THERMAL ENGINEERING-1

Engine:
Engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form, while
transforming one form of energy to other efficiency plays a key role. Normally most of the
engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are called as heat
engines.

Definition of Heat Engine:

It is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into heat energy and utilizes
this energy to perform useful work.

Classification of Heat Engines:

Heat Engines can be broadly classified into two categories

1) Internal combustion engine

2) External combustion engine

1) I.C. Engine: If the combustion takes place inside the engine cylinder than it is called Internal
Combustion engine.

a) Reciprocating engines

1) Petrol engines

2) Gas engines

3) Diesel engines

b) Rotary engines (gas turbines)

2) E.C.Engine: If the combustion takes place outside the engine cylinder than it is called Internal
Combustion engine.
a) Reciprocating engines-Steam Engines

b) Rotary engines (Steam turbines)

Advantages of I.C.Engine over E.C. Engine:

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 More compact and occupy less space

 Starting is easy and quick

 Possesses high thermal efficiency

 Simple in design and low initial cost

 Mass of engine per unit power is low

Classification of I.C.Engine

1) Type of fuel used

a) Petrol Engine

b) Diesel Engine

c) Gas Engine

2) Nature of cycle used

a) Otto Cycle

b) Diesel Cycle

c) Dual Combustion Cycle

3) No. of Stroke Required

a) Four Stroke Engine

b) Two Stroke Engine

4) Method of Ignition

a) Spark. Ignition (S.I.) Engine

b) Compression Ignition (C.I.) Engine

5) No. of Cylinders

a) Single Cylinder Engines

b) Multi Cylinder Engines

6) Method of Cooling
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a) Air Cooled Engine

b) Water Cooled Engine

7) Method of Governing

a) Hit and Miss Method

b) Quality Governed Engines

c) Quantity Governed Engines

8) According to valve arrangement

a) Over head b) L-head c) T-head d) F-head

9) Arrangement of Cylinders

a) Horizontal b) Vertical

c) V- engine d) Inline

e) Radial f) Opposed

10) Speed of the Engine

a) Low Speed Engine (8.5 m/s)

b) Medium Speed Engine (11m/s)

c) High Speed Engine (14 m/s)

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Schematic Representation of engines based on cylinder Arrangement:

Basic Engine Components:

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Fig2: Basic components of Engine

1. Cylinder - It is one of the most important parts of the engine, in which the piston moves
to and fro in order to develop power.
The engine cylinder has to withstand a high pressure more than 50 bar and temperature
more than 20000 C.
Thus the material for the engine cylinder should be such that it can retain sufficient
strength at such a high pressure and temperature. For ordinary engines, the cylinder is
made of ordinary cast iron. But for heavy duty engines, it is made of steel alloys or
aluminum alloys.

Sometimes, a liner or sleeve is inserted into the cylinder, which can be replaced when worn
out. As the material required for liner is comparatively small, it can be made of alloy cast iron
having long life and sufficient resistance to rapid wear and tear to the fast moving reciprocating
parts.

2. Cylinder head:

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 It is fitted on one end of the cylinder, and act as a cover to close the cylinder bore.
Generally, the cylinder head contains inlet and exit valves for admitting fresh charge and
exhausting the burnt gases.
 In petrol engines, the cylinder head also contains a spark plug for igniting the fuel-air
mixture, towards the end of compression stroke.
 But in diesel engines, the cylinder head contain nozzles, (i.e. fuel valve) for injecting the
fuel into the cylinder.

The cylinder head is cast as one piece and bolted to one end of the cylinder. The cylinder
block and cylinder head are made from the same material. A copper or asbestos gasket is
provided between the engine cylinder and cylinder head to make an air-tight joint.

3. Piston – It is considered as the heart of an I.C. engine, whose main function is to transmit
the force exerted by the burning of charge to the connecting rod. The piston is generally made
of aluminum alloys which are light in weight. They have good heat conducting property and also
greater strength at higher temperature.

4. Piston rings – These are circular rings and made of special steel alloys which retain elastic
properties even at high temperatures. The piston rings are housed in the circumferential
grooves provided on the outer surface of the piston. Generally, there are two sets of rings
mounted for the piston. The function of the upper rings is to provide air tight seal to prevent
leakage of the burnt gases into the lower portion. Similarly, the function of the lower rings is
to provide effective seal to prevent leakage of the oil into the engine cylinder.

