TOS

4: UNIT 1: WOODEN
STRUCTURES

Objectives: Wooden
1: To understand the versatility of wood as Beams
a Material
2:To understand the advantages of
Wooden Structures
3: To understand the disadvantages of
wooden structures and to overcome them.
4: To study wooden beams and how to
design them.
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TOS 4: Unit 1A: Wood as a Material

1A.I. Introduction: Wood has been used as a building material for thousands of years, being second
only to stone in terms of its rich history in the world of construction. The chemical properties of
wood are inherently complex, but in spite of this challenge human beings have successfully
harnessed the unique characteristics of wood to build a seemingly unlimited variety of
structures. This exceptionally versatile material is commonly used to build houses, shelters and
boats, but it is also extensively used in the furniture and home decor industry as well. Wooden
Structures are varied and Wood is an underestimated Structural Material in the
Modern World

http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/infrastructure/g2679/best-wooden-
structures-in-the-world/

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Wood is an organic cellular material. Absolutely dry wood weight is an index of the cell wall
substance present which is an indicator of the strength and finishing characteristics. Density
of wood determines the changes in the moisture content. The Strength of structural wood
(many a times referred as Timber) depends on natural characteristics like •Knots • Checks
and Shakes • Slopes of grain • Specific Gravity •Moisture Content

Low cost of some varieties of Timber make it the preferred material for •Temporary
Structures •Formwork •Scaffolding

1A.II. The life of a Timber Structure is long if maintained either dry or wet continuously
1. Knots: Knots are caused by the trunk of a tree growing around a limb (Branch).

The appearance of a knot does not mean that the timber piece is inferior

Knots affect the strength because the grains deviate from regular direction in passing around
them and the weakening effect is felt more in tension than in compression

Knots have no effect on the Stiffness.

In a simply supported beam a Knot on the lower side will affect the carrying capacity.

In short or Intermediate columns Knots will reduce the strength in proportion to their sizes

In Long Columns whose load carrying capacity is dependent on Stiffness, the knots have no effect.

2. Checks and Shakes: Lengthwise separation of wood is known as a check, occurring

across rings of annual growth. Separation along grain between annual growth rings is
known as a Shake.

Checks and Shakes reduce the resistance to Shear. The reduction in Shearing Strength is
proportional to the size of extent of Shakes or Checks

3. Slope of Grain: When the fibers of a wood are not parallel to the edge of the piece cross
grains exists.

Wood is least strong across the grains and hence slope of grain is important in Structural Timber

Up to a slope of 1 in 10 Compressive Strength is not affected

Modulus of Elasticity is affected at a slope of 1 in 15

Shock Resistance decreases rapidly at a slope of 1 in 15

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4. Rate of Growth: The cross section of a tree shows concentric rings and the number of
rings per unit width is an indication of the growth of the tree.

For Structural Timber 5 rings per 20 mm width may be specified

5. Specific Gravity: The material of which the cell walls are composed of is called wood
substance with a specific gravity of 0.64. Being a Natural Material this differs from wood
to wood

The Strength of wood depends on its Specific Gravity

6. Moisture Content: After a tree is cut the wood begins to lose water till equilibrium with
the surrounding atmosphere (depending on temperature and relative humidity) is
reached.

As Moisture content (weight of water contained in wood expressed as percentage of oven dry
weight) is reduced increase in Strength Properties expected.

Some more terms associated with wood and their importance are noted below
1. Shrinkage is generally in the direction of annual growth rings and longitudinal shrinkage
is negligible
2. Heartwood (central portion of the Log) consists of inactive tissues giving strength to the
tree trunk and Sapwood (portion between Heartwood and Bark) is made up of Living
Cells. Sapwood is permeable to liquids and has to be treated for increasing resistance to
•Decay •Insect Attack •Fire
3. Live and Dead Trees: Wood cut from trees killed by insects, fungi, wind or fire is good
structurally compared to “Cut Live Trees “. Those portions from these dead cut trees
that are free from insects and decay should be used.
4. Seasoning of Timber: To determine the Working Stresses in Timber the effect of
seasoning and use conditions is important to consider. Seasoning should not have a
dimensional change on the Timber. The moisture content of Structural Timber lies
between the two limits of seasoned condition and unseasoned condition. The values of
working stresses are arrived at on the basis of unseasoned Timber.
5. Destructive Agencies: Engineering Materials are not absolutely permanent under all
conditions of service and use. Wood is also vulnerable to •Decay •Fire •Insects •Marine
Borers •Mechanical Wear •Weathering and •Chemical Resistance

Decay: This is brought about by fungi which live on the wood substance. Constantly
submerged parts of piling in fresh water and foundation piles under buildings, do not
decay if ground water level is constantly higher than the top of the piles. To protect
wood preservative treatment using Oil Preservatives or Oil Borne Preservatives or Water
borne preservatives should be used either with a pressure process or a non-pressure
process.

