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Thermodynamics I
Siamak Kazemzadeh Hannani and Mehdi Karzar Jeddi
Center of Excellence in Energy Conversion (CEEC)
Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Winter 2006
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A.1.4 A.1.3 A.1.2 A.1.1 F & % U3
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'H K0I. K .&. 40ºC ; ' }
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A..1.1 ⇒ TSaturation = 40 oC ⇒ P
= 7.384 kPa
Ts
υf V 2
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S" !V$ K0I. .K .&. 200kPa 'H ' }

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T
= 120.23oC
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v g = 0.8857
V = (m)(v g ) = 2 × 0.8857 ≅ 1.77 kg
!V$= .K= .=&. 160oC;= ' a= '=xI % DZ.=x 2lit !V$ <I H" ' :Fy
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Fy .Uf@ 'D
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0.95 × 2 ×10 −3
m‫=
ر‬ = 0.0062
0.3071
0.05 × 2 ×10 −3
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0.001102
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0.0062
x= = 0.064
0.0962
P T =160 = 0.6178MPa
s
:S" !V$ K0I. !' 3 MPa 'H 350ºC; ' 5 2kg DH"' :Fy
A.1.2
A.1.2 → PS = 3MPa ⇒ Ts = 233.9 < 350°C
.K T t.H K4$ ' 5 P`
Fy ..f@ 'D

A.1.3 3
P = 3Mpa ⇒ υ = 0.09053 m
kg
V = (0.09053)(2) = 0.18106 m 3
.5 T& K0I. !' 10 MPa 'H 120ºC ; ' 5 30 lit !V$ <I DH" ' :Fy
,
Fy .f@ 'D
A.1.4 ‫از‬
υ = 0.0010549
30 × 10 −3
m= = 28.4kg
0.0010549
:'H K0I. !' 110ºC; ' 5 0.03kg c20lit!V$ <I DH"' : t
20 ×10 −3 3
v= = 0.67 mkg
0.03
A.1.1 v f = 0.001052
T = 110°C 
⇒ v g = 1.2102
v f < v < v g ⇒ v = v f + x(v g − v f ), P = 0.14327 MPa
0.67 = 0.001052 + x(1.2102 − 0.001052)
x = 0.553
KUJ K0I. c!' 100 kPa 'H ' 5 0.03kg c30 lit !V$ <I DH"' : t
:'xI
−3
30 ×10
v= =1
0.03
v f = 0.001043
Ps = 100 kPa → 
v g = 1.694
v = v f + xv fg → x = 0.59
T = 99.63°C
. OI F` .# ( 'H ' }
O - M <#
: K0I. !' 4MPa'H ' 5 0.9162kg c50lit !V$ <I DH"' :Fy
7
50 ×10 −3
v= = 0.05457
0.9162
vg
= 0.04978 < v K T t.H P`
Ps = 4 Mpa
v = 0.05457
A.1.3.,  → T = 275°C
 P = 4MPa
:'H K0I. !' 350ºC ; ' 5 1.712kg c100lit !V$ <I DH"' :Fy
100 ×10 −3
v= = 0.0584
1.712
A.1.1
vg → 0.008813 < v
T =350oC
v = 0.0584
A.1.3 → P = 4.5MPa
 T = 350
5 ; K0I. !' 5 MPa 'H ' 5 146.08kg c150 lit !V$ = ?<!
k.=@ F =& ' '=V d=Y = R=I = =M-5 ?y <# - . ` I
<=# == =H '.=b R= I . .O U3 @ I' % OI .
:KO !M.@ O <I <&. I j @ i'.GI <Y R RI b '. k.@
V P
P1 P P2
v1 v v2
T1 T T2 T T1 T T2 T
.&. RI ' -5 iGx <I <&. I k.@ @ I' .@f@ 'D
7,
v = v1 +
v2 − v2
= (T − T1 )
(~)
T2 − T1
P2 − P1 T −T
P = P1 + (T − T1 ) T = T1 + 2 1 ( P − P1 )
T2 − T1 P2 − P1
. 0.223 MPa 'H ' }

O a k.Gx !V$ K0I. :Fy
P T υf
0.2 120.23 0.001001
0.225 124 0.001004
124 − 120.23
T = 120.20 + (0.223 − 0.2) = 123.7
0.225 − 0.2
0.001004 − 0.001001
v = 0.001001 + (0.223 − 0.2) = 0.0010013
0.225 − 0.2
420ºC ; 6MPa'H ' T t.H 'xI k.Gx !V$ K0I. :Fy
P = 6 MPa
400 0.04138
→ v = 0.049284
450 0.05214
.0.042 k.Gx !V$ 5MPa 'H ' T t.H 'xI ; K0I. :Fy
5 MPa
275 0.04141
300 0.04532
300 − 275
T = 275 + (0.042 − 0.04141) = 278.8 °C
0.04532 − 0.04141
7.2MPa 'H 670ºC ; ' T t.H 'xI k.Gx !V$ K0I. :Fy
7MPa 8 MPa
T v T v
600 0.05565 600 0.04845
700 0.06283 700 0.05481
υ υ
7 , 670oc
= 0.060676 = 0.052902
8, 670
υ
= 0.05912
7.2 ‫ و‬670
77

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$ (b
w1− 2 = P(V2 − V1 ) = mR(T2 − T1 ) (+~))
(PV=Const ) 4 =2 P

<
!3 ,<G /
$ (c
V2
const V V V (~))
w1−2 = ∫
V1
V
dV = const ln 2 = P1V1 ln 2 = P2V2 ln 2
V1 V1 V1
7:
Polytropic S!
?S /
$ (d
PV n = const (~))
Const Const 1
P= n
⇒ W1− 2 = ∫ n
dV = ∫ ConstV − n dV = ConstV 1− n VV12
V V 1− n
P2V2n
n
Const 1− n PV
=
1− n
[ ]
V2 − V11− n =
1− n
[
V21− n − V11− n
1 1
]
P V − PV
W1− 2 = 2 2 1 1 ‫ و‬n ≠ 1
1− n

2 ! 4 M< B<K
M D4 .
'J ;$ BM !30 . 30M D4Y3 ;M ` M 'J .(
. .OD Y3 5H C }. l' !30 % %
. .OD DWO !30 % ' 30M ;% ;M ` 'J .
. OID J 0U .I 0 aI 'J .)
7g
2
3 4 :'#%1

!
.K 3 'J DL F13 I DL F13 c `D !30 <J L M DZ
1II J $ SI !30 ' . 'J ;I <3H' 'LI $ <I ' D130I A J
.K
∫ δQ = J ∫ δw ((~+)
0 '
(~+ O ]I D[ # Z ' BV 30 # H Fy I
0 T ' .O Z (~ B 0 ]Z % KI T1M .O Z A ]Z % ~(
!M.=@ . = T=V (~ =5H C 0 ]Z % KI T1M Z A ]Z % ~(
:KO
2A 1B 2A 1B
(~+)
∫ δQ + ∫ δQ = ∫ δw + ∫ δw
1A 2B 1A 2B
∫ δw = ∫ δQ
2A 1C 2A 1C
∫ δQ + ∫ δQ = ∫ δw + ∫ δw
1A 2C 1A 2C
1B 1C 1B 1C
∫ δQ − ∫ δQ = ∫ δw − ∫ δw
2B 2C 2B 2C
1B 1C
⇒ ∫ (δQ − δw) = ∫ (δQ − δw) = ∫ (δ‫ه‬Q ‫روي‬
− δw) = ∫ dE ⇒ δQ − δW = dE
2B 2C ‫دا‬ ‫ﻡ‬
.=x4 0 M ;' O TV 'J O <4

