Peer Reviewed

Title:
Uncovering Cultural Bias in EFL Textbooks

Journal Issue:
Issues in Applied Linguistics, 18(1)

Author:
Sherman, John Eric, Hongik University

Publication Date:
2010

Permalink:
http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4rc558zw

Abstract:
This study lays the foundation for reasons and ways to investigate the biased treatment of non-
native characters in model dialogues in current English as a Foreign/Second Language textbooks.
The literature review shows that although a plethora of studies have been conducted on gender
bias in textbooks, speaker bias, or labeled nativism here, has been largely ignored. This research
addresses this neglect by systematically applying parts of two frameworks previously used in
analyzing textbooks for gender bias to four current EFL textbooks. The resulting data is quantitative
in nature with some necessary description and qualification and shows that only one text avoids
bias against non-native speakers. In the other texts, speaker bias is exhibited by non-native
speakers being segregated or being only allowed to interact with a native speaker. In addition, non-
native speakers are limited to non-expert roles in two texts. Based on these results, suggestions
for further research are offered.

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eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing

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(ZDOG

Jennifer Ewald is an Associate Professor of Spanish and Linguistics at Saint Joseph’s

University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Her research interests include classroom
discourse, applied linguistics, methodology, teacher education, pragmatics, and second
language acquisition.
Uncovering Cultural Bias in EFL Textbooks
John Eric Sherman
Hongik University

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for further research are offered.

INTRODUCTION

The primary responsibility often articulated by employers to native TESOL

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English communication skills. Teachers should accomplish this by choosing ap
propriate textbooks for their classes. This requirement supports the notion that the
centerpiece of most TESOL classrooms remains the text. In reference to studies
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riculum (and in some cases, it actually becomesWKHFXUULFXOXPµS%HFDXVH
of this dominance, many researchers have undertaken various analyses and critiques
of available textbooks, and rightly so.
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confront textbook bias, these educators are implicitly supporting as well as possibly
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because we cannot predict a given reader’s response to that text, including what
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response be accepting, challenging or rejecting such bias—becomes an important
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Interestingly, although research has been conducted on gender bias in text
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bias in textbooks. Therefore, this is a gap of knowledge this study addresses. The
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native speaker, a form of cultural bias termed nativism, akin to that which has been
explored for gender. Thus, the guiding research question is, in general: what forms
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relation to male speakers in terms of social roles? A brief review of the literature
on gender and cultural bias studies offers some insights on how to approach and
attempt to answer these questions.

LITERATURE REVIEW

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The most popular method is performing an inventory count of the characters, roles
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textbooks at that time is a prime example. She chooses the texts by consulting the
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methods include counting the number of males and females appearing in the writ
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and sentences; how often male and females appear in occupational roles as well
as the different types of occupations shown; every noun that indicates a male or
female; the total times masculine generic constructions occur in the text and the
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like Porreca’s have been valuable in illustrating how a preference for maleness can
easily be found in the materials by quantifying language items.
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been on the reading texts or grammar examples, but when the dialogues have been
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Jones, Kitetu, and Sunderland stress that such dialogues are often used in certain
ways in the classroom: as oral models, as basis for pair work, as a model for writ
ing and as a model for listening or reading. Thus, they see their use as “developing
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students’ knowledge, practice opportunities and language skills being learned
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based upon their gender could have different amounts of practice and also practice
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male/female roles, the number of times males/females started a conversation, the
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something they fail to consider. They make reference to a study done by Poulou
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discovers inequality in the language functions assigned to different roles based
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further study but also needs to be examined in conjunction with another important
characteristic: speaker status.
Moving beyond these earlier studies by including the language status of the
persons demonstrating the language in the dialogues is not easy because the native
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The native speaker has been long viewed as the correct model to be imitated, es
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However, much debate has revolved around the nature of the native speaker, as
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guage is ‘one who acquired the language in infancy, before any other language
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from this dichotomy, especially when that professional’s identity is being socially
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have been quick to point out the advantages and disadvantages of both native and
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yet to be made on this issue.
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ideal being far from permanent replacement, it is no wonder that “Language profes
sionals often take it for granted that the only appropriate models of a language’s
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the day is not far off (if it has not come already) when more and more people
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English speakers than for linguistics encounters involving at least one native
speaker, considered the stereotypical case by most curriculum planners and
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However, more and more professionals are now beginning to demand that
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native speaker in more recent textbooks illustrates that some curriculum developers
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neglected issue using techniques from some of the gender analyses previously
completed as well as similarly employed in other studies of cultural bias.
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commodity and the discursive practices within it that support the native speaker
hierarchy. Although his work is focused more generally on how the cultural bias
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that established the basis for this study and its investigation of cultural bias termed
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seven types of gender bias—invisibility, linguistic bias, stereotyping, imbalance,
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in her analysis of six ESL textbooks that were being used in a school district in the
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invisibility and unreality in the chosen texts used from elementary to high school
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study cultural bias became a guide to this research project.
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bias in textbooks. However, one problem has been that many researchers have
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a fuller picture. Although this is still a static view in the sense that one is observ
ing the textbook outside of its use in a classroom, it is nevertheless a necessary
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carried by the text. If educators are unaware of such bias, in both its obvious and
hidden forms, then they cannot begin to help students go beyond comprehension to
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points out that “a variety of approaches may be needed to account for the inherent
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not only to help verify results but also to give a fuller picture of how the bias may
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speakers are interacting with each other and with native speakers and Poulou’s
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These frameworks can not only illustrate differences between gender but also be
tween speaker status. Uncovering cultural bias in model dialogues will help other
educators in expanding circle TESOL contexts better confront these issues when
using such conversations in their classrooms.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Operationalization of Key Concepts

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speakers is being measured by a systematic quantitative analysis of classifying
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counted are explained in detail under both of the chosen frameworks. All other
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plained within the paper.

Participants/Materials
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being conversation focused. These texts include 3HUVRQWR3HUVRQfrom Oxford
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beginner to intermediate levels of these series, and the texts all focus on young adult
learners of university age or above. Moreover, the conversation lengths in high
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ing only one per chapter but two can be found in 3HUVRQWR3HUVRQ as well as one
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Procedure
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labeled &RQYHUVDWLRQ and Conversation 2.
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versations are located in a section titled 6SHDNLQJ.
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frameworks listed and explained below. Parts of these frameworks are used be
cause of a need to make adjustments since the study uses dialogues and not all of
the written text in the books as well as the focus including speaker status and not
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

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QDWLYHVSHDNHU³RUIRXUFDWHJRULHV³QRQQDWLYHIHPDOHQDWLYHIHPDOHQRQQDWLYH
male and native male.

Sadker and Sadker’s (2001) Framework

6DGNHUDQG6DGNHULGHQWLI\VHYHQIRUPVRIELDVLQYLVLELOLW\OLQJXLV
tic bias, stereotyping, imbalance, unreality, fragmentation and cosmetic bias (pp.
7KLVVWXG\XVHVIUDJPHQWDWLRQ6DGNHUDQG6DGNHUSUHVHQWIUDJPHQWDWLRQ
in terms of gender as when a textbook “separates the discussion of women into a
GLVFRQQHFWHGFKDSWHURUSHUKDSVDVHSDUDWHVHFWLRQRULQVHUWµDQG´ZKHQJURXSV
DUHGHSLFWHGDVLQWHUDFWLQJRQO\DPRQJWKHPVHOYHVDQGDVKDYLQJOLWWOHRUQRLQÁX
HQFHRQVRFLHW\DVDZKROHµS7RGLVFRYHULIVSHDNHUVWDWXVIUDJPHQWDWLRQ
is occurring in the dialogues, the researcher counts and records the number of:
FRQYHUVDWLRQVEHWZHHQWZRQDWLYHWZRQRQQDWLYHRURQHQDWLYHDQGRQHQRQ
native speakers. Some conversations have more than two speakers, so adjustments
LQFDWHJRULHVHJWZRQDWLYHDQGRQHQRQQDWLYHDUHQHFHVVDU\IRUWKLV7KHJRDO
LV WR REVHUYH WKH LQWHUDFWLRQ RFFXUULQJ EHWZHHQ QRQQDWLYH DQG QDWLYH VSHDNHUV
and how the textbooks might separate these groups. This framework addresses
WKHÀUVWUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQKRZDUHQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVUHSUHVHQWHGLQUHODWLRQWR
native speakers?
)RUVSHDNHUVWDWXVDQDWLYHVSHDNHULVGHWHUPLQHGE\VRPHRQHZKRLVERUQLQ
an inner circle country, a country where English is the mother tongue (see Kachru,
$QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHULVGHWHUPLQHGE\VRPHRQHERUQLQDQH[SDQGLQJFLUFOH
country—a country where English has spread through colonialism and has some
RIÀFLDO VWDWXV E\ ODZ³RU LQ DQ RXWHU FLUFOH FRXQWU\³D FRXQWU\ ZKHUH (QJOLVK
KDV VSUHDG DV D OLQJXD IUDQFD EXW ZKHUH LW GRHV QRW KDYH RIÀFLDO VWDWXV E\ ODZ
VHH.DFKUX+RZHYHUDV<DQRSRLQWVRXWWKHUHDUHSRVVLEOHQDWLYH
speakers born in expanding circle countries as an established variety of English
PD\EHWKHODQJXDJHOHDUQWÀUVWS
When country of birth is not given, other criteria like name, pictures, audio
recordings are used as clues to identify where speakers were most likely born. Be
cause so few of the characters state their country of origin, these criteria are used.
3HUVRQDOO\WKHUHVHDUFKHUÀQGVHTXDWLQJ&DXFDVLDQZLWKQDWLYHVSHDNHUVWDWXVDQG
SHRSOHRIFRORUZLWKQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVWDWXVYHU\WURXEOLQJEXWNQRZVWKLVLGHD
LV FRPPRQ LQ WKH ()/(6/ LQGXVWU\ VHH$PLQ  DQG DPRQJ VWXGHQWV ,Q
VXPPDU\VSHDNHUVDUHFODVVLÀHGLQWRQRQQDWLYHQDWLYHDQGDPELJXRXVFDWHJRULHV
by the following criteria:

