps. 9 and 15)
/3, = E,/E. Eq. 6.9.2 (Table 6.9.1)
f3u) = sclccted ratio h/tw for de.s ign {Scc. 11 .14)
... ..
y "' )!Cncr,11 tcrm lor OVl'rload factor; ~train ang Ie: anglc betwccn the piane of bending and thc .rz piane
, Se.:. 7. 10/
Y, - '"crl1lc1d f.t<:t<)r~ (J\SCE 7)
fj
= lldkc1ie111: vinual displaL·emen1: sidesway buckling dellcction
-= fÌrsH,rdcr ddkc1ion of heam-(olumn
=- ~l rain, in lin. or rnm/mm
e,, = ~train at on~t of strain harde11ing
t' , I'\ ,.. s1rain in the x ani.I y-dircc1ions (Sec. 6.14)
""' ~rrain di fiN ya:ld. f~-/ 1-:,. (Fig, 6.6.1)
~ ì.l~~ecti~n:___~~-e..tr :deformatio~ on a bnlt _(Cha~. 4): maximu~ deformation on a fillet weld (Chap. S);
~ 1,,1y ddk<:!,un (r 1g. 6.9.3). latcral deflecoon o la frame. i.e .. dnft; deformation on framing angles(Sec. 13.2)
,\ o "'"" m:ix ,mum deformation on tilh:1 weld when O = O". O. I I in.
~I = ik formati,rn on any wcld ,egmcnl (Eq. 5.17.51
-"1.. "" tìrs t-onler sw;iy ddkction (Sec. 12.11)
.iz,, = tot,d sway det1c.:1i,1n. inc !uding se.:ond-orcter effec1 (5cc. 12.11)
~h "" first-onk'r 1ntcrs1ory d rifl due to lateral force
~ ma., 0
-= ma.ximu111 d:?fle.:tion; maximum shear deformation in a bolt = 0.34 in.
~ = dt'formativn nf wdd cleme11t at ultimate stress (Chap. 5}
.\ = ~lcnd..:mc~~ ratio:, for platc ckmcnts (see AISC-84. l); torsion parameter.1 /a = VGJ / EC.., (Chap. 8)
A, = sle nclerni..ss paramctcr: for cnlumns. Eqs. 6.7.:!. and 6.7.3: for plate compression clemems. Eq. 6.15.1
",, = m,1ximum slcnderneSb rmio for compact elemcnt
A, = maxirnu,n slcndernc.ss r:11io for noncompact ele1nent
I' = PIÌisson' s ralio (O 3 for s11.:el); cocflìciem of friction
t = shapc factor. ZJS
1/1 :o factor in C111 1Eq. 12.3.8)
qJ = n:sistancc factor: s1re11gth reduction factor; anglc of twist (Chapters 8 and 9): stability parameter L VP/El
(Chap. 14}
= re~istance factor for flexural member, 0.90: for composite section. 0.85
= rcs istance factor for compression member. 0.85
"' val ue of stabiliry parametcr when buckJing occurs (Chap. 14)
= rcsistance factor for tension limit state. (Chap. 3): resis1ance fac1or for bolt strength in tension. 0.75
= resisiance fac1or for shear on beam web. 0.90: resistance factor for boli strength in shear. 0.75
= safety factor (ASD) for bcnding
= safety factor (ASD) for compression
= safety factor (ASD) for tension
= safe1y factor (ASD) for shcar
= shear stress (theoretical)
= stiffness reduction factor. used in direct analysis method (Chaps. 12 and I 5)
= buckJing stress in shcar; 0.6~1•11• or FJ VJ (Sec Sec. 11.8)
= ultimate (frac1ure) shear strength
= shear stress in the X)' piane (Sec. 6.14)
= shcar yield stress
fJ
= angle of loading of weld segment measured from thc weld longitudinal axis (Sec. S. I 7); rotation of
bealll section (curvature); rate of twist. dfldz (Chap. 8); end slopes on beam (Sec. 13. Il
= rotation angle at Mp (see Fig. 7.3.4)
= rotation angle at onset of strain hardening (Fìg. 9.3.2)
= rotaùon angle at plastic hinge M P (sec Figs. 7.3.4 and 10.2.1)
= rotation angle ofbeam section when extreme fiber reaches F,.
= generai term for compressive or tensile stress due lo bending
= stress in the .x- and y-directions (Sec. 6.14)
= tension-compression yield stress
= flexural stress (theoretical) in z:-direction

