Ancil PDF

ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT
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Contents
9.0 Ancillary Equipment ............................................................................................................ 4
9.1 Atmospheric Tanks ............................................................................................................... 5

9.1.1 Fundamentals .............................................................................................................. 5
9.1.2 Process and Operation Overview ........................................................................... 6
9.1.3 Equipment and Design ............................................................................................. 6
9.1.3.1 Materials of Construction ............................................................................... 7
9.1.3.2 Options ............................................................................................................... 8
9.1.4 Applications and Design ........................................................................................ 11
9.2 Pumps ................................................................................................................................... 13

9.2.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 13
9.2.1.1 Pump Performance Curve ............................................................................ 14
9.2.1.2 Pump Head ...................................................................................................... 15
9.2.1.3 Cavitation......................................................................................................... 15
9.2.1.4 Net Positive Suction Head Requirement (NPSHR) ................................. 16
9.2.1.5 Efficiency ......................................................................................................... 16
9.2.2 Process and Operation Overview ......................................................................... 18
9.2.2.1 Single-Stage Centrifugal .............................................................................. 19
9.2.2.2 Multi-Stage Centrifugal ................................................................................ 20
9.2.2.3 Submersible .................................................................................................... 21
9.2.3 Equipment Design and Options ........................................................................... 22
9.2.3.1 Casing ............................................................................................................... 23
9.2.3.2 Impeller ............................................................................................................ 23
9.2.3.3 Bearings and Housings ................................................................................. 23
9.2.3.4 Shaft Assembly .............................................................................................. 23
9.2.3.5 Drive Motor ..................................................................................................... 24
9.2.3.6 Mechanical Seal .............................................................................................. 24
9.2.3.7 Baseplate .......................................................................................................... 25
9.2.3.8 Pump Arrangement ....................................................................................... 25
34a_m2_r0 9-1 Ancillary

Equipment
9.2.3.9 Piping ............................................................................................................... 25
9.2.3.10 Valves ................................................................................................................ 26
9.2.3.11 Instrumentation............................................................................................... 26
9.2.3.12 Structural Skid ................................................................................................ 26
9.2.3.13 Paint ................................................................................................................... 26
9.2.4.1 Application ...................................................................................................... 27
9.2.4.2 Design Calculations ...................................................................................... 27
9.2.4.3 Expected Results ............................................................................................ 31
9.3 Chemical Feed Equipment ................................................................................................ 32

9.3.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 32
9.3.2 Process and Operating Overview ......................................................................... 33
9.3.3 Equipment and Design ........................................................................................... 36
9.3.3.1 Metering Pumps ............................................................................................. 36
9.3.3.2 Equipment Options .......................................................................................... 37
9.3.4 Application and Design .......................................................................................... 39
9.3.4.1 Application ...................................................................................................... 39
9.4 Chemical Regeneration ..................................................................................................... 42

9.4.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 42
9.4.3.1 Eductors ........................................................................................................... 45
9.4.3.2 Positive Displacement Pumps ..................................................................... 45
9.4.3.3 Pulsation Dampeners .................................................................................... 46
9.4.3.4 Pressure Relief Valves ................................................................................... 47
9.4.3.5 Centrifugal Pumps ......................................................................................... 47
9.4.3.6 Heat Exchangers and Heaters ...................................................................... 47
9.4.3.7 Piping ............................................................................................................... 48
9.4.3.8 Valves ................................................................................................................ 48
9.4.3.9 Instrumentation .............................................................................................. 49
9.4.3.10 Skid Paint ......................................................................................................... 49
9.4.4 Application and Design .......................................................................................... 50
9.4.4.1 Application ...................................................................................................... 50

table of contents Equipment
9.5 Heat Exchangers .................................................................................................................. 59
9.5.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 59
9.5.2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers ................................................................. 62
9.5.2.2 Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers ............................................................... 63
9.5.2.3 Pressure Drop ................................................................................................. 63
9.5.4.1 Application ...................................................................................................... 67
9.5.4.2 Heat Exchanger Selection ............................................................................. 67
9.6 Hot Water Tanks .................................................................................................................. 75

9.6.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 75
9.6.3.1 Piping ............................................................................................................... 76
9.6.3.2 Immersion Heaters......................................................................................... 77
9.6.3.3 Temperature Blend Valve ............................................................................. 77
9.6.3.4 Valves ................................................................................................................ 77
9.6.3.5 Tank Lining ..................................................................................................... 78
9.6.3.6 Paint .................................................................................................................. 78
9.6.3.7 Instrumentation .............................................................................................. 78
9.7 Rotary Lobe Blowers .......................................................................................................... 81

9.7.1 Fundamentals ............................................................................................................ 81

Module 9
ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT
9.0 Ancillary Equipment
Ancillary equipment includes those pieces of the water treatment system that do not
directly contribute to water purification but are necessary for the successful operation
of the system. The following list gives a brief description of the seven types of
ancillary equipment discussed. The section number for each is also identified to
allow quick reference to the specific equipment section.
Section 9.1, Atmospheric Tanks: Atmospheric tanks are used for the storage of
chemicals or liquids for a specific process. Atmospheric tanks come in various sizes
and configurations to accommodate specific layouts.
Section 9.2, Pumps: Pumps are required to pressurize and move water and some
chemicals. Different types of pumps are available for specific processes and
purposes.
Section 9.3, Chemical Feeders: Chemical feeders are small diaphragm pumps.
These pumps are used where a specific chemical must be added to a process.
Section 9.4, Chemical Regeneration Equipment: Chemical regeneration

equipment is used to provide regeneration chemicals to ion exchange units.
Section 9.5, Heat Exchangers: Heat exchangers are used to heat water to a desired
temperature. Heat exchangers are available as Shell and Tube type, and Plate and
Frame type.
Section 9.6, Hot Water Tank: Hot water tanks are similar to home hot water
heaters, but with a robust design for industrial applications. They are used to heat
water for regeneration uses.
Section 9.7, Rotary Lobe Blowers: Rotary lobe blowers are used to provide air to a
process. They are commonly used to provide air scour to media beds and mixing air
to mixed bed ion exchange units.
To learn more about any of this ancillary equipment, go to the respective section in
this manual.

9.1 Atmospheric Tanks
9.1.1 Fundamentals
Atmospheric tanks are used to store liquids. They must be open to atmospheric
pressure so that air can move into and out of the tank as the liquid level changes.
The cylindrical tanks can
be large or small and can Vertical
be fabricated from carbon Storage Tank
steel, stainless steel,
polyethylene, or fiberglass
reinforced plastic (FRP).
They can also be either Day Tank
horizontal or vertical, and
can come with a number
of accessories depending
on the product being
stored.
Figure 9.1-1 shows a

vertical FRP storage tank,
a horizontal storage tank,
and a small day tank. All
of these tanks have the
same basic function: to
hold a specific volume of a
liquid for process use. The
tanks have an inlet,
usually on the top of the
tank, where the liquid is
introduced into the tank
for storage. When the
stored liquid is needed, it
exits the tank by the
outlet, which is usually
located at the bottom of
the tank. The liquid is
pulled by a pump, or
pushed by gravity, from Horizontal Storage Tank
the tank outlet to the next Figure 9.1-1: Day Tank, Vertical Storage Tank and
usage point. Horizontal Storage Tank

9.1.2 Process and Operation Overview
Any time a process calls for a large amount of a liquid, either water or chemical, a
storage tank is required. Tanks can be used at any point in a process where storage is
needed.
No process operation is involved. The requirements of a storage tank are to receive a

specific process liquid through the inlet, store it, and allow the liquid to be removed
through the outlet when the process calls for it.
Besides an inlet and an outlet, a tank requires a vent/overflow connection. This

connection allows air to be pulled into or pushed out of the tank as the level of liquid
decreases and increases, and permits overflow if too much liquid is sent to the tank.
The drain connection allows the tank to be emptied when maintenance is required.
Care must be taken during operation to ensure that the vent connection is not
blocked. The implosion of accidentally sealed tanks is one of the most common
failures in industry.
9.1.3 Equipment and Design
Depending on the requirements of the application, one of three basic tank

configurations can be selected. All three tank configurations are shown in
Figure 9.1-1, and are described below.
• Day Tanks: Also known as measuring tanks, these are smaller tanks that can be
manufactured from any of the four common materials. Day tanks are normally
used for chemical storage and typically hold a day’s worth (plus or minus an
order of magnitude) of use.
• Vertical Storage Tanks: Used for the bulk storage of chemicals or water. These
tanks are larger than day tanks, which precludes the use of polyethylene for
construction.
• Horizontal Storage Tanks: Used for bulk chemical storage.
Each tank includes a manway for maintenance access. For small day tanks, this may
be a removable top. Tanks are also provided with the necessary process connections,
lifting lugs, and tie-down holes. Several options are available when selecting storage
tanks. The following section is a summary of the components/options to be
considered.

9.1.3.1 Materials of Construction
Polyethylene is acceptable for all chemicals normally used in the water treatment
industry, except sulfuric acid. The heat of dilution generated by adding water
(perhaps accidentally) to sulfuric acid can easily melt a polyethylene tank.
FRP is acceptable for all chemicals normally used in the water treatment industry.
Unlined carbon steel can be used for sodium chloride, sodium hydroxide, and
concentrated sulfuric acid (but only with a desiccant vent). A corrosion allowance
(extra thickness of steel) is normally required to account for eventual degradation of
the steel. Lined steel provides more options (see linings below).
316L stainless steel can be used for water and sodium hydroxide service. Sodium
chloride (salt brine) and hydrochloric acid cause chloride corrosion (except for short
term exposure at very low concentrations). Sulfuric acid corrodes 316L stainless steel
except under very specific circumstances.

9.1.3.2 Options
Many options are available for atmospheric tanks. Specific items are selected based
on the process with which the tanks are to be used. Some of the most common
types of options, piping, valves, dessicant vent, and ladder, are shown in
Figure 9.1-2. These, and others, are summarized below.
Dessicant
Vent
Ladder
Piping
Valve
Figure 9.1-2: Vertical Storage Tank
Piping
Atmospheric tanks are supplied with overflow and discharge piping, as shown in
Figure 9.1-2. Care should be taken to select the proper piping material for the liquid
being stored. See Appendix I for a discussion on piping materials and sizing.
Heaters
Electric heaters are available for metallic tanks that are used for 50% sodium
hydroxide (caustic or caustic soda), to prevent solidification of the tank contents.
Heaters are available with several options.

Valves
The valves required for any given storage application can vary significantly. Inlet and
outlet isolation valves are usually provided so that the tank can be isolated for
maintenance purposes. Figure 9.1-2, on the previous page, shows a vertical storage
tank with the outlet valve labeled.
An automatic service inlet valve may be used for applications that perform batch
filling. A modulating inlet valve is often used to keep a tank full (or at any level
setpoint). Block and bypass isolation valves are usually provided around modulating
valves so that regular service can be performed without closing off the tank inlet.
For small day tanks, a float-type level control valve is sometimes used.
An optional remote filling station is available. The remote filling station facilitates
the safe delivery of chemicals to the storage tank, and is supplied with isolation,
bleed, and automatic fill valves.
Desiccant Vent
For concentrated sulfuric acid service in unlined carbon steel tanks, moisture from
the air must be excluded from the tank. Moisture dilutes the sulfuric acid, and
diluted sulfuric acid is more corrosive to steel than is concentrated acid. Moisture
can be excluded from the tank using a dessicant vent, as shown in Figure 9.1-2. This
involves attaching a container of desiccant to the vent line. This desiccant container
must be separate from the overflow, and the overflow must have a seal.
Fume Trap
A fume trap connection can be installed to direct fumes from the tank outdoors or to
an exhaust system. This prevents fumes from escaping into the room in which the
tank is installed.
Fume Scrubber
A fume scrubber is available to control fumes from hydrochloric acid. It includes a
small tank with a caustic solution and an indicator that shows when to change the
solution. Fumes bubbling up through the solution are neutralized by the caustic
solution.
Insulation Supports
Clips are available to support insulation (provided by site contractors) on the outer
walls of steel storage tanks.

Ladders
A ladder, as shown in Figure 9.1-2, is available to provide access to the top of the
tank.
Service Outlet Strainer

A strainer can be supplied for the service outlet when there is concern about
particulate matter being pulled into the forwarding pumps. This would normally be
used only in cases in which the tank is open to the atmosphere or for brine
saturation service.
Instrumentation
Day tanks are often provided with a level switch. The switch monitors the liquid
level using two sensors, one for high level and one for low liquid level. Level
transmitters provide a continuous reading of fluid level and are almost always
employed on larger tanks. For chemical tanks with heaters, a temperature switch is
available and can be furnished with high-temperature or low-temperature alarm
settings.
Lining
Carbon steel tanks are available with lining systems that suit the specific service.
Epoxy polyamide lining is suitable for water, sodium chloride, and sodium hydroxide
service. A baked phenolic lining is generally used when concentrated sulfuric acid is
stored. A rubber lining can be used for water or chemical service.
Paint
Carbon steel tanks also have several paint options for different services:
• Epoxy polyamide primer and finish - generally for indoor use

• Epoxy polyamide primer and siloxane finish – generally for outdoor use
• Siloxane primer and finish – generally for outdoor coastal or sodium chloride
use
• Glass-filled epoxy Novolac – for chemical service
• Zinc-filled polyamide epoxy primer and Novolac epoxy finish – for chemical
service
• Custom paint systems can also be used

9.1.4 Applications and Design
Selection of an atmospheric tank depends mainly on the process and purpose for
which it is used. Before the materials of construction and other details are decided, it
is necessary to size the tank.
Sizing requires that the useable storage volume of the tank be known. If a day tank
is indicated, the correct size can be selected from the available options. Some
additional height must be added to the dimensions of the tank to allow room at the
bottom of the tank for pump suction and low level indication. An overflow and high
level indication at the top of the tank must also be included. This unusable volume
can easily consume 6 to 12 inches of the tank height.
For large tanks, a reasonable diameter is first selected, then the required height is
calculated using the desired diameter and the required storage volume of the tank.
This assures that the tank provides the required storage volume at the desired
diameter. Again, height must be added for suction and overflow piping. This can
account for 1 to 4 feet of height, depending on the diameters of the pipes used.
The most efficient tank size depends on site constraints (for space and height),
shipping constraints (12- or 14-foot diameter maximum in many places), seismic and
wind criteria (tall tanks are problematic), and manufacturing costs. In general, it is
less expensive to manufacture height than to add diameter to a tank, so smaller
diameter tanks are more economical to produce
Calculating the size of a brine saturator/storage tank (which stores the rock salt and
the brine solution) is more complicated than sizing a typical liquid storage tank.
Softeners require a specific amount of salt per regeneration. This amount is a

function of the quantity of resin and the salt dosage selected to get a certain
hardness leakage. This softener salt is stored as saturated brine in a tank that also
holds the rock salt. The brine sits in the void spaces between the salt pieces. The
tank may also be required to hold enough brine and enough rock salt for more than
one regeneration.

one regeneration.
The required volume can be conservatively calculated as follows:
Assume that all of the brine is stored in the void spaces between the salt pieces.
Brine volume (gallons) =
# of regenerations of brine x pounds of salt per regeneration______

brine density* / salt void ratio (0.35 minimum) x 1.1 (a safety factor)
* Brine density is measured in pounds per gallons of saturated brine (2.48 lb/gal
minimum).
The rock salt volume required to be stored for future regenerations can be calculated
using the following equation:
Salt volume (gal) = # of regenerations of salt x pounds of salt per regeneration

dry salt weight in a gallon (6.7 lb minimum)
The tank volume is the sum of the two volumes just calculated. This is a conservative
estimate, as it does not include the volume of the rock salt in the calculation of
saturated brine volume, nor does it include the saturated brine in the calculation of
rock salt volume.