Fire Resistance: Time Element is vital to the destruction of buildings by fire. Non-
combustibility of material is not the most important factor but collapse of structural
members within due to heat so as not to allow a person to enter or exit is vital. Wood

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Fire Resistance to improve slow burning properties of wood can be improved by

Sprinkler Systems. Fire resistance can also be improved by either impregnating wood
with some chemicals or coating the wood with a non-combustible paint.

Chemical Resistance: Wood is resistant to chemicals like Organic Materials, Hot and
Cold Solutions of Acids, Neutral Salts and Dilute Acids and hence sometimes considered
superior to other construction material. Impregnation of Wood with Paraffin (for
resistance to chemical solutions) and Resin forming Material is widely acceptable.

1A.III. The Advantages of Wood as a Structural Material are as follows (Herewith I

am not discussing any such property which does not appeal to a Structural Engineer,
these being many)
1. It is a natural resource, and also against other mining material can be grown making it
readily available and economically feasible. It is remarkably strong in relation to its
weight, and it provides good insulation from the cold.
2. Wood is highly machinable, and can be fabricated into all kinds of shapes and sizes to fit
practically any construction and structural need.
3. Wood is also the perfect example of an environmentally sustainable product; it is
biodegradable and renewable, and carries the lowest carbon footprint of any
comparable building material. In addition, no high-energy fossil fuels are required to
produce wood, unlike other common building materials such as brick, steel or plastic.
4. Wood has certain favorable properties, which give it an advantage in terms of its
resistance to high temperatures. Unlike steel, which can expand or even collapse in high
heat, wood actually dries out and becomes stronger as the heat increases.
5. Wood also contains highly-sought-after acoustic properties, making it good as a load
bearing and at the same time a panel material for Concert Halls.
6. An important characteristic of wood is its tensile strength, which is its ability to bend
under pressure without breaking. Wood is exceptionally light in proportion to its tensile
strength, making it the preferred construction choice for surfaces that take a constant
beating such as basketball courts and bowling lanes. Tensile strength is also one of the
main reasons for choosing timber as a building material; its remarkably strong qualities
make it the perfect choice for heavy-duty building materials such as structural beams.
7. Wood does not practically expand against heat (In comparison to steel). On the
contrary, by the effect of heat, it dries out and gains strength. The only time wood
expands a little is when the humidity level is below 0%, and this is only scientifically
significant. In practice, the humidity level of wood does not drop under 5% even in the
driest climate.
8. Wood is a decorative material when considered as an aesthetic material. Each tree has
its own color, design and smell. The design of a tree does change according to the way it
is sliced. It is possible to find different wooden materials according to color and design
preference. It can be painted to darker colors of varnished, and can be given bright or
mat touches.

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9. Wood is a Durable Material but generally assumed that it is perishable and therefore
only suitable for temporary structures. This cannot be true as is evidenced from century
old timber built structures and bridges. Wood if properly protected from attack by fungi,
insects, borers does not change its strength and properties with time. If years of
satisfactory service are a measure of permanence No other Material is more
permanent than Timber.

1A.IV. Disadvantages of Wooden Structures: There are a few disadvantages but they are
easy to disregard, and eliminate as long as the cause is known.
1. Shrinkage and Swelling of Wood: Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it
will adsorb surrounding condensable vapors and loose moisture to air below the
fiber saturation point.
2. Deterioration of Wood: Wood can have biotic degradation (mold fungi, bacteria and
insects) and Abiotic degradation (Sun, wind, water, certain chemicals and fire).
3. Wood easily catches fire. Wood consists of organic compounds which are composed
mainly of carbon and hydrogen. They can combine with oxygen and burns. When
combined with oxygen and a temperature between 250 and 270 degrees Celsius,
wood can start to burn even without a flame. Wood is classified as a combustible
material because of these properties.
• Chemical materials, especially extractives in woods structure cause the burning
point to change. Fire resistance can also be improved by either impregnating
wood with some chemicals or coating the wood with a non-combustible paint
• Using thick wood as a structural element is another way of extension of burning
point. Outer surface burns and turns into charcoal. Charcoal, which forms on the
surface of wood as it burns, is a very effective heat insulator. Therefore large
timbers burn very slowly. In addition to this, wood is very good heat insulator
too.