5. Connecting rod – It is a link between the piston and crankshaft, whose main function is to
transmit force from the piston to the crankshaft. Moreover, it converts reciprocating motion of
the piston into circular motion of the crankshaft, in the working stroke. The upper (i.e. smaller)
end of the connecting rod is fitted to the piston and the lower (i.e. bigger) end of the crank.

The special steel alloys or aluminum alloys are used for the manufacture of connecting rods.
A special care is required for the design and manufacture of connecting rod, as it is subjected to
alternatively compressive and tensile stresses as well as bending stresses.

Gudgeon Pin: The small end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston with the help of
gudgeon pin.

Crank Pin: The big end of the connecting rod is connected to the crankshaft with the help of
Crank pin.

6. Crankshaft – It is considered as the backbone of an I.C. engine whose function is to covert

the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion with the help of connecting rod.

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This shaft contains one or more eccentric portions called cranks. Special steel alloys are used for
the manufacture of crankshaft. A special care is required for the design and manufacture of
crankshaft

7. Crank case – It is a cast iron case, which holds the cylinder and crankshaft of an I.C. engine. It
also serves as a sump for the lubricating oil. The lower portion of the crank case is known as bed
plate, which is fixed with the help of bolts.

8. Cam shaft: The cam shaft and its associated parts controls the opening and closing of two
valves. The associated parts are push rods, valve springs and tappets. The speed of camshaft is
half the speed of crankshaft

9. Flywheel – It is a big wheel, mounted on the crankshaft, whose function is to maintain its
speed constant. It is done by storing excess energy during power stroke, which, is returned
during other stroke.

TERMS RELATED TO I.C. ENGINES:

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The various terms relating to I.C. engines are elaborated in Fig.

1. Bore (d) – The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore. It is expressed in cm or mm.

2. Stroke (L)– As the piston reciprocates inside the engine cylinder, it has got limiting upper
and lower positions beyond which it cannot move and reversal of motion takes place at these
limiting positions. The linear distance along the cylinder axis between two limiting positions, is
called stroke.

Stroke to bore ratio:

If d<L it is called under square engine

If d=L it is called square engine

If d>l it is called over square engine

3. Piston area (A): The area of circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called the piston
area and is designated by the letter A, usually expressed in cm2

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4. Top Dead Centre (T.D.C.) – It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest from the
crankshaft. In case of horizontal engines, this is known as inner dead centre.

5. Bottom Dead Centre (B.D.C): It is the dead centre when the piston is nearest from the
crankshaft. In case of horizontal engines it is called outer dead centre.

6. Swept volume (Vs) : The volume swept through by the piston in moving between top dead
centre and bottom dead centre, is called swept volume or piston displacement. It is usually
expressed in cubic centimeters (cc).

Vs=A*L = π*d2*L/4

7. Cubic capacity: The displacement volume of a cylinder multiplied by number of cylinders in

an engine will give the cubic capacity. If there are K cylinders in an engine then

Cubic capacity = Vs*K

8. Clearance volume (Vc): The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston,
when the piston is at top dead centre, is called the clearance volume. It is usually expressed in
cubic centimeters (cc).

9. Total volume (VT): It is sum of swept volume and clearance volume.

10. Compression ratio(r): It is the ratio of total volume to clearance volume; it is designated
by letter r.

r = Vt/Vc

Four stroke I.C Engine – Features:


For each stroke of the piston crank shaft moves through 1800.

The crank shaft moves through 7200 or complete 2 revolutions for each cycle.
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
There will be only one power stroke, for every two revolutions of the crank shaft

Four stroke Spark Ignition Engine

Ideal diagram for petrol engine:

Working Principle of 4- Stroke Petrol Engine:

Engine cycle is completed in 2 revolutions of the Crankshaft.

The 2 revolutions constitute the following four strokes.

It consists of

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1) Suction Stroke

2) Compression Stroke

3) Expansion Stroke

4) Exhaust Stroke

Line diagrams of 4-s in S.I Engine

Working Principle of 4 Stroke C.I.Engine (Diesel Engine):

 The Important strokes of this engine are

1) Suction Stroke

2) Compression Stroke

3) Expansion Stroke

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4) Exhaust Stroke

IDEAL CYCLE FOR DIESEL ENGINE:

Working of 4-stroke C.I engine:

Two stroke engine features:


Unlike four stroke petrol engine two stroke engines have ports in place of valves.

All the operations of suction, compression expansion& exhaust are completed in one
revolution (3600) of crank shaft.

There will be one power stroke for each revolution of the crank shaft.