1DPHVJLYHQLQWKHWH[WÀUVWDQGVRPHWLPHVODVW
3LFWXUHVDFFRPSDQ\LQJHDFKPRGHOFRQYHUVDWLRQVKRZLQJHWKQLFLW\
&'7DSHUHFRUGLQJVRIWKHPRGHOFRQYHUVDWLRQVLQZKLFKWKHVSHDNHUV
KDYHDFOHDUQRQQDWLYHRUQDWLYHDFFHQW
6KHUPDQ

&RXQWU\ LQ ZKLFK FRQYHUVDWLRQRFFXUVLIVWDWHGRUVXJJHVWHGLQWH[WRU

country from which the character comes if stated or suggested in text.

Some problems do occur in using these four criteria. They are discussed in
the data section with the accompanying detailed notes presented in Appendix 1.

Poulou’s (1997) Framework

3RXORX·VVWXG\IRFXVHVRQWKHIHPDOHDQGPDOHGLVFRXUVHUROHVLQGLD
ORJXHVLQ´WH[WERRNVIRUWHDFKLQJ*UHHNDVDIRUHLJQODQJXDJHµS6KHIRFXVHV
RQPL[HGVH[GLDORJXHVE\UHFRUGLQJWKH´DPRXQWRIVSHHFKQXPEHURIXWWHUDQFHV
DQGQXPEHURIZRUGVQXPEHURILQLWLDWLQJXWWHUDQFHVDQGÀQDOXWWHUDQFHVDQG
ODQJXDJHIXQFWLRQVµS+RZHYHUIRUWKLVVWXG\DQRWKHUSDUWRIKHUZRUNLV
XWLOL]HG3RXORX·VDQDO\VLVDOVRLQFOXGHVFODVVLI\LQJWKHVRFLDOUROHVRIWKH
speakers in the dialogues. This is done as such roles could offer further explanations
on why certain characters are using certain language functions and who is domi
nating the conversation. However, on a more basic level, it also shows if females
or males are being regulated to certain stereotypical roles such as women always
being seen as homemakers or secretaries while men are the doctors or bosses. In
WKLVVWXG\WKLVFODVVLÀFDWLRQLVLPSRUWDQWWRVHHLIQRQQDWLYHDQGQDWLYHVSHDNHUV
DUHSRUWUD\HGRQHTXDOWHUPVLQYDULRXVUROHV,QKHUFODVVLÀFDWLRQ3RXORX
makes a distinction “between speakers exhibiting an occupational role (hotelier,
baker etc.) and speakers having only a personal relationship role (mother, husband
HWFµDQGXVHVWKHWHUPV´H[SHUWVµDQG´QRQH[SHUWVµUHVSHFWLYHO\WRLGHQWLI\HDFK
JURXSS,QWHUHVWLQJO\LQKHUUHVXOWV3RXORXRQO\SUHVHQWVMREVLQWKH
RFFXSDWLRQDORUH[SHUWFDWHJRU\S7KLVPXVWPHDQVKHFRQVLGHUVWKHUROHRI
customer as a personal relationship role. Thus, all characters in a customer role
DUHFODVVLÀHGDVDQRQH[SHUW,QPDQ\WH[WERRNVFKDUDFWHUVH[KLELWLQJDQRFFX
pational role are often labeled as such with no name given, while those exhibiting
DSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHDUHXVXDOO\LGHQWLÀHGE\DQDPHRQO\:LWKLQVRPH
conversations, the context explicitly suggests the kind of personal relationship.
In some instances, inferences have to be made. However, all clues or information
SURYLGHGLQWKHGLDORJXHVDUHXVHGWRPDNHFODVVLÀFDWLRQV
Since the goal is to move beyond just looking for gender bias and include
cultural bias, the study divides the characters by their gender and speaker status.
7KHUHVXOWVIURP6DGNHUDQG6DGNHU·VIUDPHZRUNDUHXVHGIRUWKHVHFRQG
division. The following criteria are used for the gender division into female, male
DQGDPELJXRXVFODVVLÀFDWLRQV

1DPHVJLYHQLQWKHWH[WÀUVWDQGVRPHWLPHVODVW
3LFWXUHVDFFRPSDQ\LQJHDFKPRGHOFRQYHUVDWLRQVKRZLQJJHQGHU
&'7DSHUHFRUGLQJVRIWKHPRGHOFRQYHUVDWLRQVLQZKLFKWKHVSHDNHUV
have a clear male or female voice.
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

Again, some problems do occur in using these three criteria. They are
discussed in the data section with the accompanying detailed notes presented in
$SSHQGL[
)LQDOO\WKLVVWXG\·VXVHRI3RXORX·VIUDPHZRUNLVWRDGGUHVVWKHODVW
WKUHHRIWKHIRXUUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVKRZDUHQRQQDWLYHIHPDOHDQGPDOHVSHDN
ers represented in relation to native female and male speakers in terms of social
UROHV"KRZDUHQRQQDWLYHIHPDOHVSHDNHUVUHSUHVHQWHGLQUHODWLRQWRQRQQDWLYH
PDOHVSHDNHUVLQWHUPVRIVRFLDOUROHV"DQGKRZDUHQDWLYHIHPDOHVSHDNHUV
represented in relation to male speakers in terms of social roles?

Approaches to Data Analysis

0RVW RI WKH SUHYLRXV JHQGHU VWXGLHV LQFOXGLQJ 3RXORX  KDYH XVHG
comparisons between totals of raw counts as well as percentages to illustrate bias.
Thus, this study uses these as well.

Limitations of the Study

This study is limited in the following ways: 1) by the textbooks chosen for
DQDO\VLVFDQQRWJHQHUDOL]HWRRWKHUWH[WVE\DQDO\]LQJRQO\WKHGLDORJXHVZLWKLQ
HDFKWH[WOLPLWHGVFRSHRIDQDO\VLVE\EHLQJVWDWLFLQQDWXUHQRWDQDO\]LQJWKH
WH[WERRNVLQXVHLQDFODVVURRPDQGE\WKHUHVHDUFKHU·VRZQVXEMHFWLYLW\WKDW
could affect the reliability and validity.

DATA

'XHWRWKHQDWXUHRI6DGNHUDQG6DGNHU·VIUDPHZRUNFRQYHUVDWLRQV

WKDWLQFOXGHFKDUDFWHUVZLWKXQFODVVLÀDEOHVSHDNHUVWDWXVHVUHVXOWLQWKHHQWLUHFRQ
versation being excluded from the results, but only for this particular framework.
)RUH[DPSOHVRPHSUREOHPVGRRFFXULQXVLQJWKHIRXUFULWHULDIRUWKLVIUDPHZRUN
because some texts, like 3HUVRQWR3HUVRQLQFOXGHQRQQDWLYHFKDUDFWHUVZKR
KDYHVHHPLQJO\DGRSWHG(QJOLVKÀUVWQDPHV,QWKRVHLQVWDQFHVWKHUHVHDUFKHUJRHV
E\WKHODVWQDPHLIJLYHQDQGFULWHULDIRUWKHVHFKDUDFWHUV$OVRPDMRULW\UXOH
LVXVHGDWWLPHVVRZKHQWKHUHLVFRQÁLFWLQJLQIRUPDWLRQWKHVLGHWKDWKDVPRUH
support is chosen. Another problem is that some texts do not accompany all of
their conversations with pictures and sometimes use cartoon drawings or pictures of
REMHFWVRUSODFHVWRLOOXVWUDWHWKHGLDORJXHV)RUH[DPSOHInterchange 2 uses only
FDUWRRQGUDZLQJVVRFULWHULDDQGDUHDSSOLHGIRUFODVVLÀFDWLRQRIWKHVSHDN
ers of this text. Moreover, some texts use all native speakers on their recordings
HYHQWKRXJKFKDUDFWHUVLQWKHERRNVDUHFOHDUO\PHDQWWREHQRQQDWLYH,QWKHVH
instances, the researcher relies on the other criteria to make a decision regarding
the speaker’s status. In fact, due to these problems, only criterion 1 can be used for
:RUOG/LQN, DQGVRPHQDPHVVXFKDV2PDU0DULDDQG0LQDDUHXQFODVVLÀDEOHDV
GHÀQLWHO\QRQQDWLYHRUQDWLYHVRWKHVHFRQYHUVDWLRQVDUHQRWXVHGLQWKHDQDO\VLV
One other note is that in 7RS1RWFK, the researcher discovers that the directions
6KHUPDQ