; S?3@ <30I !30 C ;I :BH)
5H -5 DW3 DW 3I {Y @ <J dE ;' Y II
. '
'# TV R$ O Z M0 .fe 'D

:15 !I V+dV <I <&. I 15 cK D
& ; P& % <J
1
δQ − δw = ∆E ⇒ + m(V22 − V12 ) = E2 − E1 = K .E 2 − K .E1
2
(Kinetic Energy) K D
& ; K? K
. J 0$ ' 'J .K }U' j NYH NYH K4$ j :Fy
δQ = 0, δw = − Fdy = −mgdy ⇒ w = −mg ( z 2 − z1 )
W1− 2 = E2 − E1 = P.E2 − P.E1 = mg ( z 2 − z1 )
.K (Potential Energy) 03` ; S[ PE
Z2
Z1
Fy .@fe 'D
1D g R w<

!
.!M - U, KE, PE K 0 < I ' E ' Y t.H i $ ;.+
.; <30M ;.
7
5 -' D@ ; .ufx 'D
/
$ T
< ! RC#
1
Q1−2 = U 2 − U 1 + m(V22 − V12 ) + W1− 2 + mg ( z 2 − z1 ) ()~+)
2
‫ م‬$%‫داﺥ"! وا‬ ‫ا ژي‬
U
u = [ kJ (+~+)
kg ]
m
u = u f + xu fg (~+)
u = u g − (1 − x)u fg
u = ψ ( v, P )
P = f (v , u )
=. 'H <# '. M K v, P 1 K>@ aI B @ <# # <&.
. OI k.Gx !V$ @ aI
(Enthalpy) V5)/

K4$ ' k.GxI . M 5H % '0I I . F -. R3O. T1M
=I = R= @ < %
# i'.GI '
%I M!30
: . M.@ K$' ' '# % i'.GI & K>@ e[ M 5H % '0I m
H = U + PV (~+)
‫ م‬$%‫' &! وا‬ h = u + Pυ (~+)
. 30M !30 K>@ < M P, v, u -.s cK !30 K>@ f435 - M H
:!J 0$ ' -40oC' ' X.5 D@ ; !M.@D : t
 hg = 1389

υ g = 1.55 u = h − Pυ = 1389 − (71.77)(1.55)
 P = 71.77 kPa

: t
P = 700 kpa H 2 o
1kg ,65o C Q1−2 = U 2 − U 1 + W1− 2
P2 = 75 kpa
. OI I 25.03 II 'H 65oC' -.s cK !J3 a
7
⇒ U 2 = U 1 ⇒ u 2 = u1
(‫ﻡ&اآ‬ ‫ﻡ‬ u = u <0 ; ' }
O = u f = 272.02 kJ
kg
 P = 15 kPa
u 2 = u1 = 272.02 kJ ⇒
kg u 2 = 272.02 ⇒ T2 = ?
.K ;%H P` K u g ‫ و‬u f RI u2 -.s
u f = 225.92
P = 15kPa ⇒ 
u g = 2448.7
272.02 = 225.92 + ( x)(2448.7 − 225.92) ⇒ x = 0.021
v = v f + xv fg
v = 0.00104 + (0.021)(10.02 − 0.001) = 0.211
V = mv = (1)v = v = 0.211 m 3
/ 1 =2 P
< V5)/
h = u + Pv (*~+)
 u = g (T ) (~+)
 ⇒ h = ψ (T )
 Pv = RT = f (T )
. % K D[I NYH !M F5 % Df43 RII

> I! X*I
< / 1=2 1W! P
2
 ∂u  du ((~+)
CV =   ⇒ CV = ⇒ du = CV dT
 ∂T V dT
 ∂h 
=OI F5 = % <rs dh =   dT +   dP :KO !M.@ O
F5 %
∂h
 ∂T  p  ∂p T
1U> II 
∂h 
<=[& (()~+) d=I' <=I CP e=[ I . dh = C P dT !'  15
 ∂P T
.
P
2”
2’
2 T+dT, u+du, h+dh
1 T, u, h
F5 % ' f435 j .efe 'D
8
-.=s =D= K=Il =# %= '3H' I dh du Y 1 − 2, 1 − 2′, 1 − 2′′ ;M 5H '
.K =O<=3H =b ' 1 = % Y30 MF.4. ('5) F5 % '3H' K4$
. # j I 3 <# .O<3H b ' % 4Y3
&
,<G (HI 1W! P

2
 ∂u 
Cv = 
(((~+)

 ∂T  v
e[
.( .OD <3H b ' DU 'J K? K

y K?) !30 @ aI @ # K4$ '
i=
l ' t.=H =H Km> F o%5 . OI aI H> @ <# . H -.
.
u = f (T‫ و‬P) :[ % I D@ ;
u = g (T ) F5 % ;I ((+~+)
F o%5 ."fe 'D
% .M .O D %I O <J D1M . <3H ' 5 T $ ' A, B -Bx <# # H
=Y3 5 <=I -B=x % W RII # j D4 ' D B -Bx <I A -Bx
:
Q = u 2 − u1 + w (Q = 0, w = 0) ((~+)
⇒ u 2 = u1
⇒ u ≠ ψ ( P,V ) ⇒ u = g (T )
;= D=4 =J j !V$ !M 'H !M -.s OI % D[I NYH .M ; RII
.K0 V, P % D[I u RII KIl D@
< 1W! P

2 R
[
= =I =3 !M -5 <# K D4.L4. D
& ; % DO NYH D C % D@ ;
∂u
% D[I= D= =s D % D@ ; Cv = = Const., u ~ T :P` # j
∂T
. OID D4.L4. D' DO[' Rr M D4.L4. D
& ;
87
% O[' F .&fe 'D
=I RI=I ' D@ ; J ;' I ;3I l qI ; ' D' DO[' ;M ;
. I oBH I B Cv C P oBH
CP
CO2
H2
Ar, Ne, He
I ij .Ufe gD
Cvo ‫ و‬C Po M< (\ *< B]<

. OI '5 % KIl !V$ KIl 'H ' <I Cv ‫ و‬C P
o o
h = u + Pv ((~+)
dh = du + d ( Pv)
dh = du + d ( RT ) = du + RdT
C p o dT = Cvo dT + RdT
C Po − Cvo = R
4=2 )$ < =2 V5) ! - PY

^_)- BC+` a
b
:15 OI h=h(T) # H
Cv ‫ و‬C P = Const. : O
% D[I ; :F h'
300K; ' K O <W' M% ;I A.8 F &
dh = ∫ C P dT → h2 − h1 = C P (T2 − T1 )
0 0
((~+)
88
. .O U3 A.9 F & % I CV ‫ و‬CP ij aI :T h'
T2
((*~+)
dh = ∫ C P0 dT
T1
= M ' h =Y F =& R' . J U3 -. D B A.11 A.10 F & % :T. h'
% U3= =I . =OI U=> 25' Df43 O H .K O 25ºC a& ; cd<
}V' I -Bx
δmi ' -& &@ -& δme
SZ Nm I 43# !V$ T& F

..fe 'D
:!30 ;I T& |YI -.
dmsys
=0
((~+)
dt
t -% ' F3J !V$ !30 F3J !V$ % Rs N@
mt + δmi = (; ' T&+ -Bx @ T&) t <bm4 ' !30 T&
mt +δt + δme = (D&@ T& + -Bx T&) t + δt <bm4 ' !30 T&
T& |YI %
89
mt +δt + δme = mt + δmi (~+)
(mt +δt − mδt ) + (δme − δmi ) = 0
mt +δt − mδt m
lim δt →0 = d C .V .
δt dt
δme
lim δt →0 = m& e
dt
δm
lim δt →0 i = m& i
δt
=% i'.G=I F=3# !V$ I T& YI -. c!OI <3O D&@ ; ' -& R s
: <>?@
dmC .V ()~+)
dt
∑ e ∑
+ m& − m& = 0 i
B5 5 ,- ' P<

> P
< < BC+`
V A
dx
<4.4 aY % '.

