Mathematics

II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition Mathematics II, Spring 2019

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or Pradeep Boggarapu

exponential
form

Topology on Department of Mathematics, BITS-Pilani K. K. Birla Goa Campus

Complex
Plane
March 4, 2019
 Part II Complex Variables

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
R.V. Churchill and J.W. Brown, Complex Variables and
Pradeep
Boggarapu
Applications, McGraw-Hill, 8th edition, 2014.
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Part II Complex Variables

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
R.V. Churchill and J.W. Brown, Complex Variables and
Pradeep
Boggarapu
Applications, McGraw-Hill, 8th edition, 2014.
Definition

Geometry of
complex Instructor: Pradeep Boggarapu
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form
Mail ID:pradeepb@goa.bits-pilani.ac.in
Topology on
Complex
Plane Consulting Hours: Wednesday 4PM to 5PM.
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Definition
Boggarapu
A complex number is a pair (x, y ) of real numbers x, y .
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Definition
Boggarapu
A complex number is a pair (x, y ) of real numbers x, y .
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
It is customary to denote a complex number by z. Here the real
exponential
form numbers x and y are known as real and imaginary parts of z,
Topology on
Complex
respectively and written as
Plane

x = Re z y = Im z
 Addition and Multiplication

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
The complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are “added”
Pradeep
Boggarapu
and “multiplied” as follows:
Definition

Geometry of
complex
z1 + z2 = (x1 , y2 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Addition and Multiplication

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
The complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ), z2 = (x2 , y2 ) are “added”
Pradeep
Boggarapu
and “multiplied” as follows:
Definition

Geometry of
complex
z1 + z2 = (x1 , y2 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 )
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
z1 z2 = (x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
Complex
Plane
 Notations

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
We can write a complex number z = (x, y ) as a sum
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
(x, 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Notations

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
We can write a complex number z = (x, y ) as a sum
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
(x, 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)
Geometry of
complex
numbers Let us identify the complex number (x, 0) with the real number
Polar form or
exponential
x, we see that:
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Notations

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
We can write a complex number z = (x, y ) as a sum
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
(x, 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)
Geometry of
complex
numbers Let us identify the complex number (x, 0) with the real number
Polar form or
exponential
x, we see that:
form

Topology on
(x, y ) = x + (0, 1)y
Complex
Plane
 Notations

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
We can write a complex number z = (x, y ) as a sum
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
(x, 0) + (0, 1)(y , 0)
Geometry of
complex
numbers Let us identify the complex number (x, 0) with the real number
Polar form or
exponential
x, we see that:
form

Topology on
(x, y ) = x + (0, 1)y
Complex
Plane Note that (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1, so denoting (0, 1) by the
symbol i we can write a complex number (x, y ) = x + iy , where
i2 = −1.
 Algebraic Properties

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
Additive identity 0 = (0, 0).
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition Additive inverse of z = (x, y ) is −z = (−x, −y ).

Geometry of
complex
numbers
Multiplicative identity 1 = (1, 0).
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on Multiplicative of z = (x, y ) 6= (0, 0) is

Complex
Plane  
x −y
z −1 = ,
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
 Algebraic Properties

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal
Pradeep
Boggarapu
if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Algebraic Properties

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal
Pradeep
Boggarapu
if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
Definition

Geometry of
2 If product of two complex numbers z1 , z2 is equal to zero
complex
numbers
then at least one of the two is equal to zero.
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Algebraic Properties

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 Two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 , z2 = x2 + iy2 are equal
Pradeep
Boggarapu
if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
Definition

Geometry of
2 If product of two complex numbers z1 , z2 is equal to zero
complex
numbers
then at least one of the two is equal to zero.
Polar form or
exponential 3 The binomial theorem holds for the complex numbers, i.e.,
form

Topology on k=n  
Complex
n
X n n−k k
Plane
(z1 + z2 ) = z z2
k 1
k=0
 Argand plane

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a
Pradeep
Boggarapu
plane with coordinated (x, y ),
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Argand plane

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a
Pradeep
Boggarapu
plane with coordinated (x, y ), this plane is thought to be the
Definition plane where the complex numbers reside, as a result it is called
Geometry of
complex
numbers
“the complex plane” wiki .
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Argand plane