of the 6RXQG%LWHVVHFWLRQDOVRLPSO\LIWKHFRQYHUVDWLRQLVEHWZHHQQRQQDWLYH
VSHDNHUVRUQDWLYHVSHDNHUV$OORIWKHGLDORJXHVWKDWKDYHQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUV
have the directions “Read along silently as you listen to a conversation in a (hotel/
FDUUHQWDODJHQF\PHHWLQJLQ6SDLQ*HUPDQ\%UD]LOµ6DVORZDQG$VFKHU
$OORIWKHGLDORJXHVWKDWLQYROYHQDWLYHVSHDNHUVKDYHWKHGLUHFWLRQV´5HDGDORQJ
VLOHQWO\DV\RXOLVWHQWRDQDWXUDOFRQYHUVDWLRQµ6DVORZDQG$VFKHU7KHXVH
of natural, or not, seems to show which conversations are between native speakers
DQGZKLFKDUHQRWEH\RQGWKHIRXUFULWHULDXWLOL]HG$OVRDOORIWKHWH[WVLQFOXGH
FKDUDFWHUV ZLWK QR QDPH EXW WKHVH LQGLYLGXDOV DUH LGHQWLÀHG ZLWK D VRFLDO UROH
like woman or renter or by a job title like agent or detective. In regards to the last
issue, all of these characters are deemed a native speaker unless there is evidence
WRVXJJHVWRWKHUZLVH7KLVHYLGHQFHFRPHVIURPWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIFULWHULDIRU
this framework where possible. In short, in 3HUVRQWR3HUVRQ one conversation
is unusable, as the speaker status of at least one character cannot be determined by
WKHFULWHULDXVHG7KXVRQO\FRQYHUVDWLRQVDUHLQFOXGHGLQWKHUHVXOWV0RUHRYHU
in :RUOG/LQN three conversations are unusable, as the speaker status of at least
RQHFKDUDFWHULQHDFKFDQQRWEHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHFULWHULDXVHG7KHUHIRUHRQO\
FRQYHUVDWLRQVDUHLQFOXGHGLQWKHUHVXOWV)LQDOO\WRVHHVSHFLÀFDOO\WKHDSSOLFDWLRQ
of this framework, please refer to Appendix 1 WKDWLQFOXGHVWKHGHWDLOHGFODVVLÀFD
WLRQQRWHVIRUHDFKVSHDNHULQWKHDQDO\]HGPRGHOFRQYHUVDWLRQV
'XHWRWKHQDWXUHRI3RXORX·VIUDPHZRUNRQO\WKHOLQHVVSRNHQE\
FKDUDFWHUVZLWKXQFODVVLÀDEOHJHQGHURUVSHDNHUVWDWXVHVDUHH[FOXGHGIURPWKH
results. Since the researcher divides the characters not only by their gender but
also by their speaker status, the results from the criteria developed for Sadker and
6DGNHU·VIUDPHZRUNDUHXVHGIRUWKHVSHDNHUVWDWXVGLYLVLRQZKLOHWKHUHVXOWV
from the criteria developed for this framework are used for the gender division.
7KHUHIRUHWKHGLYLVLRQRIVSHDNHUVWDWXHVLVQRQQDWLYHQDWLYHDQGDPELJXRXVDQG
WKHGLYLVLRQRIJHQGHULVIHPDOHPDOHDQGDPELJXRXV6RPHVSHFLÀFSUREOHPV
occur in using the three criteria for this framework because some texts, like World
/LQN and Interchange 2, do not accompany all of their conversations with pictures
and sometimes use cartoon drawings or pictures of objects or places to illustrate
WKHFRQYHUVDWLRQV)XUWKHUPRUHWKHUHLVHYHQDQLQVWDQFHLQZKLFKDFKDUDFWHU·V
JHQGHULQRQHERRNFRQÁLFWVZLWKWKHYRLFHRQWKHUHFRUGLQJRIWKHGLDORJXH,Q
regard to these issues, the characters are deemed a female or male by majority rule
using as many of the three criteria for this framework where possible. However,
when one criterion is not applicable, a tie is possible and, in fact, does happen once,
VRWKHFKDUDFWHUKDVWREHFODVVLÀHGDVDPELJXRXVDQGWKHOLQHVDUHH[FOXGHGIURP
the data. 2QFHDJDLQDQ\VSHFLÀFGDWDIURPFRQYHUVDWLRQVWKDWLQFOXGHFKDUDFWHUV
of ambiguous speaker status or gender status is recorded but is not included in the
ÀQDOUHVXOWVDQGDQDO\VLV+RZHYHURQO\WKHVSHFLÀFGDWDUHODWHGWRWKDWDPELJXRXV
FKDUDFWHULVGLVTXDOLÀHGDQGQRWDOORIWKHGDWDIURPWKHHQWLUHDQDO\]HGFRQYHUVDWLRQ
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

/DVWO\WRVHHVSHFLÀFDOO\WKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKLVIUDPHZRUNSOHDVHVHH$SSHQGL[
WKDWLQFOXGHVWKHGHWDLOHGFODVVLÀFDWLRQQRWHVIRUWKHRFFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUROHV
in the model conversations.

RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Sadker and Sadker’s (2001) Framework

6DGNHUDQG6DGNHU·VIUDPHZRUNUHYHDOKRZPXFKLQWHUDFWLRQLVRF
FXUULQJEHWZHHQQRQQDWLYHDQGQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQWKHPRGHOFRQYHUVDWLRQVDQG
KRZVHSDUDWHWKHVHJURXSVDUHLQVRPHWH[WERRNV)LUVW3HUVRQWR3HUVRQ proves
WREHWKHEHVWLQLWVLQWHJUDWLRQRIQRQQDWLYHDQGQDWLYHVSHDNHUVZLWK:RUOG/LQN
2EHLQJVHFRQGDVFDQEHEHHQLQWDEOHVDQGEHORZ

Table 1: Frequency of Dialogues between Only Native Speakers, Only Non-

native Speakers or Mixed Speakers for Person to Person 2
Dialogues Dialogues with
Dialogues
with only only Total
with mixed
native QRQQDWLYH dialogues
speakers
speakers speakers
)UHTXHQF\    

Table 2: Frequency of Dialogues between Only Native Speakers, Only Non-

native Speakers or Mixed Speakers for World Link 2
Dialogues Dialogues with
Dialogues
with only only Total
with mixed
native QRQQDWLYH dialogues
speakers
speakers speakers
)UHTXHQF\    

2IWKHFRQYHUVDWLRQVDQDO\]HGLQWKHÀUVWWH[WDUHZLWKPL[HGVSHDNHUV
DQGVHYHQZLWKRQO\QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUV7KHWH[WKDVQRFRQYHUVDWLRQVIHDWXULQJ
only native speakers. The examples given in this text seem most appropriate in an
()/FRQWH[WZKHUHVWXGHQWVDUHPRVWOLNHO\WREHXVLQJ(QJOLVKZLWKRWKHUQRQQDWLYH
VSHDNHUV,QIDFWPRUHFRQYHUVDWLRQVFRXOGKDYHIHDWXUHGRQO\QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUV
LQWHUDFWLQJZLWKRQHDQRWKHU2IWKHWHQFRQYHUVDWLRQVDQDO\]HGLQWKHVHFRQGWH[W
seven are with mixed speakers and three with only native speakers. This text has
QRGLDORJXHVZLWKRQO\QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVDWURXEOLQJÀQGIRUDQ()/FRQWH[W
Thus, the text seems unable to let go of the native speaker as one has to be present
at all times in each conversation. However, the majority of conversations in both
WH[WVVKRZVQRQQDWLYHDQGQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQWHUDFWLQJZLWKRQHDQRWKHUDJRRG
VLJQ7KLVLVQRWWKHFDVHLQWKHRWKHUWZRWH[WVDVVKRZQLQ7DEOHVDQGEHORZ
6KHUPDQ

Table 3: Frequency of Dialogues between Only Native Speakers, Only Non-

native Speakers or Mixed Speakers for Top Notch 2
Dialogues Dialogues with
Dialogues
with only only Total
with mixed
native QRQQDWLYH dialogues
speakers
speakers speakers
)UHTXHQF\    

Table 4: Frequency of Dialogues between Only Native Speakers, Only Non-

native Speakers or Mixed Speakers for Interchange 2
Dialogues Dialogues with
Dialogues
with only only Total
with mixed
native QRQQDWLYH dialogues
speakers
speakers speakers
)UHTXHQF\    

7DEOHVKRZVWKDWLQ7RS1RWFKQRQQDWLYHDQGQDWLYHVSHDNHUVDUHVHJ
UHJDWHGIURPRQHDQRWKHUDVWKHPDMRULW\RIWKHFRQYHUVDWLRQVDUHZLWKRQO\
QDWLYHVSHDNHUVDQGWKHPLQRULW\DUHZLWKRQO\QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUV7KXVWKLV
text presents a world in which only native speakers interact with each other and
QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQWHUDFWZLWKHDFKRWKHU6XFKVHSDUDWLRQZKHWKHULWLVEDVHG
XSRQVSHDNHUVWDWXVUDFHJHQGHUHWFLVTXLWHSUREOHPDWLFLQDWH[WERRN7DEOH
shows that Interchange 2 avoids such segregation, albeit barely. In this text the
YDVWPDMRULW\RIFRQYHUVDWLRQVDUHZLWKRQO\QDWLYHVSHDNHUVZLWKMXVWWZR
LQFOXGLQJDQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHU7KXVQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVDUHSUHVHQWEXWRQO\DV
a small minority.