-& .fe 'D
dV ′ Adx (+~+)
δm = =
v v
:KO !M.@ KIl aY ;I .K dx d>H ' F !V$ V ′
δm A dx
= (~+)
δt v dt
r
δm AV
m& = =
δt v
: t
0.1 m/s
Fy .@fe 'D

D = 0.2m
r
V = 0.1 m
s
8:
25°C
150 kPa
r
AV RT 0.287 × 298.2
m& = ,υ = .M = = 0.5705 m 3 / kg
υ P 150
π
A= d 2 = 0.0314 m 2
4
0.0314 × 0.1
m& = = 0.0055 kg
0.5705 s

)4 (HI (
! ) PY
cd<
Q1− 2 = E2 − E1 + W1− 2 (~+)
. D DJ K4$ ' B Xm3 % 'J RII J j . D !30 F3J !V$ %
. OI <3O .&
WShaft
δQ
Pi
Ti
vi
ei
si
δmi
Pe
43# !V$ % Te
ve
ee
&'@ 'H se
δme
43# !V$ -.` Nm I F

.9fe 'D
c; ' T& ; +t dbm4 ' F3J !V$ ; =t dbm4 ' !30 ;
Et + eiδmi
.D&@ T& ; + (t + δt ) <bm4' F3J !V$ ; = t + δt dbm4 ' !30 ;
Et +δt + eeδme
E2 − E1 = ( Et +δt − Et ) + (eeδme − eiδmi )
. J D '.
F3J p % δt DZ <J ; w4@ -&
T& ' 'J = PiVi = Piυiδmi c@ 'J = PeVe = Peυ eδme (~+)
δW = δWC .V . + Pe veδme − Pi viδmi (*~+)
8g
. OI F3# !V$ N. Xm3 % 'J ;'.m 'J }. V O Wcv T t.H dI' '
δQ δmi E − Et δme δW (~+)
+ (e + P v ) = t +δt
i +
i i (e + P υ ) + C .V .
e e e
δt δt δt δt δt
V 2
V 2
()~+)
e + Pv = u + + gz + Pv = h + + gz
2 2
δQ δmi Vi
2
( Et +δt − Et ) δme Ve2 δw ()(~+)
+ (hi + + gzi ) = + (he + + gze ) + C .V
δt δt 2 δt δt 2 δt
δQ & ()~+)
= QC .V .
δt
:F3J !V$ ; D% ij
$%
( Et +δt − Et ) dEC .V .
= ())~+)
δt dt
δWC .V . ()+~+)
$% = w& C .V .
δt
 δm V2  V2 ()~+)
$%  i (hi + i + gz i ) c  = m& i (hi + i + gzi )
 δt 2  2
. L j -% I @ ' ' & k.@ <J ! J H
 δme V2  Ve 2 ()~+)
$%  (he + e + gze )c  = m& e (he + + gze )
 δt 2  2
:!OI <3O D&@ ; ' -& R s
V2 dE V2 ()~+)
Q& C .V . + ∑ m& i (hi + i + gz i ) = C .V . + ∑ me (he +& &
+ gz e ) + WC .V .
2 dt 2
?
> – ? ,5I /
$
Steady State Steady Flow (SSSF)
iAH
.!' Xm3 %'J P` . J D D3J$ iG3x .s's <I K
0 F3J !V$ .(
JD j -%I F3J !V$ % <YM' T& K4$ F3J !V$ @ T& M .
:P`
dEC .V .
= 0‫و‬
dmC .V .
=0 ()*~+)
dt dt
:<V3 '
∑ m& = ∑ m&
i e ()~+)

V 2
V 2
(+~+)
Q& C .V . + ∑ m& i (hi + i + gzi ) = ∑ m& e (he + e + gz e ) + W&C .V .
2 2
8z
p= % <=YM ' -5 K=4$ T=& '=O J D '.
F3J p % <J T& M .)
.K KIl c-% I (-.) 'J i O i O Rr M . J D j -& I F3J
.!0.I -% % <bm4 M ' ' t.H <I' -. D H R I
:!OI <3O D&@ ; ' -& C
m& i = m& e = m& (+(~+)
& Vi 2 Ve2 & (+~+)
QC .V . + m& (hi + + gzi ) = m& (he + + gze ) + WC .V .
2 2
:e[ I
Q& C .V . Q& (+)~+)
q= ‫ و‬w = C .V .
m& m&
:
% O f ,- g ,5I /
$
Uniform State Uniform Flow (USUF)
iAH
.!' Xm3 %'J P` . J D D3J$ iG3x .s's ?@ =% =O <=I USUF =5H =I . F -. t.H iAH F I
:
 Vi 2  (+~+)
Qcv + ∑ mi  hi + + gZ i 
 2 
 V2 
= ∑ me  he + e + gZ e 
 2 
  V2   V2 
+ m2  u 2 + 2 + gZ 2  − m1  u1 + 1 + gZ1  + Wcv
  2   2 
8

' 3 4 :(6.
=I =I .V= '.=b R= I .K@ ` !M.@ . T -. -I <I GH R '
EmI < <I R3@ ` %
'.b R I . O5 . ' F 3 e'[ % @I
.K@ ` !M.@ e'[ R -I o ((~)
∫ δQ = Q H − QL
<H=A <
=m T=1M ' K=? _4 c O <3H i'$ ' Y QL c O i'$' Y QH
. .OD
=I c= '=J =J D= 'J L C ' <J K D 30 :Heat Pump
I hS
. OI DU B w4@ O <4
i'$ DU w4@ 'J <L'.I J D <4
Nm
.% 4.# Frx L
QH
B)*
)g5
>
*A

<

D

y*C
?g
)g5
+
VA

S!
*A
QL
Frx d@s .@fE 'D

WNet = −WC < o (~)
∫ δQ = −Q H + QL
.!30 <I O i'$ QL c!30 % O <3H i'$ QH
9
-5 <=I KH DI3 ' Y -5 % -. D <J K D 30 !0& :
I :C
F5 !30 C D'$ a
.-5 b <s' .& . J j -5 ; <L5 - I
:<L'.I K 'BI '0I T& I K D 30 K DAH
. .O D DI3 ' Y Bs ; S?3@ I a
% O <3H Q = mC P (T2 − T1 )
I 6 ' <[O '.J DL 30M !30 I D'$ F
' D'$ a
'. '
= F= ( ) J T F <3
4 <J OI D '.0 J RJ C@ 5 D 'xI
O D[ M D j 5 'xI I !Y30 6 ' (RJ C@ 5) J
K=4$ D='$ a=
F=$I D4 .O D '@ '.0 J % O T 5 '@ oJ %
-. R \ [I !J D U3 -5 % C . T -. -I ;I <J K ; $ F5
.!M D ! [ DYY$ D'$ a
 I <# D
W
η = wet ()~)
th
QH
. F -. % U3 I
∫ δQ = ∫ δw ⇒ Q H − QL = Wnet (+~)
QH − QL
η th =
Q
⇒ ηth = 1 − L (~)
QH QH
‫
اي‬ η th = 100% ⇒ QL = 0 (~)
<=# =OI U> 0 QL ' Y I > ' > %I R3O I M <# <.1 M
=OI =3'BI η <s M .K R . T -. ]
Z !M.@ [I oxI '
.K 5 K I ;3I 'J D[ ; SG |% <# ('#)
= R= FY3 I I <# '# ' Y 
β = L =
Q QL
=
1 (~)
ref
Wc QH − QL QH
−1
QL
9,
= i'.G= ' .=O U3= Nm o '.b R FY3 I
β = H =
Q QH
=
1 (*~)
H .P
Wc QH − QL 1 − QL
QH
β H .P =
Wc + QL Q
= 1+ L (~)
Wc Wc
β H . P = 1 + β ref
D'$ a
% ;3I ; D['J ' Y S> I D[ K 3I OI 3'BI β <sM
='$ = ` d@s D'# A <5 I .K O T D'$ a
 0 % '. '# I .O KI
.( β = ∞ →Wc = o )K R