Two stroke Engine operation:

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Valve Timing Diagram: The valve timing diagram represents the opening and closing of valves
with reference to the position of piston and crank.

Theoretically

• Inlet valve opens at T.D.C and closes at B.D.C instantaneously.

• Exhaust valve opens at B.D.C and closes at T.D.C instantaneously.

Actually

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• Due to inertia of fuel mixture and valve mechanism instantaneous opening and closing
of valves is not possible.

Hence

• Actual valve timing diagram is different from theoretical valve timing diagram

Theoretical valve Timing Diagram for petrol engine:

1. In the theoretical valve timing diagram inlet valve opens exactly at 0 0 (A shown in fig)
and the fresh charge i.e air and fuel enters into the engine cylinder, piston moves from
TDC to BDC and crank rotates 180 0. Exactly at 1800 (B as shown in fig) inlet valve closes
completely.

2. After the completion of suction stroke, compression stroke start so that piston moves
from BDC to TDC , crank rotates 1800.(B to C as shown in fig)

3. At the end of compression stroke spark is ignited exactly at 360 0(At point C as shown in
fig) , the entire combustion process completes at Point C.

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4. After the combustion process the expansion strokes at Point C and reaches Point D ,
Piston moves from TDC to BDC, crank rotates 1800

5. After the expansion process the exhaust valve exactly opens at point D, the exhaust
stroke starts and continuous till it reaches point E, Piston moves from BDC to TDC, crank
rotates 1800

Actual valve timing diagram for 4-S petrol Engine:

 The actual valve timing diagram for 4- stroke petrol engine is shown in fig.

Inlet valve:

 It opens 10 to200 before T.D.C

 remains open 1800 of normal suction stroke and closes 300 to 400 after B.D.C

Suction period:

=10+180+30

=2200 (if I.V. opens 100before TDC and closes after 300 BDC)

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
Compression period

=180-30=1500

Ignition Period:

Ignition starts = 3300-3400 bTDC, ignition starts before 200-300 before piston reaching
TDC.

Exhaust Valve:

Opens 300to 500 before BDC

Remains open 1800 of normal exhaust stroke

And closes 100 to 150 after TDC

Now, Exhaust period = 30+180+10 = 2200

Power period = 180-30 = 1500

Angle of overlap:

During certain part of cycle both inlet and outlet valves are open. This period of angle is
known as Angle of overlap.

Theoretical valve Timing Diagram for Diesel engine:

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1. In the theoretical valve timing diagram inlet valve opens exactly at 0 0 (A shown in fig)
and the fresh charge i.e air only enters into the engine cylinder, piston moves from
TDC to BDC and crank rotates 1800. Exactly at 1800 (B as shown in fig) inlet valve
closes completely.

2. After the completion of suction stroke, compression stroke start so that piston moves
from BDC to TDC , crank rotates 1800.(B to C as shown in fig)

3. At the end of compression stroke fuel is injected into the engine with the help of fuel
injector exactly at 3600(At point C as shown in fig), the entire combustion process
completes at Point C.

4. After the combustion process the expansion strokes at Point C and reaches Point D ,
Piston moves from TDC to BDC, crank rotates 1800

5. After the expansion process the exhaust valve exactly opens at point D, the exhaust
stroke starts and continuous till it reaches point E, Piston moves from BDC to TDC,
crank rotates 1800

Actual valve timing diagram for 4-S Diesel Engine:

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Suction period:

Inlet valve opens 100 BTDC

Inlet valve closes 300 A BDC

•
Suction period =10+180+30=2200 (if I.V. opens 100before TDC and closes after 300 BDC)
•
Compression period =180-30=1500

Ignition Period:

Fuel valve opens 100-150 BTDC and Fuel valve Closes 150-200ATDC.

Exhaust Valve:

Opens 300to 500 before BDC

Remains open 1800 of normal exhaust stroke

And closes 100 to 150 after TDC

Now, Exhaust period = 30+180+10 = 2200

Power period = 180-30 = 1500

Angle of overlap:

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• During certain part of cycle both inlet and outlet valves are open. This period of angle is
known as Angle of overlap.