Poulou’s (1997) framework

3RXORX·VIUDPHZRUNVKRZVVRPHLQWHUHVWLQJSDWWHUQVLQWKUHHRIWKH
WH[WERRNV ZKHQ WKH VSHDNHUV DUH FODVVLÀHG LQWR H[SHUW RFFXSDWLRQDO DQG QRQ
expert (personal relationship) roles. In :RUOG/LQN and Interchange 2QRQQDWLYH
VSHDNHUVQHYHURFFXS\H[SHUWUROHVDQGDUHRQO\VHHQDVQRQH[SHUWVDV7DEOHV
DQGVKRZEHORZ
0RUHRYHU7DEOHVDQGVKRZWKDWQDWLYHVSHDNHUVDUHFOHDUO\VHHQLQERWK
H[SHUWDQGQRQH[SHUWUROHVLQERWKWH[WERRNV7KHFRPSOHWHDEVHQFHRIQRQQDWLYH
males in Interchange 2LVTXLWHDSSDUHQWKHUHDVZHOO&RQVLGHULQJWKDWPDQ\()/
VWXGHQWVDUHVWXG\LQJ(QJOLVKIRUIXWXUHMREUHTXLUHPHQWVWKLVODFNRIQRQQDWLYH
speakers using English in their occupation is quite curious in these texts. Thus, the
ERRNVVXJJHVWWKDWQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVRQO\XVH(QJOLVKIRUSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVEXW
not for business. Interestingly, 7RS1RWFK presents the exact opposite as Table
VKRZVEHORZ
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

Table 5: Frequency of Expert and Non-expert Roles for Non-native Female

and Male and Native Female and Male Speakers for World Link 2
Non-­native Native
Female Male Female Male
Politician  (1) Politician  (1)
Ex-­
None   None   Detective  (1) Detective  (1)
perts
Receptionist  (1)   (Store)  clerk  (1)
Friend  (2) Friend  (2)  
Friend  (2) Friend  (3)
Acquaintance   Acquaintance  (1)
Non-­ Acquaintance   Customer  (1)
(1) Customer  (1)
experts (1) Father  (1)  
Classmate  (1) Partner  (1)
Customer  (2)
Partner  (1)   Daughter  (1)

Table 6: Frequency of Expert and Non-expert Roles for Non-native Female

and Male and Native Female and Male Speakers for Interchange 2
Non-­native Native
Female Male Female Male
Waiter  (1)
Ex-­
None   None   Hairdresser  (1)   (Airport  info.)  
perts
Clerk  (1)
Friend  (7)   Friend  (11)
Customer  (2) Customer  (2)
Non-­ Friend  (1)
None Partner  (2) Partner  (2)
experts Acquaintance  (1)
Mother  (1) Father  (1)  
Daughter  (1) Son  (1)

Table 7: Frequency of Expert and Non-expert Roles for Non-native Female

and Male and Native Female and Male Speakers for Top Notch 2
Non-­native Native
Female Male Female Male
(Car  rental)  Agent  
Ex-­ (Hotel)  Clerk  
(1) None None
perts (1)
Businesswoman  (2)
(Hotel)  Guest  (1) (Car)  Renter   Friend  (6) Friend  (4)
Non-­
(1) Partner   Partner  (1)
experts
(1) Acquaintance  (2)
6KHUPDQ

1RZ QRQQDWLYH VSHDNHUV RFFXS\ ERWK H[SHUW DQG QRQH[SHUW UROHV ZKLOH
QDWLYHVSHDNHUVDUHRQO\QRQH[SHUWV7KHUHIRUHWKLVWH[WEHWWHUUHSUHVHQWVKRZQRQ
native speakers may be using English in their lives but fails short in its portrayal
of how native speakers use English. Only 3HUVRQWR3HUVRQVKRZVQRQQDWLYH
DQGQDWLYHVSHDNHUVRIERWKJHQGHUVLQH[SHUWDQGQRQH[SHUWUROHVDVFDQEHVHHQ
in Table 8.

Table 8: Frequency of Expert and Non-expert Roles for Non-native Female

and Male and Native Female and Male Speakers for Person to Person 2
1RQQDWLYH Native
)HPDOH Male )HPDOH Male
*XLGH (Hotel) Glerk (1) 6HFUHWDU\ (Info.) Clerk (1)
Ex
(Travel) Agent Pharmacist
perts
(1) (1)
(Hotel) Guest (Car) renter (1) )ULHQG )ULHQG
1RQ
(1) Partner (1) Partner (1)
experts
$FTXDLQWDQFH

The imbalance shown in the other texts—one that warrants further explora
tion with a larger sample of texts—raises issues again of how students are being
VRFLDOL]HGUHJDUGLQJWKHXVHRIWKHODQJXDJH6XUHO\WKHWH[WVKDYHDUHVSRQVLELOLW\
WRVKRZQRQQDWLYHDVZHOODVQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQERWKH[SHUWDQGQRQH[SHUWUROHV
VRVWXGHQWVDUHH[SRVHGWRUHDOLVWLFLGHDVRIKRZ(QJOLVKLVXVHG)LQDOO\LWVKRXOG
EHQRWHGWKDWQRVLJQLÀFDQWJHQGHUGLVFULPLQDWLRQZDVIRXQGEHWZHHQWKHUROHV
assigned to females and males in the texts, a positive sign indeed.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

7KLVVWXG\DLPVWRÀQGRXWKRZWKHQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVDUHEHLQJSUHVHQWHG
LQFRPSDULVRQWRQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQFXUUHQW()/WH[WERRNV%LDVHGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQV
in materials, whether they are based on gender, race, class, speaker status and so on,
are problematic due to the nature of English language teaching. If biased materials
DUHEHLQJXVHGLQFODVVURRPVDQG()/WHDFKHUVDUHIDLOLQJWRFRQIURQWVXFKELDV
WKHVHHGXFDWRUVDUHLPSOLFLWO\VXSSRUWLQJDVZHOODVSRVVLEO\VRFLDOL]LQJWKHVWXGHQWV
WRDFFHSWLW2IFRXUVHVWXGHQWVDUHQRWHPSW\YHVVHOVWREHÀOOHGZLWKNQRZOHGJH
and can react in various ways to biased texts. However, the educator certainly has
a social responsibility not simply to ignore bias in textbooks but to point it out and
help students confront it, with the understanding that such confrontation will allow
VWXGHQWVWREHWWHUPDNHWKHÀQDOGHFLVLRQLQKRZWKH\UHVSRQGWRLW2YHUDOOKRZ
the students react to biased texts, whether that response be accepting, challenging or
UHMHFWLQJWKHELDVEHFRPHVDQLPSRUWDQWSDUWRIWKHODQJXDJHVRFLDOL]DWLRQSURFHVV
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