! <
K= RL 30M ;B '@ Nm % ' ' D'$ F
' <J D 30 ;I
<LI I FY3 (qI ; ' a
) T !30 <I (RW` ; ' a
) !30 % <J
. OI a
<I T a
;. % i'$ FY3 -5 ' <J K ; 5H RL 5H
{< z`
TH
Mg Q Q Mg
6
MS z`

TL
. T -. .9fE 'D
% i'=$ c J 'J L C ' <J K@ DM13 -.3I <J K RL :j +_4 <
R=L 13= <=LI . '_=1 N=m ;' ;=1 l M J Y3 T a
<I a

i'=
[I .!M =I '=J -5 <=I T Nm <I Nm % FY3 '.b <I <J K DM13
.K RL K DI L A K RL '.f J - I Frx L 1
97
{< z`
TH
Q+W
{< z`

W
TH
Q Q
Mg Mg
6
MS z` MS z`
TL TL
6.?# -I <I . T -. .efE 'D
{< z`

TH
{< z` Q

TH
W
Q-W
W Mg
Mg
6 MS z`
TL
?` R.# -I <I . T -. .EfE 'D
98
C % c J 'J L C ' <J K@ DM13 -.3I <J K RL :_S M 4 <
R=L 13= L <=LI =J =
'=J <=I ' R d M <3H D'$ a
s
=M D= P=` = D='$ a=
<I ' T a
% <3H ;% DxI <J K DM13
RL %( D'$ %I K RL '.0 J - I 'xI 1 i'
[I
.K
_S M 4 ! j +_4 < < RCG

(= . T -.=) $ -. -I M a ' 6.?# ?` R.# -I
= a=
I F
- I .3I <# OI <3O .& '.. (~)O <I <&. I . OI
' =Y <=# K@ '# <I ' Frx O 4. '# % U3 I -. 4. '# R`
` a ' !30 # R3H b ' I # R '.. R M ]Z % ' .@ '#
a
<I R` a
% ' . -I % '# R3H - I <# KO !M.@ '$
.K R ?` R.# -I I ]I <3
4 <# Y3 qI
R` a
% ' '# KH' - I .3I <# OI .&. '$ ` 1I b ' F$
K=H' =I '=# T=V R$ ' <# '.. R3H b ' I . M .m qI a
.
. 4. '# R` a
I d4
- I <# KO !M.@ O
{< z`
{< z` TH
TH
Q
QH=QL+Q
QL QH
W=Q
W=QH-QL
QL QL QL
MS z` MS z`

TL TL
?` R.# I 6.?# - .I F [ -I .fE 'D
a
% i'$ QL % 
TH
QH QH
W=QH QH-QL
QL
QL
MS (*>

TL
T }. W K#$ RO ."fE 'D
(Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind) ! k ,4
I MD
=
'=J <=I <=3H U0= % i'=$ QL ' Y <I
# RO (~) O ]I
V ?` R.# -I <I T -. Y I a ' . J KJ$ K <I . D
<=I T%q . = '=# I <3H ' U0 V . <# ! O O K@ <I
=# 4. '# SG - I <# K O F }. W K#$ RO <# K #^
. # Y ' F -. a '
Q
W
T2
T1=Nm
T3=T1
!V$ ' I '# TV I c(s K ) ' ' Nm I F [' O ` 4 % <# x .&fE gD
% ] R3O I I K ' c(N) I oBH !30 O ] <$ R ' <# 43#
. ' '$ F [ 'J . ' DU U> 'J
:( # <&. (*~ O <I) % K4$ DU 'J
Q 2 − 3 = u 3 − u 1 + W 1− 2 ((~)
T 3 = T1 → u 3 = u 1
Q 2 − 3 = W 1− 2
.K DU 'J O
<I <` 'J < M
' =J =
= <I ' 'J < M -. D -.s K ; h%' I ; <I K
0 'J .)
.K RL -5 PL I <L4$
. # Z ' ~ O ]I <# !' # % !# H :1 Fy
Q1-2
W1-2
P
9
Q2-3=0
KIl !V$ ' {0
I 5 !# W2-3

Q3-1
FB {0

@ W3-1=0
V
Fy .UfE 'D
:KO !M.@ FB 5H I
Pv = const . (((~)
Pdv + υdP = 0 ((~)
dP
=−
P (()~)
dv v
:KO !M.@ I 5 5H I
k k
Pv = c → υ dP + (k − 1) P v dv = 0 k −1
((+~)
dP kv k −1 P P ((~)
=− k
= −k
dv v v
' Y .M I
k = 1. 4
9g
.=O D TV CI 5 '.I 'J -.s DLBH b % K 3'BI CI 5 5H O P`
: OI 3'BI T1 % I T3 P`
% B= = W2 −3 > W1− 2 != w4=@ '=J L= C= D=Z ;=I <=J .O D <b$?
:! T1,T3 RI ; ' D'$ a
<I <3H T1=T2;
W3−1 = 0 ‫ و‬Q3−1 < 0 ((~)
-=I = ' R= . u1 = u2 -.=s != =J =
'J <I ' d M 1-2 5H' :B)'
.K O
'J <I L C ' < 5H C ' d M -.s K0 C?`-R.J
<4 K4$ <I ' Nm !30 -. D .O TV <J K ; 5H :
lS ,K2
< /
$
<=I ' !30= -. D 1I 'J Nm <I KH' 5H ' !30 ? \ y I
N=m % O <3H <3H Nm % ' O 'J KI 0 ' I F aA
. P` -5 RI'. 'J % K <I K[
. OI _` -L t.H 5H KH 'J Nm % ;' Y I _4 .I
=3I _4 OI D K[
Z ' D[ ;M 5H $ <J F5 K ; 5H _` KI 5H
e[_=` KI 5H i'.GI ' 5H R $ 15 % Fy ' _` KI ;M 5H
.!J D
.Pa 'H P1 'H % D4 [ {0

5H .Fy
9z
P
) Pa Pa Pa Pa
Pa,
T2, v2
( P1,
T1, v1
P3,
T3, v1
P1, T1,
v1
Q
Pa KH' KI
v1 v2 V
Fy .fE 'D
W1− 2 < W3− 2 ,W3−1 = 0 ⇒ ∫ δW < o ((~)
Q1− 2 , Q2−3 = o, Q3−1 < o ⇒ ∫ δQ < o ((*~)
∫ δQ = ∫ δw ((~)
=I F a=A K Cs.J DWVI& }U' % O TV '# K4$ R ' . # Z
TV !# '# K T%q ! I F K4$ <I ' % !M.xI KI 0 ' F$
'=# KI 5H F.Z ' <# <b$? . .O <3H !30 % I oM# I
:[ !<3H !
T1
T1
P2, V2, P1, V1,
T2=T1 T1
!H
T1
P3= P1
V3= V1,
T3= T1 Q
P
8 ,
v
|?@ ' _`KI {0
.9fE 'D
9
Q1−2 = u 2 − u1 + W1−2 ((~)
u 2 = u1 ⇒ T2 = T1
Q3−2 = u 3 − u 2 + W2−3
T2 = T3
 ⇒ T3 = T1
T1 = T2
v3 = v1 ‫ن‬/
P3 = P1 : ,‫پ‬
‫ا‬+
u3 = u 2
‫و‬
Q3−2 = W2−3
= . T -.= <=I I ! -5 K wx
_` KI i'$ FY3 5H . Fy