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TOS 4: Unit 1B: Wood as a Structural Material – Timber Beams

1B.I. Structural Properties of Wood
1. Directional Properties: Strength parallel to the grain in compression is 5 to 10 times
that at right angles. This ratio is higher in tension. The modulus of elasticity parallel to
the grain is 100 times that at right angles to the grain.
2. Bending: Timber is 1/12th the density of steel and has about 1/10th the strength of
steel. Hence by weight it is stronger of the two. Bending strength is lower in deep beams
than shallow beams.
3. Modulus of Elasticity: The Modulus of Elasticity is not affected by Drying
4. Axial Tension: Timber is strong in Tension parallel to the grains.
5. Shear: The Shearing Stress increases at base of Shakes, Checks, and where there is
sudden change of cross-section. As Shear stresses in Beams are not much in the central
portion, notches in the central portion will not have much effect on the design of Shear
but will affect Bending Stresses.
6. Working Stresses: These are as per the following Table.
Density at Shear
Modulus of
12% Bending and Tension Parallel along Compression parallel to Grain Compression Perpendicular to
Name Elasticity in
Moisture to Grain in N/mm² Grain in in N/mm² Grain in N/mm²
N/mm²
in kN/M³ N/mm²

Inside Outside Wet Inside Outside Wet Inside Outside Wet

Babul 7.7 10.59 x 10³ 17.86 15.11 12.16 2.16 10.99 10.01 7.85 6.38 4.91 4.02

Deodar 5.34 9.32 x 10³ 10.01 8.63 6.87 0.98 7.65 6.87 5.49 2.55 2.06 1.67

Mango 6.76 8.93 x 10³ 12.16 10.01 7.85 1.37 7.26 6.47 5.1 3.04 2.35 1.86
Indian
Oak 8.48 12.26 x 10³ 14.52 12.16 9.61 1.67 9.03 7.85 6.47 4.41 3.43 2.84

Sal 8.48 12.46 x 10³ 16.48 13.73 10.98 1.28 10.4 9.22 7.65 4.41 3.43 2.84

Teak 6.27 9.42 x 10³ 13.73 11.38 9.22 1.37 8.63 7.65 6.28 3.92 3.04 2.4

7. Timber Beams:
A. Bending in Timber is based on the Flexural Formula and based on the following.
1. Plane Section Remains Plain After Bending
2. The Stresses are within Elastic Limit
3. Young’s Modulus is same for Tension and Compression
Tests have shown that Timber does behave like a homogenous material and has almost
equal capabilities in compression and tension.
B. Form Factor: In a deep Beam the stress decrease from the outer most fiber towards the
neutral axis is less than in a shallow beam. The carrying capacity of a Deep Rectangular

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Beam is less. The Form Factor K is applied for rectangular Beams greater in depth than
300mm.
² 

= 0.81  Where D = Depth of the Beam in mm to be applied to the stress value
²
Different Types of Wooden Sections may have different Form Factors which are also based
on the shape of the section and may have values lesser than 1 or greater than 1. E.g. for
square sections where the load is in the direction of the girder the form factor shall be taken
as 1.414
C. Effective Span: Least of the Following for Simple Supported Beams
1. Centre to Centre between supports or
2. Clear span + Half of Required Bearing at each end
And Centre to Centre between Supports for Continuous Beams
Effective Span to be considered from Face of Support to Free End for Cantilever
D. Width: The minimum width of a beam shall greater of the following
1. 50mm
2. 1/50 of the Span
E. Depth: The depth of the Beam shall not be three times the width without Lateral
Stiffening
F. Stiffening: All beams with depth more than 3 times the width and span more than 50
times the depth shall be laterally restrained from twisting and buckling and the distance
between such restraints shall not exceed 50 times the width
1B.II. Design of Rectangular Timber Beams
1. Design for Bending Stress:
M=σ z
M= Bending Moment Maximum, σ= permissible Bending Stress in Compression and Tension
Z = Section Modulus of a Rectangular Section = bd²/6
To find the dimensions of the section either assume d=3b or b= 1/50th of span or 50 mm