9.2 Pumps
9.2.1 Fundamentals
Pumps are available in a wide variety of different styles and designs for various
applications. Some of these pumps include diaphragm pumps, piston pumps,
centrifugal pumps, gear pumps, and screw pumps. Each has operating
characteristics that make it useful for a particular pumping function. For most
water treatment applications, the centrifugal pump and its close relatives are
usually the best choices.
A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller arranged to rotate within a casing.

Liquid enters at the center of the impeller by suction or from a low pressure feed.
The liquid is discharged from the impeller at a high velocity by the centrifugal and
axial forces resulting from the spinning impeller. This energy is converted to
pressure in the diffuser area of the casing. Figure 9.2-1 below shows a view of a
typical pump skid with two pumps, motors, and associated suction and discharge
piping and valves.
Optional Discharge
Discharge Piping
Pressure
Regulating
Valve
Suction
Piping
Electric
Motor
Centrifugal Pump
Figure 9.2-1: Pump Skid

9.2.1.1 Pump Performance Curve
Each pump has particular operating characteristics. The relationship between the
flow through the pump and the pressure that the pump generates defines the
pump performance curve. At any given flow, the pressure developed by a
centrifugal pump depends on the style of impeller, the size of the casing, the
diameter of the impeller, and the speed at which it rotates. For a given rotation
speed, impeller style, and casing size, a performance curve can be generated for
each impeller diameter. A typical performance curve is shown below in
Figure 9.2-2. This curve can be used to select an appropriate pump for given
operating conditions. Characteristic curves for power requirements, efficiency, and
Net Positive Suction Head requirement (NPSHR) are usually added to the
performance curve so that a complete picture of pump operation can be obtained.
courtesy of Goulds
Figure 9.2-2: Pump Performance Curve

9.2.1.2 Pump Head
In Figure 9.2-2, from the previous page, the capacity of the pump is represented on
the horizontal axis in gallons per minute (gpm). The pressure rise is on the vertical
axis, measured in feet of head of the pumped liquid. Pressure is often measured in
psi for process calculations, but for pump calculations this is converted to feet of
liquid. In the water treatment industry, pressure is usually converted to feet of
water (1 psi = 2.307 feet of water).
Pump pressure capabilities are usually expressed as Total Dynamic Head (TDH) in
feet of water. The TDH includes the static pressure (static head) in the suction and
the discharge, plus any friction losses (friction head) generated by the moving
liquid, plus the energy needed to accelerate the water (velocity head, which is
normally insignificant).
9.2.1.3 Cavitation
Cavitation is the name given to a phenomenon that occurs in flowing liquid when
the line pressure falls below the vapor pressure of the liquid. When cavitation
occurs, vapors are released in the low pressure area, forming bubbles in the liquid
(boiling). When these bubbles are carried from the low pressure area to an area of
high pressure, the bubbles collapse.
Cavitation causes noise and vibration in the pump, a drop in head and capacity, a
decrease in efficiency, and pitting and corrosion of the impeller vanes. Pitting
occurs due to the extreme localized pressures created by the bubbles as they
implode. The noise, vibration, drop in head, and loss of efficiency occur because
the pump is expending energy creating and pumping bubbles and not pumping
liquid.

9.2.1.4 Net Positive Suction Head Requirement (NPSHR)
To prevent cavitation, it is necessary to operate the pump with sufficient pressure

on its suction side (where the lowest pressures occur) to ensure that the pressure of
the liquid being pumped does not fall below its vapor pressure. Each pump has a
NPSHR.
The NPSHR is a measurement of the pressure drops from the pump suction flange
to the impeller vanes. These internal pressure drops are called suction loss in the
pump since they are losses in available pressure to prevent vaporization at the
point of lowest pressure.
The suction pressure limitation for a particular pump is shown by the manufacturer
in the form of a curve giving minimum NPSHR for all capacities in the operating
range of the pump. As long as the available pressure equals or exceeds the values
on the curve, there will be no undue vaporization that can cause cavitation,
capacity limitation, and accompanying troubles. For each pumping application it is
necessary to review the NPSH available (NPSHA) to ensure that it exceeds the
pump NPSHR.
The NPSHA is the absolute pressure (reference vacuum pressure, not atmospheric)
available at the pump suction flange above the vapor pressure of the liquid being
pumped.
9.2.1.5 Efficiency
The measure of the hydraulic and mechanical performance of a pump is called the
Pump Efficiency. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the useful water horsepower
delivered by the pump to the power supplied to the pump shaft (brake
horsepower).
To calculate the efficiency of a pump, the following formula can be used:
Pump Efficiency (E) =% Efficiency = (whp/bhp) x 100
whp = Water Horsepower

bhp = Brake Horsepower

Figure 9.2-3 below illustrates the mechanical efficiency of pumps depending on
the size and type of pump. Efficiency curves normally rise to a peak and then
begin to fall as flow is increased. The drop in efficiency at higher flows is an
indication of energy going to non-pumping uses including cavitation, noise and
vibration. For this reason many designers select pumps which operate only to the
left of the peak in the efficiency curve.
Figure 9.2-3: Mechanical Efficiency of Pumps
Centrifugal pumps also have a minimum flow requirement for proper operation.
Operation below minimum flow can cause the same type of problems that flows
above the peak in the efficiency curve can cause.
Most pump manufacturers have a section in their pump data books where they
discuss pump fundamentals in a more thorough manner. Refer to one of these
examples for further detail:
• Goulds Pump Manual (GPM)

• Ingresoll-Dresser Pump Selection for Industry (PSI)
• Durco Pump Engineering Manual
• The Grundfos Group

Pumping has two purposes: to move a liquid from one place to another, and/or to
pressurize a liquid for some purpose. For practical purposes there is not any real
difference between these two scenarios, since both involve moving the liquid and
adding at least some pressure.
All pump types have similar requirements for operation. They require sufficient
pressure on the suction to prevent cavitation. They must also be designed to
provide enough pressure to overcome the pressure losses in the system and still
have flow. Pumps always operate along their performance curves; if the amount of
pressure added by the pump is known, the flow going through the pump can be
determined by looking at the performance curve. The reverse is also true; if the
flow is known, then the added pressure can be determined.
Pumps can be operated by manually switching the pump on or off, or

automatically via hard-wired switches or Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
outputs. Switches such as pressure switches and level switches can turn the pump
on or off when the level of liquid is too high or low, or when the pressure in a
system is too high or low. When used in a system or a process, pressure switches,
level sensors, PLCs and other control instrumentation can turn pumps on or off as
needed for the specific process.
Since pump motors typically operate at higher currents, a motor starter (heavy-
duty relay) is used as an intermediate switching assembly. The hand switch (or
PLC output) sends a low voltage signal to a motor starter (or contactor) which, in
turn, sends power to the pump motor. Large motors can be started and stopped
via standard switches and output signals.
Motor starters can be mounted near the motor serviced or, more commonly, they
can be collected together in a motor control center (MCC).

Labyrinth Oil Seals Discharge Flange
Shaft and Bearings
Casing
courtesy of Goulds
Suction
Flange
Oil Sight
Glass
Seal
Seal Chambers Impeller
Figure 9.2-4: Cutaway View of a Typical ANSI Pump
34a_m2_r0 9-19a Ancillary

9.2.2.1 Single-Stage Centrifugal
Single–stage centrifugal pumps are adapted to installations that pump against low
to moderate heads. The head generated by a single impeller is a function of its
tangential speed. When heads exceed 250 to 300 feet, multi-stage pumps are
generally used. It is possible and occasionally practical, however, to generate as
much as 1,000 feet of head with a single stage impeller.
Single-stage pumps often have fairly flat operating curves. This means that the
flow through the pump can vary widely while the discharge pressure does not.
This also means that a relatively small change in flow restrictions (pressure drops)
in the discharge can change the flow significantly. This phenomenon can be
advantageous or troublesome, depending on the system.
Single-stage centrifugal pumps are widely used in home, commercial and

industrial settings. They are the preferred pump style for most water treatment
applications. Figure 9.2-4, on the opposite page, is a picture of a single-stage
centrifugal pump with components indicated.

9.2.2.2 Multi-Stage Centrifugal
The multi-stage centrifugal pump is essentially a high-head or high-pressure

pump. The multi-stage pump consists of two or more stages; the number of stages
depends on the head it is designed to pump against. Each stage can be considered
a separate pump, however, these stages are located in the same housing, and the
impellers are attached to the same shaft.
The first stage receives water directly from the source through the suction pipe.
Discharge pressure from the first stage is comparable to that from a single stage
pump. A single-stage pump would discharge the liquid to service at this point.
The multi-stage pump passes the liquid on to the next stage. In each succeeding
stage, the pressure is increased until the water is delivered from the final stage at
the desired pressure. Figure 9.2-5 below shows two multi-stage pumps.
Inlet
Multi-stage Pump
Outlet
Motor
Multi-stage Pump
Figure 9.2-5: Multi-Stage Pumps

9.2.2.3 Submersible
Submersible pumps are similar to multi-stage pumps, except that they use
submersible motors rather than standard motors. Submersible motors allow the
pump and motor to be placed completely under water without damage. The
flowing water cools the motor.
The submersible pump is also a multi-stage pump. It contains two or more stages,
depending on the head it is designed to pump against. The operation of a
submersible pump is the same as the operation of the multi-stage pump described
in Section 9.2.2.2.
It is critical that water is always flowing through the submersible pump to ensure
that the motor is cooled. Whereas a centrifugal pump can operate dead headed
(without flow) for a short period of time without extensive damage, a submersible
motor will overheat and burn out after a few seconds of operation at dead head or
very low flow conditions.
Submersible pumps are often used for high pressure reverse osmosis system feed
pumps. Figure 9.2-6 below shows four submersible pumps mounted on a rack
ready for piping. courtesy of Torpedo Pump
Figure 9.2-6: Four Submersible Pumps

This type of pump was originally designed for deep well applications where the
whole assembly was lowered into the well hole. The most common industrial
applications have the pump and motor assembly enclosed in a fiberglass or
stainless steel pressure vessel. Figure 9.2-7 below shows a drawing illustrating the
inside view of a submersible pump.
Pump Suction
Inlet
courtesy of Torpedo Pump

Discharge
Motor
Pump Stages
Figure 9.2-7: Internal View of a Submersible Pump
9.2.3 Equipment Design and Options
Centrifugal pumps are designed for extensive run times and harsh conditions.
Depending on how the pump will be used, different construction materials are
available.
Multistage (and submersible) pumps have the same general component design as
single-stage centrifugal pumps, however, the components are optimized for the
longer shafts and higher pressures involved.
Single-stage centrifugal pumps have been around much longer and are more
standardized across manufacturers. These pumps generally conform to ANSI
standards for dimensions and are often called ANSI pumps. The following
components play a significant role in the operation of a single stage pump.

9.2.3.1 Casing
The casing is the part of the pump that houses the impeller. For ANSI pumps it is
usually a molded casting that includes an opening for suction, an opening for
discharge and an opening where the shaft goes in to attach to the impeller. The
size and shape of the housing affects the performance curve. The casing (and
impeller) can be ductile iron for applications where corrosion is not a concern. To
minimize corrosion products in water, 316 stainless steel is frequently used for
water treatment applications.
9.2.3.2 Impeller
The style and size of the impeller and the speed of rotation are key factors to
ensure that operating conditions are met. The impeller pulls the liquid through the
inlet or suction opening and forces it through the casing to the outlet or discharge.
9.2.3.3 Bearings and Housings
Most pumps are equipped with ball bearings. Typical construction of a ball bearing
housing consists of a single-row deep-grooved casing of ample size to withstand
axial and radial loads. The minimum life of the bearings is expressed as an L10
number. An L10 of 2 years (17,500 hours) corresponds to an expected average life of
10 years.
The bearing housing may be the rotating type, so that the entire rotating element
can be removed from the pump without disturbing the alignment or exposing the
bearings to water or dirt.
9.2.3.4 Shaft Assembly
The shaft assembly is machined accurately to provide a precision fit for all parts,
including the impeller and bearings. The shaft is attached to the motor and the
impeller. As the motor spins the shaft, the shaft spins the impeller.

9.2.3.5 Drive Motor
Centrifugal pumps are driven by either direct drive or pulley drive. On direct drive,
the shaft is attached to the motor and the impeller. When the motor runs, the
shaft turns, and the impeller rotates to begin pumping. With the pulley drive, the
same action occurs, however, a pulley mounted on the shaft turns the shaft. The
belt is also connected to a pulley which is attached to the motor. Pulley drive
pumps are rarely used for industrial applications.
Motors for 60 Hz applications are usually 3600 RPM (often labeled as 3550 RPM)
or 1800 RPM (labeled 1750 RPM). Motors are also available for slower speeds but
are not often used in industrial water treatment applications.
For higher motor speeds, a higher pressure develops for a particular casing and
impeller combination. Higher rotation speeds also imply more noise and faster
wear on components. Installations requiring very low noise generation or minimal
maintenance should consider 1800 RPM motors where possible. Multi-stage
pumps are always operated at 3600 RPM to generate high pressures.
Motors are available for 460 V (USA) or 575 V (Canada) 60 Hz installations. The
enclosure is typically totally enclosed and fan-cooled (TEFC) to prevent damage
from moisture. Mill and chemical duty enclosures are also available for
applications in corrosive environments (regeneration skids, for example). Open
Drip Proof (ODP) motors are occasionally requested, but offer little savings for a
significant risk of water damage when used in a wet area. Submersible pumps use
specially designed submersible motors.
Standard motors are available with normal and high efficiency ratings. Space
heaters can be provided to prevent condensation when the motor is allowed to sit
idle.
Motors are run at a single speed in most applications, however, variable frequency
drives are available to allow precise control of the operating conditions.
9.2.3.6 Mechanical Seal
The pump shaft must be sealed where it leaves the casing. Simple sealing
mechanisms use a fibrous packing material in a stuffing box arrangement. This
stuffing box packing must allow some fluid flow for lubrication.