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a
Pradeep
Boggarapu
plane with coordinated (x, y ), this plane is thought to be the
Definition plane where the complex numbers reside, as a result it is called
Geometry of
complex
numbers
“the complex plane” wiki . Sometime this plane is also called
Polar form or “the Argand plane” after the mathematician Argand who
exponential
form
popularized this visualization method.
Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Argand plane

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a
Pradeep
Boggarapu
plane with coordinated (x, y ), this plane is thought to be the
Definition plane where the complex numbers reside, as a result it is called
Geometry of
complex
numbers
“the complex plane” wiki . Sometime this plane is also called
Polar form or “the Argand plane” after the mathematician Argand who
exponential
form
popularized this visualization method. It is a very good
Topology on
Complex
Plane
visualization method that brings out the geometric properties
 Argand plane

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
The complex number x + iy may be visualized as a point in a
Pradeep
Boggarapu
plane with coordinated (x, y ), this plane is thought to be the
Definition plane where the complex numbers reside, as a result it is called
Geometry of
complex
numbers
“the complex plane” wiki . Sometime this plane is also called
Polar form or “the Argand plane” after the mathematician Argand who
exponential
form
popularized this visualization method. It is a very good
Topology on
Complex
Plane
visualization method that brings out the geometric properties
and applications of the complex numbers quite effectively as we
will see soon.
 Argand plane

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
Im(z)
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition

Geometry of z = x + iy
complex
numbers
iy
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
x Re(z)
 Absolute value

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Absolute value
Boggarapu
The distance from the origin to the point (x, y ) is called the
Definition

Geometry of absolute value of the complex number z = x + iy . Which is

complex
numbers denoted by |z|.
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Absolute value

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Absolute value
Boggarapu
The distance from the origin to the point (x, y ) is called the
Definition

Geometry of absolute value of the complex number z = x + iy . Which is

complex
numbers denoted by |z|.
Polar form or
exponential
form
So for a complex number z = x + iy we can write:
Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Absolute value

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Absolute value
Boggarapu
The distance from the origin to the point (x, y ) is called the
Definition

Geometry of absolute value of the complex number z = x + iy . Which is

complex
numbers denoted by |z|.
Polar form or
exponential
form
So for a complex number z = x + iy we can write:
Topology on
Complex p p
Plane
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = ( Re z)2 + ( Im z)2
 Absolute value

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Absolute value
Boggarapu
The distance from the origin to the point (x, y ) is called the
Definition

Geometry of absolute value of the complex number z = x + iy . Which is

complex
numbers denoted by |z|.
Polar form or
exponential
form
So for a complex number z = x + iy we can write:
Topology on
Complex p p
Plane
|z| = x 2 + y 2 = ( Re z)2 + ( Im z)2

Note: Re z ≤ |z| and Im z ≤ |z|,

z 6= 0 if and only if |z| =
6 0.
 Vectors and Moduli

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019 Im(z)
Pradeep
Boggarapu z1 + z2
Definition

Geometry of
complex z2
numbers

Polar form or
exponential z1
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
Re(z)
 Mathematics
II, Spring 2019 Im(z)
Pradeep
Boggarapu 1 + 3i
Definition

Geometry of
3 + 2i
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane Re(z)
2−i
 Triangle inequality

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Triangle inequality
Boggarapu

Definition
For any two complex numbers z1 , z2 , |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Triangle inequality

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Triangle inequality
Boggarapu

Definition
For any two complex numbers z1 , z2 , |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
Geometry of
complex
numbers The above inequality follows from the diagram:
Polar form or
exponential z1 + z2
form
Im(z) z
Topology on 2
Complex
Plane

z1
O
Re(z)
 Corollaries of triangle inequality

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 |z1 + z2 | ≥ ||z1 | − |z2 ||
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Conjugate

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Conjugate
Boggarapu

Definition
For a complex number z = x + iy the complex number x − iy is
Geometry of
complex
called the conjugate of z and it is denoted by z.
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form
1 Using the conjugate one can write |z|2 = zz.
Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Conjugate

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Conjugate
Boggarapu

Definition
For a complex number z = x + iy the complex number x − iy is
Geometry of
complex
called the conjugate of z and it is denoted by z.
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form
1 Using the conjugate one can write |z|2 = zz.
Topology on
Complex  
z1 z1
Plane
2 The conjugate satisfies z1 z2 = z1 z2 and z2 = z2 for z2 6= 0.
 Parallelogram identity and other geometric properties

