Ebook Computer Repair For PC Owners Ver 1.01

–
E-book edition Version 1.01
www.TechBooks.Books.Officelive.com
CESAR A BALLADARES
Electronic Engineer
Computer
Repair for
PC Owners
Hardware: Networking, desktop repair and  Cesar A Balladares
notebook repair.
TechBooks@live.com
Software: Windows XP, Windows Vista,
Windows 7 and Linux.
Level: Beginners to intermediate.
About the author
Cesar A Balladares holds a bachelor‟s degree in Electronic
Engineering and a Post Degree in Telematics both from the National
University of Engineering, Nicaragua. He is an expert in the field of
computers and computers networks. He has been involved with
computers since 1990.
The author was born in Nicaragua. Some years ago, a communist

dictatorship took the power of the country. The communists forced him
into exile, he moved to the USA in the year 2000.
Note to the E-book edition

The e-book edition is a pre-edition of the printed version aim to
future buyers, reviewer, editors and publishers. The e-book edition is for
edition and marketing purposes and the content can be different in
comparison to the final printed version.
If you are reading this version and you believe that something is
wrong or that something can be improved, pleased do not hesitate in
contact me directly.
I must warn that this e-book only has some selected chapters taken
from different sections of the printed edition. Some sections such as
safety, tools and troubleshooting are not present in this e-book. Therefore,
the content of this e-book edition will not give you enough knowledge in
order to repair a computer for yourself.
The printed version of this book use a „hand on approach‟ with a lot
of interaction and step-by-step guides for resolve hardware and software
problems. I recommend buy the printed edition if you want repair hardware
components or manipulate software.
Finally, I recommend using the printed edition of the book in order

to get a fully understanding of safety procedures, tools and
troubleshooting techniques. The author is not liable or responsible for any
loss or damage arising from information contained in this e-book.
Note: Content in color blue only appear in the E-book edition.
ii
Dedication
To my mother Rosa Blanco Gonzalez
R.I.P
Tell me what you think!

As a reader, you are the most important critic and commentator of
my books. I value your opinion and want to know how I could do it better.
I look forward your comments and advices. You can contact me by
e-mail at the following address:
TechBooks@live.com
Cesar A Balladares
Where can I buy a copy of this

book?
You can order a copy of this book at your preferred bookstore. You
can also buy a copy of this book directly at
You can also get a free e-book with some selected chapters at
iii
Trademark Acknowledgment
The author has made every attempt to supply trademark
information about company names, products and services. The author
cannot attest accuracy in trademark information.
Many of the pictures uses in this book have been taken from
brochures, manuals and public information such as consumer‟s forums or
manufacturers support pages. The author cannot claim ownership in any
picture taken from a commercial product or from a private web site, most
pictures used in this book are public content but others are licensed and
have been made available for this publication. In the Internet, licenses and
copyrights sometimes get misapplied. Therefore, if I have taken something
of yours that is copyrighted or I have not acknowledged your authorship,
send me an email, and I will promptly remove the offending material in
future publications.
The author made most of the diagrams but some diagrams have
been taken from others sources. The pictures and diagrams information
are exposed at the final of the book.
Warning and Disclaimer

This book was written in order to provide valuable information and
advice to the people who want repair and upgrade PCs. Every effort has
been made in order to provide accurate information but no warranty is
implied.
The information is provide “as is” basic. The author is not liable or
responsible for any loss or damage arising from information contained in
this book.
If you are reading the e-Book edition please read „Note to the e-
book edition‟.
Copyright
Copyright © 2010 Cesar A Balladares, 531 NW 44 AVE, Miami, FL
33126. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted, or reproduced in any way, including but not
limited to photocopy, photograph, magnetic, or other record, without the
prior agreement and written permission of Cesar A Balladares.
iv
Sections at a Glance
1 Getting Started
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Brief history of computers
1.3 Working with computers
1.4 Hardware and Software
2 Hardware
2.1 PC Components
2.2 Motherboards
2.3 Microprocessors
2.4 Memory
2.5 Hard Drives
2.6 Optical Drive
2.7 Power supply and Batteries
2.8 Input Devices
2.9 Monitors
2.10 Video cards
2.11 Sound Cards
2.12 Cases
2.13 Printers and scanners
2.14 Flash memories
2.15 MP3 Players
2.16 Digital Cameras
3 Software
3.1 Operative Systems
3.2 Installing Windows
3.3 Installing Linux
3.4 Software Applications
3.5 Working with Windows XP
3.6 Working with Windows Vista
3.7 Working with Windows 7
3.8 Working with Linux Ubunto
3.9 Installing Multiple Operative Systems
v
4 Networking
4.1 Computer Network s
4.2 Networks Installation
4.3 Network and Internet Configuration
4.4 Modems and Faxes
4.5 Using the Internet
5 PC Maintenance
5.1 Cleaning PCs
5.2 Backing-Up Information
5.3 Computer Tune-up
5.4 Antivirus and Security
6 Troubleshooting
6.1 General Problems
6.2 Hardware Problems
6.3 Software Problems
6.4 Data Recovery
6.5 System Recovery
7 Your New Computer

7.1 Buy a new computer or build a new one ?
7.2 Buying a new computer
7.3 Building your own computer
7.4 For new PC owners
8 Appendix
8.1 Bits and Bytes
8.2 Numerical System
9 Photographs and Illustrations credits
10 Index
vi
Table of Contents
Only chapters with page numbers appear in the E-Book
version. In order to access the whole book you must buy
the printed edition.
1 Getting Started
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 How to use this book ........................................................................ 2
1.1.2 What is a computer? ....................................................................... 4
1.1.3 Different types of computers ............................................................ 4

1.2.1 Mechanical Calculators .................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Mechanical Computers .................................................................... 6
1.2.3 Electronic Computers ....................................................................... 8
1.2.4 The Personal computer.................................................................... 9
1.3 Working with Computers

1.3.1 Electricity
1.3.2 Safety
1.3.3 Basic Tools
1.3.4 Intermediate Tools for PC Repair
1.3.5 Networking Tools
1.3.6 Software Tools
1.3.7 Data Recovering Tools
1.3.8 Cleaning Tools

1.4.1 What is Hardware
1.4.2 What is Software
vii
2 Hardware
2.1 PC Components
2.1.1 Desktop External Parts .................................................................. 14
2.1.2 Desktop Internal Parts.................................................................... 16
2.1.3 Laptop Internal parts ...................................................................... 17
2.1.4 Laptop External parts ..................................................................... 19
2.2 Motherboards
2.2.1 What is a Motherboard? ............................................................... 20
2.2.2 Motherboard form factors ............................................................. 22
2.2.3 Chipset ......................................................................................... 22
2.2.4 Processor Sockets ....................................................................... 22
2.2.5 Memory Slots ............................................................................... 23
2.2.6 Expansion card Slots ................................................................... 24
2.2.7 Bios Chip ...................................................................................... 27
2.2.8 Disk drive connectors ................................................................... 32
2.2.9 USB and Firewall connectors ...................................................... 33
2.2.10 Power connectors ........................................................................ 36
2.2.11 I/O connectors .............................................................................. 39
2.2.12 Keyboard and Mouse connectors ................................................ 41
2.2.13 installing a new motherboard ....................................................... 42
2.3 Microprocessors
2.3.1 Processors History ........................................................................ 45
2.3.2 Math Processor .............................................................................. 48
2.3.3 Clock Speed ................................................................................... 48
2.3.4 Data I/O bus ................................................................................... 49
2.3.5 Internal registers ............................................................................. 50
2.3.6 Address bus.................................................................................... 50
2.3.7 Cache memory ............................................................................... 51
2.3.8 Processor sockets .......................................................................... 51
2.3.9 Heatsinks and processors fans ..................................................... 54
2.3.10 Installing a new processor ............................................................. 56
viii
2.4 Memory
2.4.1 RAM............................................................................................... 60
2.4.2 Different types of RAM .................................................................. 61
2.4.3 Memory Category......................................................................... 61
2.4.4 Memory Types .............................................................................. 63
2.4.5 Memory Standards ....................................................................... 64
2.4.6 Memory Speed ............................................................................. 65
2.4.7 Memory Size ................................................................................ 66
2.4.8 Installing desktop memory ............................................................ 68
2.4.9 Installing notebook memory .......................................................... 70
2.5 Hard Drives

2.5.1 What is a hard drive
2.5.2 Hard drives History
2.5.3 Bits and Bytes
2.5.4 IDE interface
2.5.5 SATA Interface
2.5.6 Formatting hard drives
2.5.7 Hard drives barriers and RAID
2.5.8 Installing desktop hard drives
2.5.9 Installing notebook hard drives
2.5.10 Boot Process
2.5.11 External Hard Drives
2.6 Optical Drives

2.6.1 Optical Storage
2.6.2 CD-ROMs
2.6.3 DVD ROMs
2.6.4 IDE optical drives
2.6.5 SATA optical drive
2.6.6 Installing desktop optical drives
2.6.7 Installing notebook optical drives
2.6.8 External optical drives
ix
2.7.1 Introduction to Power supply
2.7.2 Electrical Recommendations
2.7.3 Changing your power supply
2.7.4 Installing Power supplies
2.7.5 Notebook Power
2.7.6 Notebook Batteries
2.7.7 Protection and UPS
2.8 Input devices

2.8.1 Keyboards
2.8.2 Mice
2.8.3 Trackballs
2.8.4 Touchpads and Input Tablets
2.8.5 Touch Screens
2.8.6 Games controllers and Joysticks
2.8.7 Port replicators
2.8.8 KVM
2.9 Monitors
2.9.1 Displays history
2.9.2 Monitor specifications
2.9.3 Types of monitor
2.9.4 CRT
2.9.5 LCD
2.9.6 Plasma
2.9.7 Touch screen Monitors
2.9.8 TV as monitors
2.9.9 Monitor connectors
2.9.10 Choosing a new monitor
2.9.11 Installing a new monitor
x
2.10 Video cards
2.10.1 What is a video card?
2.10.2 Video card history
2.10.3 Video card Memory
2.10.4 Video card connectors
2.10.5 Video Capture cards
2.10.6 Multiple monitors
2.10.7 Video card interfaces
2.10.8 Choosing a new Video Card
2.10.9 Installing a new video card
2.11 Sound Cards

2.11.1 What is a sound card?
2.11.2 Sound card history
2.11.3 Multimedia
2.11.4 Sound card components
2.11.5 MIDI Interface
2.11.6 Sound card connections
2.11.7 Recording
2.11.8 Speakers
2.11.9 Installing sound cards and speakers
2.12 Cases
2.12.1 What is a compute case?

2.12.2 Case form factors
2.12.3 Computer case components
2.12.4 How to buy a computer case
xi
2.13.1 What is a printer?
2.13.2 Different types of printers
2.13.3 Printing media
2.13.4 Printer consumables
2.13.5 Printer Communications
2.13.6 Printer Properties
2.13.7 Printing documents
2.13.8 Scanners
2.13.9 Printers as a copy and fax machine
2.13.10 Photo programs
2.13.11 Buying a new printer
2.13.12 Installing a new printer
2.14 Flash memories

2.14.1 What is a flash memory?
2.14.2 USB Flash drives
2.14.3 Memory cards
2.14.4 Flash memory accessories
2.14.5 How to use flash memories
2.15 MP3 Players

2.15.1 What is a MP3 player?
2.15.2 MP3 players history
2.15.3 Media formats
2.15.4 Getting music from the internet
2.15.5 Sound and video editors
2.15.6 Buying a new MP3 player
2.15.7 How to use an MP3 player
xii
2.16.1 Digital cameras
2.16.2 Types of digital cameras
2.16.3 Web cameras
2.16.4 Camcorders
2.16.5 Camera connectors
2.16.6 Image file formats
2.16.7 Photo and Movies programs
2.16.8 Camera functions and specifications
3 Software

3.1.1 What is an operative system?.................................................... 72
3.1.2 Operative System components ................................................. 73
3.1.3 Family of operative Systems...................................................... 76
3.1.4 MS-DOS ..................................................................................... 76
3.1.5 Microsoft Windows ..................................................................... 78
3.1.6 Linux ........................................................................................... 80
3.1.7 Apple Mac OS ............................................................................ 82
3.1.8 Choosing an Operative System ................................................. 83

3.2.1 Preparing the hard drive ............................................................ 84
3.2.2 Installing Windows XP ............................................................... 85
3.2.3 Installing Windows Vista
3.2.4 Installing Windows 7
3.2.5 Using Restore CD‟s
3.2.6 After Installing Windows
3.2.7 Installing drivers for Windows XP
3.2.8 Installing drivers for Windows Vista and Windows 7
xiii
3.3.1 What is Linux Ubunto?
3.3.2 Different ways to install Linux Ubunto
3.3.3 Installing Linux Ubunto
3.3.4 Installing drivers for Linux Ubunto

3.4.1 What is a Software application?
3.4.2 Types of software applications
3.4.3 Getting software
3.4.4 How to install software applications

3.5.1 Introduction of Window XP
3.5.2 The desktop
3.5.3 Windows XP Basic
3.5.4 Managing files
3.5.5 Control Panel

3.6.1 Introduction of Window Vista
3.6.2 The desktop
3.6.3 Windows Vista Basic
3.6.5 Control Panel

3.7.1 Introduction of Window Vista
3.7.2 The desktop
3.7.3 Windows Vista Basic
3.7.5 Control Panel
xiv
3.8 Working with Linux Ubuntu
3.8.1 Introduction of Ubunto
3.8.2 The desktop
3.8.3 Linux Ubunto Basic
3.8.4 Installing Ubunto Applications

3.9.1 Why install multiple operative systems in the same PC?
3.9.2 Multiple operative system configurations
4 Networking
4.1 Computer networks

4.1.1 What is a Computer Network? ....................................................... 94
4.1.2 Types of Computer Networks ........................................................ 95
4.1.3 Network Architecture ...................................................................... 96
4.1.4 Network Topologies ........................................................................ 97
4.1.5 Network Protocols .......................................................................... 98
4.1.6 Network standards ........................................................................ 99
4.2 Network Installation

4.2.1 Networks Components ............................................................... 100
4.2.2 Networks Interface Card (NIC) ................................................... 101
4.2.3 Cables.......................................................................................... 104
4.2.4 Connectors .................................................................................. 108
4.2.5 Techniques for buildin your own twister pair cables
4.2.6 Installing Home Wired Networks
4.2.7 Installing Home Wireless network
4.2.8 Installing Structured Networks
4.2.9 Powerline networking
4.2.10 PC to PC files transfer
xv
5 PC Maintenance
5.1 Cleaning PCs
5.2 Backing-Up Information
5.3 Computers Tune-Up
5.4 Antivirus and Security
6 Troubleshooting
6.1 General Problems
6.2 Hardware Problems
6.3 Software Problems
6.4 Data Recovery
6.5 System Recovery
7 Your New Computer