Mechanical seals overcome some of the limitations of packing by moving the
friction point from the shaft to a seal face. This reduces leakage and friction. A
wide variety of mechanical seals for almost any purpose and any operating
conditions are available from numerous manufacturers. Single inside, Type 1 seals
are most common for water treatment applications. Graphite (a relatively soft form
of solid carbon) is used for one face of the seal. A hard material is used for the
other face. A ceramic face is normally sufficient, but tungsten carbide or even
silicon carbide can be used for more demanding applications.
A double inside seal can also be used for longer seal life.
9.2.3.7 Baseplate
The pump and motor assembly is mounted on a baseplate, which provides a rigid
base to minimize vibration and misalignment. A cast iron base is standard, but a
fabricated steel base is available. It can be provided with a drip tray to neatly
collect seal water drips.
When designing a pumping system, for either single-stage or multi-stage pumps,

several system options must be considered.
9.2.3.8 Pump Arrangement
Pump systems typically incorporate one, two or three identical pumps. Depending
on the process requirements, this corresponds to 0%, 100% or 50% stand-by flow
capacity.
9.2.3.9 Piping
Low-pressure piping (less than 150 psig) can use most of the metallic and
non-metallic materials available, subject to normal material compatibility concerns.
For higher pressures a metallic pipe material is required. Refer to Appendix I for a
detailed discussion about pipe sizing and materials.

9.2.3.10 Valves
For maintenance purposes, each pump requires manual isolation valves on both
the suction and discharge. This valve is typically a lined butterfly valve but could be
a diaphragm valve for smaller sizes. Diaphragm valves are generally not used on
pump suction applications to avoid the possibility of pulling the diaphragm to the
closed position when the actuator is in the open position.
For applications with pumps in parallel, each pump is provided with a check valve
to prevent back flow through the non-operating standby pump.
A modulating pressure control valve can be provided on the common pump

discharge for applications requiring constant pressure. The control valve can also
be provided with bypass and isolating valves for maintenance.
Refer to Technical Specification 16 and Appendix G for further detail on valve

selection and options.
9.2.3.11 Instrumentation
Each pump has a pressure indicator in the discharge piping to confirm operating
conditions. A wide range of instrumentation can be provided in individual or
common inlet or outlet piping.
9.2.3.12 Structural Skid
A rugged structural steel skid is available as a common base for the pumps and
piping. This facilitates field installation. Pumps can also be provided separately
with loose spool pieces for field mounting.
9.2.3.13 Paint
The type of paints available for the skid are:

• Epoxy polyamide primer and finish coat - primarily for indoor service
• Epoxy polyamide primer and siloxane finish coat - primarily for outdoor
service
• Siloxane epoxy primer and finish coat - for coastal/corrosive outdoor
environments
• Other paints are also available by customer request
Refer to Technical Specification 7 for more information on paint.

9.2.4.1 Application
Centrifugal pumps are used in a wide variety of applications. The single-stage

ANSI pump is the preferred choice when operating conditions permit. Multi-stage
pumps are used when higher pressures are required.
9.2.4.2 Design Calculations
When selecting a pump for a specific application, it is necessary to know the

minimum and maximum flow rates, the discharge pressure required, the suction
pressure available and the maximum temperature (only for cases where NSPHA is
questionable). It is also necessary to know the requirements for standby capacity.
This information determines the capacity of each individual pump.
The discharge pressure required is the sum of the pressure at the point of use, plus
the pressure losses through any downstream equipment, plus the net gain in
elevation between the pump discharge and the point of use. The pump must
provide the difference between the discharge pressure and the suction pressure.
Worst case pressures must be used for these calculations to ensure that the pump
selected will always be able to provide enough head. For example, if suction is
taken from a tank, it is appropriate to assume that the tank is almost empty (no
static suction head above atmospheric pressure).
The NPSHA is calculated by subtracting the vapor pressure of water at the

maximum temperature, and the pressure losses through the suction piping from
the atmospheric pressure (33.9 feet of water). To this amount add the net static
pressure head between the (minimum) level of the surface of the water and the
pump suction. For ambient temperature applications the vapor pressure of water is
insignificant (2.2 feet at 100°F) and can be ignored.
With this data, manufacturer’s performance curves or software can be used to select
an appropriate pump and motor. Very often there are several pumps that meet the
design conditions. In this case it is necessary to look at efficiency and cost to
determine the best pump for the application.
There may be some value to not selecting a maximum size impeller for a pump. If
there is a need to increase the pump pressure in an installation, it is much simpler
to increase the impeller diameter and possibly change the motor than to tear out
the pump completely and install a larger pump. It is not unusual to have a
requirement for a pump impeller to be midrange of the allowable sizes.

Figure 9.2-8 is a sample of a pump selection chart. A preliminary pump selection
can be made from this chart and the details checked on the performance curve for
the selected pump. It is often simpler to use manufacturer’s software for pump
selection. The example that follows uses the Goulds software to illustrate the
design process.
courtesy of Goulds
Figure 9.2-8: Goulds Pump Selection Chart

Example Calculation
For this example assume the following conditions: it is necessary to pump 500 gpm
of 50°F water from a tank that is 38 feet tall and sitting at ground level. The water
passes through a filter (15 psi pressure drop), a softener (20 psi pressure drop), and
300 feet of pipe (including an allowance for valves and fittings. Assume 14 feet of
head per 100 feet of pipe). Water is discharged into the top of a 30-foot tall tank at
atmospheric pressure. Pumping redundancy of 50% is required.
To achieve 50% redundancy, three 50% capacity pumps must be installed. Each
pump must handle 50% of 500 gpm, or 250 gpm.
The Pump Discharge pressure is calculated as follows:

0 feet (discharge to atmospheric pressure)
+ 30 feet (to top of tank)
+ 42 feet (14 per 100 ft of pipe x 300 ft of pipe)
+ 81 feet (15 + 20) psi x 2.307 ft/psi
153 feet
The Pump Suction pressure is 0 psig less any friction loss in the suction pipe. If the
velocity in the pipe is low this loss is very small. The height of the suction tank is
immaterial as there may be times when the tank is essentially empty. Assume that
there is not any static head in the tank in a worst case design basis.
The pump must develop a head of 153 feet discharge pressure minus 0 suction
equals 153 feet TDH. A 160 feet TDH design point is selected to allow for a small
safety factor.
The NPSHA is atmospheric pressure (33.9 ft) less pressure losses in the suction pipe
(the vapor pressure of water being insignificant in this application). If the suction
pipe is reasonably well designed and the velocity is low, the pressure losses should
be no more than 10 feet. The NPSHA is then at least 22.9 feet.
Given this information, the Goulds Pump Selection Software can be started.
Select the 60 Hz catalog (on the menu select Pump, Catalogue and select the
Goulds60 file and click on the OK button).
The types and speed menu pops up automatically at this point. Select the 3196 A
(for alloy) or I (for iron) for ANSI pump types. All speeds can be selected or only
those over 1200 RPM.

To enter the operating conditions pull up the Design Point dialog box (on the
menu select Pump, Design Point). Enter the pump flow in gpm and the TDH in
feet of water.
Figure 9.2-9 below shows the screen displaying the pumps that the software
suggests might be appropriate. In this case they are ordered by efficiency, with the
most efficient at the top.
courtesy of Goulds
Figure 9.2-9: Pump Suggestion Screen
The best pump is selected by looking at various pump performance curves. The
curve for the first pump is shown below in Figure 9.2-10. Note that the operating
point (red angle pointer) is to the extreme right of the operating curve (middle
black curve), well to the right of the peak of the efficiency curve (rising green
curve). This pump is probably not the best choice.
courtesy of Goulds

The curve for the second pump on the list is shown in Figure 9.2-11. It shows an
operating point to the left of the peak of the efficiency curve, an impeller midway
between the minimum and maximum sizes, and operation well above the
minimum flow (vertical red line on the left). This pump is a much better selection.
courtesy of Goulds
Referring back to the list of possible pumps (Figure 9.2-9) we see that this pump
has an NPSHR of 9.6 feet, which is well below the NPSHA. The pump requires 17.0
Hp at the operating point. A 20 Hp motor is the next largest standard size. Note,
however, that if the pump is allowed to run out its curve to maximum flow, it has a
power requirement of 23.9 Hp. If there is any chance that this condition may occur,
a 25 Hp motor would be a better choice.
9.2.4.3 Expected Results
The pump can deliver the desired flow rate at a reasonable efficiency.

9.3 Chemical Feed Equipment
Many water treatment processes require the addition of small amounts of chemicals
to the water. This chemical addition is effectively provided by small metering pumps.
A measuring tank provides storage for the chemical to be added.
9.3.1 Fundamentals
Chemical feed pumps are available in a variety of models, materials, and designs to
meet the specific needs of a process. The most common pump used to feed
chemicals is a solenoid driven, diaphragm type, positive displacement metering
pump.
Positive displacement metering pumps always provide the required volume of liquid
regardless of the discharge pressure. Compared to the performance curve of a
centrifugal pump, the performance curve for a metering pump would be essentially a
vertical line at a given flow, rather than a more or less horizontal curve.
In positive displacement pumps, the suction and discharge are usually created by a
solenoid pushing and pulling on a flexible diaphragm; in some cases, a cam on a
motor shaft is used rather than a solenoid. The in and out movement of the
diaphragm creates the forces of
suction and discharge. This
provides a pulse-type output. As
the diaphragm pulls away from the
pumping chamber, it creates suction
on the inlet line; as it pushes back, it
creates pressure on the discharge
line. Check valves at the pump
head inlet and outlet ensure that
the liquid flows in the right
direction. The result is a continuous
sequence of small volumes of liquid
being pushed out of the pump.
Figure 9.3-1 on the right is a cross-
sectional graphic of a pump
showing the suction and discharge.
Figure 9.3-1: Cross-Section View

of a Solenoid Metering Pump

The volume of liquid being pumped can be increased by increasing the stroke length
of the diaphragm (a larger volume on each pulse) or by increasing the frequency of
stroking (more pulses per minute).
9.3.2 Process and Operating Overview
Chemical feed equipment is widely used in water treatment. To accurately inject

pretreatment chemicals, solenoid-driven, positive displacement diaphragm pumps
are recommended. These units operate by pulsing fluid at the rate required to
maintain the desired concentration of injected chemical. Since the motive force of
the pumps is based on a magnetic field developed through a power coil, the pump
automatically stops operating (stalls) in the event of excessive backpressure. This
mechanism assures safe operation while protecting the pump from damage. An
added benefit of this style of pump is wide rangeability, as both the stroke frequency
and stroke length are adjustable.
Figure 9.3-2 below shows a P&ID of a basic chemical feed system.
Figure 9.3-2: P&ID of a Chemical Feed System

Usually, a day tank stores the chemical to be injected. The chemical can be stored at
full strength or at some convenient dilution.
The chemical pump is activated either manually, by turning it on, or automatically, by

a signal sent from a meter or Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) that starts the
pump and adjusts for the required chemical feed.
Once activated, the pump motor or solenoid begins to move the diaphragm back
and forth to create the pumping action. When the diaphragm is pulled towards the
motor, it creates a pulling force that forces the ball inside the discharge fitting to seal
on the O-ring. This seals the discharge side of the pump head preventing air or any
chemical that has been pumped into the line from re-entering the pump head. At
the same time, the ball inside the suction fitting is pulled up and away from the seal.
This allows the pulling force to suction the chemical and pump it through the
suction fitting into the pump head.
When the diaphragm is pushed outwards by the piston or rod, it pressurizes the
chemical, causing the floating ball inside the suction fitting to seat against the seal.
This creates a seal, preventing the chemical from flowing back into the tank. At the
same time, the floating ball inside the discharge fitting is pushed upwards and away
from the seal. This allows the chemical to flow freely out of the pump head and into
the tubing or piping.
Fully manual metering pump systems are rarely useful in water treatment systems
where process units are occasionally turned on and off. Manual operations requires
an operator to turn the metering pump on and off as needed.
A manually adjusted dose rate with automatic start/stop signals can be used
effectively for applications in which the injection rate does not have to be changed
frequently. In such applications, the water flow is constant and the ratio of chemical
to water does not change over time. Injection of antiscalant into reverse osmosis
feedwater is an example of this type of application.
Many chemical feed systems have the pump pulse frequency (and hence the dose
rate) controlled by a PLC. A digital output from the PLC sends a pulse signal to the
pump to operate the diaphragm. To increase the dose rate, the pulses are sent more
frequently. When chemical is not needed, the PLC simply stops sending pulses.
The control system can be programmed to provide any kind of control algorithm for
the pump. A common control algorithm is ratio control where the pump pulse
(dose) rate is proportional to the flow of water requiring the chemical dose. More
complex algorithms are required for non-linear pH control applications.