The sexism exhibited in textbooks has been thoroughly researched and docu
PHQWHGVLQFHWKHVDQGFRQWLQXHVQRZZLWKVWXGLHVPRYLQJLQWRWKHFODVVURRP
to see how the use of such materials as well as the treatment of such materials by
teachers could be affecting students’ learning. Although so much research has been
FRQGXFWHGRQJHQGHUELDVLQWH[WERRNVDQGHYHQRQWKHLQÁXHQFHRIJHQGHULQWKH
FODVVURRPDVZHOODVJHQGHU·VLQÁXHQFHLQQDWLYHDQGQRQQDWLYHLQWHUDFWLRQVD
lot less has been done regarding speaker status bias in textbooks. Thus, the goal of
this study is to address this gap of knowledge and create a new dialogue on bias in
WH[WERRNVDJDLQVWWKHQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUDIRUPRIFXOWXUDOELDVWHUPHGnativism.
7KLVVWXG\XWLOL]HVSDUWVRIIUDPHZRUNVGHYHORSHGIRUWKHVWXG\RIJHQGHU
ELDV7ZRIUDPHZRUNV³6DGNHUDQG6DGNHUDQG3RXORX³KDYHEHHQ
DGDSWHGWRORRNIRUVSHDNHUELDVLQIRXUFXUUHQW()/WH[WERRNV3HUVRQWR3HUVRQ,
:RUOG/LQN, 7RS1RWFK and Interchange 2. Unfortunately, just as these earlier
VWXGLHVGLVFRYHUYDULRXVIRUPVRIJHQGHUELDVLQ(6/()/WH[WERRNVWKHLUDSSOLFD
tion here also prove to show forms of discrimination for speaker status.
)LUVWWKLVVWXG\XWLOL]HV6DGNHUDQG6DGNHU·VLGHDRIIUDJPHQWDWLRQ
7KHÀQGLQJVVKRZWKDWIUDJPHQWDWLRQ³QRQQDWLYHDQGQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQWHUDFWLQJ
only among themselves—is occurring in one of the texts. In 7RS1RWFK, all of
WKHPRGHOGLDORJXHVRFFXUEHWZHHQDOOQDWLYHVSHDNHUVRUDOOQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUV
1RWRQHFRQYHUVDWLRQVKRZVDQRQQDWLYHDQGQDWLYHVSHDNHULQWHUDFWLQJZLWKRQH
another. Interchange 2 barely avoids this by including two conversations that
FRQWDLQDQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUZLWKWKHRWKHUFRQYHUVDWLRQVIHDWXULQJRQO\QDWLYH
VSHDNHUV7KHVHÀQGLQJVSURYHWKDWMXVWEHFDXVHWKHVHOHFWHGPDWHULDOVFRQWDLQQRQ
native speakers does not necessarily mean they are being entirely inclusive. The
QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVFRXOGEHVHJUHJDWHGIURPQDWLYHVSHDNHUVRUWKH\FRXOGEHMXVW
there to make the text appear to address the issue of such speakers but failing to
truly present them using English in a realistic way. The results should serve as a
ZDUQLQJWR()/HGXFDWRUVWRORRNFDUHIXOO\DWKRZQDWLYHDQGQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUV
are interacting in the dialogues of any text they are currently using or considering
for their classes.
6HFRQGO\WKLVVWXG\XWLOL]HV3RXORX·VLGHDRIVRFLDOUROHV)RUWKLV
WKHDQDO\VLVGLYLGHVFKDUDFWHUVLQWRH[SHUWRFFXSDWLRQDODQGQRQH[SHUWSHUVRQDO
relationship) roles. Once again bias is found in three of the four textbooks. Only
3HUVRQWR3HUVRQVKRZVQRQQDWLYHDQGQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQERWKH[SHUWDQGQRQ
expert roles. :RUOG/LQN and Interchange 2IDLOWRVKRZDQ\QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUV
in expert roles while 7RS1RWFK fails to show native speakers in any such roles.
7KHODFNRIQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVXVLQJ(QJOLVKLQDQRFFXSDWLRQDOUROHLQVRPH
RIWKHWH[WVLVTXLWHSUREOHPDWLFZKHQWKHPDMRULW\RI()/VWXGHQWVDUHVWXG\LQJ
(QJOLVKIRUIXWXUHMREUHTXLUHPHQWVLQWKHLUFRXQWU\7KHVHERRNVVXJJHVWWKDWQRQ
native speakers only use English for personal relations but not for business. The
WH[WVKDYHDUHVSRQVLELOLW\WRVKRZQRQQDWLYHDVZHOODVQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQERWK
occupational and personal relationship roles, so students are exposed to realistic
6KHUPDQ

LGHDVRIKRZ(QJOLVKLVXVHG2QFHDJDLQWKHUHVXOWVVXJJHVW()/WHDFKHUVQHHG
WRDQDO\]HZKLFKUROHVQDWLYHDQGQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVDUHJLYHQLQWKHGLDORJXHV
of any text they are currently using or considering for their classes.
Unfortunately, the results of this study have shown that the introduction of
WKHQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHULQWR()/WH[WERRNVKDVQRWEHHQGRQHLQDIDLUDQGXQELDVHG
way. In fact, they suggest that just as many content studies were done for gender
over the years to instigate much needed change in that area that many more studies
for speaker status should be done as well to push for more equitable treatment of
QRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQFXUUHQWDQGIXWXUHSXEOLVKHGPDWHULDOV)XUWKHUPRUHMXVW
DV6XQGHUODQG&RZOH\5DKLP/HRQW]DNRX 6KDWWXFNDUJXHIRUDVKLIW
IURPDQDO\]LQJWH[WVLQDVWDWLFZD\WRDQDO\]LQJWKHPLQDFWLRQLQDFODVVURRP
setting, a future area of study would include studying the use of materials contain
LQJQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVLQVFKRROV7KHVHVWXGLHVVKRXOGIRFXVQRWRQO\RQKRZ
students respond to such texts and the bias in them but also how both native and
QRQQDWLYHWHDFKHUVWUHDWWKHVHWH[WV2QHRWKHUDUHDRIPXFKQHHGHGVWXG\WKDW
is not addressed in this research is English varieties and international English in
PDWHULDOVVHH$PPRQDQG0RGLDQR2IWKHIRXUWH[WERRNVDQDO\]HG
both 3HUVRQWR3HUVRQ and Interchange 2 clearly state that they are written in
American English while :RUOG/LQN and 7RS1RWFK both say they are presenting
English as an international language. However, in reality they also appear to be in
$PHULFDQ(QJOLVK0RUHRYHUDOWKRXJKQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVDUHXVHGRQWKHDXGLR
recordings of three of the texts, none of them feature other varieties of English in
XVHVXFKDV,QGLDQ(QJOLVKRU6LQJDSRUHDQ(QJOLVK7KXVWKHQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUV
DUHVSHDNLQJDVWDQGDUGYDULHW\$PHULFDQ(QJOLVKZLWKDQRQQDWLYHDFFHQWZLWKRXW
including any particular vocabulary or grammar structures representing a possible
YDULHW\RI(QJOLVKVSRNHQLQWKHLUFRXQWU\$VZLWKWKHDSSHDUDQFHRIWKHQRQQDWLYH
speaker, surely the appearance of other varieties in materials will need to be studied
both outside and inside the classroom. Only with such studies can educators be
sure that they are empowering their students with a sense of ownership of English.

REFERENCES

$OSWHNLQ&7RZDUGVLQWHUFXOWXUDOFRPPXQLFDWLYHFRPSHWHQFHLQ(/7(/7

-RXUQDO, 56
$PLQ15DFHDQGWKHLGHQWLW\RIWKHQRQQDWLYH(6/WHDFKHU7(62/4XDUWHUO\,

$PPRQ87RZDUGVIDLUQHVVLQLQWHUQDWLRQDO(QJOLVK/LQJXLVWLFULJKWVRIQRQ
native speakers? In R. Phillipson (Ed.), 5LJKWVWRODQJXDJHHTXLW\SRZHUDQGHGXFD-
tionSS/RQGRQ/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
$UYD9 0HGJ\HV31DWLYHDQGQRQQDWLYHWHDFKHUVLQWKHFODVVURRP6\VWHP,

$XHUEDFK(57KHSROLWLFVRIWKH(6/FODVVURRP,VVXHVRISRZHULQSHGDJRJL
cal choices. In T.W. Tollefson (Ed.), 3RZHUDQGLQHTXDOLW\LQODQJXDJHHGXFDWLRQ.
SS1HZ<RUN&DPEULGJH83
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

%UXWW*ULIÁHU- 6DPLP\..7UDQVFHQGLQJWKHQDWLYHQHVVSDUDGLJPWorld

Englishes, 20
&DQDJDUDMDK$6,QWHUURJDWLQJWKH¶QDWLYHVSHDNHUIDOODF\·1RQOLQJXLVWLF
URRWVQRQSHGDJRJLFDOUHVXOWV,Q*%UDLQH(GNon-native Educators in English
/DQJXDJH7HDFKLQJSS0DKZDK1HZ-HUVH\(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
&ROHEURRN57KH¶OLWHUDWXUHRI(/7·²DTXHVWLRQRIOLQJXLVWLFDQGFXOWXUDO
imperialism? In J. E. James (Ed.), 7KHODQJXDJHFXOWXUHFRQQHFWLRQSS
SEAMOEO Regional Language Centre.
&RRN9*RLQJEH\RQGWKHQDWLYHVSHDNHULQODQJXDJHWHDFKLQJ7(62/4XDU-
terly, 33
'DYLHV$7KHQDWLYHVSHDNHU0\WKDQGUHDOLW\. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
*UDGGRO'7KHIXWXUHRI(QJOLVK"London: British Council.
*XSWD$)5HDOLVPDQGLPDJLQDWLRQLQWKHWHDFKLQJRI(QJOLVKWorld Eng-
lishes, 20
+DOO6>@(QFRGLQJGHFRGLQJ,Q&HQWUHIRUFRQWHPSRUDU\FXOWXUDOVWXGLHV
(Ed.), &XOWXUHPHGLDODQJXDJH:RUNLQJSDSHUVLQFXOWXUDOVWXGLHV. (pp.
/RQGRQ+XWFKLQVRQ
+LJJLQV&¶2ZQHUVKLSRI(QJOLVKLQWKHRXWHUFLUFOH$QDOWHUQDWLYHWRWKH16
NNS dichotomy. 7(62/4XDUWHUO\, 
-RQHV0$.LWHWX& 6XQGHUODQG-'LVFRXUVHUROHVJHQGHUDQGODQJXDJH
textbook dialogues: Who learns what from John and Sally? Gender and Education,

.DFKUX%%6WDQGDUGVFRGLÀFDWLRQDQGVRFLROLQJXLVWLFUHDOLVPWKH(QJOLVK
language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk and H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the
ZRUOG7HDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJWKHODQJXDJHDQGOLWHUDWXUHVSS&DPEULGJH
Cambridge UP.
.UDPVFK&7KHSULYLOHJHRIWKHQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHU3OHQDU\DGGUHVVDWWKH$Q
nual TESOL Convention. April. Long Beach, California.
/HVLNLQ-'HWHUPLQLQJVRFLDOSURPLQHQFHDPHWKRGRORJ\IRUXQFRYHULQJJHQGHU
bias in ESL textbooks. In D. R. Hall & A. Hewings (Eds.), Innovation in English
language teachingSS2[RQ5RXWOHGJH
0DWVXGD$,QFRUSRUDWLQJZRUOG(QJOLVKHVLQWHDFKLQJ(QJOLVKDVDQLQWHUQD
tional language. 7(62/4XDUWHUO\, 
0HGJ\HV31DWLYHRUQRQQDWLYH:KR·VZRUWKPRUH"(/7-RXUQDO, 46