2. Check for Shear:

Shear Stress = 1.5 V/b x d < permissible shear stress.
Generally this condition is satisfied

3. Check for Deflection:

Actual Deflection < Allowable Deflection
Allowable Deflection = Span/360 for beams supporting brittle material like gypsum ceilings.
Allowable Deflection = Span/240 for other simple supported beams.
Allowable Deflection = Span/180 for cantilever beams.
If this condition is not satisfied then dimensions may have to be increased.
If beams are greater in depth than 300mm they will have to be checked for form factor.

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1B.III. Problems:
Problem 1 A room of size 10.0m X 4.0m with 230 thick walls on all four sides is to be provided with a
concrete slab 110 mm thick to be supported on timber joists 3 in number (2.5m center to center)
along the shorter span. The concrete slab is to be finished with 25mm thick tiles laid on 25 mm
thick c.m. screed and is part of a commercial building. Design the Timber Joists assuming that
the wood is teak Wood. (I am not recommending this kind of construction detailing but for the
sake of simplicity have formulated the problem; the next problem is more of a timber
construction). At the end I would like to compare this to the last STEEL girder problem we solved
to compare between the two materials.

Solution:
1. Load Calculations:
1. Live Load 2.5m x 4kN /m² = 10.00kN/m
2. Slab Load 2.5m x 0.11m x 25kN/m³ = 6.87kN/m
3. Floor Finish 2.5m x 0.05m x 25kN/m³ = 3.12kN/m
4. Assume Self Weight = 0.50kN/m
Total Load = 20.5kN/m
Let us take a load of = 21kN/m

2. Effective Span =4.0m + 0.115+0.115 = 4.23m

3. B.M max = w l²/8 = 21 x 4.23²/8 = 46.96kNm = 46.96 x 10⁶Nmm

S.F max = w l/2 = 21 x 4.23/2 = 44.41kN = 44.41 x 10³N
Allowable Deflection = Span/240 = 4230/240 = 17.62mm

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4. Design For Bending Stress:

Let the section be b x d Assume d = 3b Hence Z = bd²/6 = b x (3b)²/6 = 1.5 b³ (No lateral Restraint
Required)
M = σ Z σ = 13.73N/mm² (permissible bending stress in Teak Wood for inside location
Z = M/σ = 46.96 x 10⁶/13.73 = 3420247
1.5b³ = 3420247
Hence b³ = 2280165 Hence b = 131. So let us assume a section of b = 140 d = 3b = 3 x 140 = 420
Minimum width = Span/50 = 4230/50 = 84.6mm < 140 provided, so no lateral restraint required.
5. Check for Shear Stress:
Actual Shear Stress = 1.5 S.F max/b d
= 1.5 x 44.41 x 10³/140 x 420
= 1.13N/mm² < 1.37N/mm² (For Teak Wood) Hence Safe in Shear
6. Check for Deflection:
Actual Deflection = 5 w l⁴/384 EI
w = 21 kN/M = 21 N/mm, l = 4.23 x 10³ mm, E = 9.42 X 10³N/mm²,
I = bd³/12 = 140 x 420³/12 = 864.36 x 10⁶mm⁴
    .   ⁴
Actual deflection = = 10.75 < 17.62mm Hence Safe for Deflection
  .  ³  .  ⁶
7. Check for Form Factor as Depth is Greater than 300mm
²  

 0.81  ² = 0.81   = 0.93
M = K σ Z = 0.93 x 13.73 x 140x420²/6 = 48.87 x 10⁶Nmm > 46.96 x 10⁶Nmm (B.M max)
Hence the section is safe in Bending even when deeper than 300mm.
Answer: So let the Final Beam Section be 140mm x 420mm
Problem 2 A Restaurant Room of size 14.4m X 4.8m is to be provided a mezzanine floor using 40
mm thick Block Board Finished with 8mm wood flooring to be supported on secondary
wooden beams spaced at 1.2m center to center supported on primary wooden beams
spanning across the 4.8m Span. Assume Live load as 4kN/m². Design the Structure. Use
Indian Oak Timber.

