On-Line Product

Presentation: Effects on
Mood, Perceived Risk,
and Purchase Intention
Jihye Park
Iowa State University

Sharron J. Lennon
The Ohio State University

Leslie Stoel
The Ohio State University

ABSTRACT

Because the Internet purchase of apparel is risky, there is a strong

need to develop better visual product presentation on-line that may
give some sense of fit and other tactile experience to reduce per-
ceived risk and create pleasurable shopping experiences. Toward this
end, the effect of product presentation on consumer responses was
examined here. In addition, the relationships among variables were
investigated to provide details of the nature of the effect of product
presentation. This study employed a 2 ⴛ 2 between-subjects factorial
design: product movement (product in motion vs. product not in
motion) ⴛ image size (large vs. small). Mock Web sites were created to
closely mimic the design of actual Web sites. Two hundred forty-four
female undergraduates logged on and evaluated two pairs of pants
under the same treatment conditions. The present research showed
(a) main effects for product movement on mood, perceived risk, and
apparel purchase intention; (b) an interaction between product move-
ment and image size on apparel purchase intention; (c) a negative
relationship between mood and perceived risk; (d) a positive relation-

Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 22(9): 695–719 (September 2005)

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com)
© 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/mar.20080
695
ship between mood and apparel purchase intention; (e) a negative
relationship between perceived risk and apparel purchase intention;
and (f) mediating relationships among variables. Based on the results,
apparel e-tailers are advised to create positive mood using product
rotation to decrease shoppers’ perceived risk and increase purchase
intent. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

E-commerce sales at domestic on-line retailers totaled 56 billion dollars

in 2003 and accounted for about 2% of all retail sales. E-commerce sales
continue to grow. For example, in the first quarter of 2004, U.S. retail e-
commerce sales were about $15.5 billion, with an increase of 28% over
the first quarter of 2003 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). As e-commerce
sales became more important consumers looked for ways to reduce cog-
nitive effort associated with on-line shopping, the importance of Web-
site technical support has been recognized by retailers (Peters, 2004).
Major issues relating to the use of technology to enhance Web-site per-
formance include product presentation techniques such as three-dimen-
sional (3D) views, enlargement, and control of image resolution. Use of
such technology enhances Web-site performance to sustain the site and
to enhance Web-site success in a competitive marketplace. According to
Retail Forward (2001), about 85% of on-line shoppers identified three-
dimensional images of products useful for understanding product fea-
tures and functions.
One product that sells surprisingly well on-line is apparel (Internet
Retailer, 2004). In 2001, apparel was the third largest e-commerce cate-
gory, with 10% of market share, following travel (e.g., airline tickets) and
computer-related goods (e.g., software, hardware) (Mudd, 2002). Although
apparel sells well on-line, consumers still perceive risks associated with
on-line apparel shopping. Sensory attributes such as fabric hand, garment
fit, color, and quality are important criteria for all types of in-home
apparel shopping (McCorkle, 1990), but are difficult to evaluate on-line.
For example, a study by Cyber Dialogue indicated that 30% of on-line
shoppers had not purchased apparel on-line because the color of the item
was in question (Elliot & Fowell, 2000). Because sensory attributes can-
not be completely evaluated when people shop on-line, risk associated with
on-line apparel purchases may prevent consumers from purchasing.
According to Ernst & Young (2001), over 60% of on-line shoppers have not
yet purchased apparel on-line because of perceived risk. Because apparel
products may be even more risky to purchase on-line than other products,
it is important for e-merchants to develop strategies to reduce that risk.
One way to reduce risk is to create an attractive visual product presen-
tation (Bhatti, Bouch, & Kuchinsky, 2000; Szymanski & Hise, 2000) that
gives some sense of fit and other tactile experiences. Furthermore, aspects
of visual product presentation may make shopping on-line pleasurable
and may increase purchase intention. Therefore, the purpose of this study
was to examine the effect of product presentation on mood, perceived

696 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

risk, and purchase intention. In addition, relationships among those vari-
ables were also investigated.

CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND

Product Presentation
As increases in on-line shopping and in the number of on-line retailers
have created a competitive market place, the importance of Web-site
design has been emphasized (e.g., Elliot & Fowell, 2000). Consumers may
reduce cognitive effort and save time through on-line shopping. For exam-
ple, Web-site designs that use fast presentations, uncluttered screens,
and easy search paths support a pleasurable and effective shopping expe-
rience by reducing shopping time and the cognitive effort of shopping. In
one study, Then and DeLong (1999) emphasized the importance of the lay-
out and design of apparel Web sites. They suggested that the more infor-
mation a retailer can offer through the visual display of apparel, the
more interested the consumer will be in purchasing apparel on-line.
Three important visual aspects of product presentation were suggested
for success in selling on-line: Images of the product (a) in its closest rep-
resentation of end use, (b) displayed in conjunction with similar items,
and (c) from various angles such as front and back. About 89% of respon-
dents preferred a realistic human model to display the garment and to
show how it fit the body. Displaying apparel on a three-dimensional
model may minimize uncertainties of shopping for apparel on-line. How-
ever, even though the importance of displaying apparel on a three-dimen-
sional model or with different angles was emphasized by researchers, in
fact, a content analysis of the top 31 apparel Web sites revealed that
only one front view was available on 30 of those apparel Web sites (Park
& Stoel, 2002).

Consumer Response System in the Computer-Mediated

Environment
Consumer perceptions and responses have been a mainstream of con-
sumer behavior research in the past 25 years. Holbrook and Hirschman
(1982) integrated existing consumer behavior models and conceptual-
ized a comprehensive model of a consumer response system that describes
how a consumer responds to products, services, or marketing objectives.
Based on the model, the response system involves cognition, affect, and
behavior. Cognitive responses involve memory, knowledge structures,
imagery, beliefs, and thought (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982). Types of
affective responses typically measured are mood or feelings evoked by
marketing stimuli (Batra & Ray, 1986; MacKenzie & Lutz, 1989). For
instance, Li, Daugherty, and Biocca (2001) found that consumers expe-

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 697

rience emotions when interacting with 3D visual products. Behavior (i.e.,
conative response) as a result of cognition and/or affect is explained by
purchase and/or consumption. Instead of actual behavior, behavioral
intention, such as purchase intention, is often used to assess marketing
effectiveness (Hoch & Ha, 1986).
Cognitive, emotional, and conative responses can be elicited by prod-
uct experience (Hirschman, 1984). Traditionally, psychologists have iden-
tified two types of experiences—direct and indirect experiences—based
on the degree of sensory interactions with the product. According to Gib-
son (1996), an unmediated interaction between the consumer and a prod-
uct, wherein all of a person’s sensory capacities—sight, hearing, taste,
smell, and touch—can occur through direct experience. However, indirect
experiences are usually evoked from a representation of physical prod-
ucts in media such as advertising. Direct product experience is generally
viewed as increasing confidence, and indirect experience is able to influ-
ence attitude for search goods (Marks & Kamins, 1988).
Technological advances have created another type of indirect experi-
ence, the so-called virtual experience. A virtual experience is a mediated
experience, a simulation such as 3D virtual on-line stores or product pre-
sentations (Li et al., 2001). For example, visual inspection of a product
may be simulated on-line with enlargement or zoom functions, or by vir-
tual rotation of the product. Li et al. (2001) found that virtual experi-
ence is accompanied by psychological and emotional states when con-
sumers interact with products in a 3D environment. Virtual experience
often occurs through interactive media such as the Internet or computer
simulations. Because the Internet is a limited environment and cus-
tomers cannot obtain tactile and physical product experiences, the impor-
tance of virtual experience has emerged. Visual presentation such as
product movement may provide a virtual experience and help consumers
overcome the drawbacks of limited information and limited experience
with on-line shopping. In addition, through visual presentation con-
sumers may approximate product functionality (Li, Daugherty, & Biocca,
2002). The combination of the direct visual experience and the simulated
tactile and behavioral experiences evokes cognitive, affective, and cona-
tive responses in the e-commerce environment.
The virtual experience can be developed via presence of product pres-
entation in the computer-mediated environment. Presence is the expe-
rience that is established in a representational environment via media
(Steuer, 1992); the individual has sensations of being present in the envi-
ronment (Biocca & Delaney, 1995). When presence occurs the user of a
medium perceives an illusion that simulates sensory experiences such as
an illusion that a perceived product is present in the environment (Biocca
& Delaney, 1995). Biocca and Delaney said that presence can be devel-
oped through a variety of imaginary characters in the media or in the con-
tent of the media that are controlled by computer-generated graphical
properties, including shape, color, sound, and motion. Vividness, the rep-

