Proceedings

International
Conference on Iron
Ores and their host
rocks: genesis,
exploration, mining,
mineralogy, processing and environment in the
new millennium

IRON
ORE
2002
9 – 11 September 2002
Perth, Australia

PRINCIPAL SPONSORS
Iron Ore Genesis and Post-Ore Metasomatism at Mount Tom Price
R C Morris1
ABSTRACT
About 90 per cent of the pre-mining BIF-hosted iron ore resource of the
Hamersley Province of Western Australia is of the Phanerozoic
supergene martite-goethite type. The remaining ten per cent formed as
supergene deposits at ~2000 ± 200 Ma, and were later modified by burial
to form the Proterozoic martite-microplaty hematite ores. The
supergene-metamorphic segment of this general unified model has been
challenged by three recently published hypogene-based genetic models
for the hematite ores, all requiring meteoric oxidation to produce the ore.
The most recent and detailed, by Taylor et al (2001), is based on data
from the small Southern Batter and North deposits of the Mount Tom
Price mine. The authors proposed that during Stage 1 ‘overpressured
bicarbonate-saturated basin brines from the dolomite aquifer of the
Wittenoom Formation’ at 150 - 250°C, dissolved free silica from BIF to
produce a stratigraphically thinned, magnetite-carbonate-silicate-apatite
rock. In Stage 2, meteoric oxidation of siderite to secondary microplaty
hematite + ankerite, and magnetite to martite, at unspecified elevated
temperatures and pressures, was followed by carbonate leaching (Stage
3). Finally, during Stage 4, weathering with removal of apatite, produced
the typical low-phosphorus, porous martite-microplaty hematite ores of
the Tom Price-Whaleback type.
However, evidence of both microplaty hematite and martite reduced to
magnetite, and of infill silica, apatite, and ferroan chlorite, with late-stage
pyrite, in the pore space of martite-microplaty hematite ore, shows that
the hydrothermal activity at Mount Tom Price is a post-ore event. Neither
pyrite nor ferroan chlorite could resist the oxidation required to form
hematite ore. Recrystallisation of microplaty hematite in these infilled
zones to a typically coarser form than present in most of the normal ores,
is a further supporting factor.
A more credible, post-ore alternative to the hypogene genetic model is
suggested here. Re-exposure to leaching by ground water of the
metamorphosed ore deposits in the Phanerozoic resulted in the partial
removal of remnant goethite. Localised modifications in the porous
BIF/ore contact zones were driven by exothermic oxygen/pyrite/carbon
reactions in the footwall Mt McRae Shale. Cool descending oxygenated
meteoric water in the permeable ore horizons, acted as one limb of a
thermal convective cell. In the other limb, heated reducing solutions rose
through the permeable contact zones, to produce the observed localised
modifications of BIF and ore. Expelled silica from the carbonatised BIF
invaded adjacent porous ore to form erratic silicified ore zones, and to
produce the local quartz vein systems found in the associated overlying
BIF.
INTRODUCTION
Genetic concepts for BIF-hosted iron ores, particularly since the
1940s, have tended to recycle ideas from the past, but typically
with new twists. Many models were based on single deposits.
Table 1, shows eleven basic models for iron ore genesis,
though there are many variants. The list illustrates the quandary
that we face in genesis paradigms, a problem put well by Richard
Kuhn, an Austrian chemist who was forced to decline a Nobel
prize by the Nazi government. ‘In general, scientists debating the
relative merits of competing paradigms simply talk right through
each other, using the same words to discuss different realities’.
Dorr (1967) put it more bluntly: many assumptions used to
support the genetic models have been based largely on
‘geological theology rather than on scientific knowledge’. Sadly,
some authors misrepresent previous concepts and arguments to
improve the credibility of their own ideas, reminiscent more of
political lobbying than of science.
1. Honorary Research Fellow, Division of Exploration and Mining,
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation.
(CSIRO).
Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
TABLE 1
Basic classification of BIF-hosted iron ore genetic models,
simplified from Morris (1985).
SYNGENETIC
Unmodified sedimentary/diagenetic concentrations
Modified by metamorphism or igneous activity
Modified by supergene processes
SUPERGENE (related to current or past erosion surfaces)
Residual concentration by oxidation of magnetite and leaching
Enrichment by replacement of gangue with oxidation
Enrichment with subsequent burial metamorphism
HYPOGENE
Metamorphic
Residual concentration by heated connate or recirculated meteoric
fluids
Enrichment by replacement of gangue by hematite from connate or
recirculated meteoric fluids
Physico-chemical: differentiation or dynamothermal
Igneous
Residual concentration by heated juvenile or recirculated meteoric
fluids
Enrichment: replacement of gangue by iron in part derived from the
intrusive
Most iron ore genetic models relate to the prominent
hematite-rich type known as the ‘specularite ores’ in the
Americas, and as the martite-microplaty hematite (M-mpl H)
ores in Australia. Despite increasing use of mineragraphic data in
the last three decades, detailed mechanisms for the
transformation of BIF to ore are still rare, particularly for the
origin of the secondary mpl H component.
Syngenesis was the key starting point for the earliest genetic
models from at least 1883, largely on the assumption of a clastic
origin for BIF, but composite models of pre-metamorphic
syndiagenesis, and sedimentary–metamorphic were suggested in
Brazil up to at least 1982. Informal support for syngenesis in the
Hamersleys in the past has not been backed by a published
model.
Supergene models in which the ores are believed to be
residual concentrates from ground water leaching of BIF are
common. Excellent evidence for this mechanism exists in high
rainfall areas such as Brazil and India, where these ‘blue dust’
ores are often associated and confused with very leached M-mpl
H types. But most supergene models for the mpl H ores invoke
enrichment by connate or recirculated meteoric waters. In 1886
for example, a combination of in situ oxidation and precipitation
of iron oxides from solution was suggested. In 1897, in what was
possibly the earliest detailed mechanism, oxygen-bearing water
and a separate flow of ferrous iron-bearing water, converged to
precipitate iron oxides at depth. More complex mechanisms have
been proposed, requiring pyramiding of unusual geologic
conditions. However, most writers have tended to ignore the
difficulties of the redox conditions needed for synchronous
mobilisation and precipitation of iron. They have instead used the
obvious signs of weathering, such as the oxidized mineral
3
R C MORRIS
assemblage, the association of ores with present or past erosion
surfaces, and the juxtaposition of the ores with the most logical
source of oxidation potential, the atmosphere, to support a
supergene origin. But there are other technical problems with the
supergene formation of the mpl H ores, in part overcome by
adding the effects of burial and metamorphism to a primary
supergene product. The earliest of these compound models may
be that of Van Hise and Leith (1911), and the latest, Morris
(1980, 1985, 1998). The dominant ores of the Hamersleys, the
M-G type, without secondary mpl H, are generally accepted as
supergene enrichment ores without superimposed metamorphism.