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A.
B. Design of Secondary Beams:
1. Load Calculations:
1. Live Load 1.2m x 4kN /m² = 4.80kN/m
2. Block Board + Flooring 1.2m x (0.04+ .008)m x 09kN/m³ = 0.52kN/m
3. Assume Self Weight = 0.50kN/m

Total Load = 5.82kN/m approximated to= 6.0kN/m

2. Effective Span = Center to Center Between Supports = 2.4m

3. B.M max = w l²/8 = 6.00 x 2.4²/8 = 6.12kNm = 4.32 x 10⁶Nmm

S.F max = w l/2 = 6.00 x 2.4/2 = 10.2kN = 7.2 X 10³N
Allowable Deflection = Span/240 = 2400/240 = 10.00mm

As it is a mezzanine floor depth of supporting beams should be as low as possible so instead of

taking d=3b I will take d = 2b. However in this case M.I may be low and hence we may have to design
for deflection too and take the maximum size between the two.

4. Design For Bending Stress:

Assume b=2d
Z = bd³/6 = b x (2b)² /6= 2b³/3
Z = M/ σ, σ=permissible bending stress in Indian Oak = 14.52N/mm²
2b³/3 = 4.32 x 10⁶/14.52=297520
b³=297520x1.5 = 446280
b = 76.41. Let us take b=80 and d = 160

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5. Design for Deflection:

I = bd³/12= b x (2b)³ /12 = 2b⁴/3
Allowable deflection = 10mm = Actual Deflection
    .   ⁴
10 = 5 w l⁴/384 EI =
  .  ³   /
    .   ⁴
 = =21141924
  .  ³ 
b = 67.8 < 80(for bending)
So let us stick to b = 80 and d = 160. Hence the Beam Section can be 80mmx160mm.

6. Check for Shear:

Shear Stress = 1.5S.Fmax/b d = 1.5x7.2x10³/80 x 160
= 0.84N/mm² < 1.67N/mm² (permissible shear stress in Indian Oak)
Hence the beam is safe in Shear.
As Beam is lesser than 300mm deep, it need not be applied Form Factor.
Hence the Primary Beam Section can be 80mm x 160mm.

C. Design of Primary Beams:

The loading for the primary beam is a little complicated as the secondary beam will transfer the
reaction to the Primary Beam in the form of Point Loads
Each Secondary Beam will transfer a load of 2.4kN/m x 6.0m = 14.4kN so about 15kN at the point it
is meeting the Primary Beam. So the Load Diagram for the Primary Beam is as given below. The
effective span is 4.8+0.23=5.03 which I have taken as 5.0 M. Even load distances have been rounded
off

S.F max = (15+15+15+0.5(5))/2 = 23.75kN

B.M max = 2(W a b /l) + W l/4+wl²/8 = (15x1.25x3.75/5) + 15x5/4 + 0.5x5²/8
= 28.125 + 18.75 + 1.5625
= 48.4kNm
Herewith I have drawn the Load Diagram and Calculated B.M max and S.F max.
The Design may be carried out by you.
Problem 3 A balcony is to be constructed for an office building using timber joists spaced at 1.5m
center to center cantilevering out for a span of 2.0m. The joists support a flooring of
total dead load 2.5kN/m². Design the beam using the following data. Take d = 3b

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• Type of Wood – Teak Wood, Density-6.27kN/m³