698 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

resentational richness of a mediated environment, is one of the major
components of presence in the communication system and influences the
computer-mediated virtual experience (Steuer, 1992). Sensory breadth and
depth such as high-resolution quality, large image size, and movement
are aspects of stimuli that make it vivid (e.g., Biocca & Delaney, 1995;
Choi, Miracle, & Biocca, 2001; Lombard, 1995).
According to T. Kim and Biocca (1997), presence in a computer-medi-
ated environment positively influenced buying intention for advertised
products. Similarly, Choi et al. (2001) found that media content such as
moving advertising agents on a Web site developed to create presence had
a positive effect on purchase intention for the brand and revisit intention
for the Web site. However, there is still limited research on the extent to
which imagery content contributes to presence and its effects on adver-
tising effectiveness and consumer responses such as user enjoyment,
mood, persuasion, and memory in the current advertising literature. Sev-
eral past studies (e.g., Fiore, Yah, & Yoh, 2000; Spies, Hesse, & Loesch,
1997) have emphasized mood as a central consumer response over cog-
nitive responses that results from the interaction with store atmosphere.
Music, product display, or fragrance could evoke positive mood and result
in greater in-store purchase intention. Accordingly, this study examines
cognitive responses (perceived risk), affective responses (mood), and cona-
tive responses (purchase intention) as affected by product presentation.
In addition, based on the past literature, attention may be an alternative
explanation for the effect of product presentation on affective responses.

Product Presentation and Mood

Mood is defined as “a type of affective state which is transient and par-
ticular to a specific time and situation” (Jeon, 1990, p. 24). Both positive
and negative moods are important determinants of human impressions
and behaviors. Positive moods have been found to enhance the perform-
ance of behaviors that lead to positive outcomes such as greater personal
power and greater freedom to act as one wishes. People in positive moods
tend to feel more confident, optimistic, and unconstrained (Forest, Clark,
Mills, & Isen, 1979). Consumers may experience a wide range of subjec-
tive moods or feeling states while searching for, choosing, and using prod-
ucts, as well as while interacting with service providers (Cohen & Areni,
1991; Ruth, Brunel, & Otnes, 2002).
Mood is affected by visual merchandise presentation (Spies et al., 1997;
Swinyard, 1993), including apparel product presentation (Fiore et al.,
2000). One way to manipulate product presentation is to increase the
size of product images. Such a manipulation could play an important
role in creating positive mood. Empirical studies by K. K. Cox (1970) and
Finn (1988) found that size of shelf space and size of print advertise-
ments influenced attention. When products were displayed on a large-size
shelf or when a print advertisement was larger, people were likely to

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 699

pay attention. Because size of stimuli increases attention and attention
increases mood (Langer, 1989), it is possible that larger illustrations or
pictures may affect attention and thereby evoke more positive feelings.
Furthermore, Jeandrain (2001) found that a three-dimensional presen-
tation on-line created positive mood, and thus could provide an enter-
taining shopping experience. Thus, a moving or large object may evoke
positive mood in the context of on-line shopping. Based on the literature,
the following hypothesis was developed (see Figure 1):

H1: Product presentation affects mood.