Hypogene modelling is typically the most complex, related
initially to the effects of metamorphic or igneous hydrothermal
solutions on BIF. Models range from direct leaching of gangue to
produce residual ores, to a variety of enrichment processes, with
introduced iron either directly replacing BIF gangue with
hematite or, indirectly by some more intricate process.
Eventually, mixing of hypogene and meteoric water is required to
produce the required oxidisation to hematite. J W Gruner is
probably the best known of the early hypogene advocates. His
basic model involved oxidation and concentration of iron
minerals by leaching of silica from BIF in hot magmatic water.
Later, using Yellowstone National Park as an example, he
suggested leaching and oxidation by the reaction of rising
vapours with descending meteoric waters (Gruner, 1937).
Replacement of BIF matrix by hematite at considerable depths
was integral to many of the later metamorphic hypogene models
such as those of Guild (1953), and Dorr (1962) for Brazilian
ores. Dorr (1965) suggested that the lack of apparent changes to
the country rocks was the result of diffusion of supercritical
fluids that selectively dissolved only minute amounts of iron
from the surrounding BIF, and precipitated this iron at the ore
sites. But he offered no explanation of how the vast amount of
introduced ferrous iron converted to the oxidised state as mpl H.
The Hamersley hypogene-supergene model of Barley et al
(1999) and Taylor et al (2001), is the latest of the composite
type.
Genetic modelling in the Hamersleys
Intensive exploration for iron ore in the Pilbara began in the
early-1960s, with early ideas based mainly on macroscopic
examination of the weathered zones, followed by more detailed
concepts as drilling increased. In the progress of published ideas
documented by Morris (1986), the initial ideas of simple
supergene leaching of BIF, gave way to variants involving
leaching with void filling by goethite. Then came the suggestion
that only high temperature solutions were capable of oxidising
primary siderite to magnetite and then to martite, and that this
occurred in the late Precambrian. In the northern Pilbara, a
supergene–burial metamorphism model was discarded in favour
of hydrothermal-metamorphic re-concentration of iron during or
after Precambrian folding. By 1975, supergene modelling was
dominant in the Hamersleys, but there was also minor support for
hypogene processes, and informal support for syngenetic origins.
An industry backed CSIRO supergene and supergene-
metamorphic concept was widely accepted in the 1980s and
1990s, and this model is currently under challenge by a new
hypogene-supergene paradigm.
BIF-HOSTED IRON ORES IN THE HAMERSLEY
PROVINCE
There are essentially two basic BIF-hosted ore types in the
Hamersleys.
Phanerozoic, non-metamorphosed supergene martite-goethite
(M-G) ores totalled about 90 per cent of the pre-mining
Hamersley BIF-hosted resource (Harmsworth et al, 1990).
Despite stratigraphic thinning of up to ~35 per cent, and severe
post-ore leaching, all levels of BIF banding are consistently
4 Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
preserved. The original BIF microscopic textures are superbly
represented by martite (± primary hematite) and phosphorus-
bearing goethite pseudomorphs of chert, carbonates, and
silicates, but no secondary mpl H. Hundreds of deposits exist,
and these range from small pockets of enrichment to over 1.5
billion tonnes. They are typically associated with the current
erosion surface, particularly those in the Marra Mamba IF, but
some extend to >250 m in depth. The phosphorus content, held
mainly in the goethite, ranges from ~0.07 per cent to over 0.17
per cent P.
Martite-microplaty hematite (M-mpl H) ores comprise the
premium, low-phosphorus (<0.06 per cent P) hematite-rich types.
These are dominated by hematite, largely as martite, but with
significant other secondary hematite, much of it in the mpl H
form, occupying former gangue mesobands. This is the only real
textural difference between the two primary ore types, since all
levels of the banding from macrobanding down to the finest
laminae are typically well preserved, as are the hematite-
replaced, ex-cherty BIF-varves. Further stratigraphic thinning
during Proterozoic and Phanerozoic re-exposures, resulted from
leaching of remnant non-hematite components, particularly
goethite, with a final stratigraphic thickness of around 50 per
cent. As a result, the mpl H ores have a higher relative level of
martite than their stratigraphically equivalent unmetamorphosed
M-G ores. Only about 20 of these deposits have been found in
the Hamersleys, ranging from a few hundred thousand tonnes, to
giants such as Mount Tom Price (900 million tonnes) and Mount
Whaleback (1.7 billion tonnes). Most are in the Brockman IF,
and rarely in the Marra Mamba IF. The mpl H deposits are
typically deeper than their equivalent sized Phanerozoic M-G
deposits. A notable exception is the main Mount Tom Price
deposit that, like the M-G ores, has been largely exposed at the
surface by deep erosion.
Weathering
Surficial alteration of all ore deposits in the Hamersleys,
generally accepted as totally unrelated to ore genesis (Morris,
1985), has resulted in a 1 - 2 m, hematite-dominated carapace,
preserving the original features of the ore, and thus the BIF
banding. This is underlain by a hydrated weathering zone
generally 15 - 30 m but up to 70 m thick, typically dominated by
vitreous aluminous goethite, with destruction of most of the
parent ore textures and banding. In the ore below this hardcap,
leaching of the supergene goethite by groundwater has resulted
in increasingly friable ore that today still retains its BIF banding
at all scales and, in the case of the unmetamorphosed ore type, its
microscopic pseudomorph textures, though in a more skeletal
mode compared with remnant specimens of unleached ore.