Diaphragm type metering pumps have two types of adjustment: speed (or
frequency) and stroke length. The speed adjustment allows the operator (or the
control system) to set how fast the pump pulses.
The other adjustment is the stroke length. This adjusts how far the diaphragm
moves. The greater the stroke length, the further the diaphragm is pushed and the
more chemical is pumped per stroke.
It is preferable to have a faster pulse rate of smaller strokes than a slower rate of
larger strokes. As the injected chemical must completely mix with the water it is
being injected into, a series of quickly injected small volumes facilitates faster mixing
than occasional larger volumes. Figure 9.3-3 below illustrates this effect.
Water Line Water Line
Large, infrequent
Small, continuous
pulses of chemical do
pulses of chemical are
not promote uniform
easy to mix.
mixing.
Speed Speed
Adjuster Adjuster
Injection Point Injection Point

Stroke Stroke
Adjuster Adjuster
Chemical Pump Chemical Pump
Figure 9.3-3: Small Frequent Pulses vs. Large Infrequent Pulses

A chemical feed system consists of a measuring

tank, metering pumps and necessary valves and
piping. Figure 9.3-4 on the right shows a
graphic of a system that includes all these
components.
9.3.3.1 Metering Pumps
Metering pumps feature modular construction

so that major components can be easily
disassembled for maintenance. The pump
enclosure is a totally enclosed, corrosion-proof,
reinforced polypropylene housing. The
standard material for the liquid end of the
pump is corrosion-resistant PVC. Figure 9.3-5
below is a picture of several solenoid driven
chemical metering pumps. Features of the
various metering pump components are Figure 9.3-4: Chemical Feed System
described below.
• The Housing: Encloses all internal components and protects them from
corrosive environments.
• The Pump Head: Houses the diaphragm and the inlet and outlet check valves.
• Inlet Valve: Also called the suction valve, it is a check valve allowing liquid to
enter the pump head and keeps it from flowing back to the tank. This allows
the diaphragm to force liquid through the outlet valve only. The design of this
valve varies slightly from pump to pump, but the same principle is applied.
• Outlet Valve: Also called the discharge valve, it is a
check valve allowing liquid to exit the pump head and
keeps it from backing up into the pump head. This
courtesy of Milton Roy
allows the liquid being pumped to be discharged from

the pump head when the diaphragm forces the liquid
through the outlet valve. The design of this valve
varies slightly from pump to pump, but the same
principle is applied.
• Stroke Frequency: This can be controlled from the
PLC.
• Stroke Length: This adjustment is set manually with a
dial on the pump. Figure 9.3-5: LMI Series
“A” Pumps

Metering pumps are available in several standard sizes to cover a range of
applications. For larger injection rates, multiple pumps can be operated in parallel.
9.3.3.2 Equipment Options
Type of Service
• The type of chemical to be pumped dictates the proper materials to be used for
the pump construction.
Type of Pump Mounting

Two types of pump mounting are available:
• Tank Mounted
• Flooded Suction (Skid mounted)
The pumps can be mounted close to the bottom of the measuring tank or above the
tank. Mounting above the tank requires the pump to draw chemical up to the pump
under suction. Care must be taken to watch for air locks in this type of installation.
The advantage of mounting the pump over the tank is that the tank does not need to
have any connections below the top. This eliminates the potential for leaking, which
may be of concern with some of the less benign chemicals. Flooded suction
metering pumps are less susceptible to air locks but more susceptible to tank leaks.
Measuring Tank
Three standard sizes of high-density polyethylene tanks are available:
• 50 gallon
• 100 gallon
• 250 gallon
There are options available for the measuring tanks:

• Mixing Agitator for solutions which may settle or require mixing during
preparation
• Dissolving Basket if solutions are made from pellets (sodium hydroxide or
sodium bisulfite, for example, on occasion)
• Basket of Polypropylene construction
• Basket of 304 Stainless Steel construction

Piping
Pipe material must be compatible with the chemical injected. Refer to Appendix I
and Technical Specification 11 for more information on pipe choices and options.
These options are available for piping:
• PVC
• 316L Stainless Steel
• Alloy 20 (for sulfuric acid)
• Hastelloy C (for hydrochloric acid)
Valves
The following valves can be used on metering pump systems:
• A manual or actuated tank fill-valve. A manual valve is sufficient for applications
where the chemical must be diluted in the tank. Typically, the tank is filled with
water and the concentrated chemical is added manually.
• A manual ball or diaphragm type isolating valve installed in the suction line for
flooded suction mounted pumps.
• A foot valve (check valve) on the suction tubing for top mounted pumps.
• Manual ball or diaphragm-type pump discharge isolating valves.
• Double block and bleed valves on the injection line. This is appropriate for
hazardous chemicals.
Refer to Appendix G and Technical Specification 16 for more information on

valve choices and options.
Instrumentation
Instrumentation allows the monitoring and/or automatic control of a system. The
instrumentation options available for the chemical feed pumps are:
• Pressure Switch in the common discharge line to confirm discharge pressure
• Flow Switch in the common discharge line to confirm pump flow
• Temperature Switch in the common discharge line to warn of high temperatures
(possible with sulfuric acid injection into water)
• Analog Pump Controller for situations where a 4-20 mA signal must control the
pump pulse frequency instead of a direct pulse signal
Skid Paint
Chromox primer and a safety yellow enamel finish coat (4 to 6 mils) are used to
paint the pump skid when present. Custom paint systems are also available.

9.3.4 Application and Design
9.3.4.1 Application
Chemical metering pumps are used in a variety of applications in the water

treatment system:
• Coagulant in front of a filter
• Coagulant Aid in front of a filter
• Hydrochloric Acid to lower pH
• Polymer in front of a filter
• Potassium Permanganate in front of a greensand filter
• Sodium Bisulfite to remove chlorine before thin film RO membranes
• Antiscalant to prevent scaling on membranes
• Sodium Hydroxide to increase pH
• Sodium Hypochlorite to add chlorine for CA membranes
• Sulfuric Acid to decrease pH

Metering pump capacity is measured in gallons per day (gpd), since volumes are
usually very low.
Simple pump sizing calculations can be performed if all chemical solutions have the
same density as water. This implies doing calculations on a volume basis. This
works well for dilute solutions but leads to some inaccuracies at higher chemical
concentrations. For many chemicals this is not a problem, however, more accurate
calculations can be performed using more realistic densities.
If calculations are done on a volume basis, the pump size can easily be calculated as
follows:
Pump size (gpd) = Water flow (gpm) x 1440 (min/day) x dose (ppm)
1,000,000 x strength (%) /100
Dose = dose rate of the chemical being injected (typically a few ppm)
Strength = the strength of the chemical in the measuring tank
For mass-based calculations, we must account for the amount of the chemical in
each gallon of diluted chemical in the day tank:
Pump size (gpd) = Water flow (gpm) x 1440 (min/day) x 8.34 (lb/gal) x dose (ppm)
1,000,000 x concentration (lb chem/gal)
Concentration = the weight of pure chemical in a gallon of diluted chemical (this is

what the metering pump is injecting), and 8.34 lb/gal is the density of water.
The metering pump size should be selected with a maximum flow of approximately
twice the capacity as calculated in the above equations. This gives sufficient
flexibility for increased injection rates when needed.
It is important not to design the pump with too much extra capacity, as normal
operation at low injection rates accentuates the pulsing nature of the pump and
leads to inconsistent dosing.

Table 9.3-1 below provides the concentration data for several common chemicals
and typical strengths.
Diaphragm metering pumps have a maximum discharge pressure. Care should be

taken to ensure that a pump is selected which has the ability to pump against the
pressure in the main water line. This is often a concern with the larger pumps.
The measuring tank can be sized for any convenient number of days’ storage
capacity. The design pump injection rate calculated above (in gallons per day)
multiplied by the number of days’ storage desired gives a volume in gallons. A
standard size tank should be used to simplify design.
Chemical Strength % Concentration (lb/gal)

Antiscalant 10 0.84
Hydrochloric Acid 32 3.1
Hydrochloric Acid 15 1.34
Potassium Permanganate 1 0.084

Sodium Hydroxide 50 6.37
Sulfuric Acid 93 14.2
Sulfuric Acid 50 5.8

Table 9.3-1: Chemical Concentration
The metering pump is capable of injecting the proper amount of chemical into the
main line to achieve the desired concentration.

9.4 Chemical Regeneration
9.4.1 Fundamentals
The regeneration of ion exchange resins uses dilute regenerant solutions to restore
the resin’s capacity to remove dissolved ions. The chemical regeneration equipment
provides the diluted regenerant at the proper conditions to ensure a successful resin
regeneration.
Dilute regenerant chemical is prepared by mixing concentrated chemical with

dilution water in precise proportions. The concentration must be within a certain
range, the flow rate must be accurate and (for anion resin regeneration) the
temperature must be controlled.
Regenerant chemicals include the following:
• Sodium chloride brine for softeners, dealkalyzers and condensate polishers

• Hydrochloric acid for cation resin
• Sulfuric acid for cation resin
• Sodium hydroxide (caustic) for anion resin
• Sodium chloride brine/bisulfite mixtures for condensate polishers
• Sodium chloride brine/caustic
mixtures for organic traps
• Amine for condensate polishers
The chemical can be introduced

with eductors (with mixing
occurring in the eductor itself),
centrifugal pumps (for brine and
brine mixtures) or positive
displacement metering pumps (for
acids and caustic). Regardless of
the method used to introduce the
chemical regenerant, the chemical
and dilution water are mixed and
forwarded to the ion exchange unit
for use. Figure 9.4-1 on the right is
a graphic illustrating a Sulfuric Acid
Regeneration System with a
metering pump.
Figure 9.4-1: Sulfuric Acid Regeneration System

Eductor
Figure 9.4-2: P&ID of an Eductor-Based Regeneration System

The purpose of chemical regeneration equipment is to prepare and deliver the

correct temperature, concentration, and flow of regenerant chemical solution to the
proper ion exchange vessel. This is done by mixing concentrated chemical and
dilution water flow streams.
Several other pieces of ancillary equipment may be required for a complete system:
• Day tanks (Section 9.1)

• Bulk chemical tanks (Section 9.1)
• Dilution water forwarding pumps (Section 9.2)
• Hot water tanks (Section 9.6)
Chemical regeneration systems using three different methods of chemical addition

are available:
• Eductor
• Positive displacement pump
• Centrifugal pump
Eductor based systems can be designed for any of the regenerant chemicals. Positive
displacement pumps are used for acid and caustic regenerants where the
concentration and flow needs to be well controlled. Centrifugal pumps are used for
large flow rate regenerants such as brine mixtures. Figure 9.4-2 on the opposite
page shows a P&ID of an eductor based regeneration system.
When regeneration of an ion exchange bed is required, the control system initiates a
series of steps, some of which involve the regeneration equipment (see appropriate
sections of Module 5 for specific details). Those steps requiring participation of the
regeneration equipment are discussed below.
Regeneration normally occurs as a semi-automatic procedure; the process is

manually initiated by an operator but continues automatically under PLC control.
When the resin is ready for regeneration, the control system establishes and confirms
the required dilution water flow through the regeneration system and to the resin
bed (for anion resin this water is warm). Once dilution water flow is established, the
concentrated chemical valves are opened and the Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) sends a signal to start the regenerant chemical pump. In eductor based
systems the chemical starts to flow as soon as the valves are opened.

Figure 9.4-3: P&ID of a Positive Displacement Metering Pump Based-System

Eductors operate with water flow only. As water flows through the eductor, the
venturi design creates a vacuum at the narrow part of the eductor. This suction pulls
the required chemical from the storage tank.
Where a positive displacement diaphragm pump is used, the stroke length sets the
flow of concentrated chemical. For eductor based systems, the flow is set by a travel
stop on a valve in the concentrated chemical suction line. For centrifugal pump
based systems, the flow is set by a travel stop on a valve in the pump discharge line.
The concentrated regenerant is mixed with the dilution water in the eductor or in a
tee and is piped to the resin bed. Dilute chemical concentration is normally
measured and adjusted manually by the operator. A hydrometer pot on the dilute
chemical line allows simple and safe confirmation of concentration.
For systems that require several different concentrations of chemical, separate valves
are included to provide different dilution water flows or different concentrated
chemical flows. For positive displacement diaphragm pump based systems the
pump stroke length can be adjusted via the control system (or manually) to provide a
different concentration.
The chemical flow is stopped when sufficient chemical has been sent to the bed. The
dilution water continues flowing as the displacement or slow rinse step.
Chemical regeneration systems are constructed on a steel skid base with all the
necessary valves, piping, instrumentation, pumps and other components included.
The chemical and dilution water flows are determined by the particular ion exchange
beds being regenerated. The choice of concentrated chemical delivery is dictated by
the chemical and the requirement for precise chemical control. Chemical pumps
deliver a more consistent chemical flow and concentration than eductors.
Figure 9.4-3 on the opposite page is a P&ID of a positive displacement metering
pump based regeneration system.

Figure 9.4-4a: Pump Operation with Bypass Port Open
Figure 9.4-4b: Pump Operation with Bypass Port Closed

9.4.3.1 Eductors
The eductor must be compatible with the regenerant chemical. There are many
construction materials used for eductors available:
• PVC - acceptable for any of the regenerants

• Polypropylene - not suitable for sulfuric acid
• Stainless steel - used for caustic only
• Alloy 20 - used for sulfuric acid only
• Hastelloy - used for hydrochloric acid only
9.4.3.2 Positive Displacement Pumps
Positive displacement diaphragm-type chemical metering pumps are used for acid
and caustic regeneration systems. With these pumps, pumping action is developed
and controlled by this basic cycle (see Figures 9.4-4a and 9.4-4b on the opposite
page):
1. The pump plunger [A] reciprocates with a constant stroke length and displaces
oil into and out of the diaphragm chamber [C].
2. The flexible diaphragm [B] is a movable partition between the plunger oil (in
diaphragm chamber [C]) and the fluid being pumped.
3. The oil bypass circuit from the diaphragm chamber [C] flows to reservoir [D]
through passage [E], bypass port [H], and control valve [F].
4. A bypass control plunger [G] which moves with, and is directly coupled to, the
pump plunger [A] to correlate bypass shut off at port [H] to pump plunger
position.
In operation, as the pump plunger [A] and bypass control plunger [G] move forward,
as shown in Figure 9.4-4a, the displaced oil is bypassed to the oil reservoir [D]
until the control plunger [G] closes bypass port [H], as shown in Figure 9.4-4b.
Then the balance of the displacement of plunger [A] is imposed on the flexible
diaphragm [B], which moves and displaces the fluid being pumped out through the
discharge ball checks.
On the suction stroke, the pump plunger [A] pulls oil out of the diaphragm cavity
[C]. This moves the flexible diaphragm [B] and pulls fluid in through the suction ball
checks. When the control plunger [G] opens the bypass port [H], the remaining
plunger oil displacement is supplied from the reservoir [D] through the bypass
passages [E].