(a) As compared to people exposed to Web sites with products not
in motion, those exposed to Web sites with products in motion
will exhibit more positive mood.
(b) As compared to people exposed to Web sites with smaller prod-
uct images, those exposed to Web sites with larger product
images will exhibit more positive mood.
(c) Size and movement interact to affect mood.

Product Presentation and Perceived Risk

Product presentation may serve as visual product information. For exam-
ple, apparel color presented on screen may function as product infor-
mation, but may not be perceived as accurate enough to make judg-
ments regarding the product. This may increase perceived risk, which
is defined as the nature and amount of uncertainty perceived by con-
sumers in contemplating a particular purchase decision (D. F. Cox &
Rich, 1964) and make shoppers avoid purchasing apparel from the Inter-
net (Ernst & Young, 2001). Because visual inspection to check fit, tex-
ture, and color is required for apparel selection (D. F. Cox & Rich, 1964),
a large image and/or an image of the product in motion may provide
descriptive and visual product information that is helpful in decision

Figure 1. The conceptual model for the effect of product presentation on e-shopping
behavior.

700 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

making. A large image may enable consumers to see well enough to
inspect color, texture, and garment details (Then & Delong, 1999). Even
though there is no empirical literature exploring the direct effect of
image size and product movement on perceived risk, it is reasonable to
expect that enhanced product presentation (e.g., large-sized image, prod-
uct movement, or a combination of both) on Web sites will increase con-
sumer confidence in judging apparel quality and thus, reduce perceived
risk of shopping from the Internet. Therefore, the following hypothesis
was developed (see Figure 1):

H2: Product presentation affects perceived risk.

(a) As compared to people exposed to Web sites with products not
in motion, those exposed to Web sites with products in motion
will perceive less risk.
(b) As compared to people exposed to Web sites with smaller prod-
uct images, those exposed to Web sites with larger product
images will perceive less risk.
(c) Size and movement interact to affect perceived risk.

Product Presentation and Purchase Intention

Sensory proximity such as visual presentation of a product may produce
an emotional response when purchasing a product. Thus, the manner of
product display in a store may increase purchase intention. Consumers
who had a good store experience (e.g., attractive and interesting store dis-
play) had much more favorable intention to purchase than consumers who
had bad shopping experiences (Swinyard, 1993). An appealing visual
presentation of products may accelerate consumers’ intention to pur-
chase products (Then & Delong, 1999). So more attractive, interesting,
and/or appealing visual displays of apparel may affect intent to purchase
on-line. Visual aspects of product presentation such as images of the on-
line product in its closest representation of end use, displayed in con-
junction with similar items, and from various angles such as front and
back, may generate higher purchase intention for consumers and, in
turn, increase sales for e-business (Then & Delong, 1999).
Visual presentation (e.g., product movement, a large-sized image) can
provide product information that is known to influence consumer pur-
chase intention (M. Kim & Lennon, 2000) and on-line sales (Then &
Delong, 1999). Because visual inspection to check the fit, texture, and
color is required for apparel selection (D. F. Cox & Rich, 1964), a large
product image and product movement may provide descriptive visual
product information and may play an important role in purchase deci-
sion making (i.e., by allowing people to inspect detail, color, and texture)
(Then & Delong, 1999). Even though there is no empirical literature
exploring the direct effect of image size and product movement on purchase
intention, it seems likely that presenting apparel from various angles

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 701

(Then & Delong, 1999), either by rotating the product or displaying a
large image, will help facilitate making purchase decisions. In addition,
a combination of product movement and large image may present the
optimal impact on purchase decisions. Therefore, the following hypothe-
sis was developed (see Figure 1):

H3: Product presentation affects purchase intention.