CURRENT GENETIC MODELLING IN THE
HAMERSLEYS
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation – Australian Mineral Industries
Research Association (CSIRO-AMIRA) — A unified
supergene, and supergene-metamorphic model
This unified ore genesis model was introduced in Morris (1980),
and refined in Morris (1984, 1985, 1987, 1998), Morris et al
(1980) and Harmsworth et al (1990). These papers resulted from
nearly two decades of co-operative research between CSIRO and
the Hamersley iron ore industry through AMIRA.
Supergene modelling
In the supergene stage, BIF gangue was largely pseudomorphed
by goethite, preserving the original microscopic and macroscopic
detail of the parent BIF. Magnetite was eventually oxidised to
kenomagnetite (an informal term for the range of metastable
Iron Ore Conference
 IRON ORE GENESIS AND POST-ORE METASOMATISM AT MOUNT TOM PRICE

FIG 1 - Model of supergene BIF enrichment with iron ore growth from below, as erosion removes the surface (A-G), followed by burial
metamorphism to form martite-microplaty hematite-goethite ore (H). Later erosion with leaching of goethite, results in martite-microplaty
hematite ore (L). Note that E, from the martite-goethite Section 6 mine at Tom Price, shows friable silica residues resulting from BIF
leaching, as an example of the leached ‘loose’ silica zone shown in C, D, and F.

lacunar spinel phases between magnetite and maghemite), and
martite (a textural-mineralogical term for hematite after
magnetite). Partial loss of gangue to ground water during the
process, resulted in stratigraphic thinning of some of these
martite-goethite orebodies of around 32 - 36 per cent (Baldwin,
1976).
The iron metasomatism occurred in massive, gravity-
controlled hydrodynamic electrochemical cells (Morris et al,
1980), driven by cathodic reactions in the upper BIF zone during
wet seasons (4e- + O2 + 2H2O → 4OH-) (Figure 1). Ferrous iron
from biogenic reactions in the vadose zone was carried to depths
well beyond the normal reach of the atmosphere. Here
pseudomorphous replacement of chert, silicates, and carbonates
by ‘goethite’ occurred by anodic oxidation at depth (Fe2+ → Fe3+
+ e-) followed by ferrolysis (Fe3+ + 3H2O → Fe (OH)3 + 3H+).
Magnetite/kenomagnetite layers in the BIF acted as electron
conductors, with groundwater as the ionic transfer agent. Silica
at depth was released to drainage at accelerated rates as a result
of cycling of seasonally driven iron redox reactions with quartz
(Morris and Fletcher, 1987). The martite-goethite zones grew
upward along conductive strata from the deep reacting zones, as
erosion removed the friable silica outcrop (Figure 1E),
colloquially known as ‘denatured BIF’, which resulted from the
leaching of iron. Fluid transport down surface-expressed faults,
thrusts or fracture zones, or through cross folds, initiated the
deep cells; once started, the ore forming process generated its
own fluid pathways and thus these fracture zones became
redundant.
In this model there is no requirement for oxygenated ground
water at depth, and there is no relationship to lateritisation
processes.
Burial metamorphism of supergene M-G ore to form
M-mpl H ore
In this section of the model (Figure 1H and I), the M-mpl H
deposits represent metamorphosed supergene ores of the M-G
type. The earliest of these M-G ores formed along the folded and
exposed margins of the McGrath Trough at about 2.0 (±0.2) Ga,
possibly toward the end of the Beasley River Quartzite. The
metasomatic goethite was converted in part to mpl H during
burial to ‘diagenesis’ levels (ca 100°C), before re-emergence and
erosion of the deposits in places to form ore conglomerates in the
Mt McGrath Formation of the upper Wyloo Group. Exposure of
the mpl H orebodies since at least the Mesozoic has resulted in
the dissolution by groundwater of most of the unconverted
goethite in the deposits, leaving porous hematite ore, in places
extremely friable due to partial solution of the hematite itself, but
some deposits still retain large areas of residual recrystallised
goethite in the mpl H ore.
Evidence for the metamorphic model
General
Many similarities between the apparently disparate M-G and
M-mpl H deposits relate to their common heritage of banding
and chemistry. But there are other factors compatible with a
related genetic mechanism. The overall evidence of the
relationship of ore to plunging structures from the deposits of
both types supports the concept that they all represent the eroded
remnants of confined gravity controlled hydrodynamic systems,
ie flowing aquifers.

Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002 5

R C MORRIS
Unlike many of the M-G deposits, the mpl H deposits seldom
conform to the recent weathering surface (Tom Price is a notable
exception). However even apparent ‘blind’ deposits, such as the
Southern Batter deposit, or the No 2 lens at Paraburdoo, always
have connecting channels to the surface, consistent with original
supergene access.
The mpl H deposits are stratigraphically thinner than the M-G
type. This is also consistent with the modelling – initial thinning
during supergene enrichment, followed by volume loss from the
supergene goethite to hematite partial transformation (~27 per
cent), due to burial, with further compaction following leaching
of the remnant goethite after re-exposure.
The major structural difference between the two ore types is
that the mpl H deposits tend to be significantly deeper than
comparably sized M-G deposits (the main Tom Price deposit is
again an exception), and associated with major faulting. This
may reflect the Proterozoic structural setting when the bulk of
the Brockman IF would have been buried beneath about 5 km of
strata. Thus, exposure to surface-driven processes at that time
could have resulted only from major structural discontinuities,
consistent with the evidence in the current M-mpl H deposits.
Residual goethite in M-mpl H ore
Significant relic goethite from the Proterozoic supergene
enrichment, contributes to the mid phosphorus (≥0.075 per cent
P) levels of M-mpl H + g ores along the Paraburdoo Range. This
limits the burial temperature to about 140°C, probably below
100°C (Morris, 1980, 1985, 2002). Kaufman et al (1990), from
carbonate isotope data, later supported burial temperatures ‘near’
100°C for BIF below the ore at Paraburdoo, in contrast to ‘near’
300°C in BIF at Wittenoom. Taylor et al (2001) claim that this
intersticial goethite is redeposited superficial material, though
this weathering process apparently has not added comparable
goethite to the ‘clean’ hematite ores of Mt Tom Price or
Mt Whaleback. The residual Proterozoic phosphorus-bearing
goethite is texturally very different from redeposited goethite.