7.1 Buy a new computer or build one?
7.2 Buying a new computer
7.3 Building your own computer
7.4 For new PC owners
xvi
8 Appendix
8.1 Bit and Bytes
8.2 Numerical System
9 Photographs and Illustrations credits
10Index
xvii
G E T T I N G ST A R T E D
Section
1
1.1 Introduction
1.3 Working with computers
1
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 How to use this book
Sixty years ago, you needed have a PhD in Physic or Mathematics in order to understand what a
computer can do. We have advance so much since then. Now we use computers all time. We use computers at
work, in the school and in every moment of our life.
We have learned how to use the computer but many people still have numerous problems with them. I
have been involved with computers for twenty years and I have fixed hundred of PCs. I must confess most of
the computers problems are easy to fix. Everybody with some knowledge in computers can resolve most of the
problems.
The objective of this book is to teach the PC owner how to repair his PC. In this book I will teach how
the PC works, how they can be fixed and how keep them running. One important thing about this book is that
you will learn how to repair and how to use the computer, for example, besides teach you how to repair a
printer I will teach how you can use the printer. I dedicated many parts of the books in teaching the use of
hardware components and software applications. I think you need learn to use your computer before you tried
to repair it.
I produced this book thinking in the people that can use a computer but do not have any idea in how
to fix it. Therefore, if you never in your life have opened a PC, if you do not know the difference between
hardware and software, this book is for you. Most of the work in this book refers to desktop computers,
but we are going to study how repair notebooks too.
The first section of this book is an introduction of the computer history, some people think that
computers were invented 15 years ago, others think the Internet and Windows have always been part of the
computers. In the first section, you will learn that computer science have been part of human history for
thousands of years and that computers today are quite different of computers some years ago.
The second part of this book is hardware; I will teach about the different components that computers
have how to install them and how to repair them. In the hardware section I will talk about the different devices
a PC owner use with the computers such as MP3 players and digital cameras; In my opinion these devices are
part of the computer and people must now how to work with them.
2
The third section of this book is software. I know that many people that own computer do not have a
deep knowledge of Windows. I will begin this chapter with a small introduction of operative systems. I will talk
about Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7 and then I will give an introduction of Linux. At the end
of this section I will include some basic techniques in how install many operative system in the same computer
The fourth section is about computer network. I will explain what a computer network is and which
component a computer network has. I will explain computer networks installation and configuration. Finally, I
will talk about the Internet.
The fifth section is about PC maintenance. I will teach some techniques and procedures in how keep
your computer without problems.
The sixth section is about troubleshooting, this section is a guide to resolve computers problem. I will
teach software and hardware troubleshooting.
In the seven and last section, we are going to compare the advantages and disadvantages of building a
computer by yourself. Then we will build a computer from scratch. I will give you tips, recommendations and
step-by-step pictures of the construction. We will have a complete working PC system. At the end of this
chapter, I will give some recommendations for people that just bought a new computer.
After you read this book you will have the knowledge to resolve commons problems in the areas of
hardware and software, you will be able to do PC maintenance, upgrades and build your own computer system.
WWW.TECHBOOKS.BOOKS.OFFICELIVE.COM
Since the computer is a changing industry, you really will never finish learning; there always will be a
new technology, a new operative system or a new technique you will need to learn.
As a final point, you must be aware that repair computers is a technique, the knowledge that you obtain
depend in great part of the time that you spend fixing a computer. Although this book offer you a theoretical
COMPUTER REPAIR FOR PC OWNERS

guide, hands on practice and real life problem solution is what will teach you the most.
Now that you know how this book is designed, we can begin our study of computers. In order to fix a
computer there are some important concepts that you must learn.
3
1.1.2 What is a Computer?
It is very difficult to give an exact definition of what a computer is. At the beginning, computers were
machines that helped resolve mathematical problems. Now the computer realizes manipulation of data, this
data could be numbers, words, music, pictures etc. In the last years, we have seen a merge of the computers
with the telecommunications and entertainment.
One simple definition of computer is, computer is a programmable machine that store and manipulate digital data.
Computer can be mechanical or electronic and the data can be stored using mechanical gears, magnetic
material or transistors.
Although computers have existed for thousands of years, the first electronic computer was invented in
the mid 20th century. For many decades, computers were used only for military, business and academic
purposes. PC or personal computer was developed in massive scale in the early 80‟s.
1.1.3 Different types of computers

There are many kind of computers and many way of classified them. We can classified a computer by
 Architecture: Mac or PC
 Operative Systems: Windows, Mac or Linux
 Processor: Intel or AMD
 Size: Desktop, Laptop or netbook
There are a lot of architectures, processor and operative systems but the studies of these topics are
beyond the scope of this book. There are also computers such as the mainframes or supercomputers used by
universities, governments, etc. We also have the Mac family of computer. Several of these computers are
clearly superior of a PC nevertheless is not the objective of this book to cover them.
In this book, I will focus my attention to the PCs; these are the mass consumer‟s computers. I am
talking about the computer you see in electronic store such as IBM, DELL, Gateway, HP, etc. Those
computers possible use Windows and they can be upgraded and fixed very easy.
I will be give emphasis to Windows base computers and Windows problems but I will do an
introduction to Linux operative systems.
4
1.2.1 Mechanical Calculators
The development of the computer is linked to the history of the humanity. Since the invention of the
mathematics, humankind has had the need of counting. With the past of the time, this counting becomes
more difficult and then the man invented ways to perform complex calculations.
One of the first machines that humankind uses for counting was the abacus. The abacus was used for
several centuries. Many ingenious machines were developed like the astrolabe. The Antikythera Mechanism from
about 150-100 BC is considered the first single purpose analog computer. The castle clock from 1206 was the
first programmable single purpose computer.
Abacus and astrolabe, early computing mechanism
Many automatic machines were built in the antique world. Until the renaissance, most devices were
calculator or single purpose machine. In the XIX the first multipurpose programmable computer were
created.
5
Antikythera Mechanism, the first single purpose computer Original and reconstruction
1.2.2 Mechanical Computers

The industrial revolution paves the development of mechanical computers. Analytics machines were
built in the XIX century. In this time the first computer programs were created, it was the born of the
programming and computer science. In this period many machines were build. The most important develop in
this time was the Analytic Machine by Charles Babbage, this was the first programmable mechanical computer.
The construction of this machine began in the year 1837 but never finished. Although many machines were
very advance none was build for commercial use.
Babbage Difference Machine Analytical Engine
6
The beginning of the XX century brought a vast amount of data and the necessity of manipulate this
data. In order to control this information new ways of storing and computing the data was needed. IBM
spearheaded the develop of computer using new inventions like the punched cards, Boolean algebra and later
the vacuum tube. It was the beginning of the commercial computer.
Early IBM Tabulating Machine 1890
7
1.2.3 Electronic Computers
In 1936 Alan Turin the father of the computer science, formulate the concept of algorithm and design
the modern computer architecture, his model is still use in computers today. The invention of the vacuum tube
started the development of the electronic computers in the 40‟s and 50‟s. Generally, only the government and
the military could afford those machines.
The invention of the transistor was the key in the developed of the mainframes and business computers
in the 60‟s. A lot of big business bought those machines generally for accounting and payroll. The invention
of the IC marked the introduction of the personal computer in the 70‟s.
ENIAC first general purpose electronic computer build in 1946
The electronic computer progress follows the development of these electronic devices:
 Vacuum tubes (40’s and 50’s): Vacuum tubes were the first electronic amplifier.
 Transistors (60’s and 70’s): Transistors were the first solid-state amplifier, and successor of the
vacuum tube.
 Integrate circuits or IC (70’s): IC is a technology which consist in integrate many electronic

components like transistors, diodes, capacitors and resistors in one package.
 Processor (from the 80’s to today): Processors are electronic devices composed of a control unit,
arithmetic-logic unit an instruction-decoding unit.
8
IBM407 computer from 1953
1.2.4 The Personal computer
What is a personal computer? The term personal computer refers to a computer designed for an
individual use. From the mid 40‟s to the 70‟s the peopled used mainframes. Mainframes were huge and expensive
computer owned by the government and big corporations, hundreds of staff members ran them, therefore there were no

personal. No individual person owned a computer; a computer in that time was like a space rocker today, huge,
complex and expensive.
In the decades of the 70‟s the development of the processor made possible the miniaturization and
posterior commercialization of the home computers, at the beginning these computers where sold by mail and
they arrived as do for yourself kits, only technicians could ensemble them. At the end, you had a wood box
without operative system, monitor, keyboard or mouse.
The computers had buttons instead of keyboard and little lights instead of monitor. The users had to
invent their own operative systems and programs therefore; no everyone could use these devices. In the early
70‟s these build by yourself computers were called “home computer”.
9
Altair is considered the first line of personal computer but was Apple the first
company that introduced a computer cheap enough for mass consumer.
Altair 8800 from 1975 one of the first microcomputers
Apple II from 1977
The invention of the microprocessor in the early 70‟s paved the way of the
introduction of the microcomputers in the late 70‟s and early 80‟s. In 1977 Apple
launched one of the first successful commercial microcomputers the Apple II, the main
consumer target in that time were middle and small business and not individuals. The
personal computers from late 70‟s were called “microcomputers”; this term was used for
more than 10 years.
10
IBM responded to the success of the Apple II with the launch of the IBM PC in
1981. The introduction of the IBM PC was a great success; therefore, two companies
leaded the market in this time, Apple and IBM.
The Apple operative system was the Apple DOS it was used only with Apple
computers. The IBM operative system was the PC-DOS nevertheless; an almost identical
operative system MS-DOS was available for any computer manufacturer.
In that time many manufacturers like Wang, HP and Compaq launched their own
line of personal computers. In order to use the successfully Microsoft DOS operative
system all these companies copied the IBM hardware, these family of computer were
know as IBM compatibles.
The original IBM PC model 5150 from 1981
The development of the Intel processor brought us the Intel architecture and the
production of the 286, 386,486 and Pentium processors. Intel processors were the key in
the development of the PC hardware. The introduction of MS-DOS and later Windows
operative system marked the beginning of the use of computer for the general people.
Microsoft software played a key role in the development of the PC software although
Window like applications were used for Apple computers long time before Windows.
In the early 90‟s most manufacturers were IBM compatibles, companies like
DELL, Compaq, HP controlled the marked. In this time almost all computers used
Windows and Intel processors, it was the beginning of the Wintel architecture. Wintel was
the technology responsible of the development of the computers since the early 90‟s.
11
Today a big share of the computer marker belongs to “clones”. A clone is
computer build with parts of different companies, a clone company does not build they
own hardware they only assemble computers parts then sell the whole product under
their brand.
After this introduction, some reader can wonder why the people still call most
computers PC, after all PC is really the line of IBM personal computers build in the early
80‟s. Most of the times the term PC is used for describe a no Apple computer, which
means if it is no Apple is a PC. I prefer the old term, a personal computer is a computer
designed in order to satisfy the needs of a person and not a group.
The computer become personal thanks of the shrinking and falling of prices of
the processors and memories, those advances make possible the mass production of
computers. PC are cheaper every day and now they are a just a gadget like a phone or
TV.
The merger between computers and entertainment brought us the MP3 players,
DVDs and digital cameras. The blending of computers and telecommunication has
created new forms of computing like the Internet, social networks and the smartphones.
The advances in electronic have given computers power to almost all electronic devices.
We can find computers in the auto, in the phone and in most appliances.
We can say; Computers today are beyond doubt personal.
You can continue reading the rest of the section in

the printed edition of this book.
12
HARDWARE Section
2
2.1 PC Components
2.2 Motherboards
2.3 Microprocessors
2.4 Memory
2.5 Hard Drives
2.6 Optical Drive
2.8 Input Devices
2.9 Monitors
2.10 Video cards
2.11 Sound Cards
2.12 Cases
2.14 Flash memories
2.15 MP3 Players
13
2 .1 PC Components
2.1.1 Desktop External Parts
A desktop computer is the kind of computer you set in a desk; generally, it came
separate in modules such as system unit, monitor, keyboard, mouse, etc. The desktop
computer is the first generation of personal computers. The objective of this section is to
have a first look of the desktop computer and connections. The following pictures show
us what a desktop looks like.
Monitor System Unit
Keyboard Mouse
Desktop computer.
The System Unit is the PC main part; here is where the processor, memory and
hard drive are located. Here is a typical system unit with all its parts.
System Unit front view.
14
Older computers used to have the USB port and audio connectors at the back,
now all the models have these connectors at the front, sometimes there are covers with
small doors. If it is possible, try to identify the connections in your own computer.
System Unit rear view.
Modern computer lack of dedicate keyboards and mouse connectors instead they
used the USB port for connect the keyboard and mouse.
You can note the colored plugs at the back of the computer, for example, green
for speakers and pink for microphone, the color of the keyboard and mouse connectors
are respectively purple and green.
15
2.1.2 Desktop Internal Parts
In this section you can observe what you will find when you open a desktop
computer. In the picture, we can observe the System Unit interior; we can see the
motherboard, the memories, the power supply, the hard drive and the optical drive.
These are the typical parts in every computer.
If you feel ready, you can now open your PC following the safety procedures
like unplug the power. Try to identify the components in your own PC without
touching or removing anything.
System Unit inside view.
The advantage of repair and upgrade computers is that the parts come in
modules. Therefore, if you for example need more memory or a bigger hard drive, you
can buy some memory modules or a new hard drive and install them in the computer.
When you need repair a computer, most of the times it is easy to buy a new
part and discharge the old one. It is no worthy trying to fix a CD drive, a mouse or a
keyboard. Laptop computers have the same parts that a desktop have but in most cases,
there are more difficult and expensive to repair.
16
2.1.3 Laptop External parts
Laptops computers are portable computer, these kinds of computers are

becoming very popular. Like their desktop counterparts, they have parts that can be
repaired, or upgraded.
Other name that a laptop receives is notebook. Generally, a laptop is more

expensive than a desktop with the same specs nevertheless their size allowed a great
versatile. In recent years majority of sales in the PC have been laptops.
If you are a laptop owner, try to identify your laptops parts and connectors.
Laptop computer external view
17
You can note that in laptops computers, the screen and keyboard are embedded in
the device, therefore it is very difficult exchange screen and keyboard among laptops, and
generally, you must order the parts from the manufacturer.
Laptop computer connectors
Recently we have seen a new device called netbook, a netbook is a cheap laptop
without CD ROM, low memory, slow processor and small hard drive. These devices are
more suitable for internet browser and light applications. The price and size have made
these devices very popular.
Laptop computer have connectors like the desktops, it is very easy connect and
external monitor, keyboard or mouse to a laptop. Some laptops have port replicator‟s
connectors; a port replicator is a connector that let connect the power, one monitor, one
mouse, one keyboard and several accessories using only one cable.
18
2.1.4 Laptop Internal parts
The procedures to disassemble notebooks varies in each notebook model, in this

section I want show you a first look of some internal notebook parts. If you feel right you
can now open the laptops cover in the bottom of your laptop, I want that you locate the
hard drive and memory without taking them off or touch them.
Before serving a notebook, you must always unplug the power cord and remove
the battery. If you try fixing a notebook without removing the battery first, you could
damage it.
Laptop computer parts
Replacing a laptop memory, battery or hard drive is very easy. Other part like the
motherboard is very complicate because you must literally take the whole laptop apart.
Every component inside a desktop computer is also present inside a notebook

computer. Notebooks have motherboards, network cards, modems, optical drives, etc. In
the next chapters, we will study notebook components further.
19
2.2 Motherboards
2.2.1 What is a Motherboard?
The motherboard is the circuit board where the processor, memory and expansion
cards are located. The motherboard together with the processor is one of the most
important components in the computer. The motherboard also receives the name of
system board. In the next pictures, we can see a motherboard with all its parts.
Motherboard top view
20
Motherboard Rear View
In the last pictures, we can see the typical components of the motherboard such as:
 Chipset
 Processor sockets

