AIM: To study the frequency modulation and demodulation.

APPARATUS:
1. Frequency modulation and demodulation kit(2203)
2. MATLAB Code
3. CRO
4. Patch codes.
OBJECTIVE:
1) To generate a message signalsine wave(frequency 300hz to 3.4khz and amplitude(0
to 10V ) and plot its frequency modulation output.
6
2) To generate a carrier wave(Amplitude 0 to 1 V and frequency e Hz).
3) To generate a frequency modulated wave (frequency varying in accordance to
magnitude of the message signal,amplitude=amplitude of the carrier wave)
4) To receive the message signal and plot its demodulated output.
THEORY:

DEFINATION: Frequency modulation is the process of varying the frequency of carrier

signals according to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION FOR FREQUENCY MODULATED SIGNAL:
Let the sinusoidal modulating voltage would be given by the expressionwdt
Vm=vmcoswmt (1)
Where wm is the angular frequency of the modulating voltage in radian/sec and vm is its
amplitude in volts. Let the carrier voltage be given by
Vc=vccos(wm+ө) or vcsin(wm+ө) (2)
Where wc is the angular frequency of the carrier in rad/sec. vcis the amplitude of the carrier
in volts and өc is the phase angle in radians.
Let Φ=wct+ө (3)
In equation (3) , Φ is the total instantaneous phase angle of the carrier voltage so that
equation(2) may be written as
Vc=vcsin Φ (4)
Obviously the angular frequency wc is related to phase Φby the relation.
Wc=dΦ/dt (5)
On frequency modulation the frequency of the carrier no longer remains constant but varies
with time in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage. Thus the
frequency of the carrier voltage after FM is given by:
W=wc+kf(vm) (6)
W=wc+kf(vmcoswmt) (7)

Where kf is the constant of proportionality. Integration of equation (7) yields the phase
angle of the modulated carrier voltage .thus we get,

Φ=∫ 𝑤𝑑𝑡 = ∫{ wc+kf(vmcoswmt)}dt (8)

Or
Φ=wc+kfvm1/wm(sinwmt)+ Φ1 (9)
Where Φ1 is the constant of integration and represent a constant phase angle. Angle Φ 1 may
be neglected in the following analysis since it is insignificant in the modulation process.
Hence the frequency modulated carrier voltage is guvenby .
Vc=vcsin[wct+kfvm1/wm(sinwmt)] (10)
From equation (7) instantaneous frequency of frequency modulated carrier voltage in H 2 is
given by
f =w/2π -fc+kf(vm)/2πcos(wmt) (11)
The maximum value of frequency is given by ,

Fmax=fc+kf(vm)/2π (12)

The minimum value of the frequency is given by

fmin= fc-kf(vm)/2π (13)

Thus the frequency deviation that is the maximum variation in frequency from the mean
value is given by
fd=fmax-fc=fc-fmin=kf(vm)/2π (14)

Modulation index mf is the ratio of frequency deviation to modulation frequency and is also
indicated by δ
Thus δ =mf=fd/fm=wd/wm=kfvm/wm. (15)
Thus the expression for the frequency modulated voltage is given by
Vc= vcsin[wct+mfsinwmt] (16)
It may be noted that as the modulated frequency wm decreases and the modulating
voltage of the amplitude remains constant, that is wd remains constant the
modulating signal increases
INTRODUCTION TO BESSEL FUNCTION:
A function Zn(X) defined by recurrence relations:
Zn+1+Zn-1=(2n/X)Zx
And Zn+1+Zn-1= -2dZn/dx
The bessel function are more frequently defined as solutions to the differential equations;
There are two classes if solutions called the Bessel function of the first kind J n (X) and the
Bessel function of the kind Yn(X).a bessel function of third kind, more commonly called a
Hankel function,is a special combination of the first and the second kind.
Expression of FM using Bessel function:
The expression for wave is not simple.it is a complex, since it is sine of sine function.The
only way to solve this equation is by using Bessel function.by using the Bessel function the
equation for FM wave can be explained as follows:
Efm=s(t)=E{j0(mf)sinwct}
+j1(mf)[sin(wc+wm)t-sin(wc-2wm)t]
+j2(mf)[sin(wc+2wm)-sin(wc-3wm)t]
+j3(mf)[sin(wc+3wm)-sin(wc-4wm)]………}
=carrier+infinite number of sidebands
Procedure:
1. PRECAUTIONS BEFORE CONNECTIONS ON THE 2203
a) All Switch Faults in ‘Off’ condition.
b) Amplitude potentiometer of Audio Oscillator block in minimum position.
c) Frequency potentiometer of Audio Oscillator block in maximum position.
d) Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Reactance Modulator block in center position.
e) Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Varactor Modulator block in center position.
f) Amplitude potentiometer of Low pass filter/Amplifier block in center position.
g) VCO frequency Adjust potentiometer of Phase-Locked Loop detector (IC4046 based)
block in minimum position.
h) Carrier Frequency potentiometer of Frequency Modulator (IC XR2206 based) block in
minimum position.
i) VCO Frequency Adjust potentiometer of Frequency Demodulator (IC LM565 based) block
in minimum position.
j) Amplitude potentiometer of Mixer/Amplifier block in maximum position.
2. Turn on power to the Scientech 2203 TechBook.
3. Audio oscillator block generates a sine wave (frequency: 300 Hz to 3.4 KHz approximately
and amplitude: 0 to 10Vpp). This signal is used as a modulating signal. Observe this signal at
the output test point of this block and vary the amplitude and the frequency with the
respective potentiometer

