AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS

Power Plants
1. Reciprocating Engines (Piston Engines)
2. Rotary Engines (Wankel Engine)
3. Gas Turbine Engines
i. Turbofan Engine
ii. Turbojet Engine
iii. Turboprop Engine
iv. Turboshaft Engine
4. Ramjet and Scramjet Engines
5. Pulsejet Engines
 Internal combustion engines

• (5-1)Intake stroke, fuel vapour and air drawn into engine

• (1-2)Compression stroke
• (2-3) Combustion (spark), short time, essentially constant volume
• (3-4) Power stroke: expansion
• (4-1) Heat Rejection
• (1-5) Exhaust stroke, piston pushes remaining combustion products
out of chamber

Piston and valves in a four-stroke internal combustion engine

Disadvantages of IC engines

• IC engines were ideal for light aircrafts only due to

the below said penalties of size increase.
 Increased vibrational problems
 Lubrication problems
 cooling problems
 Increased frontal area
 Increased drag
 Increased fuel consumption
 Increased complexities in design
Advantages of Gas turbine engines

 Absence of moving (reciprocating) components

 Absence of rubbing parts in the engine
 High reliability
 Low lubrication
 High power to weight ratio
 Ease of maintenance
 Operating flexibility
 High specific thrust
 High thermal efficiencies
 Low vibrations
 Higher mass flow rates
 Basic Components of Gas Turbine Engine
1. Intake
2. Compressor
(i) Axial flow Compressor
(ii) Centrifugal Compressor
(iii) Mixed flow compressor
3. Combustion Chamber
(i) Can Combustor
(ii) Can Annular Combustor
(iii) Annular Combustor
(iv) Slinger Combustor
4. Turbine
(i) Axial flow Turbine
(ii) Radial Turbine
5. Nozzle (for Turbofan and Turbojet)
6. Exhaust
 Gas Turbine Cycle

1.adiabatic process – compression

Brayton Cycle 2.isobaric process – heat addition
3.adiabatic process – expansion
4.isobaric process – heat rejection
INTAKE
INTAKE
INTAKE
Axial flow compressor
Axial Compressors

Axial flow compressors are typically used at applications with low

differential pressure (head) requirements and high flow rates. A typical
axial compressor consists of a drum, to which blades of specific geometry
are attached. Contrary to centrifugal compressors, axial flow
compressors do not change the direction of the gas: the gas typically
enters and exits the compressor in an axial direction (parallel to the axis
of rotation). First, the gas is accelerated in the rotor and then diffused in
the stator so that its pressure is increased.

Typical applications of big-size axial compressors are those used to

compress the air intake of gas turbines. These are typically multistage
axial compressors, consisting of several stages. Each stage typically
consists of a rotor and a stator. A rotor is a set or rotating blades, whose
role is to accelerate the gas flow. A stator is a set of stationary blades
whose role is to convert the velocity energy gained in the rotor to
pressure energy, similar to the impeller – diffuser combination used in
13
the centrifugal compressors.
 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION

Single Shaft Compressor

Twin-Spool Turbofan

15
 AXIAL COMPRESSOR ENERGY EXCHANGE
• Rotor
w Centerline
– Adds swirl to flow
– Adds kinetic energy to
flow with ½rv2
– Increases total energy
carried in flow by
increasing angular
momentum
• Stator
– Removes swirl from flow
– Not a moving blade →
cannot add any net energy
to flow
R S R
NGV

– Converts kinetic energy

associated with swirl to
internal energy by raising
static pressure of flow
– NGV adds no energy. Adds
swirl in direction of rotor
motion to lower Mach
number of flow relative to
rotor blades (improves
16
aerodynamics)
AXIAL COMPRESSOR: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION

Centerline
17
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
 19
Centrifugal compressors
 Centrifugal compressor
Centrifugal compressors consist of one or more stages. Each
stage typically consists of an impeller (rotating element) and a
diffuser (stationary element).