0RGLDQR0/LQJXLVWLFLPSHULDOLVPFXOWXUDOLQWHJULW\DQG(,/(/7-RXUQDO,
55
1GXUD((6/DQGFXOWXUDOELDV$QDQDO\VLVRIHOHPHQWDU\WKURXJKKLJKVFKRRO
textbooks in the western United States of America. Language, Culture and Curricu-
lum, 
3DLNHGD\707KHQDWLYHVSHDNHULVGHDG Toronto and New York: PPI.
3KLOOLSVRQ5(/77KHQDWLYHVSHDNHU·VEXUGHQ"(/7-RXUQDO, 46
3RUUHFD./6H[LVPLQFXUUHQW(6/WH[WERRNV7(62/4XDUWHUO\ 

3RXORX66H[LVPLQWKHGLVFRXUVHUROHVRIWH[WERRNGLDORJXHVLanguage Learn-
LQJ-RXUQDO, 
6KHUPDQ

5DMDJRSDODQ./LQJXLVWLFVDQGWKHP\WKRIQDWLYLW\&RPPHQWVRQWKHFRQWUR

YHUV\RYHU¶QHZQRQQDWLYH(QJOLVKHV·-RXUQDORI3UDJPDWLFV, 
5DMDJRSDODQ.2I()/WHDFKHUVFRQVFLHQFHDQGFRZDUGLFH(/7-RXUQDO

5DMDJRSDODQ.7KHFRQFHSWRI¶:RUOG(QJOLVK·DQGLWVLPSOLFDWLRQVIRU(/7
(/7-RXUQDO, 
5LFKDUGV-&%\FLQD' :LVQLHZVND,3HUVRQWR3HUVRQrd ed. New
York: Oxford UP.
5LFKDUGV-&+XOO- 3URFWRU6Interchange 2rd ed. New York: Cam
bridge UP.
5REHUWV&/DQJXDJHDFTXLVLWLRQRUODQJXDJHVRFLDOLVDWLRQLQDQGWKURXJKGLV
course? In C. N. Candlin & N. Mercer (Eds.), English language teaching in its social
FRQWH[WSS/RQGRQ5RXWOHGJH
6DGNHU' 6DGNHU0*HQGHUELDVIURPFRORQLDO$PHULFDWRWRGD\·VFODVV
rooms. In J. A. Banks and C. A. M. Banks, (Eds.), 0XOWLFXOWXUDO(GXFDWLRQ,VVXHV
DQG3HUVSHFWLYHVthHGSS1HZ<RUN-RKQ:LOH\ 6RQV
6DVORZ- $VFKHU$7RSQRWFK. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
6OHHWHU&( *UDQW&$5DFHFODVVJHQGHUDQGGLVDELOLW\LQFXUUHQWWH[W
ERRNV,Q0:$SSOH /.&KULVWLDQ6PLWK(GV7KHSROLWLFVRIWKHWH[WERRN.
SS1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH
6WHPSOHVNL60RUJDQ-5 'RXJODV1:RUOGOLQN. Singapore: Thomson
Heinle.
6XQGHUODQG-1HZXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRIJHQGHUDQGODQJXDJHFODVVURRPUHVHDUFK
Texts, teacher talk and student talk. /DQJXDJH7HDFKLQJ5HVHDUFK
6XQGHUODQG-&RZOH\05DKLP)$/HRQW]DNRX& 6KDWWXFN-)URP
ELDV´LQWKHWH[WµWR´WHDFKHUWDONDURXQGDWH[Wµ$QH[SORUDWLRQRIWHDFKHUGLVFRXUVH
and gendered foreign language textbook texts. Linguistics and Education, 

7DQJ&7KHLGHQWLW\RIWKHQRQQDWLYH(6/WHDFKHU7(62/4XDUWHUO\, 

:LGGRZVRQ+*(/7DQG(/WHDFKHUV0DWWHUVULVLQJ(/7-RXUQDO, 46

:LGGRZVRQ+*7KHRZQHUVKLSRI(QJOLVK7(62/4XDUWHUO\, 
<DQR<:RUOG(QJOLVKHVLQDQGEH\RQGWorld Englishes, 20
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

APPENDIX 1

Sadker and Sadkers’ (2001) framework

Key for this framework: 1 QDWLYH11 QRQQDWLYH$PELJXRXV

Person to Person 2:
Note: One conversation is unusable, as the speaker status of at least one char
DFWHUFDQQRWEHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHFULWHULDXVHG7KXVRQO\FRQYHUVDWLRQVDUH
LQFOXGHGLQWKHUHVXOWV7KLVWH[WLQFOXGHVQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVZKRKDYH(QJOLVK
ÀUVWQDPHV7KXVWKHUHVHDUFKHUXVHVWKHLUODVWQDPHLIJLYHQDQGFULWHULD
for these characters. Also, majority rule is used for this textbook, so when there
LVFRQÁLFWLQJLQIRUPDWLRQWKHVLGHWKDWKDVPRUHVXSSRUWLVFKRVHQ
Unit 1: Conversation 1:3HWH:LOVRQ 1/L]:X 11WRWDO VSHDNHUV
Conversation 2:/XLV1/L]:X 11(XQMRR 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit
2: Conversation 1:6DQG\ 110DUL 11WRWDO VSHDNHUV
Note%RWK6DQG\DQG0DULDUH(QJOLVKQDPHV7KHSLFWXUHLVRI$VLDQZRP
en. The speakers on the CD have clear Asian accents. Majority rules NN. Con-
versation 2:&OHUN 10DUL 11:RPDQ 10DQ $PELJXRXVWRWDO 
speakers (unusable). Note: The man has no name. The picture shows him to be
a person of color. He has a distinctive Australian accent on the CD. Even though
there are people of color in Australia without a clear majority of evidence for na
WLYHRUQRQQDWLYHDMXVWLÀDEOHFODVVLÀFDWLRQFDQQRWEHPDGHUnit 3: Conversa-
tion 1:-R 1+RQJDQ/L 110UV.LQJ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: Jo is
an English name. The picture shows her as a person of color. Her accent on the
CD is clearly American. Majority rules N. Conversation 2: Voice = N, Woman
1+RQJDQ/L 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: Voice (on an answering
machine) and woman are given no names. The picture shows a person of color.
+HUDFFHQWRQWKH&'LVFOHDUO\$PHULFDQ7KHFDOOHU+RQJDQJLYHVKLVDGGUHVV
as Chicago and is calling the woman at an English Language Institute so he can
WDNHDFODVV7KHDQVZHULQJPDFKLQHSLFNVXSDWÀUVW7KXVWKHORFDWLRQVXJJHVWV
U.S. Majority rules N for voice and woman. Unit 4: Conversation 1: Jane = N,
3DW 1-LP 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: Jane is an English name. Her pic
ture shows her to be Asian. Her accent is American. Majority rules N. (This is
one of two cases in this textbook in which the picture is of an Asian person and
the voice on the CD is native. All of the other Asian pictures match Asian ac
cents on the CD). Jim is an English name. His picture is Asian. He has an Asian
accent on the CD. Majority rules NN. Conversation 2: Jim = NN, Tamara =
17RWDO VSHDNHUVNote: Jim is an English name. His picture is Asian. He
has an Asian accent on the CD. Majority rules NN. Unit 5: Conversation 1:
<RXQJKHH 11-XQJVRR 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVConversation 2:<RXQJ
KHH 11<XPL 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 6: Conversation 1:/L:HL 
11-D\ 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: Jay is an English name. His picture is
Asian. His accent on the CD is also Asian. Majority rules NN. Conversation 2:
6KHUPDQ

3KDUPDFLVW 1-D\ 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: Jay is an English name. His

picture is Asian. His accent on the CD is also Asian. Majority rules NN. Unit
7: Conversation 1:'HQLVH 17HUXPL 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVConversa-
tion 2:'HQLVH 17HUXPL 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 8: Conversation 1:
$JHQW 11-XOLH 11/LVD 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: Julie and Lisa
are English names. Julie and Lisa are shown to be Asian in the picture. Julie
and Lisa have Asian accents on the CD. Majority rules NN. Conversation 2:
-XOLH 11&OHUN 11/LVD 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: The picture of the
clerk is Asian. The clerk has an American accent on the CD. The conversation
takes place in a hotel in Tioman (this is known from conversation 1 in which the
women book a hotel in Tioman). Majority rules NN. (This is one of two cases
in this textbook in which the picture is of an Asian person and the voice on the
CD is native. All of the other Asian pictures match Asian accents on the CD).
Julie and Lisa are English names. Julie and Lisa are shown to be Asian in the
picture. Julie and Lisa have Asian accents on the CD. Majority rules NN. Unit
9: Conversation 1:6DQJZRR 11*XLGH 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVCon-
versation 2:6DQJZRR 11*XLGH 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: The guide
has no name. The guide’s picture is Caucasian. She has an American accent on
the CD. The location is Hong Kong. Majority rules N. Unit 10: Conversation
1:0DULNR 11%RE 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVConversation 2: Mariko = NN,
5RVD 1WRWDOVSHDNHUVUnit 11: Conversation 1: Max = N, Shigeo = NN;
WRWDO VSHDNHUVConversation 2:6KLJHR 110D[ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV
Unit 12: Conversation 1:$QJLH 1-RKQ 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: John
is an English name. John is shown to be Asian in the picture. John has an Asian
accent on the CD. Majority rules NN. Conversation 2: Angie = N; John = NN;
WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: John is an English name. John is shown to be Asian in
the picture. John has an Asian accent on the CD. Majority rules NN.