FIG 5.1.Audio Oscillator output signal

4. Return the amplitude potentiometer to its minimum position.

5. Check that Reactance modulator block is selected for operation which is indicated by
glowing LEDs at the input and output of this block. If not, press the 'Modulator Select' switch
to select it. This selection switches the output of the Reactance modulator through to the
input of the Mixer/Amplifier block.
6. The carrier signal from the Reactance modulator block appears at output test point of
this block, before being buffered and amplified by the Mixer/Amplifier block. Although the
output from the Reactance modulator block can be monitored directly at test point, any
capacitive loading affect this point (e.g. due to an Oscilloscope probe) may slightly affect the
modulator's output frequency. In order to avoid this problem we will monitor the buffered
FM output signal at the output test point of the Mixer/Amplifier block.
 7. Put the Reactance modulator's Carrier Frequency potentiometer in its midway position
then examine the signal at the output test point of the Mixer/Amplifier block. Note: The
monitored signal is a sine wave of approximately 1.2Vpp centered on 0 volts DC. This is our
FM carrier, and it is presently un-modulated since the amplitude of the modulating signal in
Audio Oscillator block is set to 0V.

FIG.5.2.Carrier frequency output from Reactance modulator

8. The frequency of the FM carrier signal should be approximately 455 KHz at the moment.
This carrier frequency can be varied from 452 KHz to 458 KHz (approximately) by adjusting
the carrier frequency potentiometer in the Reactance modulator block to maximum and
minimum position respectively.
9. The amplitude of the FM carrier is adjustable by means of the Mixer/Amplifier block's
amplitude potentiometer. Try turning this potentiometer slowly anticlockwise, and note
that the amplitude of the FM signal can be reduced to zero. Return the amplitude
potentiometer of Mixer/Amplifier block to its maximum position.
10. Now gradually increase the amplitude of modulating signal from the Audio oscillator
block using the amplitude potentiometer and observe the frequency modulated waveform
at the output test point of Mixer/Amplifier block.
At higher amplitude the FM signal gets over-modulated hence the waveform distorts.
Frequency modulated waveform If you have such a control, display 20-25 cycles of the
waveform on the Oscilloscope, and then use the X-expansion control to 'expand up' the
right most cycles of the display. There should be a slight ambiguity in the positions of these
cycles, indicating that the sine wave is being frequency-modulated.
FIG.5.3.Frequency modulated waveform in expanded mode in middle position

FIG.5.4.Frequency modulated waveform in expanded mode at right most position

11. Try varying the amplitude & frequency potentiometer in audio oscillators block and
observe the variations in the frequency deviation of FM signal.
12. Also observe the effect of varying the carrier frequency potentiometer in the
Mixer/Amplifier block on FM signal. Return the carrier frequency potentiometer to its
midway position.
13. Observe the modulating signal processed with proper biasing voltage for FM operation
at test point 2. Modulating signal input to oscillator circuit
 FIG.5.5.Modulating signal input to oscillator circuit

FIG.5.6. Tuned oscillator circuit's FM output before amplifier at test point 1.

14. The Tuned oscillator circuit's FM output before amplifier at test point 1is shown in figure
5.6.

.
FIG-5.7 . FM signal at the input
15. The input signal to tuned amplifier circuit of Mixer/Amplifier at test point 8 is shown in
figure 5.7
16. The audio oscillator output and the FM output triggering the Oscilloscope on the audio
output signal is shown in figure 5.8. Turn the audio oscillator's amplitude potentiometer
throughout its range of adjustment and note that the amplitude of the FM output signal
does not change. This is because the audio information is contained entirely in the signal's
frequency, and not in its amplitude.