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Parallelogram Law
Boggarapu

Definition
z1 , z2 are complex numbers then
Geometry of
complex
numbers |z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 )
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Parallelogram identity and other geometric properties

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Parallelogram Law
Boggarapu

Definition
z1 , z2 are complex numbers then
Geometry of
complex
numbers |z1 + z2 |2 + |z1 − z2 |2 = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 )
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on Homework Show that z1 , z2 , z3 three complex numbers form an

Complex
Plane equilateral triangle on the complex plane if and only if

z12 + z22 + z32 = z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1 .

 Polar form

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane have polar
Pradeep
coordinates (r , θ),   r = |z| and θ, called the argument of z
where
Boggarapu

y
Definition

Geometry of
or arg(z), is tan−1 x .
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Polar form

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane have polar
Pradeep
coordinates (r , θ),   r = |z| and θ, called the argument of z
where
Boggarapu

y
Definition

Geometry of
or arg(z), is tan−1 x .
complex
numbers

Polar form or
As we can see, arg(z) has an infinitely many possible values,
exponential
form including negative ones, that differ by integral multiples of 2π.
Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Polar form

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A complex number z = (x + iy ) on the complex plane have polar
Pradeep
coordinates (r , θ),   r = |z| and θ, called the argument of z
where
Boggarapu

y
Definition

Geometry of
or arg(z), is tan−1 x .
complex
numbers

Polar form or
As we can see, arg(z) has an infinitely many possible values,
exponential
form including negative ones, that differ by integral multiples of 2π.
Topology on
Complex
Plane The value of the argument in the interval (−π, π] is called the
principal value of the argument, denoted by Arg z.
 Polar form

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
So we can write a complex number
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
z = |z| cos(arg (z)) + i|z| sin(arg (z))
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Polar form

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
So we can write a complex number
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
z = |z| cos(arg (z)) + i|z| sin(arg (z))
Geometry of
complex
numbers If z1 , z2 are two complex numbers with arguments θ1 , θ2
Polar form or
exponential
respectively then we have
form

Topology on
Complex z1 z2 = |z1 ||z2 |(cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ))
Plane
 De Moivre’s identity

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Euler’s formula
Boggarapu
The expression
Definition

Geometry of e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ

complex
numbers

Polar form or
is called Euler’s formula, it will be put on a sound footing when
exponential
form we introduce complex exponential by it’s power series, but for
Topology on
Complex now let us take the exponential as a symbol.
Plane
 De Moivre’s identity

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
Euler’s formula
Boggarapu
The expression
Definition

Geometry of e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ

complex
numbers

Polar form or
is called Euler’s formula, it will be put on a sound footing when
exponential
form we introduce complex exponential by it’s power series, but for
Topology on
Complex now let us take the exponential as a symbol.
Plane

From the previous slides we can write a complex number z as

z = |z|e iθ where θ = arg (z).
 Cont.

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 and z2 = r2 e iθ2 be two complex numbers then
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 )
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Cont.

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 and z2 = r2 e iθ2 be two complex numbers then
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 )
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential 2 If r2 6= 0 then we can also write the division as
form

Topology on r1
Complex
Plane
z1 z2−1 = e i(θ1 −θ2 )
r2
3 arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ) and
arg(z1 /z2 ) = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 )
 Cont.

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019

Pradeep
De Moivre’s Identity
Boggarapu

Definition
For any complex number re iθ and an integer n we have:
Geometry of
complex
numbers (re iθ )n = r n e inθ
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Application

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A good number of application of De Moivre’s identity may be
Pradeep
Boggarapu
found in trigonometry.
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Application

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A good number of application of De Moivre’s identity may be
Pradeep
Boggarapu
found in trigonometry.
Definition Example Let us find a formula for sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Application

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A good number of application of De Moivre’s identity may be
Pradeep
Boggarapu
found in trigonometry.
Definition Example Let us find a formula for sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.
Consider the complex number e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ,
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Application

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A good number of application of De Moivre’s identity may be
Pradeep
Boggarapu
found in trigonometry.
Definition Example Let us find a formula for sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.
Consider the complex number e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ, let us raise
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or both sides to the power 3.

exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Application

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A good number of application of De Moivre’s identity may be
Pradeep
Boggarapu
found in trigonometry.
Definition Example Let us find a formula for sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.
Consider the complex number e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ, let us raise
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or both sides to the power 3.

exponential
form

(e iθ )3 = e i3θ = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Application

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A good number of application of De Moivre’s identity may be
Pradeep
Boggarapu
found in trigonometry.
Definition Example Let us find a formula for sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.
Consider the complex number e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ, let us raise
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or both sides to the power 3.

exponential
form

(e iθ )3 = e i3θ = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ

Topology on
Complex
Plane

Now the left hand side is equal to (cos θ + i sin θ)3

 Application

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
A good number of application of De Moivre’s identity may be
Pradeep
Boggarapu
found in trigonometry.
Definition Example Let us find a formula for sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.
Consider the complex number e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ, let us raise
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or both sides to the power 3.

exponential
form

(e iθ )3 = e i3θ = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ

Topology on
Complex
Plane

Now the left hand side is equal to (cos θ + i sin θ)3

Which after a simple calculation
= cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ − i sin3 θ
 Roots and arguments

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
So equating the imaginary part of both the sides we get:
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Roots and arguments

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
So equating the imaginary part of both the sides we get:
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
sin 3θ = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ.
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Roots and arguments

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
So equating the imaginary part of both the sides we get:
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
sin 3θ = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ.
Geometry of
complex
numbers
One application of the polar form of a complex number is the
Polar form or ease of finding roots.
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Roots and arguments

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
So equating the imaginary part of both the sides we get:
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
sin 3θ = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ.
Geometry of
complex
numbers
One application of the polar form of a complex number is the
Polar form or ease of finding roots.
exponential
form Let us consider the complex number z0 = r0 e iθ0 and let us have a
Topology on
Complex
Plane
natural number n ∈ N, we want to find a nth root of the
complex number z0 .
 Roots and arguments

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
So equating the imaginary part of both the sides we get:
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
sin 3θ = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ.
Geometry of
complex
numbers
One application of the polar form of a complex number is the
Polar form or ease of finding roots.
exponential
form Let us consider the complex number z0 = r0 e iθ0 and let us have a
Topology on
Complex
Plane
natural number n ∈ N, we want to find a nth root of the
complex number z0 .
So we are looking for a complex number z = re iθ such that
z n = z0 or r n e inθ = ro e iθ0
 Cont.

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
Now equating the modulus and the arguments we get
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
r n = r0 , and nθ = θ0 + 2πk fork ∈ Z
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Cont.

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
Now equating the modulus and the arguments we get
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
r n = r0 , and nθ = θ0 + 2πk fork ∈ Z
Geometry of
complex
numbers Or we get
Polar form or √ θ 2πk
exponential r= n
r0 and θ = +
form
n n
Topology on
Complex
Plane
for k ∈ Z.
 Cont.

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
Now equating the modulus and the arguments we get
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition
r n = r0 , and nθ = θ0 + 2πk fork ∈ Z
Geometry of
complex
numbers Or we get
Polar form or √ θ 2πk
exponential r= n
r0 and θ = +
form
n n
Topology on
Complex
Plane
for k ∈ Z.So the distinct roots are obtained for the values
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1 and the distinct roots are given by
√ θ 2πk
ck = n r0 e i( n + n )
 Quetions

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 Find the fifth roots of (1 + i).
Pradeep
Boggarapu

Definition 2 Show that three distinct points in the complex plane z1 , z2 , z3

Geometry of
complex are collinear if and only if
numbers

Polar form or
exponential z1 (z2 − z3 ) + z2 (z3 − z1 ) + z3 (z1 − z2 ) = 0
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Neighborhoods

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 |z1 − z2 | defines a “distance” between z1 and z2 on the
Pradeep
Boggarapu
complex plane.
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Neighborhoods

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 |z1 − z2 | defines a “distance” between z1 and z2 on the
Pradeep
Boggarapu
complex plane.
Definition

Geometry of
complex 2 Given z0 a complex number and  a real positive number, we
numbers

Polar form or
have a  neighborhood of z0 defined as the set
exponential
form {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < }.
Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Neighborhoods

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 |z1 − z2 | defines a “distance” between z1 and z2 on the
Pradeep
Boggarapu
complex plane.
Definition