{< z`
TH
W Q+W
,K2
< Q ,$
MS z`

TL
_`KI i'$ FY3 5H .efE gD
T a
 T1 (~)
:
!M I i'$ nδQ < !0& <I ! <30. }. V ' KH' ' . <&. (~ O <I
' ' == i'==$ F ==
TL a==
K==H' 0== ' .!==1I i'==$ -5 % nδQ K==I '
F =
K=I 0= ' <=3H T δQ, TH a
% KH' 0 ' . D i'$ δQ KI
aA <I RII ' ;0 i'$ F
KI KH' ;M0 ' < !0& . ' i'$
_=4 != TL a=
<=I 5 <3H TH a
% i'$ δQ }. V ' P` .K <3I F
=J K DI 
TL TL+∆T TL+2∆T TH-2∆T TH-∆T TH
δQ δQ δQ δQ δQ
TL TL+∆T TL+2∆T TH-2∆T TH-∆T TH

I :C
I :C
_`KI i'$ FY3 .fE 'D

iU XL>I T. 5H . Fy
F K=4$ <=I ' ( K4$ -. !1I b ' ' <4.4 ' n> KI KH' 0 '
. I
P2 < P1 ()~)
⇒ P3 < P1
P3 < P2
' . =OI= KI KH' ' n> % O 'H KH 4 <I t.H NI' ' M'H S?3@
0 P` cKO !M.@ 'H KH !# K#$ SZ M % B (Orifice) PU' -& '.
.K _`KI KH'
PU' -' % -& ."fE 'D
:,
-
lS ,K2
< /
$
i^1 i'
<I .O D m !30 <I '@ % ;_` KI <J K ; 5H
;= C= % \ = K=I KH' 0 ' !30 ] OI D !30 K 4$ i
j
.K ]
KI 0 ' \ Y KH' 0 J D '.
-
lS ,K2
<
: : :
Q Q
T+∆T T-∆T
m KH' m ,K2
< m
! ?-
lS,K2
< /
$ mm
T, P;< T, P;< T, P;<
?>-
lS,K2
<
: : :
Q Q
T+dT T-dT
_` KI @ _`KI i'$ FY3 5H .&fE 'D
cK= =O K= DI i'$ FY3 ;I 6 p J U> <I i'$ <&' S?3@
.=O D= DI= ij h.x3 5H M ' ('xI a) !30 <J .O D <b$?
.K !M b \ KI KH' ;M0 5H M I
.K _` KI D@ b % 5H P`
j +_4 m5
Bd
' CI 5 TB _` KI 5H }. V i'.GI -. D ' ;_` KI 5HM
.KH b
:7
P Adiabatic
Isothermal
Reversible
v
I 5 M 5H }. V i'.GI _` K%I 5H .UfE 'D
' .'=# = .K .'J RO R s % ;<. V _` KI RO M i'.> R'
.( <[& dmU> <I) O M.@ EmI 4 d
P
Adiabatic
Carnot Cycle
Isothermal
v
KH b ' FB I 5 M 5H }. V -. 0 (+~)
.'=# '. ' !M.@ [I <# '. M 15 OI _` KI RO <# # H
QH TH
K= .'=# R s % <. V _` KI RO M < H I P` = !'
QL TL
:!0.
δQ QH QL (~)
∫rev T
= −
TH TL
=0
:!' OI 'I t.H dI' <5 H I
:8
δQ (~)
TL → TH 0‫ا‬ ⇒ ∫ revδQ = 0, ∫ =0
T
:!' '. M P`
δQ (~)
∫ δQ ≥ 0 ⇒ ∫ T
rev rev
=0
{< z`

TH
QH
Wrev
QL
MS z`

TL
_`KI '.. .@fE 'D
{< z`
TH
QH
Wirr
QL irr
MS z`

TL
_` K%I '.. .@@fE 'D
_=` K=%I K=4$ QL
irr rev
()~)
∫ δQ = QH − QL > 0
irr irr
()(~)
:9
δQ QH QLirr ()~)
∫irrT
=
TH
−
TL
<0
QH , TH , TL
())~)
δQ
<=sM . =O =
<=4 [ <=I ∫
rev
T
= 0 <=4 [ O _`K%I '.. <# 1M RII
=M.@ =3 J w4@ 'J OI % D@ D@ XL> ?\ y OI _` KI 3I RO
.!' U> w4@ 'J <J K ; $ 3I t.H ' Y

∫ irr δQ ≥ 0 ()~)
δQ
∫ irr
T
<0
{< z`

TH
QH
Wrev
QL
MS z`

TL
_`KI '$ ` .@9fE 'D
:KO. -. )~ O '$ ` '. '
∫ rev δQ = −QH + QL < 0 ()~)
δQ QH QL
∫ rev
T
=− +
TH TL
=0
 δQ = 0
∫
TH → TL ⇒  δQ
∫ =0
 T
∫ δQ ≤ 0 !' '. M P`
::
{< z`
TH
QH irr
Wirr
QL
MS z`

TL
_`KI '$ ` .@efE 'D
:KO !M.@ (+~ O) !# _`KI ' '$ ` -.#
Wirr > Wrev ()*~)
QH ir − QL > QH rev − QL
QH ir > QH rev
∫ ir δQ = −QH + QL < 0
irr
δQ QH irr QL
∫ ir
T
=−
TH
+
TL
<0
TH , TL , QL

. .O D 3'BI QH ' Y !J _` KI ' RO <sM
irr
∫ δQ < 0 ()~)
δQ
∫T <0
δQ
∫ δQ < 0 , ∫ T <0
:!' _` KI ;M RO dJ ;I

δQ (+~)
∫ rev
T
=0
:!' _`KI MRO d# I

δQ
∫ irr
T
<0
:KO. -. O M I # K4$ '

δQ
∫T ≤0
. .O 6.?# 0 t.H dI'
:g
=M =I =1 i'=
<=I .K= O >$ <IV % 6.?# d4 [ x' b % :
Al
δQ
K= [
Z .K ∫T ≤ 0 <# M - M% K<3@ I <# '$ RO
. .O
0 <I F5 M 5H I <4 [ R $ <#
B)*< ()*+ ,- S!

)
δQ (+(~)
∫rev T
=0
:!30 ; !30 D`3 RI @
_`KI <30I M0 .@EfE 'D
2
δQ 1
δQ (+~)
A∫ + B∫ =0
1
T 2
T
2 1
δQ δQ
A∫ + C∫ =0
1
T 2
T
1 1 1
δQ δQ δQ
B∫ = C∫ = ... = x ∫
2
T 2
T 2
T
δQ δQ
K=>@ ' =Y D=[ ' = D130I 0 <I _` KI 0 ;' F13' Y P`
T T
D= D=`3 !=M D= - S I 5 ' D130I 0 <I -5 ij -.s K !30
:!' !
:z
δQ (+~)
ds =
T
2 2
δQ
∆S = ∫ ds = S 2 − S1 = ∫
1 1 rev
T
<I <&. I 1-2 (_` KI) D4 [ D4 [ M 5H ;I u2-u1<
m K0I. : t
.^ i?Z
T1 = T2 = 3000 ‫ و‬Q1− 2 irr = o ‫ و‬W1− 2 irr = ?
Q1− 2 = 300kj ‫ و‬W1− 2 = 350 kj
rev rev
300 = u2 − u1 + 350
u2 − u1 = −50
R= P=` . ' = D130I 0 B _` KI 5H ;I ' Y
:!' _`KI 5H ' <L H I :t.H 5H ;I S2-S1<
m K0I.
δQ 1 1
s2 − s1 = ∫ = ∫ δQ = × 300 = 0.1
rev T T 300
δQ o
∫ T = ∫ T = 0 _` KI 5H ;I
_=` K=I 0= <=.I ' D=`3 i=j -. D -.s ' ij
' Y I <#
-5 ij P` 30M ; <Y aI. 30M !30 K>@ S2-S1-.s J <
m
;1 0 M ;I ij R 5 K I <Y -5 RI .x4 _` KI0 C ;I
:!' B _`KI 0 I _4 .K t > _` KI s M
s2 − s1 = 0.1

