By Marek Tuliszka D.Sc.

Department of Biophysics
Poznań University of Medical Sciences
!
 CHEMICAL WORK: Secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl) by the
stomach and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
by the pancreas.

Exo-thermal reaction of H+ with

HCO3 group in the small intestine.

ELECTRICAL WORK: Q
All active cells accumulate certain ions against concentration gradient: they
accumulate electric energy in electric field which exists across cell membranes.

Q
The total energy expenditure of the body per unit time
 carbohydrates fats proteins

Heat of combustion, kJ/gram 17 39 18

ENERGY EQUIVALENT OF OXYGEN

21.2 19.8 18.8
w, kJ per dm3 O2
Litres (dm3) of O2 consumed per one
0.75 2.03 0.97
gram
Litres (dm3) of CO2 produced per one
0.75 1.43 0.78
gram

RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT RQ 1 0.70 0.80

The average energy equivalent of oxygen w for these three sources is 20 kJ per dm3 O2.
BMR IS THE ENERGY NECESSARY FOR MAINTAINING BASIC PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
PER UNIT TIME:

- CARDIAC OUTPUT, BRAIN ACTIVITY, RENAL OUTPUT, RESPIRATORY FUNCTION,

MAINTAINING BODY TEMPERATURE) PER UNIT TIME.

1. The subject is at mental and physical rest - laying

quietly awake
2. The subject is in a room of comfortable
temperature
3. The subject has not eaten for at least 12h to
exclude specific dynamic effect.

BMR depends mainly on the physical characteristics:

 body surface area

 body mass m
 It is affected by:

1. Age: children > adults.

2. Sex: males > females.
3. Muscular (physical) activity.
4. Body temperature.
5. Pregnancy, lactation, menstruation.
6. Ingested food (specific dynamic effect !).
7. Diseases and infections.
8. Mental activity and emotional stress.
BMR is mainly affected by
physical characteristics.

core at
37Cº

BMR
Surface area S correlates
with :
82 W
- body mass m and
- body shape (height h).
BMR = 70×m0.75 = 1694 kcal/day

The Mosteller formula: BMR = 3.4×m0.75 = 82 W

m =70 kg
h = 1.70 m
Kleiber, 1961
S =1.8 m2
  Very hot and dry
environment
 Very cold environment

 Very wet environment

 Dry
 Qreleased Qreleased

Qproduced
Qproduced
IFCORE
THE BODY HAS TO MAINTAIN A CONSTANT TEMPERATURE IT MUST
37 Cº
LOSE HEAT AT THE SAME RATE AS IT IS PRODUCED !!!!

𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑

< >
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
When the amount of heat released to When the amount of heat
the environment is lower than that released to the environment is
produced inside the body, the body greater than that produced the
temperature increases. body temperature decreases.
Conduction

Radiation

outer skin surface

Convection

Evaporation
(25%)

37 C
Partition of heat exchange Feedback Warm blood from
the body core
 CONDUCTION OF HEAT IS THE TRANSFER OF
THERMAL ENERGY FROM ATOM TO ATOM OR
MOLECULE TO MOLECULE. IT IS THE TRANSFER
 - the thermal conductivity, characterizes the OF ENERGY OF RANDOM ATOMIC VIBRATIONS
heat conducting medium AND MOVING ELECTRONS BY THEIR COLLISIONS,
FROM HOTTER TO COOLER PART OF A BODY,
ALONG THE TEMPERATURE GRADIENT LINES.
λ
warmer cooler  THE BODY GAINS OR LOSES HEAT BY THE
area T2 Δx area T1 CONDUCTION ONLY THROUGHOUT DIRECT
CONTACT WITH WARMER OR COOLER
Heat flux SUBSTANCES!

 THE BETTER THE CONTACT THE HIGHER

𝑭𝑶𝑼𝑹𝑰𝑬𝑹 𝑳𝑨𝑾
THE LOSSES.
∆𝑄 𝜟𝑻
= −𝜆  THE CONDUCTION OF HEAT PLAYS
𝑆 ∙ ∆𝑡 𝜟𝒙 SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN CARRYING HEAT
FROM THE CORE OF HUMAN BODY TO
THE SKIN!

Δ𝑄 ∆𝑇
THE HEAT FLUX 𝑆∙Δ𝑡 DEPENDS ON THE MEDIUM (λ), TEMPERATURE GRADIENT AND
∆𝑥
THE SURFACE AREA S AVAILABLE .
Assume that the thickness of the tissue between
the interior of the body is 3 cm and that the
average area through the which conduction can
occur is 1.5 m2.

Calculate the amount of heat conducted from the

core to the shell in unit time (i.e. the power).

Compare it with basal metabolic rate (BMR) equal

to 82 W.

ΔQ ΔT
= - λS
Δt Δx
λtissue = 0.2 W/mK
ΔT
P = - λS
Δx

P = 0.2 W/mK∙ 1.5 m2 ∙ (3K/0.03 m) = 30 W

37% of BMR
Radiation is the heat transfer by electromagnetic waves between
objects that are NOT IN CONTACT !