Charles G. Salmon, John E. Johnson, Faris A. Malhas-Steel Structures - Design and Behavior (5th Edition) - Prentice Hall (2008) PDF

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STEEL STRUCTURES

Design and Behavior

CttA.RLES G. $ .\i ,10'-

Vice Presidcm and Editoria! Director, ECS: Marcia J. Horron

© 2009 Pearsoo Educalion. !ne.

Pe~rs.on Premice HaH,-.. is a tra<lemark. of Pr.a~,;nn Eclt1C.l.ltion. rnc.

Pri nrcrl i:1 !ile Unite<l Srates of A:-,1~~:c:..

ISBN - 10: 0 -13-188 5 5 6 · 1

Pearson Educ~ttion Ltd ., London

CHAPTER2 STEELS AfJD PROPERTIES 33

2.8 Cold Work and Strain Hardening 47

CHAPTER3 TENSION MEMBERS 58

CHAPTER5 WELDING 161

CHAPTER6 COMPRESSUJN Mf.::tJllflrif?S 236

6.12 ShearEffect 275

PART Il: PLATES 283

6.14 Introduction to Stability of Plates 283

CHAPTER 7 BEAMS: LATcRALLY SUPPORTED 321

CHAPTERB TORSION 365

8.8 Load and Resistance Factor Design for Torsion-

CHAPTER9 LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS 413

CHAPTER 10 CONTINUOUS BEAMS 484

CHAPTER 12 COMBINE'l..• SENDING AND /!..Xf.P.L i.Ot'W 591

16.10 Design Procedure-AISC LRFD and ASD

Forces kip forc~ kN 4.448

Der1v~a SI uniB relr;ting lo ~t,u-:tural (los•gn

1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

1730 fc Sears Tower, Chicago

1f a spccitic objective critcrion can be expressed mathematically, then optimization

2. Preliminary structuml configuration. Arrangemenl of the elements to serve the

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF STEEL STRUCTURES

where L = reduced live load per sq ft of area supported by the member

TABLE 1.4.1 Typical Minimum Uniformly Distributed Uve Loads (Adapted

Highway Live Load

10ft Typical lribulary widlll

For suppons of elev2tors and elevator machinery 100%

Fo?" haJ~gc-rs ~:upporrin,ç.. floor -- <1.n:J halconie~ 33o/c

·. · . . d. -cleraiil,n of 1hc enti re crnnc . ,, lo ng,illldinal

where Kr1 is the wind directionalicy factor,

., -~- q~ 1or wimJ1vard walls evaluated a t height z above the ground

*In SI units, q = 0.62V2, for q in MPa and \I in rn/sec. 0 .4.4)

The seismic re~ponse coefficient is given by

e = so,Ti forT > Ti (l.4.9b)

Cs = 0.01 for S 1 < 0.6g (l.4.9c)

where 51 = mapped maximum , pectral response accderation parameter

where Cu = ,:oeitil:1.::,~1 relating to Sm .

1.5 TYPES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL MEMBERS

~ e M rcferi; lo lhe S( version of the ASTM Standard.

*Referto Sec. 2.4 for definilion.

Bending and Axial Load

1.6 STEEL STRUCTURES

Suspension -Type Stmctmes

·· · · b'nations of framed, shell-type, an<l

1.7 SPECIFICATIONS AND BUILDING CODES

1.8 PHILOSOPHIES OF DESIGN

AISC-Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

rr,.,R/Q> = •tandard dcv,a1ion of ln(R/ Q)

The development of probabilily-base<l crite1i a by Galambos, Ellingwood, MacGre-

1.2D -1- 1.6L + 0.5(L, or S or R ) (l.8.3)

J .2D + l.6( L, or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W) (l.8.4)

l.2D + 1.3W + 0.SL + 0.5( L, or S or R) ( 1.8.5)

1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S ( 1.8.6)