lS ,K2
< /
$ P
< S!
) R
[
_`KI 5H I <30I M0 .@fE 'D
2
δQ 1
δQ (+*~)
A∫ + B∫
1
T 2
T
:
2
δQ 1
δQ (+~)
A∫ + C∫ <o
1
T 2
T
1
δQ 1
δQ (~)
B∫ > C∫
2
T 2
T
1
δQ ((~)
s1 − s2 = B ∫
2 rev
T
1
 δQ  (~)
∫ ds > ∫  T
2

c
δQ ()~)
ds ≥
T
2
δQ (+~)
s2 − s1 ≥ ∫
1
T
System T δW
δQ
T0 z`
!30 Nm `35 j .@"fE 'D
S!
%) Z3$
δQ (~)
dsSystem ≥
T
δQ (~)
ds Environment = −
To
δQ δQ (~)
ds 3‫ = ﺥ‬dsSystem + ds 12‫ﻡ‬ ≥ −
T To
1 1
≥ δQ( − )
T To
To > T ⇒ ∆s3‫ ≥ ﺥ‬o (*~)
0‫ا‬ T > To ⇒ ‫د‬7‫ﻡ‬ ‫ض‬5 δQ ‫ﻡ‬45 ⇒ 'I ∆s ≥ 0
:!' '. M Lj Nm D`3 i'.G5' c OI <4B !30
∆s ≥ o (~)
:
Available Work ?A ,<
R= '# y# $ % K0'
K 6 ' T '$ a
I <# '$ '.. I
='$ a=
= . .= _=@ a& ' '$ a
<I K
0 '.. % -. <#
$ % MFy ' . H R% U0 ' R R3 # q. [ a&
.K O H 500K a&
800
1000
2500K .'# 500K
1000J W=0
750
1000
2000 K .'# 500K
Fy .@&fE gD
:R.# : <I K

0 cR.# 7: ' F , % O 4. '#
500
DM 'J KI wmax = 1000(1 − ) = 800
2500
:R.# : <I K
0 cR.# 7 ' F , % O 4. '#
500
DM 'J KI wmax = 1000(1 − ) = 750
2000
(Work Degradation) M '# KI oM#
D = 800 − 750 = 50
∆s sys = ∆s 8 =0
− 1000 1000
∆s 12‫ﻡ‬ = ∆s H + ∆s L = + = 0.1
2500 2000
D = To ∆S = (500)(0.1) = 50
= a=& = =$ A ' `35 oBH >$ D <# <b$?
oM=# 1=I a= ' !30= `35 oBH a& |% <I _4 .K O H
.K -5 M '# KI
g
800
1000
2500K 500K
1000J
W=100
675
900J
1000
2000 K 500K
Fy .@UfE 'D
D = 800 − 675 − 100 = 25

− 1000 100
∆s System = 0 , ∆s 12‫= ﻡ‬ + = 0.05
2500 2000
D = To ∆S = (0.05)(500) = 25
800
1000
2500K 500K
1000J
W=100
600
800J
1000
2000 K 500K
Fy .9.fE 'D
g,
QH QL
=
TH TL
(2000)
QL = (1000) = 800
2500
Wnet = 1000 − 800 = 200
D = 800 − 600 − 200 = 0
1000 800
∆s = − =0
2500 2000
D = To ∆S = 0
P
2 BH)
δQ
. ∆s > 0 !' OI CI 5 5H c ∆s > ∫ !' ;_` KI 5HM ;I
irr
T
= a=
<=I T= a=
% i'=$ F=Y3 =b .O D TV ;_` KI 5H D3
KI oMJ -. D F$ R' ∆S > 0 <J J <b$? J <
m ' w4@ ∆S -. D
_=` K=I 5H TV I <J J <b$? t.H i
m b J <
m B ' DM 'J
. I D oMJ DM 'J KI ' Y
;= DM 'J KI -B !4 D`3 oBH D[ _` KI 5H M TV I <V3 '
% U3= =I <=J != D= <V3 !M ! [ T <I ' R I D oMJ .&.
RW=` ; DM 'J KI F$ R ' oBH !4 D`3 <bm4 M -& ; .&. aI
;= ? \ y= RW=` ;= ' ;= <=I q=I ;= ' =
I ; T <LW& . 5 D
U3= ;I -.s J U3 ; R % -. D 1 V5 ' J D ` FBU0
. OI D .&. -& ' <J !' a
<I % ; R %
5H % -. D 5 b !3H <V3 _` KI i'$ FY3 5H C % ' t.H 4
.KH <V3 %
P1, V1, T0
T0
!H
F3# {0
.9fE 'D
:!' M '# KI e[ % U3 I
D = To ∆s = R To ln
v2 (~)
v1
g7
T0
T0
Q
M {0
_`KI 5H .9@fE 'D
. # 0$ % i'.GI # % I -. ' V2 9
V1 !V$ % M H I '#
v
Wmax = RTo ln 2 ((~)
v1
:I K II M 5H ' # % `35 ij Rr M
∆s = Ro ln
v2 (~)
v1
<b$? .K <3H' RI % DM 'J KI K <3H oBH D`3 _` KI 5H l'
.K To A . 30M 3 ((~) (~) <# #
R ! R> S!
) R
[
-.== .= =H K=Il ' = i & i[ I -. <# R <I <&. I
:KO.
Tds = du + pdv ()~)
dυ ≈ o
C T 
Tds ≈ du ≈ cdt ⇒ ds = dT → s2 − s1 ≅ C ln 2 
T  T1 
C = Const ‫ض‬:
:-5 D`3 ij K0I. .O D T 90oC 20oC % 5 a 1kg : t
363.2
s2 − s1 = 4.184 ln = 0.8958 kJ :F h'
293.2 kg.K
kJ
s2 − s1 = S
f 90 − Sf = 1.1925 − 0.2966 = 0.8959 :(F & 'I) T h'
20 kg.K
4=2 S!
) R
[
Tds = du + Pdv (+~)
ds = Cvo dT‫و‬
P R
= (~)
T v
ds = Cυ
dT R
+ dv (~)
o
T v
g8
2
dT v (~)
s2 − s1 = ∫ Cvo + R ln 2
1
T v1
Tds = dh − vdP (*~)
Tds = C Po dT −
RT
dP (~)
P
ds = C Po
dT R
− dP (~)
T P
2
dT P ((~)
s2 − s1 = ∫ C Po − R ln 2
1
T P1
T2 T
: ∫ Cv ln ∫ C P ln 2 <
m e3x ;O'
T1 T1
C P = const H I (e4
s2 − s1 = C P 0 ln
T2 P
− R ln 2 (~)
T1 P1
A.9 F & % % D[I C p (
o
s2 − s1 = ∫ C P (θ )
dT P
− R ln 2 ()~)
T P1
:% i'.GI A.10 A.11 F & h' % U3 (