World Link 2:
Note: Three conversations are unusable, as the speaker status of at least one
FKDUDFWHUFDQQRWEHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHFULWHULDXVHG7KXVRQO\FRQYHUVD
tions are included in the results. Because the pictures do not always show the
characters in the conversations, the tape recording of the dialogues features all
native speakers and only one conversation has a reference to a country, criteria
DQGDUHQRWDSSOLFDEOHKHUH7KHUHIRUHRQO\FULWHULRQLVXVHGIRUWKLV
WH[W6RPHQDPHVVXFKDV2PDU0DULDDQG0LQDDUHXQFODVVLÀDEOHDVGHÀQLWHO\
QDWLYHRUQRQQDWLYHVRWKHVHFRQYHUVDWLRQVDUHQRWXVHGLQWKHDQDO\VLV
Unit 1: Conversation 1: Maria = Ambiguous, Junko = NN, Ricardo = NN;
WRWDO VSHDNHUV(unusable). Conversation 2: Young Il = NN, Illeana = NN,
7DPP\ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 2: Conversation 1: Jill = N, Jose’ = NN;
WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 3: Conversation 1:'HWHFWLYH6W\H 1'HWHFWLYH)U\H
1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 4: Conversation 1: Moderator = N, Mr. Taylor =
10V0DULQ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV Unit 5: Conversation 1:-LP 1)ULGD
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

11:RPDQ 10DQ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 6: Conversation 1: Hans

117RP 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 7: Conversation 1: Omar = Ambigu
RXV/DQH 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV(unusable). Unit 8: Conversation 1: Chris =
1=RUD 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 9: Conversation 1: Juan = NN, Greg =
1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 10: Conversation 1: Receptionist = N, Yuka = NN:
WRWDO VSHDNHUV
Unit 11: Conversation 1:/HD 16WHYH 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 12:
Conversation 1:(VWKHU 10LQD $PELJXRXVWRWDO VSHDNHUV(unusable).

Top Notch 2:
Note: In this textbook the researcher discovers that the directions of the 6RXQG
BitesVHFWLRQDOVRLPSO\LIWKHFRQYHUVDWLRQLVEHWZHHQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVRUQRQ
QDWLYHVSHDNHUV$OORIWKHGLDORJXHVWKDWLQYROYHQDWLYHVSHDNHUVKDYHWKH
GLUHFWLRQV´5HDGDORQJVLOHQWO\DV\RXOLVWHQWRDQDWXUDOFRQYHUVDWLRQµ$OORI
WKHGLDORJXHVWKDWKDYHQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUVKDYHWKHGLUHFWLRQV´5HDGDORQJ
silently as you listen to a conversation in a (hotel/car rental agency/meeting) in
6SDLQ*HUPDQ\%UD]LOµ7KHXVHRInatural, or not, seems to show which con
YHUVDWLRQVDUHEHWZHHQQDWLYHVSHDNHUDQGZKLFKDUHQRWEH\RQGWKHFULWHULD
XWLOL]HG
Unit 1: Conversation 1:(G 1.HLWK 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 2: Con-
versation 1:/LVD 1'DQ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 3: Conversation 1:
*XHVW 11&OHUN 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: The picture of the Guest is
an Asian woman. She has an Asian accent on the CD. The conversation takes
SODFHLQ6SDLQ7KXVVKHLVLGHQWLÀHGDVDQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHU7KHSLFWXUHRI
the clerk appears to be a mixture of Caucasian and Hispanic. He has a Spanish
DFFHQWRQWKH&'7KHFRQYHUVDWLRQWDNHVSODFHLQ6SDLQ7KXVKHLVLGHQWLÀHG
DVDQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUUnit 4: Conversation 1: Renter = NN, Agent = NN;
WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: The Renter’s name is Koji Oinuma. The picture of
the Renter is an Asian man. He has an Asian accent on the CD. The conversa
WLRQWDNHVSODFHLQ*HUPDQ\7KXVKHLVLGHQWLÀHGDVDQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHU7KH
picture of the Agent is a Caucasian woman. She has a German accent on the CD.
7KHFRQYHUVDWLRQWDNHVSODFHLQ*HUPDQ\7KXVVKHLVLGHQWLÀHGDVDQRQQDWLYH
speaker. Unit 5: Conversation 1:0HLNR 111RRU 11WRWDO VSHDNHUV
Unit 6: Conversation 1:7HUUL 1,ULV 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 7: Con-
versation 1:7UDF\ 16DUDK 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 8: Conversation 1:
-RH 1(PPD 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 9: Conversation 1:URQ5RQ
1GSLNH'HE 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: This is an instant message con
YHUVDWLRQVRWKHVFUHHQQDPHVDUHJLYHQDVURQDQGGSLNHEXWERWK´VSHDNHUVµ
identify themselves in the conversation as Ron and Deb. Unit 10: Conversation
1:0DWW 13DXO 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV
6KHUPDQ

Interchange 2:
Note: In this textbook, the conversations are accompanied by cartoon drawings.
7KXVFULWHULDDQGDUHXVHGIRUFODVVLÀFDWLRQRIWKHVSHDNHUV
Unit 1: Conversation 1:7HG 1$QD 11WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 2: Con-
versation 1:(ULFD 1&OHUN 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV Unit 3: Conversation 1:
%UDLQ 17HUU\ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV Unit 4: Conversation 1: Steve = N,
.DWK\ 1:DLWHU 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 5: Conversation 1: Julia = N,
1DQF\ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV Unit 6: Conversation 1:0U)LHOG 1-DVRQ 
10UV)LHOG 1/LVD 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 7: Conversation 1: Jenny
15LFKDUG 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 8: Conversation 1: Jill = N, Emiko
11WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 9: Conversation 1: Tanya = N, Matt = N; total
VSHDNHUVUnit 10: Conversation 1:'DQ 1%UDG 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV
Unit 11: Conversation 1:.HOO\ 1-RKQ 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 12:
Conversation 1:3HWH 1*LQD 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 13: Conversa-
tion 1:5RJHU 1&DURO 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 14: Conversation 1: Ron
1(PLO\ 13HWHU 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVNote: The three native speakers
WDONDERXWDQRQQDWLYHVSHDNHUQDPHG5DMIURP,QGLDUnit 15: Conversation
1:3KLO 13DW 1WRWDO VSHDNHUVUnit 16: Conversation 1: Albert = N,
'DQLHO 1WRWDO VSHDNHUV
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

APPENDIX 2

Poulou’s (1997) framework

Key for this framework10 QDWLYHPDOH1) QDWLYHIHPDOH110 QRQ
QDWLYHPDOH11) QRQQDWLYHIHPDOH$)$0 $PELJXRXVVSHDNHUVWDWXV
IHPDOHPDOH$$ DPELJXRXVSHUVRQQRVSHDNHURUJHQGHUFODVVLÀFDWLRQSRVVL
EOH( H[SHUWRFFXSDWLRQDOUROH1( QRQH[SHUWSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROH

Person to Person 2:
Unit 1: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Pete Wilson
10FODVVPDWH1(/L]:X11)FODVVPDWH1(Note: classmate is used
ZKHQFKDUDFWHUVVWDWHWKH\KDYHPHWLQFODVVRUDUHVHHQVRFLDOL]LQJLQDFODVV
room setting or discussing school issues, whereas friend is used when characters
VWDWHWKH\DUHIULHQGVRUDUHVHHQVRFLDOL]LQJRXWVLGHRIDFODVVURRPVHWWLQJRU
discussing personal issues. Conversation 2: Occupational/personal relation
VKLSUROHV/XLV10FODVVPDWH1(/L]:X11)FODVVPDWH1((XQMRR
11)IULHQG1(Unit 2: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relation
VKLSUROHV6DQG\11)IULHQG1(0DUL11)IULHQG1(Conversation 2:
Occupational/personal relationship roles: Clerk1 (NM) (information) clerk (E),
0DUL11)FXVWRPHU1(:RPDQ1)FXVWRPHU1(0DQ$0FXVWRPHU
(NE) (unusable AM data). Note: Clerk 1 and Woman1 are being used here as
there are more than one clerk and woman characters in the textbook, but these
characters are not meant to be the same clerk or woman. Unit 3: Conversation
1:2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV-R1)IULHQG1(+RQJDQ/L
110IULHQG1(0UV.LQJ1)IULHQG·VPRWKHU1(Conversation 2: Oc
FXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV9RLFH1)VHFUHWDU\(:RPDQ1)
VHFUHWDU\(+RQJDQ/L110IXWXUHVWXGHQW1(Unit 4: Conversation 1:
2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV-DQH1)FODVVPDWH1(3DW10
classmate (NE), Jim (NNM) classmate (NE). Conversation 2: Occupational/
SHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV-LP110IULHQG1(7DPDUD1)IULHQG1().
Unit 5: Conversation 1: 2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV<RXQJKHH
11)FODVVPDWH1(-XQJVRR110FODVVPDWH1(Conversation 2 Oc
FXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV<RXQJKHH11)IULHQG1(<XPL
11)IULHQG1(Unit 6: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship
UROHV/L:HL11)FODVVPDWH1(-D\110FODVVPDWH1(
6KHUPDQ