 Memory Slots
 Expansion card Slots
 Bios Chip
 Disk drive connectors
 USB and Firewall connectors
 Power connectors
 I/O connectors
 Keyboard connectors (Keyboard and mouse connectors are used less

every time)
21
2.2.2 Motherboard form factors
The motherboard physical size and slots position depends of the form factor. There
have been a lot of different form factor, most of them are obsoletes now. Right now, the
most used form factor is the ATX. Some variant of the ATX exist like the EATX
(extended ATX) and µATX (micro ATX).
Motherboard form factors
2.2.3 Chipset
The most important factor in a motherboard is the chipset. The Chipset is the
interface between the processor, the memory, expansion cards and others components of
the motherboard. The chipset has several components such as the processor bus interface
called front side bus or FSB, memory controllers, I/O controllers, etc. The chipset is not a
component that you can exchange or upgrade like the processor or memory, the chipset
is the motherboard itself. If the processor is the brain of the PC, the chipset is the
nervous system. The chipset determine what kind of processor or memory the computer
can have.
2.2.4 Processor Sockets

The processor socket is the motherboard part where the processor set. Every
socket can hold only a specific type of processors. Sockets vary in size, form and pin
number, for example the Socket 1 has 169 pins and was designed for processor 486,
whereas the socket 370 has 370 pins and was designed for processors Celeron and
Pentium III.
Every socket has a key, which consist in missed holes in one

or two corners. The processor has also a key, which consist
in some missed pins in the corners. The holes much match
the pins, in this way we can set the processor in the right
position.
You will learn more about processor in the section „2.3

processors’.
Socket 370
22
2.2.5 Memory Slots
The motherboard has two different types of memory ROM (Read Only Memory)
and RAM (Random Access Memory). The ROM memory is a electronic chip with
information about the system, this information will not change. The RAM memory is
used when the computer run a program, that means in order to run a program some
information has to be stored in the RAM memory. The information in the RAM
memory is changing continuously.
The RAM memory is one of the principal parts of the computer. The velocity
of the computer will depend in how much memory it has, you must have the biggest
memory you can afford.
The memory slots are the physical connector where the memory chips are set.
The memory bus transfer information between the RAM and the CPU.
Every motherboard has different slots numbers and size. There are
motherboards with two slots other have 4 or 8. The slots have different sizes depending
of the type of memory. Right now most of the memories have 240 pins, but we can find
older systems with memories of 204 or 184 pins.
Memory slots
We will study more about memory in the section „2.4 Memory’.
23
2.2.6 Expansion card Slots
Before talking about expansion card, we must know what a bus is. A Bus is a
signal pathway; the signal uses this pathway for carry information between components
inside and outside the computer. There are different kinds of buses, but we will focus our
attention to the expansion bus.
The expansions bus is very easy to identify because it uses cards slots. In these
slots, we can connect the expansion cards. The expansion card is could be a modem, a
video card, a network card, a USB hub card, etc.
Card Slots
Expansion card slots
There many types of buses, the most popular is the PCI, the PCI bus has
developed in many subcategories like the PCIe and PCI-X.
PCI: The Peripheral Component Interconnect developed some years ago in order to
replace the ISA bus. The PCI bus supports 32 and 64 bits data path. It is still very popular
nevertheless; we can find superior buses like the PCIe and PCI-X.
24
PCI-X: PCI-X is known as PCI expanded it is a doublewide version of the PCI,
it has higher bandwidth and is used mainly in servers. Modern PCI card can be inserted in
PCI-X connector but older PCI cards cannot. The PCI-X slot support many speeds that
mean some are fasters than others.
PCIe: PCIe is Known as PCI express or PCI-E, it was created recently for
replace the PCI and PCI-X. It is more popular every day; it comes in many sizes like
PCie x1, PCie x4 or PCie x16. The x1 is the smallest and the x16 the biggest. One
advantage of this bus is that small cards can be fit in biggest slots, that mean you can
insert an x1 card in one x4 slot.
Expansion card slots
AGP: Stand for Accelerated Graphics Port. It is an old bus used for video card. The
slot is physically similar to the PCI but generally is darker in color. In the past, it was the
standard for video card but now the PCIe has replaced it.
25
Laptop computers also use expansion buses in their design.
Mini PCI is based in the PCI but smaller. It is used in laptop computers.
Mini PCIe is based in the PCIe but smaller. It is used in laptop computers
since the year 2005 and is the replacement of the mini PCI.
Laptop Expansion cards
PCMCIA: PCMCIA is an expansion card for laptop computers, the name

PCMCIA stand for Personal Computer Memory Card International Association. The
card has been renamed lately to PC card. The card is about the size of a credit card.
The card has evolved in various types such as type I, type II and type III, every
type has a different size. Right now, it is used mostly for network cards, modems and
hard drives.
PCMCIA TV
turner card, you
can watch TV
in your laptop
using this card
PCMCIA or PC card
26
2.2.7 Bios Chip
So far, we have studied a little bit about hardware and software, we know
hardware is all the physical components inside a computer like hard drive, networks card,
etc, whereas software is the operative systems and programs. Since many hardware
manufacturers use many software programs it must exist one way that allow hardware
and software communicate between them, this is done using the BIOS.
BIOS: It stands for Basic Input/Output System. This chip on the motherboard
allows an operating system run the same application using different hardware. We must
visualize a PC system like a system of layers; the most basic layer is the Hardware layer,
above that is the BIOS Layer, then the Operative System layer and Finally the application
Layer.
APLICATIONS APLICATIONS
Example: Word 2007 Example: Word 2007
OPERATIVE SYSTEM OPERATIVE SYSTEM
Example: Windows Example: Windows

Vista Vista

BIOS “A” BIOS “B”
Example: HP BIOS Example: Dell BIOS
Hardware “A” Hardware “B”
Example: AMD Example: INTEL

processor Processor
PC System of layers
In the last table, we can observe that a word application running in windows vista
can work with an AMD or Intel processor, the BIOS work like a translator between the
operative system and the processor.
27
The BIOS has information about many hardware devices like network cards,
modems, DVD drivers, etc; as well as many operative system like windows XP or
windows Vista. This is the reason why you cannot run a Windows XP 64 bits with a 16
bits processor because the BIOS cannot do the translation from software to hardware. It
is the same reason why sometimes you cannot run hardware for windows 7 in a computer
with windows XP.
Since the BIOS stand between the hardware and software it receive the name of
firmware, the meaning of firmware has evolved dramatically in recent years. Firmware is
basically software embedded in a chip.
The BIOS depend of the manufacturer of

the motherboard therefore, we have HP
BIOS, DELL BIOS, Gateway BIOS, etc:
Many times the PC manufacturer use third
part BIOS like American Megatrends or
Phoenix Technologies.
AMIBIOS
Some years ago, the BIOS cannot be updated, but now in modern PC you can
update the BIOS, this let us use new hardware and new operative system features.
Therefore, if you are installing a new hardware like a new video card sometimes you must
update the BIOS in order to take full advance of the hardware features.
Older BIOS cannot be upgraded because they used ROM chips, ROM stand for
read only memory that means theirs content cannot be changed , now all BIOS used
EEPROM chips , EEPROM stand for electrically erasable programmable read-only memory; that
means the BIOS can be upgraded. Nevertheless, people continue call the BIOS ROM
memory. Sometimes people confuse BIOS with CMOS RAM.
CMOS RAM: The CMOS RAM is also a chip in the motherboard, and the real
name is RTC/NVRAM or real-time clock/ nonvolatile memory. The name CMOS stand
for complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor, this is a family of chips. The name CMOS
is appropriate because most of the chips today use CMOS technology.
Although the CMOS RAM chip stores the BIOS set up, the BIOS firmware is
stored inside the BIOS chip. We are talking about two different chips.
28
The CMOS RAM stored the BIOS set up information and setting such as.
 Date and time
 Drives information
 Hardware information
 Boot order
 User password
In order to enter the BIOS set up you must restart the computer and during the
boot processing press one key or a combination of keys. Usually the keys are F1, F2,
Del, Esc or F10. Every computer is different; you can find the right combination in the
computer manual. Sometimes you can also see a message like for example Press <F2> to
enter BIOS setup. In the appendix of this book, you can find some combination key for
most computers.
System BIOS screen
Manipulate the bios information is not a good idea for students that are
beginning to learn how to repair a computer, therefore I will postpone the bios
manipulation for later sections.
We will learn to reconfigure the BIOS set up in many sections of the book like
the sections about hard drivers, video cards, operative system, troubleshooting and
building your own computer but first you must get a little bit more information about
how a computer works.
29
CMOS Battery: In order to keep all these information the CMOS need a
constant source of power, that is the reason a CMOS battery must be used, this battery is
generally a regular CR2025, the same of many calculators. The charge in this battery last
approximately 5 years, when it is discharge you must enter the CMOS information
manually every time you power up the system.
CMOS battery
We will study how resolve battery problems in the section of troubleshooting.
Password Protection: Almost all the CMOS set up have a section about
Password Protection, this password is wrote in the CMOS. When you power up a system
with password protection, the first screen you see is the Set up screen asking you about
the password. If you do not write the password correctly, you cannot enter to the System.
We will study how to clear password in the section of troubleshooting.
 Note: The password in the Set Up is not

the same that the password in Windows.
30
POST: Another important function handle by the BIOS is the POST or Power
On Self test. The function of the POST is identified the computer components and set
them in such a way, the operative system can use them, here is a list of the POST
function.
 Test the BIOS itself
 Discover and test the computer hardware such as processors, hard drives,
network cards, etc.
 Verify memory
 Test the buses
 Discover expansion cards
The post also must identify if a system was turned off correctly. If all the
hardware is good then the operative system will initialize. If there is something wrong in
the POST process, the Operative System will not start.
If something is wrong, the computer will show screen messages and sound a
series of beeps indicating the type of failure. These messages are generally some codes
like A1, DO or D3 every BIOS manufacturer have different codes therefore the code in
one computer has a different meaning in another computer. The beeps are a series of
long and short beeps and they are very useful when you have problem with the video

card and you cannot see the codes in the monitor.
One tool that you can use for identified POST codes is the BIOS POST card,
you can connect this car to the expansion bus and see the code with the help of some
LEDs.
You can see the POST codes in the screen.
POST BIOS card
31
2.2.8 Disk drive connectors
Computers use hard drive (HD) in order to storage information, in this moment
there are mainly two interfaces for connect hard drive inside a computer, there are:
 ATA know as IDE, Parallel ATA or PATA
 SATA know as Serial ATA
Older computer systems used ATA but now modern computer use mostly SATA.
Another disk connector is the floppy disk (FD) connector, FD are obsolete know
therefore we will not studied them in this book.
ATA connector
SATA connectors
Floppy connectors
Typical Motherboard with ATA, SATA and floppy connectors
In modern computer, you will find only one IDE connector and many SATA
connectors; older system generally had two IDE connectors. Usually you can connect
two HD using one IDE connector but only one HD using one SATA connector.
Besides HD you can also connect CD drives and DVD drives, in recent years
many motherboard have external SATA connectors called eSATA which you can use
like an USB connector in order to connect a great variety of hardware like camcorder or
external hard drives.
If you motherboard does not have build in SATA connector, you can use an IDE
to SATA adapter or an expansion card with SATA connectors in order to use SATA
devices. I will talk about IDE and SATA configuration in section ‘2.5 Hard drives’.
32
2.2.9 USB and Firewall connectors
Since the born of the electronic computer, we have used peripherals devices such
as input devices, output devices, storage devices, etc. For many years each company
design their own connector and every device had a different connector. For example, a
printer could use a parallel port, another printer used a serial port and an external tape
unit could use a proprietary system with special adapters. Therefore, connect peripherals
was difficult and expensive. Last part of the 90‟s saw the development of the USB.
USB: Universal Serial Bus is a standard for connect peripheral devices such as
printers, keyboards, mice, external hard drives, camera, etc. USB eliminate the need of
have different connectors. You can use the same USB connector for many devices and if
you need more connectors you can buy hubs for expand your computer ports.
USB have been the standard since the

introduction of windows 98 with the introduction
of the USB 1.0
USB 2.0 is the standard in most PCs now

Besides the Type A, we also
have the type B, mini-A, mini-B,
micro-AB and micro-B
USB connectors
USB is now the standard in connect peripherals from Flash memory to

camcorders.
33
Before the developed of the USB, a high-speed serial bus standard was under
development, this serial bus is called Firewall.
Firewall: IEEE-1394, Firewall or i.Link is a high-speed serial standard, the

firewall is not such as popular as the USB but it is faster. IEEE-1394 is used in high-end
music and video applications.
No all motherboard have Firewall ports, but they can

be installed using an expansion card.
IEEE-1394 connectors
 Warning: USB and IEEE-1394 connectors look

different outside the computer but they look the same
inside the motherboard. In fact, a USB connector in
a motherboard will fit a Firewall but it will not work.

Read the connectors labels before connect USB and
Firewall cables to the motherboard.