T
C Po (+~)
sTo =
To
∫ T
dT
15
s2 − s1 = ( sTo2 − sTo1 ) − R ln
P2 (~)
P1
:!' -.s
T2
dT
T1
dT dT
T2
(~)
∫C
To
po − ∫ C po
T To T
= ∫ C po
T1
T
. 'D 300kPa 9
400kPa % -5 'H .O D T 600K 300K % .M 1kg t
~e4
C po = 1.0035 kJ
kgK
A.8‫ول‬$
C po
600 300
S 2 − S1 = 1.0035 ln − 0.287 ln = 0.7781 kJ
300 400 kg.K
A.11F & ~
g9
T1 = 300 ⇒ STo1 = 2.5153
T2 = 600 ⇒ STo2 = 3.2223

300
S 2 − S1 = 3.2223 − 2.5153 − 0.287 ln = 0.7896 kJ
400 kg.K
( A.10 I'J) CI 5 _` KI 5H ' k.@ <

m ;I .M F &
 Tds = dh − vdp dh = vdP
 ⇒ RTdP
ds = 0 C po dT = vdP =
P
dP C Po dT
=
P R T
:!D F13 D>@ K4$ M Po ‫ و‬To a& K4$ RI
T
P 1 dT
ln = ∫ C P0
Po R To T
T
1 dT
ln Pr = ∫
R To
C P0
T
= STo
T Pr STo
100 0.0299 1.4143
200 0.3363 2.1088
:KO. -. D ' t.H <4 [ (T2 , P2 ) ‫( و‬T1 ‫ و‬P1 ) K4$ ;I
o
P1 sT1
ln Pr1 = ln =
Po R
o
P2 sT2
ln Pr2 = ln =
Po R
:<L'.I
P2 P2 P1 P2
Pr2 = = = Pr1
Po P1 Po P1

P2
Pr2 = Pr1
P1
C=I 5 '.=I 600K ;= 400kPa '=H' -.30` ' dbUm ' .M1kg t
: 5H R' O TV 'J K0I. .O D N0
150kPa <I _` KI
g:
0 = u 2 − u1 + w
T2 P
0 = s2 − s1 = Cpo ln − R ln 2
T1 P1
dT P
0 = ∫ C po − R ln 2
T P1
kJ
u = 434.8
T1 = 600 K → kg
Pr1 = 16.278
P2 150
Pr2 = Pr1 = 16.278 × = 6.104
P1 400
:!' A.10 F & % U3 I
T2 = 457.K
Pr2 = 6.104 → kJ
u 2 = 327.79
kg
w = 434.8 − 327.79 = 107.01 kJ
kg
4 P=2
lS ,K2
< </ /
$ RC+` P
< 1+ n!
. J D j I Cv ‫ و‬C p :D H
o o
 C Po 
Cvo =
R (~)
 k = 
 k −1
 Cvo →
C − C = R C = kR
 Po vo
 o k − 1
P
Tds = du + Pdv = C vo dT + Pdv = 0 (*~)

dT =
1
( pdv + vdP) (~)
R
Cvo
( Pdv + vdP) + Pdv = 0 (*~)
R
1
( Pdv + vdP) + Pdv = 0 (*(~)
k −1
vdP + kPdv = 0 →
dP
+k
dv
=0 (*~)
P v
Pv k = const (*)~)
Pv = mRT
P2 v
= ( 1 )k
P1 v2
k −1
T2 P υ1 k −1
=( 2) k
=( )
T1 P1 υ2
gg
,<G c po , cvo ! 4 =2 P
< </ /
$ 4 BC+`
Q1−2 = m(u 2 − u1 ) + W1−2 (*+~)
W1− 2 = −m(u 2 − u1 ) = −mCv0 (T2 − T1 )
mR P v − Pv
w1− 2 = (T2 − T1 ) = 2 2 1 1
1− k 1− k
:!' ( w1− 2 = ∫ Pdv ) '# # dI' % U3 I
Pv k = const ⇒ w1− 2 =
P2 v2 − P1v1 (*~)
1− k
4 =2 P
< (
lS,K2
<) S!
S /
$
Pvn=cte, n= ∞
Pvn=cte, Isochoric
P Polytropic
Pvk=cte
Isentropic
Pv1=cte
Isothermal
P=cte
Isobaric
v
` ` M 5H P-v ' . .99fE 'D
n
Pv = const (*~)
(
P2 v
) = ( 1 )n (*~)
P1 v2
T2 P
n −l
v1 n−1 (**~)
=( 2) n
=( )
T1 P1 v2
2
P2 v2 − P1 − v1 mR(T2 − T1 ) (*~)
w1−2 = ∫ Pdv = = ,n ≠ 1
1
1− n 1− n
4 =2 P

lS ,K2
< /
$
5H '# d
m :e4
Pυ = C ⇒ P1v1 = P2 v2 (~)
2
P1 v P ((~)
w1−2 = ∫ Pdv = P1v1 ln = mRT ln 2 = mRT ln 1
1
P2 v1 P2
gz
:i'$ FY3 <
m :
du = Cv dT (~)
dT = 0 → du = 0 ()~)
Tds = du + Pdv (+~)
2 2
(~)
∫ Tds = ∫ Pdv
1 1
2 2
v2 (~)
q1−2 = ∫ Tds = ∫ Pdv = P1v1 ln
1 1
v1

)4 (HI T
<
! (
T, δQ, dA
Pi
Ti
vi
ei
si mt= t mN`5 ?5
)A (HI
>
st= t mN`5 ()*+ ?S!
)/
t dbm4 ' 43# !V$ .9efE 'D

mt + δ mi = t <bm4 ' !30 T&
S t + siδmi = t<bm4 ' !30 D`3
T, δQ, dA
∆wcv
mt+δt= t+δtmN`5 ?5
)A (HI
>
st+δt= t+δtmN`5 ()*+ ?S!
)/
δme Pe
Te
ve
ee
se
t+δt dbm4 ' 43# !V$ .9EfE gD
mm+δt + δme = t + δt <bm4 ' !30 T&
S t +δt + seδme = t + δt <bm4 ' !30 D`3
g
dS cv Q
+ ∑ m& se − ∑ m& si ≥ ∑ cv (~)
dt cv T
S1 = S t + si δmi (*~)
S 2 = S t +δt + seδme
S 2 − S1 = S t +δt − S t + seδme − si δmi
δQ S 2 − S1 1  δQ 
≥ 
(~)
dS ≥ → 
T δt δt  T 
SSSF/
$
dS C .V . Q& ((~)
≥ 0 → ∑ m& e s e − ∑ m& i si ≥ ∑ ( C .V . )
dt C .V . T
-& C
Q& C .V . (((~)
m& ( se − si ) ≥ ∑ ( )
C .V . T
CI 5 5H
se ≥ si ((~)
. .O USUF 5H
t
Q& C .V . + LW&C .V . (()~)
(m2 s2 − m1s1 )C .V . + ∑ m& e se − ∑ m& i si = ∫ ( )dt
o
T

)4 (HI P
< S!
) Z3$
43# !V$
∑ m& se e
 dS 
 
 dt  cv
∑ m& s
i i
Nm QC.V.
 dS 
 
 dt  12‫ﻡ‬
Nm !30 RI `35 F

.9fE 'D
dsC .V . Q& ((+~)

+ ∑ m& e se − ∑ m& i si ≥ ∑ ( C .V . )
dt T
g
dS sur Q& ((~)
− ∑ m& s se + ∑ m& i si = − C .V .
dt To
dS Net dS C .V . dS surr  Q&  Q& ((~)
= + ≥ ∑  C .V .  − C .V .
dt dt dt  T  To
Q& C .V . > 0 Q& <o
 C .V .
To > T To < T
dS Net dS C .V . dS surr
= + ≥o
dt dt dt
k@ ;M K4$