The latter rarely contains detectable phosphorus, except where it
is found as clearly recognisable late-stage colloform material
(Dukino et al, 2001). The Paraburdoo Range contains the only
BIF-hosted ores still associated with remnants of Proterozoic
cover, implying relatively recent re-exposure, and hence some
explanation for the common preservation of the Proterozoic
goethite in these deposits.
Further supporting data for the goethite to hematite transition
is found, for example, in a zone of alternating ore and
unenriched, oxidised BIF within the Whaleback M-mpl H
deposit. In the oxidised BIF, goethite in veins and after
carbonate, contains mpl H, which in the case of the vein material
at least, must be of secondary origin, and probably coeval with
the mpl H of the adjacent ore strata. Mpl H of the type found in
the mpl H ores, is not found in goethite in the normal supergene
environment.
University of Western Australia (1) –
Orogenic-meteoric modelling
Powell et al (1999) suggested deep penetration and heating of
oxygenated meteoric water during early Paleoproterozoic uplift
or during orogenic collapse of the Ophthalmian (F2) fold and
thrust belt of the southern Hamersley Province. The fluids were
channelled to a few of the available structural sites, producing
massive localised hydrothermal dissolution of silica and
oxidation of the BIF host to generate mpl H ore. The mechanism
for generation of mpl H is not discussed. They suggested that
northwest trending dolerite dykes that are associated with some
ore deposits, potentially supplied additional heating. Since the
northwest dolerites of the orebodies are clearly pre-ore (Morris,
1985), their interpretation that these are Wyloo Group, Cheela
6 Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
Springs Basalt feeders, puts their claim for a pre-Wyloo origin
for mpl H ore in doubt. Barley et al (1999) also dismiss the
association of hematite mineralisation with the Ophthalmian
orogeny, preferring a later date, circa 2.0 Ga, associated with
Wyloo rifting, consistent with the 2.0 ± 0.02 Ga suggested by
Morris (1985).
Support for orogenic meteoric water is cited by Powell et al
(1999) from modelling of uplift at ~5 Ma of the Southern Alps of
New Zealand. Here, evidence for oxidation is based on
interpretation of subtle variations in oxygen isotope ratios in
quartz veins. Proterozoic oxidation in the BIF ore zones is
anything but subtle, and yet probably occurred at notably lower
atmospheric oxygen levels (Morris, 1985) than in the 5 Ma New
Zealand environment. Evidence of hydrothermal minerals,
conduits, or veining actually associated with the majority of the
ores, or of connective aquifers for suitable long distance
transport of hot (>250°C), leaching fluids is not discussed.
Powell et al (1999) further speculated that as the solutions
cooled away from the orogenic front, they produced some M-G
deposits (unspecified), though all the mpl H deposits are
geographically closely associated with M-G ores. The latter are
particularly common in the Marra Mamba IF, a stratigraphically
deeper unit than the Brockman IF that hosts the bulk of the mpl
H ores. Though most researchers agree that genesis of the mpl H
ores took place between F2 and F3 folding (≡ F3 and F4 of
Taylor et al, 2001), all current field structural evidence indicates
the M-G ores are post F3 (Kneeshaw et al, 2002).
The minimal data on ore genesis mechanisms by Powell et al
(1999) make it hard to discuss this paper in any depth.
University of WA (2) and Taylor et al (2001) –
Hypogene-supergene modelling
Barley et al (1999) and Taylor et al (2001) have presented similar
hypogene-supergene genesis models for M-mpl H ore derived
from banded iron-formation (BIF). Their models are based on
evidence of hydrothermal features in the two smallest of ten Tom
Price hematite deposits, originally recorded as erratic carbonate
metasomatism in BIF core from Tom Price (Ewers and Morris,
1981), and as localised post-ore metasomatism by Harmsworth et
al (1990) and Morris (1998).
Barley et al (1999)
The brief paper by Barley et al (1999) gives little detail on the
proposed mechanism of the transformation of BIF to ore, mostly
describing the petrographic features of the various phases of
alteration in the North deposit at Mount Tom Price (Figure 2).
Ore formation ‘involved initial high temperature crystallization
of magnetite-siderite-iron silicate assemblages. This was
followed by development of hematite and ferroan dolomite
assemblages with subsequent oxidation of magnetite, leaching of
carbonate and silicates and crystallization of further hematite.’ A
‘range of fluid types most likely reflecting interaction of
hydrothermal brines with descending meteoric fluids’ produced
initial hematite crystallization at about 250°C, and the ore
formed ‘as a response to heat and fluid flux during Wyloo rifting
at about 2.0 Ga’. There are minor differences with the Taylor et
al (2001) model in that only partial loss of silica from BIF is
involved, with recrystallisation of remnant chert, and that only
magnesium, calcium and carbonate were added. The transition
from (1) magnetite-chert BIF (25 - 30 per cent Fe) to (2)
enriched magnetite (± hematite)-siderite-(± iron silicate) BIF (50
per cent Fe) to (3) magnetite-hematite mineralisation (~60 per
cent Fe) to (4) martite-hematite (± goethite) ore (65 per cent Fe)
occurred over a few metres with an abrupt transition from phase
2 to phase 3. The formation of hematite following the primary
stage (2), is described as: ‘Increasing oxidation (also at elevated
Iron Ore Conference
 IRON ORE GENESIS AND POST-ORE METASOMATISM AT MOUNT TOM PRICE
FIG 2 - Cross-section through the North deposit, Mount Tom Price mine, from Taylor et al (2001).
temperatures) then resulted in crystallization of prismatic
hematite and ferroan dolomite’, with later ‘oxidation of
magnetite to martite and further crystallization of hematite as
prismatic and microplaty forms’.
Barley et al (1999) repeatedly misrepresented the Morris
supergene modelling as being related to lateritic processes. For
example in their final statement, they say that the concept that the
hematite ores ‘are simply the result of ancient deep lateritic-style
weathering (± metamorphism) should be re-evaluated’.
Indeed, if anyone has actually claimed that particular genesis
for the M-mpl H ores, it most certainly should be re-evaluated!
Lateritic weathering is essentially a superficial concentration
mechanism that leads to almost total destruction of the primary
textures and banding in the enriched zone, completely different
from the well documented superb preservation of BIF texture
deep below the zone of weathering in the M-G ores. As stated in
Morris (1985), ‘… supergene metasomatic replacement contrasts
strongly with a texture-destroying supergene process that occurs
in the vadose zone. An extreme example of the latter is what is
loosely called lateritisation…’.