Conversation 2:2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV3KDUPDFLVW1)
pharmacist (E), Jay (NNM) customer (NE). Unit 7: Conversation 1: Occu
SDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV'HQLVH1)IULHQG1(7HUXPL11)
friend (NE). Conversation 2: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Denise
1)IULHQG1(7HUXPL11)IULHQG1(Unit 8: Conversation 1: Occupa
WLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV$JHQW110WUDYHODJHQW(-XOLH11)
FXVWRPHU1(/LVD11)FXVWRPHU1(Conversation 2: Occupational/per
VRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV-XOLH11)FXVWRPHU1(&OHUN110KRWHOFOHUN
(/LVD11)FXVWRPHU1(Unit 9: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal
UHODWLRQVKLSUROHV6DQJZRR110WRXULVW1(*XLGH11)JXLGH(
Conversation 2:2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV6DQJZRR110
WRXULVW1(*XLGH1)JXLGH(Unit 10: Conversation 1: Occupational/
SHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV0DULNR11)IULHQG1(%RE10IULHQG1(
Conversation 2: 2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV0DULNR11)FODVV
PDWH1(5RVD1)FODVVPDWH1(Unit 11: Conversation 1: Occupational/
personal relationship roles: Max (NM) friend (NE), Shigeo (NNM) friend (NE).
Conversation 2: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Max (NM) friend
(NE), Shigeo (NNM) friend (NE). Unit 12: Conversation 1: Occupational/
SHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV$QJLH1)IULHQG1(-RKQ110IULHQG1(
Conversation 2:2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV$QJLH1)IULHQG
(NE), John (NNM) friend (NE).

World Link 2:
Unit 1: Conversation 1: 2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV0DULD$)
IULHQG1(-XQNR11)IULHQG1(5LFDUGR110FODVVPDWH1((unus-
able AF data). Note: classmate is used when characters state they have met in
FODVVRUDUHVHHQVRFLDOL]LQJLQDFODVVURRPVHWWLQJRUGLVFXVVLQJVFKRROLVVXHV
whereas friend is used when characters state they are friends or are seen social
L]LQJRXWVLGHRIDFODVVURRPVHWWLQJRUGLVFXVVLQJSHUVRQDOLVVXHVConversa-
tion 2: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Yong Il (NNM) acquaintance
1(,OOHDQD11)DFTXDLQWDQFH1(7DPP\1)DFTXDLQWDQFH1(Note:
even though Yong Il and Tammy say they are colleagues, the context of this
FRQYHUVDWLRQLVÀUVWLQWURGXFWLRQVZLWK,OOHDQDVRDOOWKHFKDUDFWHUVDUHFODVVLÀHG
as acquaintances. Unit 2: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship
UROHV-LOO1)SDUWQHU1(-RVH·110SDUWQHU1(Note: the characters
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

are labeled as partner as it is not clear if they are romantically involved or just
friends but their relationship is social in nature. Unit 3: Conversation 1: Occu
pational/personal relationship roles: Detective Stye (NM) detective (E), Detec
WLYH)U\H1)GHWHFWLYH(Unit 4: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal
relationship roles: Moderator (NA) moderator (E), Mr. Taylor (NM) politician
(0V0DULQ1)SROLWLFLDQ((unusable NA data). Unit 5: Conversation
1:2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV-LP10FXVWRPHU1()ULGD
11)FXVWRPHU1(:RPDQ1)FXVWRPHU1(0DQ10VWRUHFOHUN
(E). Unit 6: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Hans
(NNM) friend (NE), Tom (NM) friend (NE). Unit 7: Conversation 1: Occu
SDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV2PDU$0IULHQG1(/DQH1)IULHQG
(NE) (unusable AM data). Unit 8: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal
UHODWLRQVKLSUROHV&KULV10IULHQG1(=RUD11)IULHQG1(Unit 9:
Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Juan (NNM) friend
(NE), Greg (NM) friend (NE). Unit 10: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal
UHODWLRQVKLSUROHV5HFHSWLRQLVW1)UHFHSWLRQLVW(<XND11)FXVWRPHU
(NE). Unit 11: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Lea
1)GDXJKWHU1(6WHYH10IDWKHU1(Unit 12: Conversation 1: Occu
SDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV(VWKHU1)IULHQG1(0LQD$)IULHQG
(NE) (unusable AF data).

Top Notch 2:
Unit 1: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Ed (NM)
acquaintance (NE), Keith (NM) acquaintance (NE). Unit 2: Conversation 1:
2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV/LVD1)SDUWQHU1('DQ10
partner (NE). Note: the characters are labeled as partner as it is not clear if they
are romantically involved or just friends but their relationship is social in nature.
Unit 3: Conversation 1:2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV*XHVW11)
(hotel) guest (NE), Clerk (NNM) (hotel) clerk (E). Unit 4: Conversation 1: Oc
cupational/personal relationship roles: Renter (NNM) (car) renter (NE), Agent
11)FDUUHQWDODJHQW(Unit 5: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal re
ODWLRQVKLSUROHV0HLNR11)EXVLQHVVZRPDQ(1RRU11)EXVLQHVVZRPDQ
(E). Unit 6: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Terri
1)IULHQG1(,ULV1)IULHQG1(Unit 7: Conversation 1: Occupational/
SHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV7UDF\1)IULHQG1(6DUDK1)IULHQG1(
6KHUPDQ

Unit 8: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Joe (NM)

IULHQG1((PPD1)IULHQG1(Unit 9: Conversation 1: Occupational/
SHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHVURQ5RQ10IULHQG1(GSLNH'HE1)
friend (NE). Unit 10: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles:
Matt (NM) friend (NE), Paul (NM) friend (NE).

Interchange 2:
Unit 1: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Ted (NM)
DFTXDLQWDQFH1($QD11)DFTXDLQWDQFH1(Unit 2: Conversation 1:
2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV(ULFD1)FXVWRPHU1(&OHUN10
(airport information) clerk (E). Unit 3: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal
relationship roles: Brain (NM) friend (NE), Terry (NM) friend (NE). Unit 4:
Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Steve (NM) customer
1(.DWK\1)FXVWRPHU1(:DLWHU10ZDLWHU(Unit 5: Conversa-
tion 1:2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV-XOLD1)IULHQG1(1DQF\
1)IULHQG1(Unit 6: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relation
VKLSUROHV0U)LHOG10IDWKHU1(-DVRQ10VRQ1(0UV)LHOG1)
PRWKHU1(/LVD1)GDXJKWHU1(Unit 7: Conversation 1: Occupational/
SHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV-HQQ\1)IULHQG1(5LFKDUG10IULHQG1(
Unit 8: Conversation 1:2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV-LOO1)
IULHQG1((PLNR11)IULHQG1(Unit 9: Conversation 1: Occupational/
SHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV7DQ\D1)IULHQG1(0DWW10IULHQG1(
Unit 10: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Dan (NM)
friend (NE), Brad (NM) friend (NE). Unit 11: Conversation 1: Occupational/
SHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV.HOO\1)KDLUGUHVVHU(-RKQ10FXVWRPHU
(NE). Unit 12: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Pete
10IULHQG1(*LQD1)IULHQG1(Unit 13: Conversation 1: Occupa
WLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV5RJHU10SDUWQHU1(&DURO1)SDUWQHU
(NE). Note: the characters are labeled as partner as it is not clear if they are ro
mantically involved or just friends but their relationship is social in nature. Unit
14: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Ron (NM) friend
1((PLO\1)IULHQG1(3HWHU10IULHQG1(Unit 15: Conversation
1: 2FFXSDWLRQDOSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSUROHV3KLO10SDUWQHU1(3DW1)
partner (NE). Note: the characters are labeled as partner as it is not clear if they
 8QFRYHULQJ&XOWXUDO%LDVLQ()/7H[WERRNV

are romantically involved or just friends but their relationship is social in nature.
Unit 16: Conversation 1: Occupational/personal relationship roles: Albert
(NM) friend (NE), Daniel (NM) friend (NE).

John Eric Sherman joined the faculty of the Department of English Language and
/LWHUDWXUHRI+RQJLN8QLYHUVLW\LQ6HRXO.RUHDLQZKHUHKHWHDFKHVFRXUVHVLQ
conversation, composition and American Studies. He has previously taught at the Korean
Military Academy and Indiana State University. His areas of research interest have
focused on materials development, bias in materials, language variety and intercultural
FRPPXQLFDWLRQ+HVHUYHGDVDQDFDGHPLFDGYLVHUIRU6RXQGV*UHDWOHYHOV,PSDFW
&RQYHUVDWLRQOHYHODQG(QJOLVK)LUVWKDQGOHYHO+LVZRUNKDVDSSHDUHGLQ,QGLDQD
(QJOLVKZLWKDQXSFRPLQJDUWLFOHWREHSXEOLVKHGLQ'HFHPEHULQ5(/&-RXUQDO