34 
In the next pictures, we can see some internal Firewall connectors. In the
motherboard, the Firewall connector has the same size of a USB connector but they
always have the letter 1394 whereas the USB connector has the word USB. They also
use different color. The connectors colors varied in every motherboard.
USB connectors
Firewall connector
USB and IEEE-1394 connectors
35
2.2.10 Power connectors
In order to work the motherboard needs power. All motherboard have a
connector where you can connect the power supply, this connector has evolved with
time. 15 years ago motherboards used a connector called P8 and P9, really it was two
connectors in one, then we had the 20 pins ATX connector and now we have 24 pins ATX
connector.
ATX 20 pins connector
The difference between the 20 and 24 pins is that a motherboard with 24

generally consumes more current. A power supply connector with 20 pins can fix in a
motherboard with 24 connectors, but sometimes it cannot provide enough current.
Sometimes you can plug the 20 pins power supply to the 24 pins motherboard and they
work perfectly but as soon you plug a new expansion card it can be burned because the
power supply does not support the extra load.
20 Pins power supply connector in a 24 pins motherboard connector
36
You can find adapters for connect 20 pins power supply into 24 pins socket, but
I do not recommend them because they do not resolve the extra power problem. The use
of adapters can be dangerous because the motherboard will try to get extra power and
this could burn the power supply.
24 Pins power supply connector in a 20 pins motherboard connector

Modern 24 pins power supply can fit in old 20 pins motherboard connectors, there is
not problem if you do this, because modern power supply have more power and have
higher current than old ones.
All the power supply connectors have small keys, with these keys they can only be
connected in one direction. I will teach more about power supply in the chapter dedicate
to power supply.
37
Besides the main power connector, a motherboard has the following connectors:
 ATX12V Connector: This is an auxiliary power connector develop many years

ago, it is a standard in all modern motherboard. This connector power up the
processor
 System Fan connector: This is a connector for power up the case fan
 CPU Fan connector: This connector controls the processor fan.
 Power Jumpers: In this jumper, you connect the cable coming from the chassis
front panel. Generally, it has four pairs of cables; the cables have the following
functions.
o Power button
o Reset button
o Power indicator LED
o Hard drive indicator LED.
I took the chassis power button in order

to show the connections.
Motherboard Power Jumpers
38
2.2.11 I/O connectors
In this section we will study the motherboard Input and Output connectors, we
have many connectors depending on the motherboard manufacturer In the next picture
we can see the rear part of one typical motherboard.
Motherboard I/O connectors
Some times the motherboards or the computer case have bays, these bays can
support a great variety of components such as USB ports, Firewall ports, speakers,
microphones, etc.
Motherboard external I/O bay
The bay must be connected to the motherboard using a variety of cables. These
bays can be bought by separate.
39
CD Connector
Auxiliary Connector
Audio Connector
Firewall
USB
Inboard motherboard connectors
We have studied the USB and Firewall connectors; now in this section we will
study the audio connectors. Usually all computers have these audio connectors.
 Speaker: In this port, you connect the speaker system. Normally they
consist in two speakers or two speakers with on subwoofer the last one is
called a system 2.1. This jack is generally color green.
 Microphone: You can connect a microphone to do recorders in the

computer This Jack is generally color pink.
 Line in: It is very useful when you try to convert external music to MP#
files or when you edit a video content. This Jack is generally color blue.
In systems that are more complex, we can find 5.1 audio out, this jacks let us use
5.1 audio equipment. Most 5.1 has audio 3 connectors, one for the front speakers, one for
the rear speakers and the last one for the central speaker and subwoofer.
Besides the audio component we have the video components, most motherboard
uses the VGA video connector, some uses the DVI video connector. We will talk about
these connectors in the section „2.10 Video Cards”.
Modems and Networks connector are also I/O connectors we will cover them in
the section 4 ‘Networking’.
40
2.2.12 Keyboard and mouse connectors
Keyboards and mice are the primary input device used in computers. Modern
keyboards and mice use USB connectors. If the device is corded, you must plug the
device to the USB Port, if the device is cordless you plug and adapter to any USB port
and the adapter receive signals from the device. In this section, we will study the
keyboards and mice connector in the motherboard.
Keyboard connector: Some years ago, PC used the DIN connector, today if you
buy a motherboard with Keyboard connector possible it has the PS/2 called also mini
DIN.
Mice connector: Since the development of the GUI (Graphic User Interface), mice
have become a standard in all computers, first in the Macintosh systems and now in
Windows systems. At the beginning mice use the motherboard serial port as connector,
later it used the PS/2 connector and now they use the USB port.
The Keyboard and mouse connector look the same, both are PS/2 connector,
nevertheless the keyboard connector is purple whereas the mouse connector is green.
Keyboard and mice connectors, USB adapter
41
If you have a standard mouse or keyboard, you can buy adapters in order to
connect them to USB ports. You can also buy adapters for connect USB input devices to
standard keyboards or mice ports.
Trackball devices uses the same port that mouse uses, keyboard and mouse
combo use the same keyboard port. I will tell you more about keyboards, mice and other
input device in the section 2.8 ‘Input devices’.
 Note: If you are installing an old motherboard

with standard keyboard and mouse plugs, generally
you cannot use UBS devices in the installation. Many
keyboards and mice have drivers you must install
after the operative system is installed.
2.2.13 installing a new motherboard

Although buying a motherboard is one of the most important factors in building
a PC, the installation itself is very easy. Before continuing, we must understand why
somebody needs to buy a motherboard and the factors to take in consideration. The
reasons to buy a motherboard are:
 The motherboard in your system does not work
 You need upgrade your computer
 You are building a new system.

My experience teaches me that motherboards almost never go wrong. In many
cases the motherboard is the last part in be replaced and when it is replaced is because is
old and not because it does not work.
In the case you need replace a motherboard because it does not work anymore
you must know it is almost impossible to find one with the same characteristics and
generally, you will have the replace the processor too. The problem is motherboards are
made for and specific processor, and processors changes very fast. That means if you
have an old processor it will be almost impossible to find a modern motherboard that
work with that processor.
42
You can know if a motherboard works properly using a POST card. If you have
another computer, you can test the components of the motherboard individually, if all
the components are good the problem is the motherboard or processor. You must note
sometimes a motherboard component like the inboard video card fail. In this case, you
do not need change the whole motherboard; you can simply install a new video card. We
will study motherboard problems and solutions in the section 6.2 ‘Hardware problems’.
The bottom line is if you have an old system and your motherboard die, it is
better replace the motherboard and processor all together. If you have problems trying
to buy a motherboard than support your old memory, replace the memory as well.
Cheap motherboards can cost less than $100, but if at the same time you are
replacing the processor and memory, the expenses will be more. If you are building a
new system, it is possible you do not need to look for a motherboard that work with old
parts, this give you a big array from where to choose.
 In order to remove your old motherboard, you must follow the next
steps:
 Unplug the power cable in the computer.
 Open the case.
 Discharge your static and hold the motherboard by its sides, do not
touch any electronic components.

 Unplug the power supply, hard drives and optical drives cables.
 Unlock and pull the memory modules.
 Unplug all the expansions cards.
 Unlock and pull the processor fan.
 Unlock and pull the processor.
 Unscrew the screws that hold the motherboard to the computer case.
Keep the old screws as well as any spacers and washers.
In order to install a new motherboard the installation is reversal to the removal.
Note: Sometimes you had an old video card and now you are using the in-board
video card from your new motherboard. In this case, you must find an expansion card
cover; otherwise, dust will enter inside your computer.
43
If you are reusing your same processor, you will need to put a little bit of thermal
compound between the top of processor and the bottom of the heatsink. New
processor comes with a little bit of thermal compound, but you can buy it in any
computers supply store, we will talk more about this in 2.3 ‘Microprocessors’.
Some cooling systems have different heatsink bases if this is the case you must
change the heatsink base before you attach the motherboard to the case. I will teach you
more about heatsinks in the section 2.3 ‘Microprocessors’.
The back of the motherboard must never

touch the case. In order to avoid this
problem you must put spacers between the
motherboard and case.
If you install expansion

cards, you must take off
the expansion card
covers.
Installing a motherboard
In the case of notebooks, the motherboards are very expensive. If the

motherboard inside your laptop does not work properly, you will have to buy one exactly
the same, you cannot upgrade it with a better motherboard model. You will have to buy it
from the manufacturer and the production of new motherboard can last only a pair of
years. Therefore, you cannot buy a new laptop motherboard for old models. If you have
and old notebook and you need replace your motherboard I recommend buy a new
notebook instead.
44
2.3 Microprocessors
2.3.1 Processors History
The 17th and 18th centuries marked the beginning of the modern mechanical
computers. In the 19th century Charles Babbage drafted the blueprint of the Analytical
Machine, this machine would have been the first programmable but it was never finished.
This computer could be programmed using punched cards similarly to the card used by
computer 150 years later. Ada Lovelace did the programming for this machine, she was an
extraordinary mathematician and considered the first programmer.
Part of Babbage difference

engine, circa early 19th century.
Part of a 19th century computer

Mechanical computer continued been developed until the middle of the 20
century, which mark the beginning of the electronic computer. John Von Neumann is
considered the father of the modern computer architecture.
This Computer used Vacuum

tubes in its design, circa 1951
EDVAC Computer
Most computers today use Von Neumann architecture. One key concept in
modern computer is the development of the CPU.
45
The CPU or Central Processing Unit is the computer brain. The CPU performs the
calculation and processing. In order to do this processing, it has to follow the instruction
written in the computer program.
In the 40‟s early CPU were designed specifically for a single computer, they used
vacuum tubes and electrical relays, transistor were used in the 60‟s and Integrate circuits
or IC in the 70‟s.
This computer used

ICs in its design,
circa 1965.
CPU, memory and external bus interface of a DEC PD-8/l
In the 70‟s the processor or microprocessor was introduced. The developed of

the processor changed dramatically the advance of the PC. The importance of the
processor is that all the CPU architecture in now embedded in the processor. The processor became
the CPU.
Intel 4004, the first processor early 70’s
46
Intel 80486DX2 early 90’s
AMD (Advance Micro Devices) and Intel (Intel Corporation) are the two biggest
manufactures of processors. The development of the processor has been very fast. The
8086 from 1978 had 29,000 transistor, the 486 from 1989 was had 1.2 million
transistors, right now the processors manufacturers companies are working in the firsts 1
billion transistor processor.
Before continuing study the processor there are some concepts we need to

understand.
 Math Coprocessor.
 Clock Speed
 Data I/O bus
 Internal registers
 Address bus
 Cache memory
 Parallelism
 Processor sockets
47
2.3.2 Math Coprocessor
One important part of the processor is to carry floating-point arithmetic
operations, these operations are used for resolve complex mathematical problem such as
CAD (Computer Aided Design) software, video games, video modeling, scientific
research and engineering calculations. One way to give the processor more computing
power was add a math coprocessor.
A math coprocessor is a special processor used to help the main processor with the
complex mathematical functions. Many old systems prior to the 486 processor had a slot
where you can add a coprocessor. Since the 486 processor all the math coprocessor is
embedded inside the processor. Today if you need more processor power the favorite
way to get it is using multiprocessing or video card with dedicate Graphic Processing Units or
GPUs.
2.3.3 Clock Speed

A computer execute instructions following a determinate program, these
instructions are a series of step that the computer must follow. The processor execute
these steps triggered by a clock signal, the clock speed is the frequency in which the
processor execute these instructions. The processor clock rate or speed is measured in
millions of cycles per second or megahertz (MHz).
You must take in consideration that no all the processor have the same speed,
therefore in order to execute a instruction the processor may need many clock cycles, for
example the processor 8086 needs an average of 12 cycles to execute an instruction
whereas the processor Celeron can execute three or more instruction per cycle.
Therefore, you cannot compare a Pentium 4 running a 1000 MHz with a Atlon
running also a 1000 Mhz. Compare the velocity of different processor is difficult.
The processor speed must always match the motherboard speed, some years ago
you needed set some jumper in the motherboard in order to set the right speed, now in
modern processor you can set the speed via software. Sometimes this software is also
used for overclocking.
48
Overclocking: If you need a faster system, the best way to do it is buying a new
processor. However, since buying a new processor is expensive; many computer
enthusiasts use a technique call over clocking. Over clocking a processor means running the
processor at a higher clock rate.
When you over clock a processor you have the advantage of gain more speed but
you have some disadvantages as well; the processor becomes hot, the computer can
become instable and sometimes this instability is difficult to diagnose.
If you decide use an over clock system, you can over clock the processor by
yourself or buy an already over clocked system from a retailer. Nowadays you can over
clock a processor using software, the uses of software let control the processor speed and
measure the processor temperature.
 Warning: Over clocking a system could in

many cases void the manufacture warranty.

2.3.4 Data I/O bus

The data bus is used to send and receive data, the processor has internal data bus
and external data bus, before continuing learning about data you must understand the
meaning of “bit”
The data inside a computer is stored in bits, a bit is a unit of information a bit has

two distinct states “On” and “Off”, generally these states can be represented by voltage,
light intensity or magnetization. For example a voltage of 5 volt could represent the state
of “on” whereas a voltage of 0 volt could represent the state of “off”. A bit can be “On”
or “Off”. If you want to know more about bits you can get more information reading the
appendix.

The external data bus is composed by a series of pins or wires. These pins used
to send and receive data. The data bus width indicates how much data it can handle. For
example a bus with 16 wires can handle 16 bits, the data bus can be of 4, 8, 16, 32 or 64
bits depending of the processor.

The external and internal bus could have different width. Generally when the
people talk about the data bus they are really talking about the external data bus.
49

2.3.5 Internal registers
The internal data bus is made of registers. A register is a series of cells where data are
stored. For example if you want add two numbers, you will use three register in the first
register you stored the firs number, in the second register you stored the second number
and in the third register you stored the result. All the information inside a computer is
stored in binary.
Binary is a numerical system, this system uses only two values “0” and “1”, therefore
all the information like letters and numbers must be translate in binary, for example the
number 2 in one computer will be translate as 10 and the number 3 like 11. You can read
more about numerical system in the appendix.
The size of the register varied in each processor, in a 16 bits processor the
registers have 16 bits and in a 32 bits processor the register have 32 bits. Therefore, a
processor could be a 16 bits processor, a 32 bits processor, etc. Most processors now are
64 bits.
Examples of 32 bits processor are Celeron, Pentium 4, Pentium 4 Xeon, Duron

and Atlon. Examples of 64 bits processor are Intel core i7, core 2 duo, Core 2 quad,
Athlon 64 X2 and Phenom ll.
In order to use the full potential that a 64bits processors offer you must use a 64
bits operative system such as windows XP 64 bits, windows Vista 64 bits or windows 7
64 bits.
2.3.6 Address bus

In order to access the data the processor must know where the data is stored.
The address bus carries the information representing the location of the memory cell
where the data is stored. In the next table, you will see a representation of a 2 bits address
bus.
Address Data
00 1001
01 1110
10 1101
11 0001
4 bits Address bus
50
In the previous table, we saw a representation of a 2 bits address bus, the address
has four possible values from 00 to 11, the address 00 has the data 1001, and the address
10 has the data 1101. In this example, the address bus has 2 bits and the internal bus has 4
bits, if you want read all the information at once, you will need a 4 bits external bus with a
4 bits processor.
You can note that all the information is stored in binary for example the data
0001 in binary represent the number „1‟; the data 1001 represent the number „9‟. Each
number, character or letter has its representation in binary. This is the way computers use
for stored information.
2.3.7 Cache memory

Generally the processor speed is faster than the memory speed, therefore in order
to keep up with the speed, the processor uses the cache memory. The cache memory is a high-
speed memory buffer which temporary stored data.
There are generally two types of cache level 1 and level 2.
 Level 1 cache memory holds the data that is more probably to be used.
Sometimes the data stored in cache 1 is not the date the processor needs.
 Level 2 cache is used in the case the level 1 cache fails.
2.3.8 Processor sockets

We already know the motherboard uses sockets in order to connect the
processors in the motherboard. Now we will study the sockets in detail.
Each family of processors uses a distinct type of socket. We have different types
of sockets like socket 1, socket 2, socket 3, etc. Others sockets receive the name of slots
like slot 1 and slot 2, super socket 7, slot A, Slot B, socket AM2+, Socket AM3, Socket
LS, etc.