Taylor et al (2001)
These authors were more specific about mechanisms in their
model, using data from the North (Figure 2) and the Southern
Batter deposits (Figure 3) at Mount Tom Price. They also
suggested four stages in the alteration of BIF to produce M-mpl
H ore. This was initiated by leakage of ‘overpressured
bicarbonate-saturated basin brines from the dolomite aquifer of
the Wittenoom Formation’ through faults into the lower part of
the Brockman Iron Formation.
Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
Stage 1 (primary stage): virtually all free silica was removed
at temperatures of 150 - 250°C by hydrothermal solutions, with
partial carbonate replacement. Retention of original magnetite,
carbonate, and silicate, without oxidation, resulted in a typical
final assemblage of magnetite-siderite-stilpnomelane-pyrite-
apatite. ‘At the end of this stage the iron formation had lost
considerable volume and was thinned’ to form a general, and
potentially world-wide hematite ore precursor.
Stage 2 (deep meteoric circulation and oxidation at
‘elevated’ temperatures or in Tertiary weathering profiles):
magnetite was oxidised to martite, and siderite converted to mpl
H + ankerite, with essentially no further loss of volume at this
stage.
Stage 3 (leaching stage): the remaining carbonate was almost
completely leached, leaving a porous magnetite-apatite or
hematite-apatite assemblage. Further compaction resulted,
increasing the residual enrichment of Fe, but apparently no
further oxidation, enabling preservation of magnetite.
Stage 4 (weathering – shallow meteoric waters): removal of
all components other than martite and secondary hematite, to
produce the high grade low phosphorus M-mpl H ore.
Modelling inconsistencies
There is one major advantage in the current conflict between the
hypogene-supergene and the supergene-metamorphic modelling
for mpl H ore — they differ so materially in their primary
mechanisms that objective examination of the data should enable
a clear judgment on their relative merits. This, of course, does
not necessarily mean that either is right, but the resulting
discussion from this contentious issue can only be good for iron
ore geology.
7
R C MORRIS
FIG 3 - Cross-section through the Southern Batter deposit (grey) and the Centre pit (black), Mt Tom Price mine from Taylor et al (2001).
Morris (2002), in criticising the modelling of Taylor et al
(2001), touched briefly on problems with deep meteoric
oxidation, iron transport and enrichment, contradictory thickness
data on BIF to ore relationships, contradictory chemical and
textural considerations, inconclusive data on dolerite alteration,
the nature of ‘jasperoidal BIF’, evidence of post-ore
metasomatism, source of the hydrothermal fluids, and other
points. The reply by Taylor, Dalstra, and Harding (2002)
conceded one important point, ignored some, and failed to
satisfactorily explain the others.
Further data on some of these discussion points will be given
here in support of the alternative view that the hydrothermal
alteration of BIF and ore at Tom Price is a post-ore feature, and
thus did not contribute to the genesis of the mpl H ores of the
Hamersleys.
Some of this mineragraphic data was also included by Barley
et al (1999) and by Taylor et al (2001), but they did not discuss
the implications of the information they presented.
Unfortunately, permission to examine the Barley and Taylor
material for this paper, and to visit the Mount Tom Price mine,
was withheld.
8 Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
POST-ORE ALTERATION OF BIF AND ORE
Hypogene model for Mount Tom Price
The hypogene modelling for Mount Tom Price iron ore stands or
falls essentially on just one assertion:
• that the hydrothermal alteration of BIF is pre-ore.
Mineragraphic sample data
The following discussion is based on the writer’s examination of
some 250 - 300 polished thin sections and blocks mostly from
Tom Price core samples supplied during the CSIRO-AMIRA
co-operative program on iron ore. About 200 of these are from
the critical zones in the hydrothermally affected deposits, and
one of the cores, ND 93/80, was described in some detail in by
Taylor et al (2001).
Samples are from 15 different diamond core holes with depths
ranging from 97 to 249 m in the North deposit, and 130 to 366 m
in the Southern Batter deposit, together with a grab sample from
a blast at the North West deposit. A nine metre length of core
starting in BIF macroband 5 of the Dales Gorge Member from
Iron Ore Conference
 IRON ORE GENESIS AND POST-ORE METASOMATISM AT MOUNT TOM PRICE
DDH 1970/10, about 1 m below the ore zone, was supplied as
the then best available ‘fresh BIF’ from Tom Price for
comparison with BIF from Paraburdoo and Wittenoom (Ewers
and Morris, 1981). This core is possibly from the North deposit.
Mount Tom Price Centre Pit and Synclines
deposits — ‘normal’ mpl H ores
These samples show the normal features of the M-mpl H ores
from around the Province, for the most part consisting of fine to
medium mpl H typically in ex-gangue mesobands between
martite horizons, generally porous, but occasionally associated
with goethite. However, samples from the footwall zone of
enriched BIF of the Mt McRae Shale, show apatite and pyrite in
M-mpl H ore. This zone is reported as consistently rich in
phosphorus.
mpl H
FIG 4 - Normal ore from the Centre Pit, Mount Tom Price. Martite
(M), and microplaty hematite (mpl H), with voids (dark).
BIF studies
Ewers and Morris (1981) discussed detailed chemical and bulk
mineralogical analysis of fresh core of the Dales Gorge Member
from three locations. They reported that mineralogical
differences between the Tom Price core and the Paraburdoo and
Wittenoom cores, indicated differences in diagenesis and
metamorphism which were close to isochemical, apart from CO2
and H2O. The Tom Price material had undergone considerable
erratic metasomatism as well as a higher grade of
metamorphism. Minor goethite and some secondary oxidation of
magnetite was present in the Tom Price material, but primary
hematite was rare. Some zones consisted of magnetite
mesobands alternating with coarsely crystalline dolomite
(ferroan) in which rare textural relics of the original chert-silicate
mesobanding were preserved. Coarse secondary siderite zones
were also present. Nevertheless throughout the core the integrity
the mesobanding did not appear to have been disrupted by the
metasomatic changes.