∆𝑄
= 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 or 𝑃 = 𝜀𝜎𝑆𝑇 4
𝑆 ∙ ∆𝑡
P - total power radiated by a body of surface S,
T - temperature of a body (in absolute scale)
σ - Stefan-Boltzmann constant
 - emissivity of an object ( = 1 for ideal radiator - black body)
OBJECTS (INCLUDING HUMAN BODY) NOT ONLY RADIATE BUT ALSO ABSORB THE
RADIANT (ELECTROMAGNETIC) ENERGY:

𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝜎𝑆 𝑇14 − 𝑇24

W
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝑆 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 = 5,67 × 1.85m2 × 307K 4 − 293K 4 = 159W
m2 K 4

Basal metabolic rate for standard man (30 year, 70 kg, 1.85 m2): 81 W
 CONVECTION IS THE HEAT TRANSFER BY MASS MOTION OF A FLUID SUCH AS AIR OR
WATER WHEN THE HEATED FLUID IS CAUSED TO MOVE AWAY FROM THE SOURCE OF
HEAT, CARRYING ENERGY WITH IT.

∆𝑄
= 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. 𝑇S − 𝑇A
𝑆∆𝑡

𝑃 = 𝐾𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. 𝑆 𝑇S − 𝑇A

Kconv. – a coefficient that depends

upon movement of the air ,
S – the effective surface area,
TS – temperature of the skin,
TA – the temperature of the
convective fluid (air).
 EXAMPLE:
Ts=33ºC Determine the rate of heat lost due to Effective surface area S =1 m2
convection. Air temperature: TA = 25ºC
Skin temperature: TS = 33ºC
P = Kconv.S(TS – TA)

(*) - THE WIND CHILL FACTOR

1º Resting body, no wind

27%

2º Wind speed: 2 m/s

207%
 MECHANISM:
THERMAL ENERGY IS REQUIRED TO TRANSFORM
∆𝑄ev. WATER FROM THE LIQUID TO THE GASEOUS STATE.
= 𝐾ev. pS − 𝑝E
𝑆∆𝑡 THUS WHENEVER WATER VAPORIZES FROM THE
BODY SURFACE, THE HEAT REQUIRED TO DRIVE
𝑃 = 𝐾ev. 𝑆 𝑝S − 𝑝E THE PROCESS IS CONDUCTED FROM THE SKIN -
THEREBY COOLING IT.

pS – partial pressure of water EXAMPLE: Calculate the power necessary to evaporate 600
vapor at the skin surface, g of water (insensible sweating) in 24 hour:
pE – partial pressure of water
vapor in the environment, The amount of thermal energy necessary to change 1kg of
Kev. – proportionality water into water vapour (heat of vaporization) at skin
coefficient. temperature approximately equals 2.4×106 J/kg
J
0,600 kg ∙ 2.4 × 106
𝑃=
kg
= 17 W
21% of BMR
24 h ∙ 3600 s
EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM THE SKIN AND
THE LINING MEMBRANES OF THE RESPIRATORY
TRACT IS ONE OF MAJOR PROCESSES FOR LOSS OF
BODY HEAT AT HIGH TEMPERATURES!
HEAT SOURCES
Heat formation
by metabolism Gain of heat
by radiation
and
conduction

10 20 30 40 VASCULAR
Ambient temperature RESISTANCE
Heat loss by
Skin 8𝜂𝑙
convection
HEAT LOSSES

temperature 𝑅𝑣 =
and
radiation
𝜋𝑟 4
Heat loss
by
evaporation

II
Vasomotoric regulation
III
I Sweating
Range of heat loss and
Increased metabolism
 45 Breakdown in heat-
Nerve malfunction and brain
44 regulating system –
damage
43 tthermoregulation inactive
Thermoregulation
42
substantially disturbed
41
40 Hard exercise, hard work,
39 fever, emotion
Effective thermoregulation
38
35-41C
37
36 Usual range of normal
35
34
33 Thermoregulation
32 substantially disturbed
31
30
Thermoregulation
29
Inactive
28
(From: Human Physiology, Vander, Sherman, Luciano) Affected by:
- diurnal cycle 5:00 am - minimum, 14:00-16:00 maximum
- menstrual cycle
 ANALYSIS OF DATA

Naked person sitting still

Heat transferred from person to surroundings
Comfort Relative air
Latent vapor
temperature speed Convection Radiation Total
(insensible sweating)
(oC) (m/s) (watt) (watt) (g/h) (watt) (watt)
28.8 < 0.1 36 (34%) 39 (40%) 40 27 (26%) 102
30.1 0.3 47 29 40 27 102
30.7 0.5 51 24 40 27 102
31.4 1.0 57(56%) 19 (18%) 40 27 (26%) 102
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/metabolism-clothing-activity-d_117.html
 Watt per Kilocalories per square
ACTIVITY
square meter meter per hour
sleeping 41 35
laying awake 46 40
REST
Sitting upright 58 50
Walking 5 km/h 163 140
housework 163 140
MODERATE ACTIVITY
bicycling 290 250
Skiing 580 500
running 700 600
HEAVY ACTIVITY
SHIVERRING !!! to 290 to 250
 A characteristic of a control system in which
the output response influences the input to
the control system.

input system output

Feedback loop

Negative feedback:
is a type of feedback during which a system
responds so as to reverse the direction of change.
Since this process tends to keep things constant, it
is stabilizing and attempts to maintain
homeostasis.
 SKIN TEMPERATURE
BODY INTERNAL ORGANS TEMPERATURE
INTERIOR BLOOD TEMPERATURE

THERMORECEPTORS OF:
INTERNAL
SKIN HYPOTHALAMUS
ORGANS
HEAT HEAT
PRODUCTION LOSS

EFFECTORS: TBLOOD
VASOMOTORIC
SWEAT
MUSCULAR
METABOLIC

REGULATING REFERENCE
CENTER TBLOOD-T0 TEMPERATURE
COMPARATOR
HYPOTHALAMUS T0 (SET POINT)
(HYPOTHALAMUS)