Warning: Never confuse Socket 1 with slot
1 or socket 2 with slot 2; the names are
similar but there are different.

 51
Since the type of sockets determines the processor type and the processor
evolves very fast, they become obsolete very fast. Therefore, in any moment you can
only find a bunch of socket families for a bunch of processors. In this moment, we can
find the following processors families:
 AMD: AMD Phenom and AMD Atlon.
 Intel: INTEL Xeon, INTEL Core, INTEL Dual Core, INTEL Core i5
and Intel Core i7.
The socket determines also the velocity the processor can run. For example, the
motherboard Biostar 945GC-M with Socket 478 can run Processor Intel Core 2 Duo,
Pentium 4 and Celeron up to 800/533 MHZ FSB System Bus; the motherboard
Gygabyte G41M-ES2L with socket 775 can run a processor Intel Core 2 Duo and Intel
Core 2 Quad up to 1333/1066/800 MHZ FSB System Bus.
Therefore, if you want a system with a processor Intel Core 2 Duo, you can use
any of the two motherboards but the second one is a lot faster. One motherboard can
accept different types of processors. However, one processor is made for a specific kind
of Socket. For example, a processor Core 2 for socket 478 is different from a processor
Core 2 for socket 775.
The socket 775 is the replace of the

socket 478, the 775 socket has not holes
instead it has pins.
Processors for socket 775 have contacts

points instead of Pins.
Socket 775
52
The motherboard and the processor generally remain together. It is common
upgrade the memory and the hard drive but almost nobody upgrade the processor, this
is because the processor technology change very quickly and the motherboard
technology has to keep the pace; Therefore if you buy a computer today and you want
upgrade the processor three years later, is almost sure you will need upgrade the
motherboard also. For this reason a lot of motherboards are sold in bundle with the
processor, this is often a very good deal.
Zero insertion Force: This is the design used in all modern processors. With
this deign you lift a handle in the socket; you set the processor and lock it dropping the
handle. You must align the processor with the socket using the indicator in the
motherboard and the notch in the processor.
Indicator key
Handle
Zero insertion force system
53
2.3.9 Heatsinks and processors fans
We cannot talk about processors without talk about heatsinks and processor fans.
Since the processors have million of transistors, one physical phenomenon is the heat
inside the processor. In order to dissipate the heat, all modern processor use one heatsink
and one fan. The heatsink is a metallic component that you install above the processor in
order to dissipate the heat and avoid the processor overheating, above the heatsink you
must also install a fan.
There are many types of heatsinks and fans. High-end heatsinks use liquid cooler
in order to dissipate the heat, modern fan uses software in order to control the fan spin
and processor temperature.
Fan
Heatsink
Fan power Cable
The processor is
under the heatsink
Integrated processor heatsink and fan

unit
Heatsinks and processors fans
54
Fan bottom view
Fan side view You must apply the thermal compound here
Heatsink Thermal compound
Heatsink bases for different socket
High end heatsink and processors fan
55
A thermal compound must be applied between the heatsink ant the fan. One
important note is that generally you can buy heatsinks and fans together in a package.
New processors sometimes are sold with their own cooling system.
The cooling system attaches to the base, this base is around the processor
socket, and these bases have different size. The size and shape of the base depend of the
processor socket for example a cooling system for a socket AM2 is different to a cooling
system for socket 775.High end system are sold with interchangeable bases, in this way
you can use the same cooling system in many motherboards. If you are upgrading your
motherboard and want to use your old cooling system sometimes you will need change
the heatsink base first.
The fan is attaching to the hetsink using screws, the heatsink is attached to the
processor socket using brackets, sometimes is a little difficult attach the heatsink to the
bracket. The fan must be powered using the motherboard fan connector. Generally you
can control the fan velocity and processor temperature using software, this software
comes for free when you buy a new motherboard or a new cooling system.
2.3.10 Installing a new Processor

One of the best ways to improve a computer is upgrading the processor. You can
find cheap processor in the range of $100 and possible those cheap processors are faster
than most old system processors. However, change a computer processor is not an easy
decision.
The problem in upgrading a processor is that most of times you will have to
upgrade the motherboard. If you are the owner of an old system and your processor fails,
it will be a little bit difficult to find a new processor for your old motherboard.
The processor and motherboard are the most reliable components inside a PC. I
must confess, in all my years of experience I have seen hundreds of PC components that
do not work anymore such as monitors, HDs, keyboards, mice, modems, etc.
Nevertheless, I never have had problem with processors except with some wrong
overclocked systems or processors fan problems.
A modern computer system is designed to last for five years, this means after five
years you must upgrade to a modern system. I still have my 7 years old Dell and I have
upgraded the hard drive, memory, video card, keyboard, mice and monitor but I cannot
upgrade the processor because my old motherboard does not accept modern processors,
therefore the next upgrade will be a new motherboard with a new processor.
The bottom line is most people buy new processor in order to be installed in new
systems and not because they are changing a processor that does not work anymore. If
you are upgrading an old system or building a new one, I recommend buy a bundle
system of motherboard and processor. These bundles come with a discount and you can
avoid compatibility problems.
56
Try to buy the fastest processor you can. In general expensive processor are
better than cheaper ones. There is no much difference between Intel or AMD processors
both have a top line and a bottom line of processors. Example of economical processor
are the Intel Dual Core and the AMD 64 X2 both under the $100, examples of high end
processors are Intel core i7 or the AMD Phenom II both cost more than $500.
So, which processor is the best? It depend of the use, if you want a system only
for surf the internet and do some word processing, a economical processor will be fine, if
you want a computer for high end gaming or business a most advance processor will be
necessary.
Since you probably are buying a motherboard, you must take in consideration
others components like memory and video card. That is the reason that the change of the
processor is considered a major upgrade although the installation of the processor itself is
very easy.
If you want install a new processor in a new motherboard, you must follow the
next steps:
 Make sure your motherboard accept the processor you want to install
 Make sure you have a heatsink, fan and thermal compound for the
processor, sometimes there are sold together with the processor.
 Sometimes high end heatsinks have different bases in order to be reused

in different motherboards sockets. If you are reusing your old high end
cooling system make sure you have the right heatsink base for your
motherboard socket. You will not have problem if your heatsink comes
with the processor.
 Discharge your static and never touch the processor pins, handle the
processor by its sides.
 Align the processor with the processor socket. In the socket generally
you will see an arrow or a notch and in the processor itself you will see
some pins missed in one corner.
 Raise the arm of the processor socket.
 Carefully set the processor in the socket.
 Low the arm socket and lock the processor.
57
 Put a little bit of thermal compound at the processor top
 Set the heatsink, remember the heatsink must have the fan attachet with
screws.
 Connect the fan power cable to the motherboard fan connector.
 One time you have the system running and the operative system installed
you can run some processor and fan software where you can control the
fan speed or overclock the processor. Remember that overclocking is
very useful if you are a gamer and need accelerate your processor
performance but if is done incorrectly you can burn processor.
Processor
Processor socket
Place where heatsink base will be set
Changing the heatsink base
 Advice: Sometimes is a little bit difficult attach

the heatsink to the base. When you finish the
installation try to pull the hatsink in order to be
sure it is attached correctly
58
Modern motherboards comes with software where you can control many
processor and fan functions one of the most important is controlling the
processor speed and temperature. If you are a beginning, I recommend left the
default setting or do not install the program at all.
Controlling the processor speed and temperature.
59
2.4 Memory
2.4.1 RAM
We already studied a little bit about memory, now we will study memories in
more detail. In this section I will cover the memory know as RAM (Random Access
Memory).
Back in the 80‟s 64 KB to256KB of RAM was the norm in PC computers, those
memories modules cost hundreds or thousands of dollars, today most equipment uses
more than 4 GB of memory which cost in some cases $10 by GB.
 Note: I will explain about GB (Gigabytes),

bits and other units of information in the section
dedicated to hard drives and in the appendix.
 Memory modules are maybe the PC components that have experience the fastest
progress. Memory density has grown exponentially and memory prices have dropped
dramatically. Right now RAM is so cheap that adding memory to a slow system is a very
convenience way to speed up the computer performance.
One import concept you must understand is that the computer stored the
information in the hard drive. HDs are very slow so in order to keep pace with the
processor speed, the processor take the information it need from the hard drive and copy
it temporary to the RAM. Therefore, the processor read and write date first to the RAM
and then to the hard drive.
The processor uses the data in the RAM memory, this data change in
nanoseconds (Every second the information could change a billion of times). When the
computer is off the RAM has not data at all. When you turn on the computer and begin
running the OS and applications, all the data needed by the processor is stored in the
temporary in the RAM memory. When you turn off the computer again, all the data in
the RAM memory is erased, this means RAM needs power in order to store the data.
60
2.4.2 Different types of RAM
Now you will learn about the different types of memory. The memory marked is
so big and diverse that is very difficult try to classify the memory using only one
characteristic, therefore I have made the following classification using the most important
features. We must remember that each memory module share many characteristics, for
example a memory module could be a DIMM PC3200 DDR2 with 800 MHz or it could
be a DIMM PC2700 DDR2 with 533 MHz.
We can catalogue the memories in different ways, for example:
 By Category: DIMM (Desktop) or SODIMM (laptops)
 By type: DDR, DDR2, SDRAM, etc
 By standard: PC133, PC2700, PC3200, etc
 By speed: 400 MHz, 533 MHz, 800 MHz, etc
 By size: 1 GB, 2 GB or 4GB.
2.4.3 Memory Category

Right now, there are two categories of memory;
 DIMM that stand for dual in-line memory module, which is used in desktop
computers.
 SODIMM that stand for small outline dual in-line memory module, which is
used in Laptop computers.
168 Pins DIMM
DDR2 SODIMM
184 Pins DIMM

DIMM and SODIMM memory modules
61
DIMM: These modules are the replacements of the SIMM modules used in the
90‟s. DIMM modules have different number of pins; 172 pins, 184 pins and 240 pins are
the most common. All memory modules have notches in order to avoid setting an
incorrect memory module type.
 168 pins DIMM SDRAM
 172 pins DIMM DDR SDRAM
 184 pins DIMM DDR SDRAM
 240 pins DIMM DDR2 SDRAM
 240 pins DIMM DDR3 SDRAM
DDR, DDR2 and DDR3 have different notch positions; therefore, you cannot
use a DDR module in one DDR2 slots.
Some years ago in systems using SIMM, the memory slots were divided in
memory banks. One memory bank was formed by two memory slots. In order to use one
bank you must filled each slot. In other words, you had to order the memories in pairs.
Now the systems of banks are not used anymore. In a modern system, you can set the
memory individually in the slot that you want.
DIMM motherboard slot
SODIMM or SO-DIMM: These modules are used in laptops, netbooks,

printers and some small PCs. SODIMM modules also varied in the numbers of pins, they
could be:
 100 pins SODIMM DDR
 144 pins SODIMM DDR 2
 200 pins SODIMM DDR 3
62
2.4.4 Memory Types
Another way to classify the memory is by the type of technology it uses.
DRAM: The first DIMM memory used a technology called dynamic random access
memory, this technology used a series of capacitors in order of stored the information.
Since the voltage of the capacitor will drain in time; this memory has to be refreshed
constantly this task slowed down the processor speed.
SDRAM: In order to resolve the problem with the refreshing time in the DRAM
memory, a new technology called SDRAM or synchronous dynamic random access memory
emerged. It used the system clock for refresh the memory. This type of memory is a lot
faster but in order to control the signal it used six transistors instead of one capacitor,
therefore this chip is bigger and expensive.
Rambus RDRAM, RDRAM, or nDRAM: This type of memory uses an

advance technology that allow read the bits in packets at a very high speed.
DDR SDRAM or DDR1: This memory uses the same technology of the
SDRAM but it has an interface for read or write two words of data per clock cycle instead
of one. This memory uses lower voltage than the SDRAM. Examples of DDR are the
memories PC-2100 and PC-2700 are DDR1
DDR2 SDRAM or DDR2: They are similar to the DDR1 but reads or write 4
consecutives words. Examples of DDR2 are the memories PC2-3200 and PC2-6400 are

DDR2
DDR3 SDRAM or DDR3: They are similar to the DDR1 and DDR2 but reads
or write 8 consecutives words. Examples of DDR3 are the memories PC3-3200 and PC3-
6400 are DDR2
Note that the name PC, PC2 and PC3 denotes the type of memory.
63
2.4.5 Memory Standards
Another way of classified the memory is by the bus clock frequency that the
motherboard uses.
DDR1: It uses the same bus frequency for data, address and control lines.
 PC 100 = 100 MHz

 PC 133 = 133 MHz
DDR1:
 PC 2100 = 266 MHz data & strobe / 133 MHz clock for address and control
DDR2:
 PC2 8000 = 1000 MHz data & strobe / 500 MHz clock for address and control
DDR3:
 PC3 10600 = 1333 MHz data & strobe / 667 MHz clock for address and
control
control
control
The speed of the address bus in the standards DDR, DDR2 and DDR3 is half
the speed of the data bus.
64
2.4.6 Memory Speed
Memory speed refers to the velocity a processor read or writes the information in
the memory. The definition sound simple but in the practice this definition is more
complex.
First, we know the information is stored in cells, the velocity the processor uses
for read the content of this cell is the data speed, but in order to access this data the
processor must read the address first. We know the address is also stored in a cell, the
velocity for handle the address is known as address speed, these two velocities are different.
Second, the processor uses the data in the L1 cache and L2 cache this cache
speed is very different. The cache speed depends of the processor type whereas the data
and address speed depend of the Motherboard memory slots.
Third, the processor and bus speed is measure in MHz (megahertz) which means
millions of cycles per second but the memory speed is measure in ns (nano seconds or
one billionth of a second).
Since it is difficult classified the memory using only their speed, generally when
you buy a memory you look at the standard, for example you could buy a PC 3200 which
has a velocity of 400 MHz of data and 200 of address, the PC2 3200 has the same velocity
in data and address, but you cannot interchange them.