Pore fillings in M-mpl H ore and the post-ore
changes in the metasomatised zones
Silica infill in ore
Apart from altered BIF, the North deposit specimens include a
variety of hematite dominated samples ranging from material
typical of normal porous M-mpl H ore, to similar material in
which the pore space contains colloform to granular quartz
showing ghost growth patterns. This silica does not resemble
recrystallised chert, is clearly secondary, and its erratic
distribution over at least 12 m of core ND 93/80 in the North
deposit, contradicts the statement of Taylor, Dalstra, and Harding
Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
(2002) that it is found only as a selvedge of a few centimetres to
the ‘jasperoidal BIF’. The material also occurs in the North West
deposit. The association of silicified ore and the presence of
altered BIF with 150 - 350°C quartz veins of Taylor et al (2001),
suggests the silica infill came from the adjacent metasomatised
BIF.
silica
FIG 5 - Silica infilling voids in M-mpl H ore. North Deposit, Mount
Tom Price. Note growth patterns in the silica. Reflected and
transmitted light (mid grey - shadows of underlying hematite).
Goethite with infill silica
Intersticial goethite is present in many North deposit M-mpl H
samples, notably in ND 93/80 at 181 to 189 m, and was also
recorded by Barley et al (1999) from this deposit. In some
specimens of partial leaching of goethite, silica with growth
patterns was found filling voids in the goethite. The silica here is
clearly post-goethite, and thus it is possible that the goethite may
be the Proterozoic residue from mpl H genesis.
Collophane, apatite, Fe, Mg chlorite, pyrite, anatase
Further infilling material found particularly in the Southern
Batter samples, includes colloform calcium phosphate
(collophane) with quartz inclusions, crystalline fluorapatite, often
as hexagonal prisms, iron silicates (iron magnesium chlorite),
minor pyrite, and rare anatase. One ore sample included a narrow
zone of both martite and mpl H reduced to magnetite, a feature
also figured by Barley et al and Taylor et al. Apatite, pyrite (>30
per cent intergrown with mpl H along the Southern Batter fault),
and Fe-rich chlorite (four per cent) were also recorded by Taylor
et al (2001). Unfortunately, none of the writer’s samples from
these deposits show the ferroan dolomite (ankerite)–mpl H
association described by Barley et al (1999) and Taylor et al
(2001), nor is this critical material figured in their papers.
Evidence of a reducing environment in the
altered BIF
The North deposit core samples include both relatively unaltered
as well as oxidised cherty BIF, none showing microplaty
hematite, in addition to BIF with carbonate-replaced gangue. The
latter contain occasional coarse microplaty hematites, some
showing evidence of complete or partial reduction to ‘magnetite’.
This feature was also described, but not explained, by Barley et
al (1999) and Taylor et al (2001). Interestingly the ‘magnetite’
grains in these sections often include coarse patches of hematite,
but without the trellis pattern that is particularly indicative of
martitisation. Fine hematite rims however, are perhaps suggestive
of more recent weathering. Some of the individual magnetite
grains show a skeletal style that is often found in martite in both
the M-G and mpl H ores (Morris, 1985).
9
R C MORRIS
collophane
FIG 6 - Void filling colloform calcium phosphate in M-mpl H ore.
Mount Tom Price, North Deposit. Reflected light
carbonate
mpl H → mt
( cannot be related to the genesis of the typically fine mpl H
M → mt
M → mt
FIG 7 - Martite (M), reduced to magnetite (mt, light grey), and
mpl H (white), reduced in part to magnetite, in carbonatised chert
(dark grey).
There is no evidence in any of this BIF that thinning has been
more than minimal as a result of the erratic carbonate
metasomatism, but the reduction of mpl H to magnetite is good
evidence that the metasomatism occurred under reducing
conditions. It is thus possible that much of the magnetite-
hematite intergrowth represents partial reduction of martite,
rather than recrystallisation of pre-existing magnetite, probably
then followed by a more recent overprint of weathering. Under
the microscope this magnetite does not exhibit the normal fawn
colour of fresh material, showing a greyish pink tint more typical
of the kenomagnetite oxidation series.
Grain size of mpl H in carbonatised BIF –
recrystallisation in a hydrothermal aureole?
The mpl H in the metasomatized BIF is invariably coarser than
the normal range of mpl H of the Tom Price deposits, Mount
Whaleback, or Paraburdoo. The non-metasomatised BIF
typically does not contain mpl H, and the finer irregular forms of
hematite seen in the ‘normal BIF’ are rare in the metasomatised
samples. Thus it is reasonable to pose the question – does the
coarse microplaty hematite in these metasomatised zones
represent recrystallisation of the original primary material as a
response to the increased temperature?
10 Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
Grain size of mpl H in normal and ‘altered’ ore
Morris (1980) indicated that goethite conversion to hematite
during burial should result in a ~27 per cent volume decrease,
and that the released fluid could occupy the shrinkage space.
This would enable the continuing growth of the hematite grains
by diffusion of iron, in micro-voids of their own creation. This is
effectively a static ‘hydrothermal’ process.
There are wide variations of secondary mpl H crystal size in
the various mesobands of the normal ores. Morris (1980, 1985)
suggested that the variable minor element concentrations of the
different goethite pseudomorphs (mainly P, Al, and Si), diverse
temperatures due to varied burial depth and permeability, and
local fractures possibly channelling the exhaled fluid, would
probably all have played a role in the grain-size of the secondary
hematite and the final level of the conversion of the goethite.
Like the mpl H of the metasomatised BIF described above, the
mpl H of the silica and phosphate-rich zones of the North and
Southern Batter deposits also appears coarser than is typical of
the normal porous mpl H ores within these deposits, or in the
main Tom Price ores, or indeed from elsewhere in the Hamersley
Province. A detailed analysis of grain size is needed, but the
preliminary observations suggest a significant level of
recrystallisation of the hematite within these local hydrothermal
aureoles. If validated, then these ‘coarse’ modified hematites
outside the aureoles.
‘Jasperoidal BIF’ – deep Proterozoic meteoric
oxidation – or buried Proterozoic goethitised BIF?
Taylor et al (2001) described ‘jasperoidal BIF’ associated with
the metasomatised areas, as reddened, hematite-rich BIF with
several generations of irregular quartz veins. It appears that the
description in Taylor et al (2001) of the ‘jasperoidal BIF’ as
‘texturally nearly identical to high grade ore, except that silica is
present where there is pore space in ore’ must be in error.