FIG-5.8 . FM signal at the output of amplitude limiter

OBSERVATIONS:

1. As the amplitude of the modulating source increases, the frequency of the

carrier increases but amplitude remains constant.
2. As the amplitude of the modulating source decreases, the frequency of the
carrier decreases but amplitude remains constant.
3.The amplitude of the fm modulated carrier remains constant as the
amplitude of the modulating source varies.
CONCLUSION:FM waveforms studied.
Figure3.2

Figure3.3
 Figure3.4
MODULATED FM CARRIER: when the carrier is modulated,the frequency of
the carrier varies by an amount that is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating waveform.this occurs by a rate that is determined by modulation
frequency.
Fig1 (a) graphically illustrates what happens when a carrier is frequency
modulated.Fig(b) shows one period of a audio signal that will be used to
frequency modulate carrier.Fig(c) shows how does the audio signal affects the
carrier.
At time,
T=<0,RF carrier operating at a specific frequency.
T=0,the modulating signal is applied to RF carrier.
T=1,the frequency of the modulated RF carrier has increased proportionally.
T=2, the amplitude of the modulating signal attains a maximum value.at the
same time,the RF carrier has increased to its maximum frequency.
T=3, the modulating waveform begins to decrease in amplitude and the carrier
frequency also begins to decrease Fig(c)
POWER RELATION IN FM CARRIER WAVE:
The amplitude of the carrier wave is not affected during the process of
frequency modulation. Hence the total powers in the waves remain unchanged
irrespective of the degree of modulation . In frequency modulation, only the
capacitance of the oscillator tank circuit is changed due to modulating signal so
that a change dell f in the frequency of oscillator takes place. The worth noting
point is that the power output of the oscillator remains unaffected during the
process of frequency modulation.
Average power in unmodulated carrier is
Above equation shows that the average power remains same after modulation
Total power is Pt=P0+P1+P2+…
P0 has only one component whereas others have two components which are
centered around P0
E1,E2,E3,E4 are amplitude of side frequency components.
E0 is carrier amplitude.

Characteristics of FM wave
1) Unlike AM, where there are only these frequencies (carrier and first two
sidebands),FM has infinite sidebands as well as carrier. They are
separated from the carrier by the fm,2fm, 3fm,………. and thus have
recurrence of the frequency fm.
2) The j coefficients eventually decrease in value as n increases, but not in
any simple manner the value fluctuates on either side of zero and
gradually diminishing.
3) The modulating index determines how many sidebands have significant
amplitudes.
4) The sidebands are at equal distance from fc have equal amplitudes, so
that sideband distribution is symmetrical about carrier frequency.
5) The j coefficients occasionally have negative values, signifies 180 degree
phase change for that pair of sidebands.
6) As mf increases,so does the value of a particular j coefficient. As mf is
inversely proportional to the modulating frequency, we see that the
modulating frequency is lowered assuming the deviation (i.e. the
modulating voltage) has remained constant.
7) In FM, the total transmitted power remains constant but with increased
depth of modulation the required bandwidth is increased deviation, and
therefore increased modulation index, so that more distant side bands
acquire significant amplitudes.
 8) The theoretical bandwidth of FM signal is infinite.
9) In FM, unlike AM, the amplitude of carrier does not remain constant. Its j
coefficient is j0 which is the function of mf.
10) It is impossible for carrier component of FM wave to disappear
completely. This happens for certain values of modulation index, called
Eigen values.
11) Bandwidth of FM modulated signal is given by the relationship.
12) According to CARSON’S rule an approximation of the bandwidth of
FM signal is given by :BW=2(df +fm)
13) Bandwidth of carrier signal increases with the increase in
modulation index mf.
14) Magnitude of carrier signal decreases as mf, modulation index
increases.
15) The amplitude of FM signal depends on jo(mf).
16) The power of the FM signal is constant and therefore the power
transmitted depends only on the amplitude of signal.it does not depend
on modulation index.
17) The total power of FM signal consist of power in carrier
components and all the power in sidebands. The FM signal is resistant to
noise. Therefore it is used for communication purposes.
Frequency spectrum:
This figure shows frequency spectrum which refers to FM signal in frequency
domain which can be seen on spectrum analyser
Figure3.5