When you buy a motherboard, many times the motherboard specified the
velocity of the memory supported instead of the standard supported. Here is an example
a typical motherboard specification:
Memory supported:
 1066 MHz DDR3
 1333 MHz DDR3
 1600 MHz DDR3
The specification does not say but it always uses the data speed. Since they used
the data speed the first memory supported will be a PC3 8500, the second one will be a
PC3 10600 and the third one a PC3 12800, therefore sometimes the manufacturer gives
you the memory speed and others times the memory standard.
65
When you know the standard of memory you need such as PC3 8500 or PC3
10600, then you can go to a retailer and buy the memory module. If you only know the
speed you must figured first what standard of memory do you need.
 Warning: Besides knowing the memory speed, you

must know the memory type. For example the PC2
8500 and PC3 8500 have the same speed of 1066
MHz but both are incompatibles. Therefore you must

know if you need a DDR2 (PC2) or DDR3 (PC3).

2.4.7 Memory Size

The most important factor in choose the memory is without doubt the memory
size. We measured the memory in KB in the 80‟s, MB in the 90‟s. Today we buy
memories in the order of GB, most desktop system have at least 4 GB of memory. You
must buy the biggest memory you can afford.

Some people get confuse about the memory sizes, for avoid the confusing you
must remember this table.

1 Kilobyte = 1 KB = 1 024 bytes
1 Megabyte= 1 MB = 1 024 Kilobytes = 1024 x 1024 bytes
1 Gigabyte = 1 GB = 1 024 Megabytes = 1024 x 1024 KB = 1024 x 1024 x 1024 bytes
 Memory capacity comparisons
66

If you check the table, you will realize that a computer with 1024 MB of RAM
has the same capacity of a computer with 1 GB or RAM. Memories modules right know
come in the range of 512 MB, 1 GB, 2GB and 8GB. Older system used to have memory
in the range of 56 MB, 128 MB and 256 MB.
If for example one computer has 2 GB of RAM, it could have two memories
modules of 1 GB each, or could have only one 2GB memory module. You can know the
total memory size that a computer has using Windows or your checking manufacturer
web site. Sometimes you will need open the computer in order to be sure how many
memory modules it uses and the size of each one.
 Note: One important thing of remember is do not

mix different memories standards. For example if a
motherboard accept PC3 8500 and PC3 10600, you
must install the PC3 8500 or the PC3 10600 but not

both. Remember this when you upgrade or add
memory to any system.
Operative systems generally have a limitation of the memory they support

although some tools for overcome this limitation exist. The following table illustrates the
memory limitations.
Operative System Maximum memory it supports.
Windows XP all versions 4 GB
Windows Vista and 7 32 bits 4 GB
Windows Vista Basic 64 bits 8 GB
Windows Vista Premium 64 bits 16 GB
Windows Vista Ultimate 64 bits 128+ GB
Operative systems memory limitations.
67
2.4.8 Installing desktop memory
The installation of memory modules is very easy. Since memory modules are
cheap, installing new memory is one of the best ways to upgrade your system. In order to
install a new memory you must follow the next steps:
 Check the memory capacity in your system, you can do this in windows
checking the computer properties
 Unplug the power to the computer.
 Open the case.
 Discharge your static and never touch the memory components, hold it
by its sides.
 Open the two clips that are located at each side of the memory modules.
 Pull the old memory modules.
 Compare the old memory modules with the new ones; make sure that
they have the same pins numbers and notches position.
 With the clips opens align the new memory module with the notches,
remember the memory will fix only one way.
 Press down the memory in position, it will lock itself. Sometimes you will
need apply a little bit of force in order to set the memory right.
 Close the case and connect the power back.
 Check the new memory capacity.
Only touch the sides
Memory clips
Installing a memory module
68
Memory capacity
Memory capacity using My Computer properties

2.4.9 Installing notebook memory
Installing a laptop memory is very easy, you can follow the same steps of installing a
desktop memory, but you need take in consideration the following notes:
Installing a laptop memory
69
 Besides unplugging the power, you need also take off the battery.
 The memory is located at the bottom of the notebook and sometimes they have a
second memory slot under the keyboard.
 Sometimes you need use a small flat screwdriver in order to open the clips.
 When you install the memory, you must insert it at 45 degrees angle and then
push it down.

70
SOFTWARE
Section
3
3.8 Working with Linux Ubunto
71
3.1.1 What is an operative system?
The operative system gives us an interface with the computer hardware. The
operative system allow the user communicate and control the computer. An operative
system must fulfill many tasks such as:
 Give information to the user
 Receive commands or instructions from the user
 Allocate memory space
 Allow device access and control
 Files and disk organization
 Run application commands
 Networking
 Security
 Interrupt management
 Processor instruction management
Because the operative system is in control of the hardware, the user can
concentrate in running applications, for example if you are saving a in a word processor
you do not have to worry in how the computer will save your file to the hard drive. You
know that if you click the save button, the operative system will copy your letter to the
hard drive. The hard drive could be ATA or SATA, big or small, fast or slow, the
operative system is the one that take in consideration all these factors. Windows Vista,
Windows 7. Linux and Mac OS are example of operative systems.
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As you can see the operative, system must show the
information to the user. When you open Windows you see a lot
of information in the screen such as menus and icons, you can
give command to the computer using the mouse or keyboard.
The computer will storage the information in files and copies
the files to the hard drive. In order to do any computation the
computer will use the hardware such as the processor and
memory. The computer runs application in order to do a task;
for example if you need write a letter you must run a word
processor, if you need do a drawing you must run a photo
program. The OS is the intermediary between the hardware
and applications.
Operative system placement
3.1.2 Operative System components

Early computers were single task machines; they followed a set of instruction
from a punch card. Computer evolved very fast and new techniques were added such as
interrupts, parallel processing and libraries. Although at the beginning punch cards were
used in order to load libraries and control input and output later all this function where
incorporated to the operative system.
Operative systems have two main components the shell and the kernel. The whole
OS code is known as the Source. For example, when you install Windows 7 in your

computer, you are installing the Windows 7 code in your hard drive. The source defines
how the OS work. If the code is open source, you can modify it, one example of open
source OS is Linux. The source includes the shell and kerned.
Shell: The shell is the user interface, the shell allow the user give command. The
shell could be a command-in-line shell such as Unix and DOS or a graphical shell such as
Window. Today most shells use a Graphical User Interface or GUI. Most GUIs such as
Windows use a monitor in order to visualize the OS functions and a keyboard or mouse
to issue the commands.
Command-in-line interface Graphical User Interface
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Kernel: The kernel is the core component in all operative systems. The kernel is
in charge of the communications between the applications and hardware components.
The kernel also organizes the file system.
Kernel
Now we will study a little bit more about the kernel
Process: The computer works executing process, every mouse click or every
application command is a process. The kernel assigns memory, resources and priorities to
every process.
Multitasking: In system with one processor, the processor can execute only one
instruction at the time. In order to run many programs at the same time the OS divide the
programs in tasks and assign different slot of time to the different tasks, therefore the
processor can run many programs at the same time but it only can run a process at the
time.
Suppose that you are playing a video game, surfing the web and printing at the
same time. Because the processor will run only one process at time, it will execute the
game instructions and then it will execute the web instruction and finally will execute the
printer instruction. Because the time of for execute the process is very fast, it looks as if
the computer is executing many instruction at the same time. Systems with multiple
processors can indeed execute many instructions at the same time.
Interrupts: In OS the interrupt process is one of ten most important. The OS

must track all the input orders and processor instructions. If one interrupt is received, the
OS must stop the program that is running and run the code associated with the
interruption. For example if one program enter to one infinity loop, the OS must stop the
instruction.
Modes: Most OS have different modes, although the use of modes varied in
every OS, most of them have at least two modes. One mode will control and access
everything (administrator) and another mode that will limit the access of the recourses
(user or guest).
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File system: The kernel is the responsible for the file system. Most of the times
files are stored in the disk drive. The kernel needs a file system driver in order to translate
the command and use the files. Therefore, when you need open, close or delete a file, the
kernel is the one that access the drive and make the changes.
Device drivers: The software cannot interact directly with the hardware; the
reason of this is that every manufacturer makes the hardware different; for example, one
company can make a mouse with two buttons and another company a mouse with three
or more button. It will be impossible for every programming write an application that
recognizes all the mice models in the word. Therefore if you buy a three or four button
mouse you will need a driver, the driver will tell the OS what to do if you use any of the
buttons. Since most mice are two button mice, all the OS have build in drivers that will
recognize all two-button mice.
All hardware components such as modem, NIC or video cards need drivers.
Some hardware such as mice, keyboards and monitor are so common that generic drivers
are build in most OS. One important thing you must remember is that in order to work
the driver must translate the OS commands to the hardware; therefore, the driver will be
different in every OS, for this reason you cannot use the same drive for Windows XP and
Windows 7. In fact there are driver for different OS version and for different processor
architecture.
In order to repair a computer, you

need use the internet in order to
download drivers. The picture at the
left shows the Windows drivers for an
Epson printer 220. You can see how
many versions there are.
Note that 32 bit OS and 64 bit OS

use different drivers, this means a
driver made for window 7 64 bits will
not work for Windows 7 32 bits.
If you use Mac or Linux, you need

download specifically for Mac or
Linux.
Epson driver downloads
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3.1.3 Family of operative Systems
There are many families of operative systems. It is not the objective o this book
give you a curse about OS, therefore I will focus in the four families of OS that dominate
or have dominated the modern PC industry. The four OS that we will study are:
 MS-DOS
 Windows
 Linux
 Mac OS
3.1.4 MS-DOS
From 1981 to the middle 90‟s, MS-DOS dominated the desktop environment. In
order to understand the importance of the MS-DOS we must study a little bit of history.
In the 60‟s all computer were mainframes. Mainframes were huge computers that cost
millions of dollars and only governments and big corporations could buy one. At the end
of the 70‟s a new kind of computer was developed, the microcomputer. Apple did a great
job developing cheap microcomputer for small business. For first time in the history, a
small enterprise or individual could buy a computer. The success of the personal
computer was so lucrative that IBM the bigger computer company of the time decided
enters to the microcomputer maker.
When IBM began to develop its first microcomputer, a bunch of microcomputer

companies were already established, therefore the timing to develop a new
microcomputer was critical. IBM decided use off the shelf components in this way they
would reduce the develop time. IBM decided to buy a third company operative system. In
this time and small and unknown company called Microsoft made a deal with IBM to
develop a new OS. Microsoft bought and already developed OS called Quick-and-Dirty
Disk Operative System and rename as MS-DOS.
The Microsoft-IBM deal was very interesting, Microsoft would kept the MS-
DOS license in fact the Microsoft deal consist in develop two versions of the OS; PC-
DOS for IBM computers and MS-DOS for others manufacturers, Microsoft would
receive a small fee for each copy sold. MS-DOS and PC-DOS are practically the same
program, there are only some minors difference.
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In 1981, the first PC was released; it had the PC-DOS developed by Microsoft.
Few years later thousand of IBM PC and IBM compatibles were sold, each of one with a
copy of PC-Dos or MS-DOS. MS-DOS becomes the most popular OS in the world and
Microsoft becomes the biggest software company in the world.
Although MS-DOS was inferior in comparison to the OS used by mainframes of

the times such as UNIX, the importance of the MS-DOS was that for first time you
could buy a microcomputer with software include. Before MS-DOS all microcomputers
were sold in kits without OS; If you wanted and OS you had to invented one by yourself.
MS-DOS Prompt cmd in Windows XP
Windows replaced the command-in line MS-DOS in the mid 90‟s. Although MS-
DOS is not use anymore, you can still run MS-DOS commands running cmd.exe in
Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7.
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3.1.5 Microsoft Windows
Windows is the family of operative systems developed by Microsoft. The history
of Windows is very interesting. In the late 80‟s and early 90‟s MS-DOS become the
leading OS. Although MS-DOS was in almost all PC, it still was a command-in –line shell,
therefore it was difficult to use. The solution to make a computer easy to use was
implementing a Graphical User Interface (GUI) instead of command-in-line shell.
The idea of use GUI was not new; In the

70‟s Xerox invented the first GUI, it was the
Xerox 8010 Star Information System. The
fist GUI used a mouse as the preferred input
method.
The first GUI was years ahead of its time.