Theoretical Port timing diagram for 2-S petrol Engine:

1. The theoretical port timing diagram for a two-stroke cycle engine is shown in above fig.
In this diagram, the fuel is fired at A and the expansion of gases takes place from A to B.
2. The crankshaft revolves through approximately 1200 and the piston moves from T.D.C.
Towards B.D.C.
3. At B, the exhaust and transfer port both opens, expansion as well as exhaust takes place
from B to C. The crankshaft revolves through approximately 1200 and the piston moves
first to B.D.C and then little upwards.
4. At C. both the ports closes, suction and compression takes place simultaneously on both
sides of the piston from C to A. The crankshaft revolves through approximately 120 0 and
the piston moves to T.D.C

Actual port Timing diagram for 2-S Petrol Engine:

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1. In the port timing diagram, as shown we see that the expansion of the charge (after
ignition) starts as the piston moves from TDC towards BDC. First of all, the exhaust port
opens before the piston reaches BDC and the burnt gases start leaving the cylinder.
2. After a small fraction of the crank revolution, the transfer port also opens and the fresh
fuel-air mixture enters into the engine cylinder. This is done as the fresh incoming charge
helps in pushing out the burnt gases. Now the piston reaches BDC and then starts
moving upwards.
3. As the crank moves a little beyond BDC, first the transfer port closes and then the
exhaust port also closes. This is done to suck fresh charge through the transfer port and
to exhaust the burnt gases through the exhaust port simultaneously.
4. Now the charge is compressed with both ports closed, and then ignited with the help of
a spark plug before the end of compression stroke. This is done as the charge requires
some time to ignite. By the time the piston reaches TDC, the burnt gases (under high
pressure and temperature) push the piston downwards with full force and expansion of
the burnt gases takes place. It may be noted that the exhaust and transfer ports open
and close at equal angles on either side of the BDC position.

Scavenging:
The process of removing burnt gases, from the combustion chamber of the engine
cylinder, is known a scavenging.

Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines:

Petrol Engine Diesel Engine

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A petrol engine draws a mixture of
petrol and air during suction stroke
The carburetor is employed to mix air and
petrol in the required proportion and to supply
it to the engine during suction stroke
Pressure at the end of compression is about 10
bar
The charge (i.e. petrol and air mixture) is
ignited with the help of spark plug
The combustion of fuel takes place
approximately at constant volume. In other
words, it works on Otto cycle
A petrol engine has compression ratio
approximately from 6 to 10.
The starting' is easy due to low compression
ratio
As the compression ratio is low, the petrol
engines are lighter and cheaper
The running cost of a petrol engine is high
because of the higher cost of petrol.
The maintenance cost is less.
The thermal efficiency is up to about 26%.
These are high speed engines.
The petrol engines are generally employed in
light duty vehicles such as scooters,
motorcycles, cars.
Comparison of 4-Stroke and 2-Stroke Engines:
4-Stroke Engine
It has one power stroke for every two It has one power stroke for every one
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A diesel engine draws only air
during suction stroke
The injector or atomizer is employed to inject
the fuel at the end of compression stroke.
Pressure at the end of compression is about 35
bar.
The fuel is injected in the form of fine spray.
The temperature of the compressed air (about
600"C at a pressure of about 35bar) is
sufficiently high to ignite the fuel
The combustion of fuel takes place
approximately at constant pressure. In other
words. It works on Diesel cycle.
A diesel engine has compression ratio
approximately from 15 to 25.
The starting is little difficult due to high
compression ratio.
As the compression ratio is high, the diesel
engine;; are heavier and costlier.
The running cost of diesel engine is low
because of the lower cost of diesel.
The maintenance cost is more
The thermal efficiency is up to about 40%
These are relatively low speed engines.
The diesel engines are generally employed in
heavy duty vehicles like buses. trucks, and
earth moving machines etc.
2-Stroke Engine
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revolutions of the crankshaft
Heavier fly wheel is required and engine runs
unbalanced because turning moment on the
crankshaft is not even due to one power stroke
for every two revolutions of the crankshaft
Engine is heavy
Engine design is complicated to due to
presence of valves
It requires valves, camshaft mechanism
More cost
Engine require more space
Mechanical efficiency is less due to more
friction between moving parts
Fuel consumption is less
Less noise is created by engine
It consumes less lubricating oil
More Thermal Efficiency
Scavenging is More efficient
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revolution of the crankshaft
Lighter fly wheel is required and engine runs
balanced because turning moment on the
crankshaft is even due to one power stroke for
one revolutions of the crankshaft
Engine is Light
Engine design is less complicated due to
absence of valves
It requires ports, no need of camshaft
Less cost
It occupies less space
Mechanical efficiency is high due to less
friction between moving parts
Fuel consumption is more
More noise
It Consumes more lubricating oil
Less Thermal efficiency because a part of air
fuel mixture goes as waste with the exhaust
gases
Scavenging is less efficient
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