D W -& H I
dS C .V .
= 0 P`
dS surr
≥o ((~)
dt dt
:USUF 5H
∆S C .V . = (m2 s2 − m1 s1 ) C .V . ((*~)
dS Net
K= <=I ' -.= D= ((~) d4 [ % .I M.@ Nm ;' ;_` KI l
dt
. '5
Q& C .V . ((~)
∆S sur = − + ∑ m& s se − ∑ m& i si
To
SSSF
lS,K2
< /
$ A
v 2
i v 2
e (((~)
q + hi + + g z i = he + + g z e + w
2 2
Q& C .V .
m& (se − si ) ≥
T

lS,K2
< ! </ /
$ (5
si = s e
e
((((~)
Tds = dh − vdP → dh = vdP → hi − he = ∫ vdP
i
2 2
Vi − V
w = hi − he + + g (zi − z e )
e
2
e V 2 − Ve2
w = − ∫ vdP + i + g (z i − z e )
i 2

lS ,K2
< !
!3 /
$ (J
Q& C .V . (((~)
T (s e − s i ) = =q
m&
5H ' - .I KIl R3H b ' I Tds = dh − vdP dI' % '_& I
z
T (se − si ) = he − hi − ∫ vdP ((()~)
: .O <V3 (()) c(( c((~) % U3 I
w = − ∫ vdP +
(V
i
2
−V e
2
) + g (z − ze )
(((+~)
i
2
F=B I 5 _` KI 5H % <. V _` KI 5H M -.s :
Al
:KO. SSSF _` KI 5H M I -. K& R M <I OI
w = − ∫ vdP +
(Vi − Ve2 )
2
+ g ( zi − z e )
(((~)
2
A g+
.K% iGx ;' K_` KI DL .'J L
. .O D H _` KI M 5H T .(
' D3Il ; D'$ a
-.s c!' L <I T a
% i'$ FY3 5H C .
.'J L
K T%q OI Cs.J K DI L F D'$ a
; S?3@ <L ;I
H _`KI ' i'$ FY3 M 5H -.3I I KIl B F ; <J
. #
a
<I F % i'$ FY3 5H C .)
' NYH i'$ F
<# K -5 I I 5 H ._` KI CI 5 5H .+
.K RO' B _` KI H .!OI <3O 5H
<30I !30 ;I .'J L : t
<30I !30 I .'# '.. d@s .9"fE 'D
z,
TH
Boiler
W
T
Condenser W
TL
.( 30M L KI M Rs N@) 'xI I .'# d@s cFy .9&fE gD
% <= <=3
4 cK= '0I b % K RL DL Rs V '
K <I ;%H F C - J ` b % <LI . ;_`KI m4
.K '0I qI ; 'H
:B)g
=O <I <&. I %. OI 3I . D .'J L %I % _` KI L M %I
'# '$ '.. i'.GI P` cK 3I II %I -.s KO. -. ()~)
= d M .I 6 ' '$ a
I RO d. V .O QL′ < QL 15 #
.K O
'# <I
( 30M 6 ' <I D'$ a
I L M)
{< z`
TH
QH QH
W=QH-QL Wirr=QH-QL'
I II
Q Q
QL QL'
MS z`

TL
=
# '# <I D a
RI <# '.. I <0Y ' .'# '.. .9UfE 'D
z7
WI .R − WR = QH − QL ′ − QH + QL = QL − QL′ (((*~)
' <I= D='$ a=
=I L= M) OI D ;1 % 3I ;.'J L M %I .
.( 30M 6
{< z`
TH
QH QH
WR1=QH-QL WR2=QH-QL'
A A
QL QL'
MS z`

TL
{< z`

TH
QH QH
WR1=QH-QL WR2=QH-QL'
A A
QL QL'
MS z`

TL
# '# <I D a
RI <# 34$ I <0Y ' .'# '.. .e.fE 'D
WR2 − WR1 = QH − QL′ − QH + QL (((~)
= QL − QL′
=
'# <I ' i'$ d M .I 6 ' a
I RO d. V <# <b$?
K R <# #
. OI D T D'$ a
; % D[I .'J L %I .)
η = 1− L
Q ((~)
QH
QL
= f (TL , TH )
QH
z8
T1
W1 Q1
A
Q2 W3
T2 A
Q2
W2
A Q3
Q3
T3
OI <@s I N
'$ a
% [I .'# d@s %I .efE 'D
Q1
= ε1 (T1 , T2 ) (((~)
Q2
Q2
= ε 2 (T2 , T3 )
Q3
Q1
= ε 3 (T1 , T3 )
Q3
Q1 Q1 Q2
= ⇒ ε 3 (T1 , T3 ) = ε1 (T1 , T2 ).ε 2 (T2 , T3 )
Q3 Q2 Q3
g1 (T1 ) g 2 (T2 ) g (T ) Q g (T ) g (T1 ) T1
⇒ . ⇒ ε1 (T1 , T2 ) = 1 1 ⇒ 1 = 1 1 = =
g 2 (T2 ) g 3 (T3 ) g 2 (T2 ) Q2 g 2 (T2 ) g (T2 ) T2
O
!
DZY ' .
DI <J !J x3 D[I I .!J x3 ' g aI I -.#
!J x3 D@ i'.GI
z9
% F I .'# '.. .e@fE 'D
T
0 ∞ :15
T eT1
−∞ + ∞ :!J x3 i'.> <I
eT2
.K= ]= ;= 6=Y C= R= D=M^ =b % .K J ` R.J 4 ' aI. R
DH=J .,+ A =2 ,5I m5 M 4 P T M B4 (4 ,<G ( -
:!J KIl K
QH T1 (‫ز‬0 ) (((~)
=
QL T3
T1 = T2 , T3 = T4 ((~)
δQ = CV dT + PdV
2
V2
dT = 0 ⇒ δQ = PdV ⇒ Q1− 2 = ∫ PdV = Q1− 2 = RT1 ln = QH
1
V1
V
ln 2
V QH T1 V1
Q3− 4 = RT3 ln 3 = QL = .
V4 QL T3 ln V3
V4
2-3 5H ;I
CI 5
⇒ δQ = CV dT + PdV ⇒ 0 = CV dT +
RTdV
⇒ (()~)
V
dT RdV T V
CV =− ⇒ CV ln 2 = − R ln 2
T V T3 V3
4-1 5H
z:
 T V ((+~)
CV ln 1 = − R ln 1
 T4 V4
 T 2 V2
 CV ln = − R ln
 T3 V3
 T1 = T2 V V V V
T = T ⇒ 2 = 1⇒ 2 = 3
 3 4 V3 V4 V1 V4
QH T1 TH
= =
QL T3 TL
<=I t.=H d=I' .K= J % <I {.I R.J K
0 M a
; K
0 RII
= }. F <I <'.I !# $Z M^ <# M -
= -. QH, QL % I !# H a& ' TL . OI<3O 130I
. # R[ ' TH
; <= = -.s . M - ' ] ; . D <J ; < K ;% :B)g
J % ;I D <J <.1 M .(
I ' LO) K0 ; % < aI <J K
C= ' = F= -. $ I
 ;
I D 6Y C V 
;'_= T= R.=J =4 'x3H 'H 
1. R.E. Sonntag, C. Borgnakke and G.J. Van Wylen, Fundamentals

of Thermodynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997
2. M.W. Zemansky and R. H. Dittman, Heat and Thermodynamics,
McGraw-Hill, 1997
3. Y.A. Cengel and M.A. Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002
4. J.S. Hsieh, Engineering Thermodynamics, Prentice Hall, 1993
5. A. Bejan, Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1988
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