• Permissible Bending Stress for outside location – 11.38 N/mm²
• Permissible Shear Stress – 1.37 N/mm²
• Allowable Deflection – Span/180
(Problem for the Theory Paper may be worded like this and with all this data)
1. Load Calculations:
1. Live Load =1.5 x 4kN/m² =6.0 kN/m
2. Flooring Load = 1.5 X 2.5kN/m² =3.75kN/m
3. Self-Weight =0.50kN/m
Total Load =10.25kN/m
2. Span(Overhang From The Face) =2.0m
3. S.F max = w l = 10.25 x 2 = 20.5kN = 20.5x 10³N
B.M max = w l²/2 = 10.25x2²/2 = 20.5kNm = 20.5x10⁶Nmm
Allowable Deflection = Span/240 = 2000/180 =11.11mm
4. Design For Bending:
Let d=3b Hence Z = bd²/6 = b x (3b)/6 = 1.5b³
Z=M/σ = 20.5X10⁶/11.38 = 1801405mm³
1.5b³ = 1801405
b³ = 1200937 Hence b= 106.2. Let us use b=110 and d = 330
5. Check for Shear:
Shear Stress = 1.5 S.F max/b d = 1.5 x 20.5 x 10³/110 x 330 = 0.84N/mm² < 1.37N/mm²
Hence the section is Safe in Shear
6. Check for Deflection
Allowable Deflection = Span /180 = 2000/180 = 11.11mm
w = 10.25 N/mm, l = 2 x 10³mm
E = 9.42 X 10³ N/mm² I = 110 X 330³/12 = 329.42 X 10⁶mm⁴
.    ( )⁴
Actual Deflection = w l⁴/8 E I = = 6.66mm < 11.11mm
  .  ³   .   ⁶
Hence the section is safe in deflection.
So the beam section can be 115mm x 330mm. Since it is just a little deeper than 300mm, I
am not checking it for Form Factor
1B.IV. Some Important Points on Construction of Timber Beams
1. Notches and Holes: Beams will not be cut, notched or holed unless local stresses
are calculated and found within permissible limits.
• Notches not more than 1/5th of the depth and at distances not more than 1/6th of
Span from the support shall be made.
• Holes not more than 1/4th of the depth can be drilled at the center of the beam.
2. Bearing:
• The ends of the flexural members shall be supported in recesses which provide
adequate ventilation to prevent dry rot.
• The ends shall not be enclosed. The length of bearing shall not be less than 75mm.
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Assignments:
A) Theory Questions:
1 Explain the structural properties of Timber w.r.t the following
a Checks and Shakes
b Knots
c Slope of Grain
d Moisture Content
e Heart Wood and Sapwood/ Live Trees and Dead Trees
f Fire Resistance

2 What are the advantages of Timber as a structural Material w.r.t (any two)
1 Tensile Strength
2 Decorative Material
3 Acoustic Material
4 Natural Material
5 Durability
6 Thermal Resistance

Explain the following disadvantages of Timber as a Structural Material and

3
how to over-come the same
1 Shrinkage of Wood
2 Deterioration
3 Fire Resistance

4 Explain the design of a Timber Beam w.r.t the following points

1 Minimum Width
2 Lateral Restraint
3 Notches and Holes

4 Bearing
5 Form Factors

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Problems:
1. A balcony of 1.5m cantilever is to be constructed using wooden cantilever beams, 1.2m
c/c supporting wooden planks 35mm thick and finished with 12mm thick wooden slats.
Design the wooden beam considering the following.
• Take d = 2.5b
• Type of Wood – Teak Wood, for beam, planks and flooring Density-6.27kN/m³
• Permissible Bending Stress for outside location – 11.38 N/mm²
• Permissible Shear Stress – 1.37 N/mm²
• Allowable Deflection – Span/180
• Take live load as 4kN/m².
• E= 9.42 x 10³ N/mm²

2. A loft is to be constructed in an office Building in a room of size 3.8m X 6.8m. The

wooden beams span across 3.8m and are spaced 1.5m c/c and support wooden planks
40mm thick finished with wooden boards 12mm thick. Design the wooden Beams
considering the following
• Take d = 3b
• Type of Wood – Mango, for beam, planks and flooring Density-6.76kN/m³
• Permissible Bending Stress for inside location – 12.16 N/mm²
• Permissible Shear Stress – 1.37 N/mm²
• Allowable Deflection – Span/240
• Take live load as 3kN/m²
• E= 8.93 x 10³N/mm²

3. A Wooden beam is simply supported across a span of 4.23m and is of size 90 x 270
What safe u.d.l can it carry if the Bending Stress is not to exceed 12.16 N/mm²? Also
Find the actual deflection of the beam and compare it with the Allowable deflection of
Span/240. E= 8.93 x 10³N/mm²

4. Design a Timber Beam to take a load of 9kN/m over a Simply Supported effective span of
4.56m considering the following.
• Take d = 3b
• Permissible Bending Stress for inside location – 12.16 N/mm²
• Permissible Shear Stress – 1.37 N/mm²
• Allowable Deflection – Span/240
• E= 8.93 x 10³N/mm²

TOS 4 Unit 1 Wooden Structures Compiled By Ar. Arthur Cutinho