When Xerox showed the system to IBM,
IBM dismissed the idea of GUI.
8010 Star Information System 1981
The GUI was implemented by Apple and then by Microsoft. The first Windows
version was a copy of the GUI used in Apple Lisa and Apple Macintosh. Even though
Windows was clearly inferior in comparison to Macintosh, Windows GUI began to
dominate the PC software.
In the early 90‟s many companies were building PCs, but only Apple build Macs.
Thanks of the competition PCs become cheaper than Macs. PCs began displacing Mac
systems very fast, this fact contribute to the spread of Windows worldwide.
Early version of a GUI using MS-DOS Kernel
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Windows was not and operative system for itself, it was a sell for DOS. This
means you must install DOS and then you run Windows above DOS. Windows was
more a file manager application but improved in every version. Windows 95 was a real
OS because it did not need a previous installation of MS-DOS.
Windows 95 1995
Today most computers use a version of Windows XP, Windows Vista or
Windows 7, Windows XP share is most of the 50% of desktops in the world. Besides the
home market, Microsoft developed many Windows version for the bossiness market

such as Windows NT in 1993, Windows 2000 and Windows server 2008.
There are many other Windows system such as Windows Media Center,
Windows Tablet PC edition and windows CE for mobile phones. Most Windows OS
have many versions, for example, Windows 7 has the following versions.
 Windows 7 Starter
 Windows 7 Home Basic
 Windows 7 Home Premium
 Windows 7 Professional
 Windows 7 Enterprise
 Windows 7 Ultimate
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Windows 7
Most Windows versions have a 32 bits version and a 64 bits version; they also
have the upgrade and the full installation version.
Windows 7 Starter is the simple Windows version and available only for
netbooks, many features such as Windows Aero are not included.
Windows 7 Home Basic is a simple Windows version sold in developing

countries such as Latin America and India.
Windows 7 Home Premium is the most popular version; most retail stores sell
computers with this Windows version.
Windows 7 Professional is the version for small business; this version included
remote desktop and Windows XP mode.
Windows 7 Enterprise is a versions aim to big business. This version is not

available through retail channels; you must buy it through volume licensed only.
Windows 7 Ultimate has the same features of Windows Enterprise. If you have
Windows 7 Professional, you can upgrade to Windows 7 ultimate using Windows
Anytime Upgrade.
3.1.6 Linux
Linux is a family of UNIX-like operating systems. Linux is open source OS, this
mean it is free. You can get a free copy of Linux in many web sites. Because Linux is
open source, anybody can modify it or create new components.
Only Microsoft develops Windows and only Apple develops Mac OS but many
companies develop Linux. Red Hat develops „Red Hat Linux‟, Canonial develops
„Ubuntu Linux‟ and Novell develops „Suse Linux‟. Therefore, Red Hat, Suse and Ubunto
are Linux OS from different companies.
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Linux Ubuntu
The name Linux comes from its creator name Linus Torvalds. Linux popularity
has increased in the last years, many netbooks, notebooks and desktops have Linux
instead of Windows. Many PC manufacturers offer Linux as an option. Servers, web
servers and supercomputers use Linux as its main operative system.
The main benefit of Linux is its reliability in comparison to Windows. The fact
that most desktop Linux versions are free is a great advance although many businesses
prefer a paid retail copy with technical support such as SUSE Enterprise Linux. Many

devices such as Phones, PDAs and video game consoles use Linux.
The major drawback in Linux system is that many applications such as video
games do not have Linux versions. One solution for this problem is the use of emulators
such as Wine: with Wine you can run many Windows programs in Linux. In the past,
there was a lack of drivers for Linux, but today most manufacturers release Linux drivers
for most devices.
As a say before, there are many Linux versions. These are the web sites of two
free Linux versions. You can download the DVD for free and install a copy of Linux in
your PC. If you want, you can have Windows and Linux at the same time.
 Open Suse Linux http://www.opensuse.org/en/
 Ubuntu Linux http://www.ubuntu.com/
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3.1.7 Apple Mac OS
Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded computer Apple in the 70‟s Apple. In the
beginning Apple was a small company, the key of their success and later downfall was
that they build both the hardware and software without licensing their technology. In the
early 80‟s Steve Jobs visited Xerox labs and saw the first GUI and He immediately realize
that the graphical interface was the future.
In 1984, Apple released its Macintosh computer, Macintosh computers or Macs

were very advanced but expensive. In the times that most people use DOS, Macintosh
users have graphical user interfaces before Windows ever existed.
Mac OS 1984
The advent of Windows and the fall of PC prices brought many problems for
Apple. Nevertheless, Apple continued develops its Mac OS. Mac OS is more reliable and
safe that Windows. Today Mac OS X is the last version and for many it is the best
Operative System in the world. Apple also produces the iOS, which is a Mac OS X
version for the iPhone and iPad.
Mac OS X Snow leopard
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3.1.8 Choosing an Operative System
With so many OS sometimes is difficult to choose the right OS. You must
understand that there is not a right OS for everybody. Everyone has different needs
therefore one OS could be ideal for one person and a bad choice for another person.
Choosing an OS is just as important as choosing the right hardware.
For business, one of the best choices is Linux, if you have a server or web server
I definitive would choose Linux. Linux is more robust and cheaper that Windows. If you
are a computer expert or geek Linux is the best option. Linux is reliable, affordable and
you can customize it very well. Sometimes beginner have problem with Linux because
many hardware and software are not Linux compatible. With Linux the user must find
the right drivers and software updates, even though you can find most drivers and
updates in the internet for some people this task is difficult.
If you are beginning with computer and want something easy to use, MAC OS
would be the best option, but remember a Mac system cost the double than a Window
system. Mac is user friendly and reliable but very expensive. Some industries such as
journalism, photography and science use mostly Mac computer therefore in such
industries the operative system to choice will be Mac OS
If you are a beginning but you cannot afford a Mac, Window will be your option.
If you play videogames you will have to use Windows because most games have only
Windows although lately many manufacturer release games for Mac. I use Windows
mainly for video games, but for other applications, I prefer Mac OS and Linux.

If you are thinking in upgrade your OS, you must also thing about the hardware
and software you already have. For example if you have Windows XP and want upgrade
to Windows 7, you must be aware that some of your hardware such as printers and some
programs may not work under Windows 7. It is common that someone upgrades to
„better‟ OS but then they realize their hardware and application does not work with their
new OS.
If you are using Windows, a recommend try Linux. Linux is free, reliable and you
can get many free applications. You can install Linux inside Windows. If you want
removed it later, you can do it very easy.
Really, you do not have to choose between many operative systems. You can
have different OS in different computer or install several OS in the same computer. I
personally prefer have two or more OS in the same Machine. For me have a multiple
operative system is the best solution because you can use the best of each OS and you can
have applications for multiple platforms. We are going to study how to install multiple
operative systems in one machine in the section 3.4 „Installing Multiple Operative
Systems‟.
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3.2.1 Preparing the hard drive
Today install an operative system is very easy but you must be carefully if you
have important information in your computer. I always recommend backing up your
information before doing any big change in your computer. Installing an OS is definite a
big change.
In this chapter I will not talk about a particular OS, I will talk about OS in
general. The idea is give you knowledge that you can apply in any installation, it does not
matter if you are installing Windows Vista, Windows 7 or Linux.
First, you must know exactly want do you want? Do you want reinstall the
operative system? Do you want an upgrade? Alternatively, maybe you want install and
extra OS in your computer.
Second, any OS has its own hardware prerequisites such as processor speed,
memory size or hard drive Size. One of the most common errors people make is try to
install an advance OS in an old machine. For example, you cannot install Windows Vista
in a 10 years old machine. Some system cannot handle some OS; for example, you cannot
install Windows 7 professional in a netbook. In fact, I do not recommend upgrading OS
in netbooks.
Finally, if you have a lot of applications and hardware that run a specific OS,
sometimes it is not worth make the transition to other OS.
We are going to study the steps for install one new OS in your computer. Note
that we are not talking about upgrade, neither of installing two OS at the same machine.
In this chapter, we are assuming that maybe you buy a new hard drive and you are doing a
full clean installation. As reference, you can read the section 2.5.6 „Formatting Hard Drives’.
These are the steps for install a new operative system.
 Back up your information.
 If you are installing a new hard drive, install the new hard drive first.
 If your hard drive is big or if you will install more than one OS you must
considerer make partitions. Remember that partitioning means assign part of the
driver for a specific use. For example, if you have a 500 GB HD you can leave
100 GB for application and 400 for data. You can do the partition with a hard
drive utility or with the same OS installation disc. I prefer disc utilities because
you have more options.
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 Format your hard drive. You can do the format using a disc utility or with the OS
installation disc.
 Windows Vista and Windows 7 have a disc utility; this utility can create partition
and resize partitions after you install Windows in your system. In the case of
Windows XP you must create the partitions before installing the OS.
 Tip: If you do not have a disc utility, you can download one
from your hard drive manufacturer. You can also format
and make partitions if you have a standalone copy of the
operative system such as Windows. However, in most
Windows restore CD you cannot make new partitions, this
is the reason a recommend do the partition with a hard drive
utility before installing the OS.
 You must consider the type of format your OS needs for example Windows use
the NTFS. If you are installing Linux sometimes is better format using the Linux
installation DVD.

 After you have finish setting the hard drive and you have the partitions, you can
proceed in install the OS following the installation instructions.
3.2.2 Installing Windows XP

The installation of Windows XP is very easy; here are the steps you must follow
for a clean installation:
 Back up all your information
 Turn on your PC.
 Using the Bios, make sure the CD is the first boot device.
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 Insert the Windows XP installation disc.
 Reset the computer
 Press any key from boot from the CD
 Read the license and Press F8 if you agree
 If you already have a copy of Windows XP, you have the option of repair it, for a
fresh install press Esc.
 In this moment, you can install Windows using the existing partition, create
partition or delete partition.
 We are going to delete and then create the partition, you can create many
partitions at different sizes
 Now Windows will format the hard drive using the NTFS file system.
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 You need format all the new partitions.
 Windows begin to copy files to the hard drive then the computer will reboot
itself.
 The installation will take approximately 40 minutes
 Set the region and languages options.
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 Type your name and organization; you can change your name later. Remember to
turn on the “Num lock” in your keyboard if you want write numbers.
 Type the computer name and administrator password. If only you use the
computer, you can leave the space in blank, in this case the computer will not ask
for passwords anymore. You can set or change the password later.
 Set the date and time, remember set the time zone also and leave the check in
automatic clock adjust.
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 Leave the network setting as typical.
 Write the computer domain. You can change the domain later.
 The computer will restart then Windows will adjust the monitor resolution.
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 If the resolution is good pres ok, then press next when you see the welcome
screen.
 Turn on automatic updates.
 Windows will check the Internet connection. In order to have internet you must
install the network card drivers first. We are going to configure the Internet in the
section 4.3 ‘Network and Interned configuration’. If you want, you can skip this
section.
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 If you have internet you can register with Microsoft now or you can register later.
 Write the name of the people that will use the computer.
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 You just finish installing Windows XP. The computer will restart and you will see
the Windows desktop.

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N E T W O R K IN G Section
4
4.1 Computer Networks
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4.1 Computer Networks
4.1.1 What is a Computer Network?
This section is about networking, first we will study the installation of hardware
components in a typical computer network, then we will cover the software
configuration, finally we will study the Internet and some Internet application such as
social networks, video on demand and Internet security.
Because networking is a always changing field, I have decided give a small

introduction about computers networks. I will talk a little bit about networks architecture,
topologies and protocols. In order to make this chapter easy for people that never have
worked with computers networks, I have omitted some topic like the OSI model and
make the definitions short an easy. Computer network are a extensive subject, therefore I
will try to focus in home networking and Internet.
A computer network is a group of two or more computers linked together in order to

communicate and sharing resources. The idea of computer networks is not new. It the 60‟s and
70‟s computers had small hard drives, and therefore they needed external tape storage.
Each computer had an external storage unit and printer and one computer could not
access the information of another computer. In order to low cost and boost productivity,
computer began to share resources such as tape storage and printers. The computer
network was born.
In a network computer, each computer can share theirs recourses. For example,
you do not need attach one printer to each computer, instead you can attach the printer
to one PC and any PC of the network can print to this printer. Many resources can be
shared such as:
 Printers
 Hard drives
 Optical drives
 Files
 Internet connections
 etc
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4.1.2 Types of Computer Networks
There are many types of computer networks and many types of identified them.
A computer network can be classified by scale, architecture or topology however the scale
classification is the most proper. Scale varied according of the size and use of the
network. Here is a list of computer types by scale:
 Personal area network or PAN: PAN is a computer network for

devices that are very close, generally a few meters or feet. A typical PAN
network consists of one cellphone connected to one PC using Bluetooth.
A PAN could include peripheral like printers or cameras; the favorite
connection method is Bluetooth although USB cables are also used.
 Local area network or LAN: LAN is the network used in offices and
consist in a group of computers linked together inside a single office or
building. They generally are structured networks using Ethernet
connections.
 Home Area network or HAN: HAN are a low scale and cheaper LAN
used in home. Although HAN and LAN have much in common, HAN
networks used only few components and one of the most important
functions is sharing the internet access.
 Metropolitan area network or MAN: MAN are large computer

networks that span many buildings, they can cover one whole university

campus or corporate headquarters. Generally the MAN consist in many
LAN linked together. There are many technologies in use to connect
these networks such as fiber optic, microwave, radio or infrared laser.
The size of MAN networks are between LAN and WAN.
 Wide area networks or WAN: WAN are very large computers network
that span cities, countries or continent. WAN are used for big
organization and government, generally they consist in many MAN
linked together. They used high-speed communication devices such as
fiber optic and satellite.
 The Internet or World Wide Web or WWW: The internet is the

biggest computer network in the world. The WWW consist in many
individual computers, cellphones, LAN, MAN and WAN linked
together. They use the Internet Protocol or IP in order to differentiate
each computer.
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 Intranet: Intranet is very similar to the Internet, they use the same web
browsers and protocols but they belong to private companies or
government. All the information is located in the company server and the
organization decides what information is made public. One typical
example is the law enforcement departments, police officers can check
information using any web browser, but only police officers can access
the information. Intranet is like a private Internet.
 Extranet: They are very similar to the Intranet, all the information is
private and belongs to the organization but they made a portion available
to customers, suppliers and partners. For example if you want buy a new
car, the dealer can contact the manufacturer to order a specific car from
the factory. The car manufacturer allows dealers to put the order using
the extranet, but they do not allow individuals to communicate with the
manufacturer directly. Extranet is like a semi-private Internet.
 Virtual Private Network or VPN: VPN is a network that use open

public networking infrastructure such as the Internet to provide access to
the organization network. One example is when one person accesses his
office computer from their home using the Internet. The VPN can be
considered an extension of the private office using external
communications channels.
4.1.3 Network architecture

Computers networks may be classified by architecture, architecture is the
relationship of the elements based in communication patterns, exist two types:
Client-Server: The client server model is one of the most

used network architectures, it consist in servers and clients.
The server run many programs and share resources like files
and printers. The client computer request a service like
access a file or print, the server listen and process the
request. If you have several computers in your home, client
server architecture is very practical. You can configure a PC
as a server, this server could share music files, video files or
printers, then you can retrieve the information using other
computers witch become the clients or workstations. A
client–server model is essential in small business with more
than 10 computers. One example of Client Server
architecture is networking using Windows Server 2008.
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Peer-to-peer or P2P: The P2P model distribute all the
information among the entire network peers, there is not a
server. The peers are the computers and they are both the
suppliers and consumers. P2P are popular in file sharing
applications like e-Mule. Another example or P2P is the
Bluetooth network and home networking using Windows Vista
and Windows 7.
4.1.4 Network Topologies
Topology refers to the way the network is lay out, in other words the way the
network is arranged. The arrangement is logical and not physical. We will study the most
common topologies.
Bus: In the bus topology, one cable connects all
the computers. Generally, this topology use
coaxial cables, old Ethernet networks used this
topology.