The discharge capacity is adjusted from 0-100% by rotating an adjustment knob that
controls the piston stroke length of plunger [A] (this can also be done automatically
via a 4-20 mA signal if this option is required). This knob moves the control valve [F]
so that the bypass port [H] is closed at the desired percentage of the total stroke of
plunger [A]. When control valve [F] is adjusted to 100% capacity, the bypass port [H]
is positioned so that it is opened at the very end of the suction stroke. Then on the
pressure stroke, the bypass port [H] is immediately closed so the entire displacement
of plunger [A] is imposed upon the flexible diaphragm [B].
With the control valve [F] is adjusted for 50% capacity, the bypass port [H] is
positioned so that it is opened when plunger [A] has completed one-half of the
suction stroke. On the next pressure stroke, the oil displaced by the pump plunger
[A] is bypassed through the open port [H] to the reservoir [D] for the first 50% of the
stroke before the control plunger [G] closes the bypass port [H]. The remaining 50%
of the displacement of plunger [A] is then imposed on the flexible diaphragm [B] so
that fluid is discharged for only 50% of plunger [A] travel. A similar analysis would
apply for a 0% capacity setting on the control valve [F], where the entire oil
displacement from plunger [A] is bypassed to reservoir [D].
The pump head (wetted portion) must be of a material which is compatible with the
regenerant chemical. PVC is acceptable for any of the regenerants but is most
commonly used for hydrochloric acid service. Stainless steel is used for sodium
hydroxide service. Alloy 20 is acceptable for sulfuric acid and hastelloy is used for
hydrochloric acid.
9.4.3.3 Pulsation Dampeners
Pulsation dampeners are used with positive

displacement pumps to alleviate the
pulsations caused by the pumping action.
A pulsation dampener has a diaphragm
inside of it that absorbs the pumping
pressure. When the liquid is pumped, it
enters the pulsation dampener and pushes
against the diaphragm. The diaphragm
absorbs the shock of the pulse and pushes
the liquid back out gently, eliminating the
hammer effect. Figure 9.4-5 on the right is
a photograph of a pulsation dampener.
Figure 9.4-5: Pulsation Dampener

9.4.3.4 Pressure Relief Valves
Pressure relief valves are used with positive displacement pumps to protect the
piping from any over pressure. Positive displacement pumps have an extremely high
potential dead head pressure. If the pump is accidentally operated against closed
valves the pressure relief valve opens and releases pressure, preventing pipe
breakage.
9.4.3.5 Centrifugal Pumps
The centrifugal pumps used for chemical regeneration systems are similar to other
centrifugal pumps, however, the materials of construction must withstand the
chemical being used. Ductile iron and Cd4MCu alloy are both acceptable materials
for brine mixtures. The ductile iron pump will corrode over time and should not be
used where corrosion byproducts may be a problem. A detailed description of
centrifugal pump operation and options can be found in Section 9.2.
Pump arrangements are available in duplex (100% stand-by capacity), or triplex (50%
stand-by capacity). Triplex pumps are normally used when the capacity can not be
economically obtained with a single pump.
9.4.3.6 Heat Exchangers and Heaters
For anion resin regeneration warm water is required to facilitate silica elution from
the resin beads. Warm water can be provided by a hot water tank (see Section 9.6),
a steam heat exchanger or an instantaneous electric resistance heater. Section 9.5
describes operation and sizing of shell and tube heat exchangers for steam heating
service.
Instantaneous electric heaters are sized to heat the water from ambient to the design
warm water temperature as the water is needed. If the heater is not provided with
an SCR controller, which “modulates” the power going to the heater, the heating
element cycles on and off in an attempt to maintain a temperature setpoint. The
water temperature also cycles above and below the setpoint. An on-off control
approach, as provided with a thermostat, does not function well in this application.

9.4.3.7 Piping
Different materials of construction can be specified for the various services on the
system: concentrated regenerant chemical, dilute chemical, dilution water, and
steam/condensate. Refer to Technical Specification 11 for information on piping
materials and compatibility. Refer to Appendix I for a discussion on pipe sizing.
In situations where the concentrated regenerant chemical is coming from a tank

which may contain particulate contaminants (dirt or corrosion byproducts), a strainer
can be provided in the pump/eductor suction line.
Suction piping for positive displacement metering pumps must be sized larger than
the average flow would indicate due to the pulsing nature of the flow. Instantaneous
velocities are higher than average velocities.
9.4.3.8 Valves
A regeneration system may contain a wide variety of valve styles to accommodate

the various services. In each case, the valve type, material, actuator and options
reflect the service conditions.
To allow for maintenance and repair of pumps while the regeneration system is
operating, manual isolation valves are included for each pump. Brine systems may
use ball type valves in a material matching the pipe, but acid and caustic systems
invariably use lined diaphragm valves.
The chemical block and bleed valves (used on acid and caustic systems) follow the
same materials and styles approach. These valves have spring return actuators to
provide a positive air gap between the concentrated chemical and the dilution water
when the system does not require chemical.
Dilution water valves can be butterfly or diaphragm type with manual actuators for
isolation valves and automatic (double acting or spring-to-close) actuators for on-off
control valves. For regeneration systems with different dilute chemical flows, a
separate automatic valve is provided for each flow.
For installations where the dilution water pressure may vary (pressure is not
controlled at the pump discharge), a pressure control valve can be installed on the
dilution water inlet. This valve can be a diaphragm or butterfly or, for better control,
a V-ball style valve.

Valves for steam service can be butterfly, gate, globe, or ball type depending on the
size of the pipe. See Section 9.5-3 for a discussion of valves in steam service. Refer
to Appendix G and Technical Specification 16 for more information on valve
options.
Instrumentation included with each chemical regeneration system includes:
• Pressure indicators on pump discharges to confirm operation and on the

dilution water inlet to confirm proper pressure.
• Concentration monitor to confirm the concentration in acid and caustic
systems with pumps. Eductor based systems do not provide a stable enough
concentration signal to justify this instrument.
• Flow Transmitter in the dilution water line to confirm proper flow. A flow
transmitter can also be provided in brine pump discharge lines to confirm proper
brine flow.
• Flow Indicator can be provided in one outlet of dilute chemical piping for split
flow ion exchange vessels.
• Temperature transmitter for caustic regeneration systems where warm
regenerant is required.
9.4.3.10 Skid Paint
The skid paints available for the chemical regeneration systems are as follows:
• Epoxy polyamide primer and finish coat - for normal indoor use
• Epoxy polyamide primer and siloxane finish - for normal outdoor use
• Zinc filled polyamide epoxy primer and novolac epoxy finish coat - for improved
corrosion resistance
• Glass filled epoxy novolac - for improved corrosion resistance
• Siloxane epoxy primer and finish coat - for improved corrosion resistance
Other paint finishes can also be provided upon customer request. Refer to
Technical Specification 7 for more information on paint.

9.4.4 Application and Design
9.4.4.1 Application
The design of an ion exchange vessel provides the starting information necessary for
design of the chemical regeneration system: the chemical used for regeneration, the
quantity of chemical required, and the temperature required (for anion resin). Some
design procedures also provide the concentrated chemical and dilution water flow
necessary to get the required dilute chemical flow. The discussion below assumes
that minimal information is available from the resin design procedure.
Design calculations are provided for cation resin regeneration, softener regeneration
and anion resin regeneration. The procedures are very similar so only one example
calculation is given.
Cation Resin Regeneration

Either hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is used as the regenerant
chemical for hydrogen cycle cation resins. Each chemical has its own set of
parameters.
HCl Regenerant
• Flow rate (minimum): 0.35 gpm/ft3
• Strength: 4% to 10% (4% only for weak acid resins)
H2SO4 Regenerant
For sulfuric acid regeneration, care must be taken not to cause calcium sulfate
precipitation on the resin. Precipitation is avoided by maintaining a higher acid flow
rate and by using lower concentrations of acid. The regeneration can be divided into
several steps to optimize the procedure. A three-step regeneration produces less
waste volume than a two-step regeneration but may require a larger and more
expensive chemical pump.
• Sulfuric acid contact time (the time the regenerant is in contact with the resin
which equals injection time plus displacement time) must be no less than 30
minutes.
• Flow rate (minimum for the first step) = 2 x %Ca/100 (Gives flow in gpm/ft3) but
no less than 0.5 gpm/ft3. The %Ca is the percentage of the cations in the water
which are calcium (all expressed as equivalents or ppm as CaCO3).
• Strength (%): For weak acid resins use 0.8%. For strong acid resins: maximum is
calculated as: 5 x (1 – (%Ca / 100))

• If 15% to 70% of the total cations are calcium ions, a multiple-step regeneration
is required.
» When the calcium ions are between 15% and 40% of the total cations,
• inject one-third of the regenerant chemical at no more than the
%strength as calculated above [%strength = 5 x (1 – (%Ca / 100))]
• inject the remaining two-thirds of the regenerant chemical at 4%
strength, OR inject the second one-third at 4% strength
• inject the final one-third (if necessary) of the regenerant chemical at
6% strength.
» For calcium between 41% and 70% of the total cations,
• inject one-half of the regenerant chemical at the %strength calculated
above [%strength = 5 x (1 – (%Ca / 100))]
• inject the rest of the regenerant chemical at 4% strength.
Regenerant dosage is determined by the ion leakage required from the resin during
the service cycle. For strong acid cation resins, dosages usually range from 3-8 lb/ft3.
For weak acid cation resins, 110% of the stoichiometric amount of acid required for
regeneration is needed. The amount is usually calculated using tables or software
provided by resin manufacturers. Table 9.4-1 and Table 9.4-2 below show the pure
chemical quantities to create concentrations of commonly used solutions of HCl and
H2SO4.
Chemical and Pounds of pure

Concentration chemical per
US gallon
Pounds of pure H2SO4 0.8% 0.067
Chemical and
US gallon H2SO4 1% 0.084
HCl 4% 0.340 H2SO4 2% 0.169
HCl 6% 0.515 H2SO4 3% 0.255
HCl 8% 0.693 H2SO4 4% 0.342
HCl 10% 0.874 H2SO4 6% 0.520
HCl 30% 2.879 H2SO4 8% 0.703
HCl 32% 3.093 H2SO4 93% 14.17
HCl 34% 3.315 H2SO4 96% 14.71
HCl 36% 3.539 H2SO4 98% 15.00
Table 9.4-1: HCl Concentrations Table 9.4-2: H2SO4 Concentrations

Given the volume of resin and the number of pounds of regenerant chemical
required to reach the required product quality (both values are from the ion exchange
unit design calculations) calculate the amount of chemical required:
Regenerant Chemical Amount (lb) = Resin volume (ft3) x Regenerant dose (lb/ft3)
The minimum flow rate of dilute regenerant chemical depends on the regenerant
chemical selected and the amount of calcium in the ion exchange unit feedwater (if
sulfuric acid regeneration), as noted above. If a flow larger than the minimum is
used, a larger and more expensive pump may be required.
Flow of dilute regenerant chemical (Flowdilute) is calculated by multiplying the dilute

flow rate by the resin volume:
Flowdilute (gpm) = Dilute flow rate (gpm/ft3) x Resin volume (ft3)
The required flow of concentrated regenerant chemical (FlowConc. ) is determined by

doing a mass balance:
FlowConc. (gpm) = Flowdilute (gpm). x Concentrationdilute (lb/gal)

ConcentrationConc. (lb/gal)
Concentrationdilute and ConcentrationConc. can be obtained from Table 9.4-1 and

Table 9.4-2.
FlowConc. determines what size of concentrated chemical pump is required for the
application. The pump is sized so that it operates between 20% and 80% of its
capacity.
The dilution water flow rate (Flowwater) is the difference between the dilute chemical
flow and the concentrated chemical flow:
Flowwater (gpm) = Flowdilute (gpm) - FlowConc. (gpm)
Once these flows have been calculated, the piping and valves can be sized
appropriately. Note that the suction piping for pulsation type pumps must be larger
than indicated for the average flow rate.

Softeners
For sodium cycle softening applications, the following design rules are used for
regeneration:
• The salt dosage is 15 lbSalt/ft3Resin

• Saturated brine at 26% (2.6 lb of NaCl per gallon) is diluted to 10% (0.89 lb per
gallon) for injection
• Brine is injected for 30 minutes (based on 2 minutes per 1 lbSalt/ft3Resin)
For organic scavengers a brine/caustic mixture is used for regeneration. The

following design rules apply:
• The salt and NaOH dosages are 10 lbSalt/ft3Resin and 1 lbNaOH/ft3Resin

• Saturated brine at 26% (2.6 lb of NaCl per gallon) is diluted to 10% (0.89 lb per
gallon) for injection
• The correct amount of NaOH is added to the brine tank as a caustic solution or
as solid caustic to the salt dissolving tank
• The brine/caustic mixture is injected for 20 minutes (2 minutes per 1 lbSalt/ft3Resin)
Anion Resin Regeneration

Strong base anion resin should be preheated before regeneration to facilitate removal
of silica. Type I resin is preheated to 120°F. Type II and acrylic resins are preheated to
95°F.
NaOH Regenerant
The dilution water flow rate is used, and one bed volume of water is passed through
the resin bed.
• Dilute flow rate (minimum): 0.25 gpm/ft3 of resin
• Strength: 4%
• Optimal contact time is 60 minutes

Regenerant dosage is determined by the ion leakage required from the resin during
the service cycle. For strong base anion resins, this usually ranges from 3-8 lb/ft3. For
weak base anion resins, 125% of the
stoichiometric amount of caustic required
for regeneration is used as the regenerant Chemical and Pounds of pure
chemical. The amount is usually calculated US gallon
using tables or software provided by resin
NaOH 4% 0.348
manufacturers. Table 9.4-3 on the right
shows the weight of pure NaOH in a gallon NaOH 25% 2.66
at frequently used dilutions.
NaOH 50% 6.36
Given the volume of resin and the number
Table 9.4-3: NaOH Concentrations
of pounds of regenerant chemical required
to reach the required product quality (both values are from the ion exchange unit
design calculations), calculate the amount of chemical required:
Regenerant Chemical Amount (lb) = Resin volume (ft3) x Regenerant dose (lb/ft3)
Use the minimum flow rate of dilute chemical, or some convenient larger flow rate to
calculate the flow of dilute caustic. If a flow larger than the minimum is used, a
larger and more expensive pump may be required.
Flow of dilute regenerant chemical (Flowdilute) is calculated by multiplying the dilute

flow rate by the resin volume:
The required flow of concentrated regenerant chemical (FlowConc. ) is determined by

doing a mass balance:
FlowConc. (gpm) = Flowdilute (gpm). x Concentrationdilute (lb/gal)

ConcentrationConc. (lb/gal)
Concentrationdilute and ConcentrationConc can be obtained from Table 9.4-3.
FlowConc. determines what size of concentrated chemical pump is required for the
application. The pump is sized so that it operates between 20% and 80% of its
capacity.

The dilution water flow rate (Flowwater) is the difference between the dilute chemical
Once these flows have been calculated, the piping and valves can be sized
appropriately. Note that the suction piping for pulsation type pumps must be larger
than indicated for the average flow rate.
Example Calculations
A strong acid cation exchange unit has 84 cubic feet of resin, which must be
regenerated at 7 lb of sulfuric acid per cubic foot of resin (these numbers obtained
from resin manufacturers software for a particular application).
The water to be deionized has total exchangeable cations (TEC) of 119 ppm as
CaCO3 and the calcium ion concentration is 33 ppm as CaCO3.
The percentage of calcium ions is 33 ppm / 119 ppm x 100% = 27.7%.
Since this is between 15% and 70% a multiple step regeneration is required.
The minimum dilute acid flow rate is calculated as follows:

2 x %Ca/100
= 2 x 27.7%/100
= 0.554 gpm/ft3
The maximum concentration to be used for the first step is calculated as follows:
5 x ( 1 – (%Ca / 100))
= 5 x (1 – (27.7 / 100))
= 3.6 % (round to 3%)
A 3% concentration would be reasonable to avoid calcium sulfate precipitation.
The total amount of acid to be used in a regeneration is the resin volume multiplied
by the amount of acid required per cubic foot of resin.
Total acid dose = Resin volume (ft3) x Acid Required (lb/ft3)
= 84 ft3 x 7 lb/ft3
= 588 lb of acid
One third of the acid required (588 lb / 3 = 196 lb), should be injected at 3% (or at
least below 3.6%) and the rest (588 lb – 196 lb = 392 lb), should be injected at 4%.