Bandwidth:
A bandwidth gives the frequency spectrum required for the transmission. FM
bandwidth depends on the modulation index, β.The higher the modulation the
modulation index β, the greater the required system bandwidth. FM
bandwidth is given by the formula: fmax -fmin .
FM signal bandwidth can be calculated using the equation below :
Carson law: 2(β+1)fm
Bessel law: 2xnfm
Frequency deviation and carrier swing:
The frequency of an FM transmitter without signal is known as the resting
frequency and is donated by fo or fc. When the signal is applied, the carrier
frequency deviates up and down from its center frequency fc.
The change or shift above and below the mean or centre frequency is called
the Frequency deviation. It is denoted by fd or∆𝑓
The total variation in frequency from the minimum to maximum value is called
the carrier swing and it is twice the frequency deviation.
Modulation index:
It is defined as the the ratio of frequency deviation to the frequency of
modulating signal. The term has no units and it is expressed as a decimal. For a
constant frequency deviation, the modulation index drops as the frequency of
modulating signal increases. During the transmission of FM signal, the
modulation index varies as modulation frequency varies. The relationship is
important for the determination of bandwidth requirements of an FM signal.
Frequency modulation index,
Mf(orδ)= ∆𝑓/fm=kfvm/ϣ𝑚
For a given frequency deviation (∆𝑓) or for a constant amplitude of modulating
voltage, the modulation index varies inversely as the modulating frequency fm.
Frequency modulation index can exceed unity:

FM sidebands:
The FM wave consists of carrier frequency (fc) plus a series sidebands of
decreasing amplitude speed about the carrier by the modulating frequency i.e.
fc,(fc,fm),(fc,2fm),(fc,3fm) and so on. Theoretically the number of sidebands is
infinite, their strength becomes negligible after a few sidebands. Sidebands at
equal distances on either side from fc have equal amplitude.

FM DETECTION :
An FM detector or demodulater is a circuit used to convert the intelligence in
the FM carrier back to its original baseband form,that is the modulating
voltage. Various techniques can be used to demodulate the FM signal. The free
running VCO frequency, f is governed by the eqution :
F=1.2/(4.R1.C1)

SLOPE DETECTOR :
The FM slope detector uses the attenuation slope of a circuit to convert
frequency into amplitudes variations that can then use a diode detector to give
the require audio. FM slope detector is a concept that can be used to recover
the modulation from an FM signal, but it is not widely used. The very simplest
form of FM demodulation is known as slope detection or demodulation. It
consists of a tuned circuit that is tuned to frequency slightly offset from the
carrier of the signal.
Figure3.6
Envelope Detector working principle:
If we assume that capacitor is absent in the circuit, in this case the detector will
act as half wave rectifier. Now consider the capacitor is introduced in the
circuit. For the positive half cycle, the diode conducts and capacitor is changed
to the peak value of carrier voltage. However, for the negative half cycle, the
diode is reverse biased and does not conduct. This means that the input
voltage is disconnected from the R-C circuit. Therefore the capacitor starts
discharging through the resistance R with the time constant RC. If time
constant is suitably chosen, the voltage across the capacitor will not fall
appreciably during the small period of negative half cycle and by the capacitor
to its peak value and thus this process repeats again and again. Hence the
voltage across the capacitor is same as envelope of modulated carrier signal.
Thus the spikes are introduced due to charging and discharging.
Condition to set time constant:
Rate of discharge of capacitor >=Rate of decrease of modulation envelope
Derivation:
Let us take the single tone AM signal
ᵩAm(t)= A(1+macoswmt)wct (1)
let us take envelope detector of AM voltage as:
e=A(1+macoswmt)wct (2)
let rate of change of AM voltage is:
-de/dt=A(wmmasinwmt) (3)
The –ve sign indicates decay of voltage. Let us take one instant to
[-de/dt]to=Awmmasinwmt (4)
let intial voltage across the capacitor is envelope voltage at e=eo
eo=(e)t=to=A(1+macoswmt) (5)

ecap= eoeᶺ-(t-t0)/RC (6)

Rate of discharge of capacitor voltage is
-decap/dt=d/dt (eoeᶺ-(t-t0)/RC)=eo /RC eᶺ-(t-t0)/RC
Rate of change of voltage at t=to7 (7)
-decap /dt (t=to)=eo/RC (8)
Substitute eo from eqution 5 to 8
(-decap/dt)(t=to)=A(1+macoswmt)/RC (9)
To avoid diagonal clipping, the slope of the discharge curve t=to given
By eqn (9) must be equal to or greater than envelope decay rate i.e.
A/RC(1+macoswmt)>=Awmmasinwmt (10)
Then :
1/RC>=mawmsinwmt/1+macoswmt (11)
Now , cos wm t =-mawm/(1-maᶺ2) ᶺ1/2)1-maᶺ2
1/RC>=mawm/(1-maᶺ2) ᶺ1/2 (12)
If ma<<-1 then 1/RC>=mawm (13)
Eqn 12 and 13 provide the desired relation for obtaining the optimum value of
time constant (RC) in terms of modulation index and modulating frequency.