In a centrifugal compressor, the gas typically enters the impeller

axially and is discharged radially. The gas hurled out radially by
the rotating impeller blades. The gas then flows through the
circular chamber (diffuser), following a spiral path where the
velocity head of the gas gets converted to static pressure head as
per Bernoulli’s principle. To put it simply, the impeller imparts
kinetic energy to the gas fluid, whereas the diffuser converts part
of that kinetic energy into static pressure head.

21
 Centrifugal compressor
The extent of pressure rise in a centrifugal compressor
mainly depends on the rotational speed of the impeller and
the impeller size. However, the maximum allowable speed is
limited by the strength of the structural material of impeller
blades and sonic velocity of the gas. As a result, limitations
on maximum achievable pressure rise exist. These
limitations are overcome by the use of multistage centrifugal
compressors, which are able to compress the gas to desirable
pressure using multiple stages of centrifugal compressors
operating in series.
Centrifugal compressor stage components
Centrifugal compressor stage for testing
Mixed flow compressor (Diagonal compressor)
Pressure and velocity variation in centrifugal compressor
 TWO PRIMARY TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

• Axial Devices • Radial (Centrifugal) Devices

– High mass flow – Can not handle as high mass flow
– High efficiency – Less efficient than axial device
– Stackable (multi-staging) – Short length
– More parts – Robust
– More complex – Less Parts 27
28
Stalling is the separation of flow from the compressor blade
surface. At low flow rates the incidence angle or angle of attack
increases and due to this there occurs the flow separation on the
suction side of the blades which is known as positive stalling. If
the flow separation occurs on the pressure side of the blade then
it’s known as negative stalling and this occurs due to negative
incidence angle. Flow reversal phenomenon is known as surge

Constant efficiency lines are the elliptical shaped curves in

the compressor characteristic curve along which the efficiency
of the compressor remains constant.
Choking is the condition which occurs in the compressor in
which it operates at very high mass flow rate and flow through
the compressor can’t be further increased as mach number at
some part of the compressor reach to unity i.e. to sonic velocity
and the flow is said to be choked. The operation on right side of
29
choke line is not possible
30
Stalling

Stalling is an important phenomenon that affects the

performance of the compressor. An analysis is made of rotating
stall in compressors of many stages, finding conditions under
which a flow distortion can occur which is steady in a traveling
reference frame, even though upstream total and downstream
static pressure are constant. In the compressor, a pressure-rise
hysteresis is assumed. It is a situation of separation of air flow at
the aero-foil blades of the compressor. This phenomenon
depending upon the blade-profile leads to reduced compression
and drop in engine power.
.

31
Positive stalling
Flow separation occur on the suction side of the blade.

Negative stalling
Flow separation occur on the pressure side of the blade.
Negative stall is negligible compared to the positive stall
because flow separation is least likely to occur on the
pressure side of the blade.
In a multi-stage compressor, at the high pressure stages,
axial velocity is very small. Stalling value decreases with a
small deviation from the design point causing stall near the
hub and tip regions whose size increases with decreasing
flow rates. They grow larger at very low flow rate and affect
the entire blade height. Delivery pressure significantly drops
with large stalling which can lead to flow reversal. The stage
efficiency drops with higher losses 32
Effects of Stall

 This reduces efficiency of the compressor

 Forced vibrations in the blades due to passage through

stall compartment.

 These forced vibrations may match with the natural

frequency of the blades causing resonance and hence
failure of the blade.