Star: In the start topology, all Computers are
connected to a central Switch or hub. Twister pair
cables are used; most home networks and
structured networks use this topology. Wireless
Networks also use this technology
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Ring: In the ring topology, the computers or nodes
are connected forming a ring.
Mesh: In the mesh topology, each node is

connected to every other node. This model is no
used very often in LAN networks, but is found in
WAN networks. Bluetooth networks are another
example of mesh topology
4.1.5 Network Protocols

A protocol is a set of formal rules describing how to transmit data, a protocol
define the syntax for signaling, authentication and error correction. There are many
protocols such as:
 Internet Protocol or IP: IP is used widely for Internet connection, each

computer in the network must have a different IP address.
 Transmission Control Protocol TCP: TCP complement the IP

protocol, TCP control the communication between web servers and web
browsers.
 POST Office Protocol or POP: POP is used for retrieve e-mail from
servers over TCPO/IP connections, is used in some email programs
such as Outlook and for receive email directly in cellular phones.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP: HTTP is use in web browser

for retrieve information from HTML pages.
 File transfer Protocol of FTP: FTP copy files from the internet.
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4.1.6 Network standards
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) have defined many
standards for networks, these standard are covered by the IEEE 802 specifications:
 IEEE 802.1 Internetworking
 IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD LAN Ethernet
 IEEE 802.5 Token Ring LAN
 IEEE 802.6 Metropolitan Area Network
 IEEE 802.9 Integrated Voice/Data Networks
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networks
 IEEE 802.15.1-2005 Bluetooth
For homeowners or small business owner the most important standards are the
802.3 that define the Ethernet and the 802.11 that define the wireless network.
IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD LAN or Ethernet networks: The original 802.3 was
called Ethernet 10Base 5 and was used for home wired networks and small business

network, it consist in a bus topology networks using coaxial cables. Today we use
Ethernet 10BaseT, it consist in a physical star topology using twisted-pair cabling.
Ethernet is the most use wired network in the word. Almost all home and
business network use this protocol. Some new fast Ethernet standards are used in
enterprises, datacenters and communications such as the Fast Ethernet or 100Base-TX and
the Gigabit Ethernet or 100Base-T, these network use mostly fiber optic cables.
Ethernet signals cannot travel more than four repeaters or hubs and the
maximum distance is 100 m or 328 ft, for bigger distances you must use a repeater.
IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Network or Wireless Ethernet Standard

or WLAN or Wi-Fi: The 802.11 or Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is the standard for wireless
Ethernet. Wi-Fi 802.11b and 802.11g use the 2.4 GHz spectrum, this spectrum is the
same of wireless phones, microwaves and Bluetooth devices. Wi-Fi 802.11n uses the 5
GHz and 2.4 GHz spectrum.
99
Although wireless networks are very popular generally there are slower than
wired networks. The wireless Ethernet signals are translate to wired Ethernet signals and
vice versa, therefore a wireless network is an Ethernet network without wires. The 802.11
is really a family of standards that includes the 802.11b, 802.11g and 802.11n. A new
wireless network is the Bluetooth network.
IEEE 802.11b was the first widely accepted wireless standard although is
obsolete now. The 802.11b networks reach a speed of 54 Mbps using the 2.4 GHz band.
IEEE 802.11g is the most popular wireless protocol now, almost all wireless
routers and notebook computer use the 802.11g wireless protocol. The 802.11g networks
reach a speed of 54 Mbps using the 2.4 GHz band.
IEEE 802.11n is the successor of the 802.11g, most new wireless adapters are
802.11n although 802.11g are still popular because of their lower prices. The 802.11n
networks reach a speed of 600 Mbps using the 5 GHz band but it can use the 2.4 GHz
as a backward compatibility.
Most 802.11 devices have backward compatibility; this means you can connect to
a wireless 802.11n router a notebook with an 802.11g wireless car. Wireless devices are
known as A,B,G or N, this means if you need a wireless IEEE 802.11n router you only
need say that you need a “N” router. Today you can buy only “G” and “N” Wi-Fi
devices.
Bluetooth protocols are defined by the trade organization Bluetooth SIG,

Bluetooth is a wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth use the mesh
configuration and P2P architecture. Bluetooth is present in many devices such as phones,
video games consoles, printers, headset, etc. A master Bluetooth device can communicate
with up seven devices in a wireless user group.

4.2.1 Networks Components
Computers network have many components such as:
 Network interface cards
 Cables
 Routers
 Hubs
We are going to study all the components in detail
100
4.2.2 Network Interface Card (NIC)
NICs are the network interface adapters; these adapters are Ethernet PCI or
Ethernet PCIe expansion cards, although most computer have networks cards build in
the motherboard. You can buy NICs for less than $50 to hundreds of dollars; the
expensive ones are indented for servers and not for home computers. Most NICs have
only one RJ-45 port but some have two ports, NIC using PCMCIA card are available for
old notebooks, USB network card are becoming popular because of the easy set up.
The procedure of installing a PCI or PCIe network

card is similar to install any other expansion card. Is
very probably that you already have a build in NIC
installed in your computer; nevertheless if you have
an old system you can install a new and faster NIC.
You can have several NICs installed in your system;
this means you do not need disable the build in
network adapter if you are installing a new NIC
card.
PCIe network card
PCMCIA network card USB network card
101
Do not confuse a network card with a modem, the modem generally have a RJ-
33 connector whereas the network card have a RJ-45 connector. Although similar, the
RJ-45 is bigger and usually has one pair of lights (LEDs). Many NICs have also modem
integrate; this means you could have RJ-45 and RJ-33conections in the same card.
If you want to install a new NIC these are the procedures you must follow:
 Be carefully in choosing the right card, remember you can get PCI or
PCIe card.
 Read the network card manual.
 You do not need disable the build in network card from your
motherboard.
 Shut down the computer and unplug the CPU.
 Remove the chassis cover
 Ground your body and discharge your static.
 Knock out or unscrew the slot cover in order to set your new sound
card.
 Set your new network card, some cards have external connectors like RJ-
11, USB or a secondary Rj-45 jack.
Some network card comes with USB and others connectors
102
 Put the chassis cover back and reconnect your accessories.
 Turn on your computer.
 Windows recognize many networks card immediately. If your card is

not recognized, use the CD that come whit the NIC. You can also
obtain most drivers from the manufacturer web site.
 NIC card generally do not have software or applications, the only

software that you need is the driver.
 If you are adding your computer to your home network, you must set
the computer description, full computer name and workgroup. Try to
use meaning names and have only one workgroup for your home
network.
System properties
103
 If you have a working internet and network connection, you can plug a
network cable and your computer should connect to the Internet.
 Sometimes after you connect the computer to the network for the first
time, you could have some problems with the IP address. In most cases,
the solution is simple; restart the computer again.
 It is a good idea updates your NIC drivers.
 Install or configure antivirus, firewalls, spywares, etc
 Finally, you must configure your network for example share files, share
printers, set permit, set passwords, etc. We are going to study more
about network configuration in the Windows section 4.3 ‘Network and
Internet Configuration’.
4.2.3 Cables
For many decades, cables have been used to connect computer. Even so wireless
network are very popular, the preferred method of interconnect computer is using cables.
here is a list of the most popular cabling technologies.
Coaxial cable: The original Ethernet network used coaxial cables with DB-15
connectors, the DB-15 connector was replaced for BNC connector, BNC was used until
the mid 90‟s and is obsolete now.
Coaxial Cable DB-15 connector
104
Network card with BNC connector BNC connectors
Twister Pair cables: After the initial use of coaxial cables, the computer industry
wants a better cabling system for use in computer network. Telephone twisted cables
have been used for more than one hundred years; Alexander Graham Bell used twisted
cables in 1881. Since twister pair technology was well know, it was implemented in
computers networks.

Twister pair technology consists in twist one pair of wires in order to cancel the
Electromagnetic Interference or EMI. At the beginning shielded cables were made,
shielding cable have a metal shield surrounded the wires and ground single wires, this type
of a cables had some problem therefore Unshielded Twisted Pair or UTP are used today.
UTP for computer networks have four pairs of cables and there are divided in many
categories.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Shielded Twisted Pair
105
Twister pair cables have many categories like Cat 5 or Cat 6, they look identical
but the specifications are very different, you can buy the cables in roll or in sections. If the
cable is short for example 2 feet or 60 cm the cables is called patch cord, and a very short
cable is called pigtail
Patch cord Cat 5 UTP roll
Category 3 cable or Cat- 3: Cat-3 is an Unshielded Twisted Pair and was one of
the most popular cables for computer networks in the early 90‟s. It is not use anymore in
computer but is still in use in telephone systems. Cat-3 can transmit data at speeds up to
10 Mbps.
Category 5 cable or Cat-5: Cat -5 is an Unshielded Twisted Pair, it has been in

use since the 90‟s most networks have Cat 5 nevertheless Cat-5E and Cat 6 are use today.
Cat-5 can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps. The maximum length is 100 meters or
328 feet
Category 5e cable or Cat-5E: Cat -5e is a better version of the CAT-5, in fact
most cables sold today are Cat-5E. Cat-5E can transmit data at speeds up to 1 Gbps. The
maximum length is 100 meters or 328 feet
Category 6 cable or Cat-6: Cat-6 is an Unshielded Twisted Pair and is the cable
standard for Gigabit Ethernet, it has better performance than the Cat-5 and it use have
increased recently. Cat-6 is use for high-speed telecommunication between servers and
terminals but you really will not note much change in Internet speed. In theory, Cat-6 can
transmit data at speeds up to 10 Gbps. The maximum length is 100 meters or 328 feet
Category 7 cable or Cat-7: Cat-6 is most recent development in twister pair

technology. One big difference with former cables is that it uses shielding for individual
wire pairs. This cable category is for f 10 gigabit Ethernet but almost nobody use it today.
In theory, Cat-6 can transmit data at speeds up to 10 Gbps. The maximum length is 100
meters or 328 feet
106
Cat-7 Shielded Twisted Pair
Fiber optic: Although fiber optic in not very used in home or small business I
will talk a little about it. Fiber optic is mainly use for long distant communications, fiber
optic is immune to electromagnetic field and because they use light and not electricity
there are not danger of high voltages.

Fiber optic cable
Fiber optic connectors
Fiber optic network card
107
4.2.4 Connectors
Since RJ-45 connectors are use in most Ethernet networks, I will teach you how
to work with them and how make your own connections. First, let me talk about the RJ-
45 connector.
RJ-45 is the standard connector for network applications; it is the connector for
all networking twisted pair cables such as Cat-5, Cat-5E and Cat-6. The RJ-45 is similar to
the RJ-11 telephone Jack but the RJ-45 is bigger. RJ-45 connectors have 8 pins, you can
buy prebuilt cables, but it is cheaper to build your own cables.
RJ-45 Pin Position RJ-45 connectors
If you can afford try to use no-

snag connectors. They are a little
bit most expensive, but the quality
is better, last longer and they do
not sang in other cables when you
are installing them.
No snag RJ-45 connector
108
RJ-45 cables use four twisted pair cables but the configuration varied depending
of the country were you are installing the network and the use of the cables. In USA and
Latin America the T568B schema is used, in Canada and Australia the T568A is used.
Ethernet crossover cables use one end with the T568B configuration and the other end
with the T568B configuration.
T568B USA T568A Canada
Pin Pair Color Pin Pair Color
1 2 White/orange 1 3 White/ green
2 2 Orange 2 3 Green
3 3 White/green 3 2 White/Orange
4 1 Blue 4 1 Blue
5 1 White/Blue 5 1 White/Blue
6 3 Green 6 2 Orange
7 4 White/Brown 7 4 White/Brown

8 4 Brown 8 4 Brown
You can note that the only difference between them is that the pair 2 and pair 3
are swapped. In practice, you can use T568A or T568B patch cords as long as both ends
follow the same wiring, many commercial pre wired cables as sold as T568A or T568B
and both will work correctly. The cable is bidirectional this means you can connect any
end to the computer and any end to the router.
109
As a stated before a crossover cable is a special configuration where one end use
T568A and the other end use the T568B configuration. This configuration is used for
connect to computer directly without use any switch or routers. Beside the Ethernet
crossover cable, you can also use Null Modem serial cables or Laplink USB cables in
order to connect two computers directly. We will talk more about this feature in the
chapter section a little bit more later in this chapter 5.2 „Backing -Up information’.
A crossover cable is easy to recognize because the ends are wired different, if you
do not want build a crossover cable you can use a crossover adapter, the adapter is
plugged at the end of one regular Ethernet cable.
Crossover Ethernet cable Crossover Ethernet adapter
In business applications sometimes you need connect terminals or printer to a

Ethernet network, older terminals and printer do not have RJ-45 jack therefore you must
use serial cards in order to make the connection.
Serial card for work station Printer Network card
110
You can make your own Ethernet-to-Serial conections usign special
conectors or buying adapters. Most printer and terminal today have build in
Ethernet ports or accept Ethernet network cards. Another popular technologies
are printer with Bluetooth adapters and wireless printer, nevertheless most printer
stoday use wires.
Serial port can be connected to Ethernet Networks Modern Ethernet Printer Card
You can continue reading the rest of the book in the

printed edition of this book.
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Warning and Disclaimer

7 Your New Computer

9 Photographs and Illustrations credits

1.2 Brief history of computers

1.3 Working with Computers

1.4 Hardware and Software

2.5 Hard Drives

2.6 Optical Drives

2.8 Input devices

2.11 Sound Cards

2.12.1 What is a compute case?

2.14 Flash memories

2.15 MP3 Players

3.1 Operative Systems

3.2 Installing Windows

3.4 Software Applications

3.5 Working with Windows XP

3.6 Working with Windows Vista

3.7 Working with Windows 7

3.9 Installing Multiple Operative Systems

4.1 Computer networks

4.2 Network Installation

7 Your New Computer

9 Photographs and Illustrations credits

1.2 Brief history of computers

1.3 Working with computers

1.4 Hardware and Software

COMPUTER REPAIR FOR PC OWNERS

1.1.3 Different types of computers

 Operative Systems: Windows, Mac or Linux

 Processor: Intel or AMD

 Size: Desktop, Laptop or netbook

1.2.2 Mechanical Computers

Babbage Difference Machine Analytical Engine

ENIAC first general purpose electronic computer build in 1946

 Integrate circuits or IC (70’s): IC is a technology which consist in integrate many electronic

1.2.4 The Personal computer

COMPUTER REPAIR FOR PC OWNERS

Altair 8800 from 1975 one of the first microcomputers

Apple II from 1977

We can say; Computers today are beyond doubt personal.

You can continue reading the rest of the section in

Monitor System Unit

System Unit front view.

System Unit inside view.

Laptops computers are portable computer, these kinds of computers are

Other name that a laptop receives is notebook. Generally, a laptop is more

Laptop computer external view

Laptop computer connectors

The procedures to disassemble notebooks varies in each notebook model, in this

Every component inside a desktop computer is also present inside a notebook

Motherboard top view

COMPUTER REPAIR FOR PC OWNERS

 Expansion card Slots