Since 3% sulfuric acid has a concentration of 0.255 lb of acid per gallon of water
(from Table 9.4-2), the total volume of dilute acid to be injected is as follows:
Volumedilute(Step 1) = Acid required (Step 1) / Concentrationdilute

= 196 lb / 0.255 lb/gal
= 768.6 gallons
The minimum dilute acid flow is the dilute acid flow rate times the resin volume:

= 0.554 gpm/ft3 x 84 ft3
= 46.54 gpm
A dilute acid flow of 48 or 50 gpm would be acceptable but larger flows could be
used if convenient.
The injection time for 3% acid is the dilute acid volume divided by the dilute acid
flow used:
Injection time = Volumedilute(Step 1) / Flowdilute (gpm)

= 768.6 gallons / 46.54 gpm
= 16.5 minutes
The concentrated chemical flow for the first step is the dilute chemical flow
multiplied by the ratio of the concentrated to dilute chemical concentrations, which
can be found in Table 9.4-2:
FlowConc. (gpm) = Flowdilute (gpm) x ConcentrationDilute (lb/gal)

ConcentrationConc (lb/gal)
= 46.53 gpm. x 0.255 lb/gal
14.17 lb/gal assuming 93% H2SO4
= 0.837 gpm x (60 min/1 hour)
= 50.25 gph
The dilution water flow for this step is the difference between the dilute chemical

= 46.53 gpm – 0.837 gpm
= 45.69 gpm

For the second chemical injection step, inject 392 pounds of acid at 4%.
Since 4% sulfuric acid has a concentration of 0.342 lb of acid per gallon of water
(from Table 9.4-2) the total volume of dilute acid to be injected is as follows:
Volumedilute(Step 2) = Acid required (Step 2) / Concentrationdilute

= 392 lb / 0.342 lb/gal
= 1146.2 gallons
For the second step, the choice must be made to use the same dilution water flow or
the same concentrated chemical flow as the first step. If the same dilution water
flow is used, only one dilution water flow set point or valve is required. For systems
based on a metering pump, it is usually more sensible to use the same concentrated
chemical flow so that the chemical pump does not have to be adjusted. For eductor
based systems, the choice is between another valve on the dilution water line or the
concentrated chemical line.
For eductor based systems, it may be more sensible to use the same dilution water
flow with a second eductor. For metering pump based systems, it is usually less
expensive to have two different dilution water flows than to add an additional pump.
In this example, the concentrated chemical flow used for the first step is also used in
the second step.
FlowConc. (gpm) = 50.25 gph = 0.837 gpm
The dilute chemical flow can be calculated similarly to how the concentrated
chemical flow was calculated above (inverting the ratio):
Flowdilute (gpm) = FlowConc. (gpm). x ConcentrationConc (lb/gal)

Concentrationdilute (lb/gal)
= 0.837 gpm x 14.17 lb/gal
0.342 lb/gal
= 34.68 gpm
The dilution water flow is again the difference between the dilute chemical flow and
the concentrated chemical flow:

= 34.68 gpm – 0.837 gpm
= 33.84 gpm

The injection time for 4% acid is dilute acid volume divided by the dilute acid flow:
Injection time = Volumedilute(Step 2) / Flowdilute (gpm)

= 1146.2 gallons / 33.84 gpm
= 33.9 minutes
Note that the requirement for a minimum chemical contact time of 30 minutes has
been achieved without adding the displacement time.

9.5 Heat Exchangers
9.5.1 Fundamentals
A heat exchanger transfers heat from a fluid flowing on one side of a barrier to
another fluid flowing on the other side of the barrier.
When used to accomplish simultaneous heat transfer, heat exchangers become

special equipment types, often known by other names. When fired directly by a
combustion process, they become furnaces, boilers, heaters, tube-still heaters, and
engines. If there is a change in phase in one of the flowing fluids (condensation of
steam to water for example), the equipment may be called a chiller, evaporator,
sublimator, distillation-column reboiler, still, condenser, or cooler-condenser.
Heat exchangers are normally used only for the transfer and useful elimination or
recovery of heat (perhaps with an accompanying phase change). The fluids on either
side of the barrier are usually liquids, but they may also be gases such as steam, air,
or hydrocarbon vapors; they can also be liquid metals such as sodium or mercury.
The concept of a heat exchanger can be explained using Figure 9.5-1, shown below.
A hot liquid, such as water, or a gas, such as steam, is introduced to one side of a
heat exchanger. This hot liquid or gas gives away some of its heat energy to the wall
or barrier. A cool liquid is introduced on
the other side of the wall or barrier. This
liquid travels through the heat exchanger
and gains heat energy from the wall or
barrier. The warmer medium drops in
temperature by transferring heat energy to
courtesy of Alfa-Laval
the wall, while the colder medium is
heated by absorbing heat energy from the
wall.
The simplest example of a heat exchanger

is a tube within which a hot fluid flows and
outside of which cool air blows. The hot
liquid cools down because it releases heat
to the tube. The tube in return looses heat
to the cool air.
Figure 9.5-1: Heat Transfer Flows
Most often the barrier between the fluids is
in a Heat Exchanger
a metal pipe. It can be fabricated, however,
from a flat metal plate or from graphite,
plastic, or other suitable material.

Often, the barrier wall is made of a seamless or welded tube. In this case, several
tubes may be tied together into a group called a bundle. One of the liquids flows
through the tubes in a bundle and the other liquid (or gas) travels outside the tubes
through various arrangements of channels. Heat transfers from the one liquid,
through the tube wall to the other liquid.
There are various types of heat exchangers available. Shell and tube exchangers are
the most common. Most names of these exchangers are based on their
distinguishing design feature: U-style, fin tube, fixed tube sheet, floating head,
bayonet, and many others types. Also, varying pass arrangements and baffle and
shell alignments add to the multiplicity of available designs. Either the shell-side or
tube side fluids, or both, may be designed to pass through the exchanger several
times in concurrent, counter current, or cross flow to the other fluids. Figure 9.5-2
below shows a cutaway view of a shell and tube heat exchanger.
The concentric pipe within a pipe (double pipe) serves as a simple but efficient heat
exchanger. One fluid flows inside the smaller diameter pipe, and the other flows
either co-currently or counter-currently in the annular space between the two pipes.
In this case, the wall of the larger diameter pipe serves as the shell of the exchanger.
courtesy of ITT Bell & Gossett
Figure 9.5-2: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Cutaway View

Plate type heat exchangers have long been used in the milk industry for
pasteurization. These heat exchangers can provide high efficiencies in small
footprints. Figure 9.5-3 below shows an exploded view of a plate and frame heat
exchanger.
courtesy of Alfa Laval
Figure 9.5-3: Plate Heat Exchanger Exploded View

Heat exchangers are used for many different processes in the food and beverage,
power generation, chemical, petroleum, aerospace, and many other industries. The
processes for which heat exchangers are used are numerous and vary depending on
the desired results. Heat exchangers can either heat or cool a fluid (liquid or gas)
that is being fed through the exchanger without mixing the fluid or gas being heated
or cooled with the fluid or gas used to heat or cool. Any process requiring a liquid or
gas to be heated or cooled to a certain temperature can use a heat exchanger.
The heat exchanger itself has no moving parts, power supply, or controls, but
temperature control of the main process flow is normally required. This requires a
control valve to regulate the amount of heating or cooling fluid fed to the heat
exchanger. Typically, a temperature sensor is mounted in the heat exchanger outlet
pipe to monitor the temperature of the liquid. The sensor sends a signal to the
control system, which further opens or closes the valve modulating the heating or
cooling fluid flow.
For some applications, no temperature controls are required. Energy reclaim is one
example of an application for which no temperature controls are required; the heat
exchanger tries to maximize the heat recovered at all times. Most applications,
however, require temperature control, which requires a modulating control valve on
the heating or cooling liquid flow.
9.5.2.1 Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
Shell and tube heat exchangers often use steam to heat a fluid. The water to be
heated flows through the tubes, while the steam (which condenses) is fed to the
shell. As the steam heats the tubes, which in turn heats the water, the steam suffers
heat loss causing it to cool down and condense. When the condensate exits the heat
exchanger, it is normally returned to the steam generating system for reheating and
reuse.

Figure 9.5-4: Plate and Frame Heat Exchanger P&ID

9.5.2.2 Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers
Plate and frame heat exchangers are frequently used when both the hot and cold
fluids are liquids. The plates are sandwiched together in a frame creating a series of
narrow chambers. The hot fluid flows in every other chamber while the cold fluid
flows in the opposite direction in the alternate chambers. This design allows large
heat transfer at very high efficiencies in a small footprint. Figure 9.5-4 on the
opposite page is a P&ID of a plate and frame heat exchanger system using hot
water as the heating fluid.
9.5.2.3 Pressure Drop
The pressure drop through the heat exchanger and associated valves must be
considered for both the process fluid and the utility fluid. A smaller pressure drop is
advantageous for pumping considerations but often requires a larger (and more
expensive) heat exchanger and valves. Heat exchangers are often selected with
either a 5 or 10 psi pressure drop maximum. It is wise to check with the
manufacturer to see if a slight change in allowed pressure drop would permit a much
less expensive unit.
Fouling or scaling of heat exchange surfaces can decrease performance and increase
pressure drops. The operating conditions and fluid characteristics should be checked
to ensure that frequent cleaning is not required.

Shell and tube heat exchangers are available in various designs or arrangements.
These heat exchangers basically consist of two simple components: an arrangement
of tubes inside a shell. The number, layout, and design of the tubes, along with the
operation design, will vary between heat exchangers. The details are not normally a
concern from a process design perspective. The manufacturer of the heat exchanger
optimizes the physical arrangement of the tubes, baffles, etc. Figure 9.5-5 below is a
picture of a shell and tube heat exchanger with a removable bundle design. The
tubes (where the process water flows) are stainless steel so that no corrosion
products are introduced into the water. The shell (which receives steam and
condensate) is carbon steel.
Figure 9.5-5: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Plate and frame heat exchangers are usually of one basic design. Gasket material
can vary, but standard gaskets are normally compatible with water treatment needs.
For special applications, high performance gaskets, or even welded (no gasket)
exchangers, can be used (these applications are
not considered here). Figure 9.5-6 on the right
is a picture of a plate and frame heat exchanger.
These plates are stainless steel, as one side of
each plate sees process water.
Once the heat exchanger type has been selected
courtesy of Alfa Laval

based on the heating medium (shell and tube
for steam heating, plate and frame for hot water
heating) the details of the rest of the system can
be selected. The condition of the service water
(to be heated) is needed to size the heat
exchanger. The heating fluid conditions and the
system temperature and pressure are calculated
during the design process, allowing for the
constraints of available utilities. For hot water,
the minimum inlet and outlet temperatures are
required inputs. For steam, the inlet
temperature is a required whether or not the
steam is superheated. Saturated steam is Figure 9.5-6: Plate and Frame
normally used. Heat Exchanger
The following options are available for heat exchangers:
Structural Skid
An optional structural skid is available, on which the heat exchanger can be
mounted. A skid is useful when the piping and valves are large enough to require
separate support structures. Smaller piping and valves can often be supported by the
heat exchanger itself.
Skid Paint
If a structural skid is selected, skid paint must be selected. These are skid paint
options:
• Epoxy Polyamide Primer and Finish Coat - for typical indoor use
• Epoxy Polyamide Primer and Siloxane Finish - for typical outdoor use
• Siloxane Epoxy Primer and Finish Coat - for coastal outdoor use
• Other paint systems can be provided on request

Piping
Piping around a heat exchanger is metallic, rather than plastic, to avoid the
possibility of melting in case of overheating (for example, just after shut down). The
heating fluid (water or steam) typically flows in carbon steel pipes, while the service
water typically flows in stainless steel. Pressure requirements determine the
schedule (thickness) of the pipe.
Valves
Valves for the service water side are butterfly or diaphragm type. As the flow
through a heat exchanger is normally determined by upstream or downstream
equipment, actuated valves are not necessary. The manual valves remain open
except during maintenance.
Hot water valves can also be butterfly or diaphragm type. The modulating
temperature control valve can also be a V-ball style, when necessary for improved
control. For installations in which the modulating control valve is required to
operate continuously, it is advisable to install manual double block and bypass valves
to permit maintenance on the valve while still maintaining (manual) temperature
control.
Steam valves can be butterfly, gate (except the modulating valve and block valve),
globe (except the block valve) or ball type. An on-off actuated steam block valve is
provided to ensure positive steam shut-off when the heat exchanger does not require
steam. This prevents the modulating control valve from allowing steam to overheat
the volume of water in the heat exchanger when service flow stops.
Refer to Appendix G for a more detailed description of valve options.
Instrumentation
A pressure indicator on the steam feeding the heat exchanger is useful to confirm
operating conditions. Where fouling of a heat exchanger may occur, pressure gauges
or even transmitters are useful on the inlet and outlet of the unit.
A temperature transmitter is required on the service water outlet of the heat
exchanger to provide a control signal for the temperature control system.
Temperature indicators are useful for trouble shooting and can be provided on any
stream.

9.5.4.1 Application
Heat exchangers are used in several places in water treatment systems:

• Preheating of reverse osmosis feedwater
• Heating of dilution water for anion resin regeneration
• Cooling of recirculating flows
The size and type of heat exchanger selected for any application depends on the
heating medium (steam or water) and the temperatures and flows involved.
9.5.4.2 Heat Exchanger Selection
For water heated with steam, a shell and tube design is almost always used. To heat
(or cool) water with water, a plate and frame heat exchanger is more efficient.
For both types of exchangers, the manufacturer’s design procedures or software is
used to select the appropriate unit.
The following procedure is used to select an ITT Bell & Gossett Type SU shell and
tube heat exchanger. It defines the type of information needed to select a heat
exchanger for a set of specific parameters. The heat exchanger manufacturer’s
software would normally be used to do these calculations.
For heating water with steam, the following conditions must be known.
• Service water flow in tubes, in gpm (gallons per minute).
• Service water temperature in and out of the exchanger, in degrees Fahrenheit.
• Steam pressure in the unit, in psi (pounds per square inch). If the steam is
saturated (typical), either the temperature or the pressure is sufficient. Steam
tables can be used to find one, when the other is given. If the steam is not
saturated, the pressure and the number of degrees of superheat must be
specified.