33
Combustion chamber
(Combustor)
Can Combustion Chamber
 COMBUSTOR EXAMPLE (F101)

Fuel

Turbine
NGV
Compressor

36
Air flow in combustion chamber
Can Combustors
Can Annular Combustor
Annular Combustor
 SOLUTION: BURNING REGIONS

Turbine
Air Primary
Zone
f~0.3
Compressor

f ~ 1.0
T>2000 K

42
 COMBUSTOR ZONES: MORE DETAILS
1. Primary Zone
– Anchors Flame
– Provides sufficient time, mixing, temperature for “complete” oxidation of fuel
– Equivalence ratio near f=1
2. Intermediate (Secondary Zone)
– Low altitude operation (higher pressures in combustor)
• Recover dissociation losses (primarily CO → CO2) and Soot Oxidation
• Complete burning of anything left over from primary due to poor mixing
– High altitude operation (lower pressures in combustor)
• Low pressure implies slower rate of reaction in primary zone
• Serves basically as an extension of primary zone (increased tres )
– L/D ~ 0.7
3. Dilution Zone (critical to durability of turbine)
– Mix in air to lower temperature to acceptable value for turbine
– Tailor temperature profile (low at root and tip, high in middle)
– Uses about 20-40% of total ingested core mass flow
– L/D ~ 1.5-1.8
43
COMBUSTOR TYPES

Single Can

Tubular
or Multi-Can

Tuboannular
Can-Annular

Annular
44
COMBUSTOR TYPES (Lefebvre)

45
46
47
48
TURBINE
Turbine LP and HP
LP, Intermediate & HP
Turbine
Three stage turbine
Exhaust Nozzle
 NOZZLES
INTRODUCTION
1. Relatively simple device
2. Varying cross section
3. Used to modify the characteristics of the fluid
4. Discharge, Direction, Pressure, Velocity, Mass flow rate etc.
5. Applications- Fuel nozzle, arc welding tip, chemical treatment plants,
aircrafts etc.
6. Aircrafts-Accelerate the fluid to subsonic, sonic and supersonic
velocities
FUNCTIONS OF A NOZZLE IN AIRCRAFT ENGINES

• Accelerate the flow to a high velocity with minimum total

pressure loss
• Match exit and atmospheric pressure as closely as possible
• Permit afterburner operation without affecting main
engine operation-this function requires a variable area
nozzle
• Allow for cooling of walls
• Mix core and by pass streams of turbofan if necessary
• Allow for thrust reversing
• Suppress jet noise and infrared radiation if desired
• Thrust vector control should be permitted
TYPES OF NOZZLES
There are different types of nozzles used on aircrafts:
• Convergent Nozzle
• Convergent-Divergent nozzle or Con-Di nozzle or De-Laval
nozzle
CONVERGENT NOZZLE

• Simple convergent duct

• Mainly used when the pressure ratio is less (less than about 4).
• Can accelerate the flow only up to sonic (M=1) condition
• Used on subsonic aircrafts
 CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT NOZZLE OR CON-DI NOZZLE OR
DE-LAVAL NOZZLE OR C-D NOZZLE

• C-D Nozzle has 2 sections

– Convergent Duct
– Divergent Duct
• Used for pressure ratios r>6
• Used along with Variable area nozzle
• Achieve supersonic conditions
• Used in High performance aircrafts
ENGINE OVERALL LAYOUT
 CROSS-SECTIONAL EXAMPLE: GE 90-115B
Compressor
Nozzle
Fan

Turbine

Inlet Combustor

• Why does this engine look the way that it does?

• How does this engine push an airplane forward, i.e. how does it generate thrust?
• What are major components and design parameters?
• How can we characterize performance and compare with other engines?
 EXAMPLE OF MILITARY ENGINE:
TURBOJET OR LOW-BYPASS RATIO TURBOFAN
Extreme Temperature Environment

Compressor Combustor Turbine Afterburner

 MAJOR GAS TURBINE ENGINE COMPONENTS
1. Inlet:
– Continuously draw air into engine through inlet
– Slows, or diffuses, to compressor

2. Compressor / Fan:
– Compresses air
– Generally two, or three, compressors in series
– Raises stagnation temperature and pressure (enthalpy) of flow
– Work is done on the air

3. Combustor:
– Combustion or burning processes
– Adds fuel to compressed air and burns it
– Converts chemical to thermal energy
– Process takes place at relatively constant pressure
 MAJOR GAS TURBINE ENGINE COMPONENTS
4. Turbine:
– Generally two or three turbines in series
– Turbine powers, or drives, the compressor
– Air is expanded through turbine (P & T ↓)
– Work is done by the air on the blades
– Use some of that work to drive compressor
– Next:
• Expand in a nozzle
– Convert thermal to kinetic energy (turbojet)
– Burning may occur in duct downstream of turbine (afterburner)
• Expand through another turbine
– Use this extracted work to drive a fan (turbofan)