PROCEDURE:
1) The frequency modulation and demodulation kit is shown above.
Connect the switch to 220V ac.
2) Now for modulation , first of all make the connections as shown in
figure. Switch on the supply and observe the modulated , modulating
and carrier wave on CRO.
3) Basically this is done by connecting the output of the signal generator to
the input of the modulator with information signal as shown in diagram.
4) Now during demodulation, the output of modulator is given to the
demodulator circuit which separates information and the carrier. The
information signal can be displayed on the CRO.
MATLAB CODE:
clc;
clear all;
close all;

% Modulating frequency
fm=10e3;
Wm=2*pi*fm;
phase1=0;

% Carrier frequency
fc=1e6;
Wc=2*pi*fc;

% Sampling frequency
fs=10*fc;
% Time vector
t=0:1/fs:(3/fm-1/fs);

% Amplitude of modulating signal

a=10;

% Modulating signal
x=a*cos(Wm*t+phase1);

% Modulation index
Beta=2.4;

% Modulation index
fprintf('\n')
fprintf('Modualtion index, Beta : %d\n',Beta)
fprintf('\n')

% Maximum Frequency deviation

delW=Beta*Wm;
fprintf('\n')
fprintf('Maximum Frequency deviation : %d\n',delW)
fprintf('\n')

% Scaling factor, limiting the frequency deviation of signal

kf=delW/a;
fprintf('\n')
fprintf('Scaling facorkf : %d [rad/sec/volts]\n',kf)
fprintf('\n')

% Amplitude of Carrier signal

A=1;

% Modulated FM signal using the integrated format for a sinusoid.

phase2=0;
y = cos(Wc*t + Beta*sin(Wm*t)+phase2);

subplot(311)
plot(t,x)
title('Message Signal', 'Fontsize', 14);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
grid on;

subplot(312)
plot(t,y)
title('FM Signal', 'Fontsize', 14);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
grid on;

% FM Demodulation Using Frequency discriminator & Envelope detector

[b,a]=butter(3,2*fc/fs,'High');
disc=filter(b,a,y);
env=abs(hilbert(disc));
out=350*(env-mean(env));
subplot(313)
plot(t,out)
axis([0 3/fm-1/fs -10 10])
title('Demodulated Signal', 'Fontsize', 14);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');
grid on;

WAVEFORM:
 Figure3.7
ADVANTAGES OF FM:
1) Lesser distortion frequency modulated wave is less susceptible to
interferences from buildings, traffic etc. which provides signal to noise
ratio (abt 25db) w.r.t.man made interferences.
2) Waves at high frequencies can carry more than the waves at low
frequency.
3) Smaller geographical interference between neighbouring stations.
4) Less radiated power.
5) Well defined service across for given transmitter power.

DISADVANTAGES OF FM:
1) Since attenuation is directly proportional to frequency, so FM suffers
more attenuation than AM signal.
2) FM signals propagate as line-of-sight phenomenon, so if there is a large
hill btw transmitter and receiver, the receiver will not receive any signal.
AM signals, on the other hand, are at low frequencies which are
reflected back by ionosphere and thus, using sky wave propagation
phenomenon, can travel farther distances. FM waves penetrate
ionosphere and are not reflected back.
3) Much more bandwidth (as much as 20 times as much)
4) More complicated receiver and transmitter.

APPLICATIONS OF FM:
1) MAGNETIC TAPE STORAGE:-
FM Is also used at intermediate frequency by all analog VCR system,
including VHS. To record both the luminance portions of the video signal.
Commonly the chrome component is recorded as conventional as AM signal
using the higher frequency signal as bias .FM is the only feasible method of
 recording the luminance component of video and retrieving vide from
magnetic tape without extreme distortion as video signals have a very large
range of frequency components from few hertz to several megahertz, too
wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below 60.
2) SOUND
FM is also used to audio frequencies to synthesis sound. This technique
known as FM synthesize was populated by early digital synthesizer and
become a standard feature for several generations of personal computer
card.

RESULT:
The frequency modulation and demodulation process is carried successfully
using VCO and the desired result are obtained.