(a) As compared to people exposed to Web sites with products not
in motion, those exposed to Web sites with products in motion
will have greater purchase intention.
(b) As compared to people exposed to Web sites with smaller prod-
uct images, those exposed to Web sites with larger product
images will have greater purchase intention.
(c) Size and movement interact to affect purchase intention.

Mood and Perceived Risk

A mood state may function to reduce or increase perceptions of risk (John-
son & Tversky, 1983). Individuals who face the difficult task of evaluat-
ing unknown risks may cope with the judgmental tasks by consulting
their current feelings. In a study by Johnson and Tversky (1983), a
depressed and anxious mood was induced by having participants read
reports of negative events such as descriptions of a cancer case. People
in negative moods evaluated a large number of risks as more threaten-
ing than subjects in positive moods. People who feel depressed and anx-
ious may conclude that the task they are asked to evaluate is depress-
ing and threatening.
Positive mood generated from buying stimuli or a store environment
may reduce perceived risk. According to the consumer decision-making
model developed by Blackwell, Miniard, and Engel (2001), internal infor-
mation retrieved from memory (e.g., prior experience, mood, familiarity)
could reduce perceived risk. Schwarz (1990) claimed that when evalu-
ating situations, a positive mood serves as a source of information that
sometimes replaces the evaluation of the objective information of the tar-
get. If a person feels good, he or she may attribute this positive feeling
to characteristics of the present situation and thus evaluate the situa-
tion more favorably. In fact, Gorn, Goldberg, and Basu (1993) found
effects for mood on new-product evaluation. Consistent with Schwarz’s
(1990) claim, people who were in positive moods evaluated the new prod-
uct more favorably than those who were in negative moods. This illus-
trates that positive feelings may decrease perceived risk and result in
positive evaluation. Based on the literature, it is reasonable to expect
that positive mood in Internet shopping may serve as internal infor-
mation reducing perceived risk and enhancing positive product evalu-
ation to make purchase decisions. Therefore, the following hypothesis was
generated (see Figure 1).

702 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

 H4: There is a negative relationship between positive mood and per-
ceived risk.

Mood and Purchase Intention

Shopping for apparel from the Internet may be considered a complex task
for three reasons. First, apparel is considered an experience good (Ekelund,
Mixon, & Ressler, 1995), one that typically must be physically experi-
enced (i.e., examined, tried on, and used) in order to evaluate; thus, pur-
chasing apparel via the Internet is likely to be especially complex. Second,
mastery of the computer interface is required for Internet shopping and
poses difficulty for shoppers with little computer expertise. Third, there
are some general uncertainties associated with in-home shopping of all
kinds (e.g., concerns about product returns, credit card security) and Inter-
net shopping in particular (e.g., concerns about loss of privacy, merchant
legitimacy) that make purchase decisions more difficult and can increase
the complexity of the Internet shopping task (Elliot & Fowell, 2000; Jar-
venpaa & Todd, 1997; Jones & Vijayasarathy, 1998; Maignan & Lukas,
1997; Maney & Dugas, 1997; Novak, Hoffman, & Peralta, 1998; Rowley,
1996). Research has shown that when faced with complex tasks, mood
may be used as heuristic information in facilitating decision making (Kelly,
1972; Schwartz & Clore, 1983). Therefore, in the Internet shopping con-
text, positive moods may increase Internet purchase intentions.
Relationships between consumers’ mood and purchase intent have
been found in several empirical studies in marketing and psychology.
Mood states are present in virtually every shopping encounter and are
likely to influence what is purchased and when, how much is purchased,
how carefully one compares products before making a selection, and even
one’s intent to repurchase a brand or product (Babin, Dardin, & Griffin,
1994). According to Swinyard (1993), when the consumer was in a good
mood during shopping, he or she was more likely to spend extra time
shopping in the department and store and to purchase more products.
Babin et al. (1994) also found that strong positive feeling states such as
“good,” “happy,” “satisfied,” and “wonderful” can lead to increased time
spent in the store, spending, and judgments of liking for the store. Bit-
ner (1992) also found that positive moods resulted in more favorable
evaluations of the store and influenced customers to buy more things. The
relationship between consumer moods and purchase intention was also
found in the work of Alpert and Alpert (1990) and Spies et al. (1997).
The positive moods affected by a pleasant store environment (e.g., back-
ground music, store layout, and signs) influenced greater purchase inten-
tion as compared to the negative moods. Therefore, the following hypoth-
esis was developed (see Figure 1):