Figure 9.5-7: Temperature Factor for Given

The following steps are used to determine what type of heat exchanger is required.
1. From Figure 9.5-7, on the opposite page, determine the clean tube Temperature
Factor using the water in temperature, the water out temperature, and the steam
pressure.
Table 9.5-1, below, provides the steam temperature at a given pressure. To
determine the Temperature Factor in Figure 9.5-7, the following ratio (A) must be
calculated:
A= Steam Temperature – Inlet Water Temperature

Steam Temperature – Outlet Water Temperature
The average water temperature in the tubes must also be calculated as follows:
Average Water Temperature = Inlet Water Temperature + Outlet Water Temperature

2
Using ratio A and the average water

temperature, the temperature factor can Steam Table at Sea Level
be found, on the opposite page, in Steam Pressure
Temp. °F
Figure 9.5-7. psig
0 212
2 218
5 227
10 240
15 250
20 259
25 267
30 276
40 288
50 298
75 321
100 338
125 353
150 366
Table 9.5-1: Steam Table

2. Water from different localities varies in mineral content. In the process of being
heated, the minerals are precipitated in the form of lime, scale, etc. They then
collect on the tube walls and reduce the ability of the heat exchanger to transfer
heat.
To offset a loss in heater capacity from fouling, the size of the heater should be
increased so that the unit will continue to operate at its rated capacity after scale
has collected. This is accomplished by adding a fouling factor to the clean tube.
To find a typical fouling factor, use Table 9.5-2 below.
TYPICAL FOULING FACTORS
Temp. of Heating Medium Up to 240°F 240° - 400°F *
Temp. of Water 125°F or less Over 125°F
Water Velocity Water Velocity

ft/sec ft/sec
Type of Water
Less Over Less Over
3 ft 3 ft 3 ft 3 ft

Sea Water 0.0005 0.0005 0.001 0.001
Distilled 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
Treated Boiler Feedwater 0.001 0.0005 0.001 0.001
Engine Jacket 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
City or Well (Great Lakes) 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002
River Water:
Mississippi 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.002
Delaware, Schuylkill 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.003
New York Bay 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.003
*Ratings in columns 3 and 4 are based on a temperature of the heating

medium of 240° - 400°. If the heating medium temperature is over 400° and
the cooling medium is known to scale, these ratings should be modified
accordingly.
Table 9.5-2: Typical Fouling Factors

Select "SU" by moving down G.P.M. column until temperature factor is
6" DIAMETER "SU" CAPACITY TABLE reached. Pressure drop in feet is shown in red. P.D. omitted below 1ft.
G.P.M. HEATED IN TUBES

"SU"
Number
2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90
SU62-6 53 49 47 36 29 24 21 17
1.2 2.2 3.4 4.8 6.3
53 44 36 31 25
SU63-6 84 77 73 1.6 2.9 4.5 6.6 8.6
73 56 47 41 34
SU64-6 98 1.9 3.6 5.7 8.3 10.9
92 72 60 51 42
SU65-6 2.4 4.3 6.9 10.1 13.2
SU66-6 87 71 61 50
5.0 8.0 11.8 15.6
SU67-6 84 72 59
9.2 13.6 17.9
SU68-6 95 82 67
10.3 15.3 20.3
Avg. Tube Vel. .5 ft./ .8 1.1 1.3 2.7 4.0 5.4 6.7 8.0
6" - 6-Pass sec.
SU62-4 37 31 26 22 18 16 14 13 10
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.1
courtesy of ITT Bell& Gossett

SU63-4 58 47 39 33 27 24 21 19 15
1.6 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.6 5.6
SU64-4 78 63 53 44 37 32 29 26 21
1.7 2.9 3.8 4.7 6.1 7.5
65 55 47 40 35 32 27
SU65-4 98 79 1.1 2.4 3.6 4.5 5.6 7.3 9.0
78 66 56 48 43 38 30
SU66-4 95 1.6 2.8 3.9 5.4 6.8 8.7 9.8
78 65 56 49 44 36
SU67-4 3.3 4.5 6.0 8.3 10.3 12.3
88 75 64 56 50 40
SU68-4 3.5 5.0 7.0 9.2 11.5 14.5
Avg. Tube Vel. .8 ft./ 1.4 2.8 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9 7.3
6" - 4-Pass sec.
SU62-2 19 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
1.1 1.3 1.5
14 12 10 9 8
SU63-2 30 26 24 22 20 18 16 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5
SU64-2 40 35 32 29 26 24 22 19 16 14 12 10
1.2 1.9 2.1 2.8 3.5
SU65-2 50 45 40 36 33 30 27 23 20 18 16 14
1.0 1.6 2.1 2.5 3.5 4.5
SU66-2 48 43 39 35 33 28 24 21 19 17
1.0 1.3 2.0 2.4 2.9 4.2 5.5
SU67-2 46 42 38 33 29 25 22 19
1.1 1.5 2.1 3.0 3.5 4.9 6.3
SU68-2 44 38 32 28 25 22
1.7 2.6 3.3 4.3 5.6 6.9
Avg. Tube Vel. .8 ft./ 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9 6.6
6" - 2-Pass sec.
Table 9.5-3: “SU” Capacity Table for 6-inch Diameter Heat Exchangers

To apply the fouling factor, the water velocity in the tube must be known. A heat
exchanger size must be tentatively selected from Table 9.5-3, on the opposite
page. The fouling multiplier based on the fouling factor and tube velocity
combination can then be found below in Figure 9.5-8. The modified
temperature factor can then be calculated.
Modified Temperature Factor = Temperature Factor x Fouling Multiplier
3. Scan the appropriate gpm column in Table 9.5-3 to select a heat exchanger
model that has a temperature factor greater than or equal to the modified
temperature factor calculated in the previous step.
Figure 9.5-8: Fouling Percentage for 3.7 fps with a Fouling Factor of .0005

Example Calculations
Assume the following information.

• The required flow is 25 gpm.
• Water temperatures are: In = 40ºF and Out = 140ºF.
• Steam Pressure at the unit is 20 psig.
• Use city or well water
Using Table 9.5-4 below, a steam pressure of 20 psig yields a temperature of 259ºF.
The ratio A must be calculated to find the temperature factor.
A = Steam Temperature – Inlet Water Temperature

Steam Temperature – Outlet Water Temperature
= 259ºF - 40ºF
259ºF - 140ºF
= 1.88
Steam Table at Sea Level
Steam Pressure
Temp. °F
psig
0 212
2 218
5 227
10 240
15 250
20 259
25 267
30 276
40 288
50 298
75 321
100 338
125 353
150 366
Table 9.5-4: Steam Table

Figure 9.5-9: Temperature Factor Determination

The average water temperature is also needed to determine the temperature factor.
Average Water Temperature = Inlet Water Temperature + Outlet Water Temperature

2
= 40ºF + 140ºF
2
= 90ºF
Using Figure 9.5-9 on the opposite page, an average water temperature of 90° F and
a ratio A of 1.88 yields a temperature factor of 28.
Using city or well water and an outlet water temperature of 140ºF, a fouling factor of
0.002 can be found below in Table 9.5-5.
TYPICAL FOULING FACTORS
Temp. of Heating Medium Up to 240°F 240° - 400°F *
Temp. of Water 125°F or less Over 125°F
Water Velocity Water Velocity

ft/sec ft/sec
Type of Water
Less Over Less Over
3 ft 3 ft 3 ft 3 ft

Sea Water 0.0005 0.0005 0.001 0.001
Distilled 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
Treated Boiler Feedwater 0.001 0.0005 0.001 0.001
Engine Jacket 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001
City or Well (Great Lakes) 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002
River Water:
Mississippi 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.002
Delaware, Schuylkill 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.003
New York Bay 0.003 0.002 0.004 0.003
*Ratings in columns 3 and 4 are based on a temperature of the heating

medium of 240° - 400°. If the heating medium temperature is over 400° and
the cooling medium is known to scale, these ratings should be modified
accordingly.
Table 9.5-5: Typical Fouling Factors


"SU"
Number
2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90
SU62-6 53 49 47 36 29 24 21 17
1.2 2.2 3.4 4.8 6.3
SU63-6 84 77 73 53 44 36 31 25
1.6 2.9 4.5 6.6 8.6
SU64-6 98 73 56 47 41 34
1.9 3.6 5.7 8.3 10.9
92 72 60 51 42
SU65-6 2.4 4.3 6.9 10.1 13.2
SU66-6 87 71 61 50
5.0 8.0 11.8 15.6
SU67-6 84 72 59
9.2 13.6 17.9
95 82 67
SU68-6 10.3 15.3 20.3
Avg. Tube Vel. .5 ft./ .8 1.1 1.3 2.7 4.0 5.4 6.7 8.0
6" - 6-Pass sec.
22 18 16 14 13 10
SU62-4 37 31 26 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.1

SU63-4 58 47 39 33 27 24 21 19 15
1.6 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.6 5.6
SU64-4 78 63 53 44 37 32 29 26 21
1.7 2.9 3.8 4.7 6.1 7.5
SU65-4 98 79 65 55 47 40 35 32 27
1.1 2.4 3.6 4.5 5.6 7.3 9.0
SU66-4 95 78 66 56 48 43 38 30
1.6 2.8 3.9 5.4 6.8 8.7 9.8
78 65 56 49 44 36
SU67-4 3.3 4.5 6.0 8.3 10.3 12.3
SU68-4 88 75 64 56 50 40
3.5 5.0 7.0 9.2 11.5 14.5
Avg. Tube Vel. .8 ft./

6" - 4-Pass sec. 1.4 2.8 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9 7.3
SU62-2 19 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
1.1 1.3 1.5
14 12 10 9 8
SU63-2 30 26 24 22 20 18 16 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5
SU64-2 40 35 32 29 26 24 22 19 16 14 12 10
1.2 1.9 2.1 2.8 3.5
27 23 20 18 16 14
SU65-2 50 45 40 36 33 30 1.0 1.6 2.1 2.5 3.5 4.5
SU66-2 48 43 39 35 33 28 24 21 19 17
1.0 1.3 2.0 2.4 2.9 4.2 5.5
42 38 33 29 25 22 19
SU67-2 46 1.1 1.5 2.1 3.0 3.5 4.9 6.3
SU68-2 44 38 32 28 25 22
1.7 2.6 3.3 4.3 5.6 6.9
Avg. Tube Vel. .8 ft./ 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9 6.6
6" - 2-Pass sec.

Using Table 9.5-6 on the opposite page, tentatively select a 6-inch diameter, four-
pass heat exchanger unit. With a 25 gpm requirement, the tube velocity is 3.7 feet
per second (fps).
With the fouling factor and the tube velocity, a fouling multiplier of 2.00 can be
found below from Figure 9.5-10. The modified temperature fouling multiplier is
then applied to the temperature factor.
Modified Temperature Factor = Temperature Factor x Fouling Multiplier

= 28 x 2.00
= 56
Figure 9.5-10: Fouling Percentage for 3.7 fps with a Fouling Factor of .0005


"SU"
Number
2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70 80 90
SU62-6 53 49 47 36 29 24 21 17
1.2 2.2 3.4 4.8 6.3
SU63-6 84 77 73 53 44 36 31 25
1.6 2.9 4.5 6.6 8.6
SU64-6 98 73 56 47 41 34
1.9 3.6 5.7 8.3 10.9
92 72 60 51 42
SU65-6 2.4 4.3 6.9 10.1 13.2
SU66-6 87 71 61 50
5.0 8.0 11.8 15.6
SU67-6 84 72 59
9.2 13.6 17.9
95 82 67
SU68-6 10.3 15.3 20.3
Avg. Tube Vel. .5 ft./ .8 1.1 1.3 2.7 4.0 5.4 6.7 8.0
6" - 6-Pass sec.
22 18 16 14 13 10
SU62-4 37 31 26 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.7 3.4 4.1

SU63-4 58 47 39 33 27 24 21 19 15
1.6 2.2 2.9 3.6 4.6 5.6
SU64-4 78 63 53 44 37 32 29 26 21
1.7 2.9 3.8 4.7 6.1 7.5
SU65-4 98 79 65 55 47 40 35 32 27
1.1 2.4 3.6 4.5 5.6 7.3 9.0
SU66-4 95 78 66 56 48 43 38 30
1.6 2.8 3.9 5.4 6.8 8.7 9.8
78 65 56 49 44 36
SU67-4 3.3 4.5 6.0 8.3 10.3 12.3
SU68-4 88 75 64 56 50 40
3.5 5.0 7.0 9.2 11.5 14.5
Avg. Tube Vel. .8 ft./

6" - 4-Pass sec. 1.4 2.8 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9 7.3
SU62-2 19 17 15 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
1.1 1.3 1.5
14 12 10 9 8
SU63-2 30 26 24 22 20 18 16 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5
SU64-2 40 35 32 29 26 24 22 19 16 14 12 10
1.2 1.9 2.1 2.8 3.5
27 23 20 18 16 14
SU65-2 50 45 40 36 33 30 1.0 1.6 2.1 2.5 3.5 4.5
SU66-2 48 43 39 35 33 28 24 21 19 17
1.0 1.3 2.0 2.4 2.9 4.2 5.5
42 38 33 29 25 22 19
SU67-2 46 1.1 1.5 2.1 3.0 3.5 4.9 6.3
SU68-2 44 38 32 28 25 22
1.7 2.6 3.3 4.3 5.6 6.9
Avg. Tube Vel. .8 ft./ 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.7 4.4 5.1 5.9 6.6
6" - 2-Pass sec.

Look along the 25 gpm column in Table 9.5-7, on the opposite page, to find a unit
that can accommodate a modified temperature factor of 56. Model SU66-4 can
handle a modified temperature factor capacity of 56, with a pressure drop of 3.9 psig.
This model will handle the design conditions for this application.
This example calculation represents the selection of a shell and tube heat exchanger
using information from an ITT Bell & Gossett heat exchangers selection brochure. To
decide on a model of another type heat exchanger, for example a plate and frame
heat exchanger, use the manufacturer supplied procedure to select the appropriate
model.
It is important to remember that valves and pipes need to be sized appropriately to

assure optimum heat exchanger performance. For more information on sizing
modulating valves, refer to Appendix G. Refer to Appendix I for more details
regarding pipe sizing.
The heat exchanger delivers the water at the desired temperature.