Geometry of
complex 2 Given z0 a complex number and  a real positive number, we
numbers

Polar form or
have a  neighborhood of z0 defined as the set
exponential
form {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < }.
Topology on
Complex
Plane
3 A deleted neighborhood of z0 is the set of points
{z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < }.
 Interior Point

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A point z is called an interior point of a set S ⊂ C if there is
Pradeep
Boggarapu
an  neighborhood of z for some  which is completely
Definition contained in S.
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Interior Point

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A point z is called an interior point of a set S ⊂ C if there is
Pradeep
Boggarapu
an  neighborhood of z for some  which is completely
Definition contained in S.
Geometry of
complex
numbers Im(z)
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane

Re(z)
 Exterior Point

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 It is called an exterior point if there is a neighborhood which
Pradeep
Boggarapu
is completely not contained in S. Or completely contained in
Definition the complement of the set S.
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Exterior Point

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 It is called an exterior point if there is a neighborhood which
Pradeep
Boggarapu
is completely not contained in S. Or completely contained in
Definition the complement of the set S.
Geometry of
complex
numbers Im(z)
Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane

Re(z)
 Boundary Point and Boundary

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 It is called a boundary point if it is neither an interior point
Pradeep
Boggarapu
nor an exterior point of the set S.
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Boundary Point and Boundary

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 It is called a boundary point if it is neither an interior point
Pradeep
Boggarapu
nor an exterior point of the set S.
Definition

Geometry of
Im(z)
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane

Re(z)

2 The set of boundary points is called the boundary of the set.

 Open and Closed Sets

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A set is called open if it contains none of it’s boundary
Pradeep
Boggarapu
points.
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Open and Closed Sets

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A set is called open if it contains none of it’s boundary
Pradeep
Boggarapu
points.
Definition

Geometry of
complex 2 A set is closed if it contains all it’s boundary points.
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Open and Closed Sets

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A set is called open if it contains none of it’s boundary
Pradeep
Boggarapu
points.
Definition

Geometry of
complex 2 A set is closed if it contains all it’s boundary points.
numbers

Polar form or Im(z)

exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane

Re(z)
 Connected Set, Domain and Region

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A set is called connected if given any two points in the set
Pradeep
Boggarapu
there is a polygonal line connecting the two points.
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Connected Set, Domain and Region

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A set is called connected if given any two points in the set
Pradeep
Boggarapu
there is a polygonal line connecting the two points.
Definition

Geometry of
complex 2 A nonempty open connected set in the complex plane is
numbers

Polar form or
called a domain.
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Connected Set, Domain and Region

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A set is called connected if given any two points in the set
Pradeep
Boggarapu
there is a polygonal line connecting the two points.
Definition

Geometry of
complex 2 A nonempty open connected set in the complex plane is
numbers

Polar form or
called a domain.
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
3 A domain with some ( none, all, some ) of it’s boundary
Plane
points is called a region.
 Bounded Regions and Accumulation Point

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A region is called bounded if it is contained in a circle of
Pradeep
Boggarapu
radius R for some R.
Definition

Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Bounded Regions and Accumulation Point

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A region is called bounded if it is contained in a circle of
Pradeep
Boggarapu
radius R for some R. H = {z ∈ C : Re(z) > 0} is an
Definition example of an unbounded region.
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
exponential
form

Topology on
Complex
Plane
 Bounded Regions and Accumulation Point

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A region is called bounded if it is contained in a circle of
Pradeep
Boggarapu
radius R for some R. H = {z ∈ C : Re(z) > 0} is an
Definition example of an unbounded region.
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
2 A point z is called an accumulation point ( or a limit point)
exponential
form of S if every deleted neighborhood of the point contains a
Topology on
Complex point of the set S.
Plane
 Bounded Regions and Accumulation Point

Mathematics
II, Spring 2019
1 A region is called bounded if it is contained in a circle of
Pradeep
Boggarapu
radius R for some R. H = {z ∈ C : Re(z) > 0} is an
Definition example of an unbounded region.
Geometry of
complex
numbers

Polar form or
2 A point z is called an accumulation point ( or a limit point)
exponential
form of S if every deleted neighborhood of the point contains a
Topology on
Complex point of the set S.
Plane
1
{ : n ∈ N}
n