The so-called ‘jasperoidal BIF’ is texturally nothing like ore,
but resembles the normal weathered BIF seen in all the M-mpl H
deposits in the Hamersleys. The light bands are leached chert,
often showing typical pressure shadow textures found in
unaltered BIF of the Hamersleys (Trendall and Blockley, 1970;
Morris, 1991). The dark bands are dominantly martite with
minor mpl H, an expected component as discussed below. It
would appear that the texture shown in Taylor et al (2001) Figure
12 B should in fact be related more to the hematite bodies within
the ‘jasperoidal BIF’ they describe as ‘Christmas trees’, rather
than to the BIF as described in their text and figure caption.
Evidence of high temperatures applied to the ore deposits
apparently comes from fluid inclusions in quartz veins associated
with this ‘jasperoidal BIF’. As will be shown later, it seems
likely the quartz veining resulted from silica expelled from BIF
during late stage, post-ore metasomatism. Taylor, Dalstra, and
Harding (2002) consider that the ‘jasperoidal BIF’ is evidence of
wall rock alteration resulting from Proterozoic ‘deep meteoric
circulation without the preceding hypogene silica removing
process’, and that it occurs ‘in a wide zone around Mount Tom
Price (several hundred metres) and at Mount Whaleback’, and
that in the ‘southern Ophthalmia Ranges and the Paraburdoo
Ranges there are kilometre strike lengths’ of ‘jasperoidal BIF’,
associated with small to moderate sized hematite orebodies.
More likely, the material represents Proterozoic weathering of
BIF, with resulting goethite after carbonates and silicates
converted to mpl H during burial, as in the associated ore
deposits themselves.
Iron Ore Conference
 IRON ORE GENESIS AND POST-ORE METASOMATISM AT MOUNT TOM PRICE
IRON TRANSPORT AND ENRICHMENT
From their data and computer calculations, Taylor et al (2001)
claimed that ‘volume loss and not a net addition of iron is the key
process involved in the progressive build-up of iron to ore grade’
at Tom Price. Following criticism of this modelling by Morris
(2002), Taylor, Dalstra, and Harding (2002) conceded the need
for substantial additional iron, but made no attempt to explain a
hypogene source for this iron. This is an unsolved problem that
has been the basis of much speculation since the earliest
hypogene models were suggested. Much of the discussion of this
problem has come from North American-Canadian deposits
where the destruction of potential clues imposed by deep
weathering, is minimal.
A SPECULATIVE SOURCE OF HEATED FLUID –
TAYLOR et al (2001)
The source of heat for the carbonate metasomatism of the BIF is
not entirely clear from the Taylor et al (2001) paper, which
suggested the responsible solutions were related to
‘overpressured bicarbonate basin brines from the dolomite
aquifer of the Wittenoom Formation’, shown in their Figure 23 as
the ‘sealed Paraburdoo Member’. This presumably happened at
the ambient temperatures of the strata, since no major thermal
anomaly is represented in the ore (p 859), though ‘ … the
Southern Batter fault may have been associated with a local
thermal pulse’. Depth of burial, at temperatures of 150 - 350°C,
based on fluid inclusions in quartz veins outside the ore, would
have presumably been about 5 - 10 km.
Problems with the hypogene concept
Whether a ‘sealed’ dolomite-shale sequence, some 600 million
years after it was first deposited and deeply buried, still
contained the vast amounts of basinal solution needed to produce
the 2000 Ma, 900 million tonnes of ore at Tom Price or 1700 Mt
at Whaleback, is at best, speculative. An informal estimate of
9000 cu km for Tom Price was suggested to the writer by one of
the authors. Assuming a generous porosity of ten per cent this
requires an aquifer capacity of ~90 000 cu km. Given a dolomite
thickness of around 100 m this represents about 1 000 000 sq km,
about ten times the total outcrop area of the Hamersley Province,
without even considering the fluid needed for the ores of Mount
Whaleback, Paraburdoo, Giles, Channar, etc. Morris (2002) in
discussing this fluid source used a very conservative 1000 cu km
based on silica solubility of 0.1 per cent at 350°C needed to
remove about one billion tonnes of chert from Tom Price. In
reply, Taylor, Dalstra and Harding (2002), cited the Tertiary and
present day aquifer characteristics of the Wittenoom Dolomite, to
suggest recharge by meteoric fluid. Would recharge be feasible in
the Proterozoic, in a ‘sealed overpressured’ carbonate aquifer, at
greenschist burial levels, where carbonates tend to ‘heal’ rather
than maintain porosity?
The suggested dolomite aquifer of the Paraburdoo Member
directly overlies BIF of the Marra Mamba IF. In an
‘overpressured’ system it would be expected that hydrothermal
fluids would have directly affected the upper levels of this BIF
throughout the province, and following erosion and exposure to
deep seated meteoric solutions this unit too should show signs of
mpl H enrichment. The only reported mpl H ore in the Marra
Mamba IF is in an overturned sequence in the BHPB OB 43 in
the Newman area.
Under the hypogene model, the BIF (Bruno’s Band) of the Mt
Sylvia Formation that overlies the Wittenoom Formation should
also be expected to always show M-mpl H mineralisation, or at
least carbonate metasomatism of the BIF, where comparable
deposits occur in the overlying Brockman IF. This does not
appear the case, since at Mount Whaleback and Mount Tom
Price at least, the enrichment of this BIF to both M-G and mpl H
ore is sporadic.
Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
The fresh Dales Gorge Member BIF core from Paraburdoo
described by Ewers and Morris (1981) comes from directly
below the ore sequence in the Paraburdoo 4E mine. It contains no
obvious evidence of metasomatism.
In Figure 3, ore in the main Tom Price deposit is shown
terminating against a dolerite intrusive, whereas unenriched BIF
(except for a small basal enrichment) still exists along the
Southern batter fault, the suggested main conduit for the primary
BIF modification fluids. Assuming this cross-section is
representative of the main deposit, why was the ore formed on
the far side of the dolerite ‘batter’ away from the fault?
What is the main fluid conduit for the North deposit BIF
alteration (Figure 2)?