9.6 Hot Water Tanks
9.6.1 Fundamentals
A hot water tank is a vessel containing an immersion heater and the necessary pipes
and valves to provide hot water to a process. It is virtually identical in function to a
home hot water heater.
The hot water tank is kept full of water. An immersion heater is activated to heat up
and maintain the temperature of the water in the tank. This hot water is mixed with
cold water to achieve the required water temperature. Figure 9.6-1, below, is a
graphic of a hot water tank.
Mixing
Valve
Hot Water
Outlet
Cold Water
Inlet
Heater
Figure 9.6-1: Hot Water Tank

Figure 9.6-2: Hot Water Tank P&ID

Figure 9.6-2 on the opposite page, shows a P&ID of a hot water tank system. A
thermostat controls the operation of the immersion heater by turning the heater on
or off depending on the temperature setting. Once the water reaches the desired
temperature, the thermostat turns the immersion heater off. As water is used for the
process and new water is added, the water temperature drops. The thermostat
detects the temperature drop and cycles the immersion heater again to heat the
water and maintain the desired temperature.
It is important to note that a hot water tank is not a tank that can be drawn down or
emptied. It contains no air space and is normally pressurized. Any time water flows
out of the tank, makeup water flows in, keeping the tank filled and pressurized.
A 3-way modulating blend valve with a temperature control system blends hot water
from the tank and cold water from makeup to provide water at the desired
temperature. By storing water hotter than required and mixing as needed, the size of
the tank is minimized without affecting the energy requirements.
Hot water heaters are steel pressure vessels that are designed and tested to meet the
requirements of section VIII, division 1 of the ASME code (see Appendix H for
vessel construction details). The vessel is provided with insulation rings and studs
for field insulation. The size and placement of the manway is optional.
9.6.3.1 Piping
The piping is constructed of schedule 10S stainless steel. Stainless steel is used
because it provides excellent corrosion resistance, combined with mechanical
strength, eliminating the risk of failure under normal hot operating conditions.

9.6.3.2 Immersion Heaters
The number and sizing of the heaters are selected to provide the necessary wattage
for each application. The immersion heater features incolloy or stainless steel
heating element sheaths that are silver brazed to 150-pound stainless steel flanges.
Figure 9.6-3, below, is a picture of an immersion heater.
courtesy of ASB
Figure 9.6-3: Immersion Heater
The heater is controlled by the thermostat, which cycles the heater on and off as
required to maintain temperature. It is also provided with a high temperature cutoff
to prevent accidental burnout.
An option of an SCR controller is available for applications where cost is not as

important is limiting the on/off switching of large kW loads. The SCR controller
continuously varies the amount of power reaching the heater instead of switching
the power on and off.
9.6.3.3 Temperature Blend Valve
The blend valve is a three-way stainless steel body globe valve with a pneumatic
actuator. It is controlled by a 4-20 mA signal from the control system. The control
system calculates a signal based on the analog temperature transmitter. The valve
blends hot water from the tank and cold water that has bypassed the tank in
proportion to the signal it receives from the control system.
9.6.3.4 Valves
Manual diaphragm valves are supplied to isolate the hot water tank. Valves can also
be provided to isolate the blend valve.

9.6.3.5 Tank Lining
A sprayed on corrosion lining of 8 to 10 mil thick epoxy polyamide is provided with

the tank.
9.6.3.6 Paint
All surfaces are cleaned and primed with an inorganic zinc primer, to a dry film
thickness of 2 to 3 mils. Field insulation precludes the necessity of a finish coat.
A temperature indicator and temperature switch are provided on every hot water
tank to permit monitoring of the temperature. A temperature transmitter in the
blended water piping permits modulating control of the blend valve.
As an extra level of protection against heater burnout, a level switch is provided in

the hot water tank (even though the tank should always be full and pressurized) just
above the level of the heater elements. This can be used as an emergency shut down
switch.
Hot water tanks are used in anion resin regeneration systems in place of steam heat
exchangers (where steam is not available) or instantaneous electric heaters (to reduce
the peak current requirement) to provide warm water for resin preheat, caustic
dilution and caustic displacement (slow rinse).
When sizing a hot water tank, the following information is needed:

• Duration of time warm (blended) water is needed
• Warm water flow rate (typically the dilution water flow rate)
• Temperature (typically 120°F or 95°F depending on the resin)
• Minimum temperature of cold water feed
• Minimum specified time to heat the tank from cold
The hot water tank is typically operated at 180°F (although slightly higher
temperatures can be used). With this information, an energy balance can be
performed around the hot water system (labeling the blended water as warm) to
calculate the amount of hot water required from the heater:

(WWF) x (WWT) = (HWF) x (HWT)+(CWF) x (CWT)
Where:
WWF = Warm Water Flow
WWT = Warm Water Temperature
HWF = Hot Water Flow
HWT = Hot Water Temperature
CWF = Cold Water Flow
CWT = Cold Water Temperature
The warm water flow is the sum of hot and cold water flows (blended) and all other
numbers are known except the hot water flow. Combining these to solve for the hot
water flow:
HWF = WWF x WWT – CWT

(
HWT – CWT )
The volume of hot water required is the hot water flow rate multiplied by the
duration needed. Sometimes there is a requirement that enough hot water be
available for two complete regenerations. In this case, the tank volume required
would be double that volume calculated. The vessel dimensions can be selected to
provide this volume (often ignoring volume in the top and bottom heads).
Once the volume of the tank is calculated the heater can be sized. The heat capacity
of water is used in this calculation (in consistent units):
Energy Required = ________________ Mass to be heated______________________

Heat Time x Material Heat Capacity x Required Temperature rise
If a heat capacity of water of 1 Btu per lb per °F is used, time is expressed in minutes
and mass is expressed in lb (at 8.34 lb per US gallons):
Energy (in Btu/min) = ___________Volume in gallons x 8.34 lb/gal___________

Heat time (minutes) x 1 Btu/lb/°F x Temperature rise (°F)
Energy can be converted to kW by dividing by 56.92.
This energy can be supplied by one heater or split between two or three.

As an example, consider a system requiring 170 minutes of 120°F water at 8.4 gpm.
Cold water is available at 42° to 50°F and a maximum 3-hour (180-minute) heat up
time is required.
Assume 180°F hot water in the tank. As there is no stated requirement for excess
hot water storage capacity, the volume of hot water can be calculated as follows:
Hot water flow (gpm) = 8.4 x (120°F - 42°F) / (180°F - 42°F) = 4.75 gpm
Hot water tank volume required = 4.75 gpm x 170 minutes = 807 gallons
A 48-inch diameter by 96-inch straight side tank has a volume of 857 gallons. The
whole tank is heated, not just the volume required:
Energy (in Btu/min) = 857 gallons x 8.34 lb/gal______

180 min x 1 Btu/lb/°F x (180°F - 42°F)
= 5,480 Btu/min
5,480 Btu/min / 56.92 kW/(Btu/min) = 96 kW
A safety factor can be added to this number, but note that the tank already contains
a slight excess volume and the coldest temperature was used for incoming water.
Use a 100 kW heater. The blend valve must mix 4.75 gpm of hot water with 3.65
gpm of cold water to produce the 8.4 gpm of warm water.

9.7 Rotary Lobe Blowers
9.7.1 Fundamentals
The design theory for equipment to move gases and vapors is similar to that of
pumps that move liquids, with the exception that gases are compressible. The
pressure head developed, in terms of feet of fluid being pumped, is almost identical
at equivalent circumferential speeds (impeller tip velocity) for centrifugal liquid
pump designs; impellers impart similar heads to both liquids and gases.
Machines used to compress gases are usually referred to as the following:

• Fans (centrifugal and propeller)
• Blowers (centrifugal and lobular)
• Compressors (multistage centrifugal,
lobular, and piston)
A blower consists of three parts: a housing, an

impeller, and a motor to drive the impeller.
The housing has two flanged openings: one
courtesy of Hibon
for suction of air, and the other for discharge
of air. When the blower unit is operating, the
motor rotates the impeller at the design
speed. The rotation of the impeller pulls air in
through the suction side and pushes it out the
discharge side. The pressure of the air coming
out from the discharge depends on the model
of blower selected.
Rotary lobe blowers receive their names from

the design used for the impellers.
Figure 9.7-1, on the right, is a sample of a Figure 9.7-1: Rotary Lobe

rotary lobe blower impeller. The rotary lobe Blower Impellers
design offers several advantages over other
types of blowers:
• Better impeller balancing helps withstand fatigue
• Increased volumetric efficiency
• Lower noise levels

During the cleaning and regeneration cycles of certain types of water treatment
equipment, a supply of low pressure, pressurized air is required. When a source for
pressurized air is not available, rotary lobe blowers can be used to supply the
requirement.
Rotary lobe blowers are operated by simply turning the unit on or off. This can be
done manually, but it is frequently done via a control system, as part of a control
sequence.
Figure 9.7-2 below shows a picture of a rotary lobe blower. Blowers are available as
a package that includes the motor, blower, belts, and all necessary equipment
mounted on a skid. Figure 9.7-3 below is a picture of a packaged blower unit.
courtesy of Hibon
Figure 9.7-2: Rotary Lobe Blower

courtesy of Hibon
Figure 9.7-3: Packaged Blower Unit

Figure 9.7-4: Rotary Lobe Blower P&ID

Blowers are supplied complete with baseplate, inlet filter, inlet silencer, outlet
silencer, relief valve, check valve, flexible connectors, V-belt, belt guard, and drive
motor. There are several options for the blower motor depending on the
environment in which the system operates.
A check valve, a pressure relief valve, and a manual isolating valve (with an option of
butterfly or diaphragm) are installed in the discharge line of the blower. The piping
can be carbon steel or stainless steel; stainless steel is typical for blowers that feed
mixed bed ion exchange units.
Each blower system has pressure and flow indicators on the discharge line. A
discharge pressure switch can be useful to detect low pressure (indicative of
operational problems). A differential pressure switch mounted across the inlet filter
alerts operators when the filter must be replaced. A flow transmitter downstream
from the blower can also be used in conjunction with a control system to monitor
the airflow. Figure 9.7-4, on the opposite, page shows a P&ID of a rotary lobe
blower system.
All exposed steel components in the blower system can be painted with one of
several paint systems:
• Epoxy polyamide primer and finish coat (primarily for indoor service)
• Epoxy polyamide primer and siloxane finish coat (primarily for outdoor service)
• Siloxane primer and finish coat primarily (for coastal/corrosive outdoor
environments)
• Custom paints are also available by customer request
For installations where noise levels from the blower operation are a problem, a noise
enclosure is available for each blower to reduce noise to acceptable levels.

Casing
The casing houses the impellers and provides connections for piping.
Shaft
The impeller is mounted to the shaft. The motor rotates the shaft (via belts and
pulleys), which causes the impeller to rotate.
Impeller
The impeller forces air into the suction opening of the casing and out of the
discharge. Impellers are designed for specific results. The impeller, in conjunction
with the motor speed, controls the blower capacity.
Belts
Belts are used to transfer the rotating motion of the motor to the shaft, which in turn
rotates the impeller.
Filter
The filter is installed on the inlet before the silencer. This filter prevents any kind of
debris from entering the suction of the blower, thus preventing damage or
contamination.
Silencer
Silencers are installed on the suction side of the blower, after the filter. Silencers
reduce the levels of noise created by the blowers.
Relief Valves
Relief valves are used to relieve any excessive pressure that builds up in the blower
piping due to blockage.

A typical use of the pressurized air produced by these blowers is for the resin mixing
step during the regeneration sequence of mixed bed ion exchange units. Pressurized
air is also necessary to air scour filtration media during the cleaning cycle of some
filter units.
Blowers are sized for the application they service. In the design of mixed bed or filter
units, the air capacity is calculated based on the diameter of the vessel. This is
expressed in standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM). Standard refers to the standard
reference conditions of 0°C and 1 atmosphere of pressure.
For the applications required here, the blower pressure is always specified as 7.5 psig.
This provides enough pressure to overcome pressure drops in the piping and
through the media in the vessel.
Once the flow of air and the pressure are known, the specifications can be supplied
to the blower manufacturer for proper sizing and selection.


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ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

9.1 Atmospheric Tanks ............................................................................................................... 5

9.2 Pumps ................................................................................................................................... 13

34a_m2_r0 9-1 Ancillary

9.3 Chemical Feed Equipment ................................................................................................ 32

9.4 Chemical Regeneration ..................................................................................................... 42

34a_m2_r0 9-2 Ancillary

9.6 Hot Water Tanks .................................................................................................................. 75

9.7 Rotary Lobe Blowers .......................................................................................................... 81

34a_m2_r0 9-3 Ancillary

9.0 Ancillary Equipment

Section 9.4, Chemical Regeneration Equipment: Chemical regeneration

34a_m2_r0 9-4 Ancillary

Figure 9.1-1 shows a

34a_m2_r0 9-5 Ancillary

No process operation is involved. The requirements of a storage tank are to receive a

Besides an inlet and an outlet, a tank requires a vent/overflow connection. This

9.1.3 Equipment and Design

Depending on the requirements of the application, one of three basic tank

• Horizontal Storage Tanks: Used for bulk chemical storage.

34a_m2_r0 9-6 Ancillary

34a_m2_r0 9-7 Ancillary

34a_m2_r0 9-8 Ancillary

34a_m2_r0 9-9 Ancillary

Service Outlet Strainer

• Epoxy polyamide primer and finish - generally for indoor use

34a_m2_r0 9-10 Ancillary

Softeners require a specific amount of salt per regeneration. This amount is a

34a_m2_r0 9-11 Ancillary

Brine volume (gallons) =

# of regenerations of brine x pounds of salt per regeneration______

Salt volume (gal) = # of regenerations of salt x pounds of salt per regeneration

34a_m2_r0 9-12 Ancillary

A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller arranged to rotate within a casing.

Figure 9.2-1: Pump Skid

34a_m2_r0 9-13 Ancillary

Figure 9.2-2: Pump Performance Curve

34a_m2_r0 9-14 Ancillary

34a_m2_r0 9-15 Ancillary

To prevent cavitation, it is necessary to operate the pump with sufficient pressure

To calculate the efficiency of a pump, the following formula can be used:

Pump Efficiency (E) =% Efficiency = (whp/bhp) x 100

whp = Water Horsepower

34a_m2_r0 9-16 Ancillary

Figure 9.2-3: Mechanical Efficiency of Pumps

• Goulds Pump Manual (GPM)

34a_m2_r0 9-17 Ancillary

Pumps can be operated by manually switching the pump on or off, or

34a_m2_r0 9-18 Ancillary

Seal Chambers Impeller

Figure 9.2-4: Cutaway View of a Typical ANSI Pump

34a_m2_r0 9-19a Ancillary

Single-stage centrifugal pumps are widely used in home, commercial and

34a_m2_r0 9-19 Ancillary

The multi-stage centrifugal pump is essentially a high-head or high-pressure

Figure 9.2-5: Multi-Stage Pumps

34a_m2_r0 9-20 Ancillary

Figure 9.2-6: Four Submersible Pumps

34a_m2_r0 9-21 Ancillary

courtesy of Torpedo Pump

Figure 9.2-7: Internal View of a Submersible Pump

9.2.3 Equipment Design and Options

34a_m2_r0 9-22 Ancillary