5. Nozzle:
– Flow is ejected back into the atmosphere, but with increased momentum
– Raises velocity of exiting mass flow
 2. COMPRESSORS: WHERE IN ENGINE? PW2000
Fan
Compressor

Purpose of fan is to increase efficiency of turbojet engine

Much of air bypasses core of engine
TURBOFAN ENGINES

Engine Core
 TURBOFAN ENGINES
Bypass Air

Core Air

Bypass Ratio: 6:1

Ratio of by pass air flow rate to core flow rate
Example: Bypass ratio of 6:1 means that air volume flowing through fan and
bypassing core engine is six times air volume flowing through core
 HOW LARGE IS THE 777-300 ENGINE?

11 ft 7 in (3.53 m)

11 ft 3 in (3.43 m)

Engine is largest and most powerful turbofan built (11 ft 3 in (3.43 m) in diameter)
In this case, 737 cabin is a mere 3% wider than 777 engine
 2 SPOOL DEVICE: PW2000

Low Pressure Compressor (wlow)

High Pressure Compressor (whigh)
 3. COMBUSTOR (BURNERS): LOCATION

Commercial
PW4000

Combustor

Military
F119-100

Afterburner
 4. TURBINES: LOCATION

Low Pressure Compressor (wlow)

High Pressure Compressor (whigh)

High and Low Pressure Turbines

NOISE SUPPRESSION
AIRCRAFT AND ENGINE NOISE
5. NOZZLES: PW119 (F22 ENGINE)
MILITARY ENGINES: P&W F119
AFTERBURNER TESTING
BOEING 747-400 AT ROLLOUT

Thrust Reverse on Landing

 ENGINE SURGE EVENT
Surge: Violent reverse flow situation:
Burning combustion gases driven upstream through compressor and out of engine
Usually accompanied by downstream fire
Engine must maintain structural integrity and be able to be shut down
Requirements of an ideal power plant

 Reliability
 Durability
 Compactness
 Low weight per power
 High specific power output
 High thermal efficiency
 Free from vibrations
 Ease of maintenance
 Operating flexibility
 Economical
 Turbojet

 Chemical energy is converted into mechanical energy

 100% Thrust produced by Nozzle
 Operating Mach No: 1 to 2
 Supersonic Aircraft (1 to 5)
 Turbofan

 20 to 40% of Thrust produced by Nozzle

 60 to 80% of Thrust produced by Fan
 Operating Mach No: 0.4 to 0.8
 High Subsonic Aircraft (0.3 to 0.8)
 Turboprop

 20 to 25% of Thrust produced by Nozzle

 75 to 80% of Thrust produced by Propeller
 Operating Mach No: 0.4 to 0.65
 Subsonic Aircraft (0.1 to 0.8)
Turbo Shaft

 High pressure turbine is

used to rotate HP & LP
Compressor
 Low pressure turbine is
used to rotate output
Shaft
 No Thrust produced in
the exit turbine gas
 Turbo Shaft

 Kinetic energy is converted to Shaft power

 100% Thrust produced by Shaft
 Operating Mach No: 0.4 to 0.8
 High speed Subsonic helicopter (0.3 to 0.8)
PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY

In aircraft and rocket design, overall propulsive efficiency is

the efficiency, in percent, with which the energy contained in a
vehicle's propellant is converted into useful energy, to replace
losses due to aerodynamic drag, gravity, and acceleration

THRUST REVERSAL

Thrust reversal, also called reverse thrust, is the temporary

diversion of an aircraft engine's exhaust so that it is directed
forward, rather than backwards. Reverse thrust acts against
the forward travel of the aircraft, providing deceleration.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TURBOJET ENGINE