A final point here is what happens to the vast amount of silica
expelled from the BIF following the metasomatic changes,
assuming that all the 900 Mt of ore of Mount Tom Price is
formed by this hypogene mechanism? Massive silica vein
systems should pervade the surrounding rocks, and the upper
sections of the faults should be extensively silicified. Much of the
ore is exposed at the surface and erosion could have removed the
evidence in the overlying rocks, but there are still abundant areas
of potential silica metasomatism. Despite extensive mining and
exploration this expected feature has not been reported.
AN ALTERNATIVE SPECULATIVE SOURCE OF
LOCALISED HEATED FLUID – POST-ORE
SUPERGENE OXIDATION OF CARBON AND
PYRITE IN THE FOOTWALL MT McRAE SHALE
In this alternative model, the localised post-ore metasomatism of
BIF was driven by exothermic reaction of oxygenated meteoric
water with the rich fine grained pyrite and reactive carbon which
occurs extensively in the Mt McRae Shale that forms the
immediate footwall to the Brockman IF. The pyrite in this unit in
fresh mine exposures tends to be of the ‘poppy seed’ type, but in
many areas of the mines rich segregations of coarsely
recrystallised and marble-sized globular pyrite are present.
Spontaneous combustion and emission of acrid SO2 fumes from
fractured material exposed during mining, is an indication of the
potential for less dramatic heating in a semi-closed environment.
The pyrite-rich material along the Southern Batter fault (Taylor
et al, 2001, p 849) suggests that considerable sulphur mobility
was achieved.
In the North deposit (Figure 3) fluid access is not clear, but
may be related to the dolerite shown in the section. It is
important to note that the BIF alteration does not appear in the
basal zone of the Dales Gorge member here, as would be
expected under the Taylor et al model, but, consistent with the
post-ore alteration concept, it occurs along the permeable
pre-existing ore-BIF contact zone.
A possible mechanism for the localised flow of heated fluids is
described. Following exposure of the buried ore and leaching of
much of the intersticial goethite under reducing conditions, cool
oxygenated water descended through the permeable ore
sequences, and reacted with pyrite and carbon in fractured areas
of the footwall Mt McRae Shale. This is modelled as the cold
down-flowing limb of a convective cell. Heated solutions from
black shale reactions, passed into the permeable partly oxidised
BIF/ore contact zone of the Southern Batter Deposit, to produce
the metasomatism of the BIF. Thus, this zone acted as the
upward-flowing limb of the convective cell. Expelled silica from
the carbonatised BIF was transported through the reported high
temperature vein system (150 - 250°C) of Barley, Taylor et alia,
invading adjacent porous ore, depositing silica as it cooled, into
the pore space in the overlying M-mpl H ore. Other components
such as apatite, chlorite, and pyrite, were also deposited into the
ore pore space.
11
R C MORRIS
The volumes of fluid required for these localised metasomatic
changes in this model are minimal compared to the massive
requirements for the Taylor et al model for the Mount Tom Price
deposits, without even considering the requirements for the
Province as a whole. Furthermore, the minor silicification of ore
and associated silica veins at Tom Price, are fully consistent with
the concept of very local post-ore metasomatic alteration. They
are not compatible with the vast volume of silica required to be
expelled from BIF under the hypogene ore model.
Isotope data
Taylor et al (2001) suggested that carbonates from the
metasomatised BIF of the North deposit, contained lighter
carbon than the normal BIF, and inferred a relationship with
mixing of the Wittenoom Dolomite light carbon with heavy
carbon of the original BIF.
No Mt McRae Shale isotopic analyses appear to be available,
but the high level of presumably organic carbon in the unit,
would suggest that light carbon from this source could better
explain the data.
CONCLUSION
The Barley-Taylor-and-associates hypogene-meteoric model for
iron ore genesis is founded on the belief that the hydrothermally
modified BIF found in very restricted areas of two minor iron ore
deposits at Mount Tom Price is the precursor to ore of the M-mpl
H type throughout the Hamersleys. But evidence relating this
hydrothermal event to post-ore processes in the Southern Batter
and North deposits is strong. Firstly, the presence of microplaty
hematite reduced to magnetite, associated with the metasomatic
carbonate, is evidence of an imposed reducing environment. The
textural evidence that the related martite reverted to magnetite, is
a supporting factor that indicates this metasomatism happened
after the BIF was oxidised. Secondly, there is the presence of
fresh pyrite and iron chlorite in the interstices of
martite-microplaty ore, with evidence of reduction of both mpl H
and martite to magnetite in some specimens. This indicates that
these additional compounds were introduced after the event that
produced the iron oxides. These points are further supported by
the abundant evidence of infilling by secondary silica, apatite,
and iron chlorite, of pore space in ore adjacent to the
carbonatised BIF zones, together with the associated
‘recrystallisation’ of ore mpl H to a coarser form. The infilling
silica is logically the material expelled from the BIF during
replacement of chert by carbonate.
Taylor et al (2001) speculated that overpressured basinal brine
from the Wittenoom Formation was the source of the
hydrothermal fluids for their primary stage of BIF alteration,
requiring vast amounts of heated fluids to convert some two
billion tonnes of BIF to ore at Tom Price.
An alternative model is that oxygenated meteoric waters
during the last stages of goethite removal from the
metamorphosed supergene ore, reacted with the underlying
carbon and pyrite-rich Mt McRae Shale to provide heated fluids.
Convective thermal cells formed locally, with the heated fluids
invading porous BIF-ore contacts, modifying the BIF, and
precipitating the various expelled components in the pore space
of the adjacent ores. These ore zones include partial
recrystallisation of fine hematite to ‘coarse’ mpl H. Changes in
carbon isotopes from typically heavy in normal BIF, to light in
the modified BIF, are consistent with a source in the carbon-rich
Mt McRae Shale, and the persistent phosphate-rich zone in the
footwall BIF/black shale suggests a source of the prominent
mobilised apatite elsewhere. Only nominal amounts of fluid are
required for this local post-ore conversion of BIF.
12 Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to M Kneeshaw and D Kepert for constructive
critical comment on an early version of this paper, and to Angelo
Vartesi of CSIRO for drafting.
Slightly modified cross-sections from Figure 5 (page 845) and
Figure 10 (page 850) from Taylor et al (2001) are reprinted with
the permission of Economic Geology.
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Iron Ore Conference Perth, WA, 9 - 11 September 2002 13