• Low thrust at low forward speeds

• Relatively high TSFC at low altitudes and speeds (fuel efficiency
of an engine design with respect to thrust )
• Lightest specific weight (weight per unit volume)
• Ability to take advantage of highest ram pressure
• Lowest frontal area and almost no ground clearance problem
Advantages of turbojet engine
 Ideal for long distance flight at higher speeds and altitudes
 Lower frontal area and shorter landing gear
 Lower weight per unit thrust at design speeds and altitude
 Pressure rise through inlet diffuser is significant
 Reheat can be employed for increased thrust

Disadvantages Of Turbojet Engine

 Take-off roll is longer requiring longer runway
 TSFC is comparatively higher at low speeds and altitudes
 Uneconomical on short distance flights
 Lower thrust and propulsive efficiency at lower speeds.
TURBOPROP ENGINE
 Intermediate of a pure turbojet and a propeller engine
 Consists of following parts
 Propeller
 Reduction gear
 Compressor
 Combustion chamber
 Turbine
 Nozzle
 Here thrust is generated by propeller as well as the exhaust gases
leaving the nozzle.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TURBOPROP ENGINE
• Very high propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds but with altitude it
falls off rapidly
• Most complicated design and heavier than turbojet
• Lowest TSFC
• Large frontal area, Longer landing gear for low wing airplanes
• Highly efficient thrust reversals
Advantages of turboprop engine
 Higher thrust at low speeds
 Take off roll is short
 Propulsive efficiency within operational range is high
 Specific fuel consumption is low
 Thrust reversal is easily achieved

Disadvantages of Turboprop Engine

 Application is limited to lower speeds and altitude
 Landing gears have to be longer
 Engine is heavier and complicated
 Usually centrifugal compressors are used which increases the frontal
area
 Higher weight per unit thrust
TURBOFAN ENGINE
 Essentially a combination of turbo prop and a turbo jet engine
 It consists of an enclosed duct with a fan mounted either at the front
or at the rear end of the engine
 Consists of various parts like
• Fan
• Compressor
• Burner
• Turbine
• Nozzle
Advantages Of Turbofan Engine
 Short take off roll
 Comparatively quieter engine
 Weight per unit thrust is lower than turboprop engine
 Thrust is higher than turbojet engine

Disadvantages Of Turbofan Engine

 Increased frontal area and drag
 Separate thrust reversers are required for hot and cold jets
 TSFC is higher than turboprop
 Engine is heavier and complicated than turbojet engine
 Lower speed limit than turbojet engine M<1
CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBOFAN ENGINE
• Increased thrust at forward speeds
• Can fly beyond Mach 1
• Weight falls between turbojet and Turboprop
• Ground clearances are better than turboprop but not as good as
turbojet
• TSFC and specific weight falls between Turbojet and turboprop
• Lesser noise level
• Performance on a hot day is superior to the turbojet
• Separate thrust reversers are required if Primary and fan air exit
separately
 OPERATING PARAMETERS OR FACTORS AFFECTING THRUST

Various parameters which affect gas turbine engines are

1. Engine RPM
2. Speed
3. Temperature
4. Pressure
5. Density
6. Humidity
7. Water injection

As an aircraft operates at various altitudes and climates, the ambient air

temperature and pressure will vary. These factors will affect the density of the
air entering the engine, and as a result, will affect thrust
more density = more thrust
less temp = more density = more air to move and burn = more thrust
high temp = less density = less air to move and burn = less thrust
high altitude = less air pressure = less thrust
low altitude = more air pressure = more thrust

Density's effect to thrust is more than air pressure.

RAM EFFECT:
The intake pressure caused by the forward speed of an aircraft
. An air intake directed forward to increase the intake air
pressure is called a ramming intake.

SPECIFIC IMPULSE (usually abbreviated Isp

Specific Impulse is a measure of the efficiency of rocket and jet

engines.

By definition, it is the total impulse (or change in momentum)

delivered per unit of propellant consumed and is dimensionally
equivalent to the generated thrust divided by the propellant
flow rate.