H5: There is a positive relationship between positive mood and apparel

purchase intention.

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 703

Perceived Risk and Purchase Intention
Howard and Sheth (1969) proposed that one of the determinants of pur-
chase intention is confidence, which is the inverse of perceived risk.
Bennett and Harrell (1975) suggested that confidence might play an
important role in predicting intentions to purchase. Confidence about the
brand is positively related to intention. This suggests that lower per-
ceived risk may be related to higher purchase intention. In Internet
shopping, Vijayasarathy and Jones (2000) found that consumers’ per-
ceived risk was an important factor that influenced intention to shop on-
line. Shoppers’ confidence in judging quality of products or in making
decisions to purchase products may reduce perceived risk, as consumers
develop shopping experience from the Internet (Yoh, Damhorst, Sapp,
& Lazniak, 2003). Therefore, the following hypothesis was generated
(see Figure 1):

H6: There is a negative relationship between perceived risk and apparel

purchase intention.

METHOD

Pretest
A pretest was conducted to select appropriate multiple stimuli (two pairs
of pants) for stimulus sampling purposes (Fontenelle, Phillips, & Lane,
1985). The first objective was to select pants that would minimize vari-
ability due to garment style. Nine pairs of khaki pants were purchased
from retail stores and photographed on a size six female human model.
Two versions of a questionnaire were developed. One version contained
large photos of all nine pairs of pants and the other contained small pho-
tos of the nine pairs of pants. Small and large photo sizes were opera-
tionally defined as 306 ⫻ 186 pixels and 612 ⫻ 372 pixels, respectively,
based on findings of Park and Stoel (2002). Eleven unipolar 5-point Lik-
ert-type scales developed by D. Cox and Cox (2002) were used to rate the
pants (e.g., fashionable, attractive, practical). The second objective of the
pretest was to determine if participants perceived the manipulation as
intended. Accordingly, another 5-point item instructing participants to
rate the size of the photos was included.
Sixty female students participated in the pretest; 30 were exposed to
the large images and 30 were exposed to the small images. Results of
between-subjects multivariate analysis of variance revealed no signifi-
cant multivariate effect for garment style on the dependent variables,
F(11, 49) ⫽ 0.924, p ⫽ .963. The two pairs of khaki pants with the most
similar ratings on the 11 adjectives were selected for the main study.
Perceptions of image size (large vs. small) were also analyzed. The results
of univariate analysis of variance revealed that image size had a signif-

704 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

icant effect on size perceptions; [F(1, 59) ⫽ 93.619, p ⬍ .001], such that
the large images (M ⫽ 33.17) were perceived as larger than the small
images (M ⫽ 15.77).

Procedure
Sample. Two hundred forty-four female undergraduate students in a
large midwestern university volunteered to participate in this study.
Incentives for participation included extra course credit and participa-
tion in a cash prize drawing. According to M. Lee and Johnson (2002), col-
lege students are especially likely to be potential Internet shoppers based
on Internet shopper demographics.

Design and Experimental Manipulation. The main part of this study

employed a 2 ⫻ 2 between-subjects factorial design: product movement
(product in motion vs. product not in motion) by image size (large vs.
small). The two pair of khaki pants selected in the pretest were displayed
separately in each treatment condition. Four mock Web sites were cre-
ated to closely mimic the design of actual Web sites in accordance with
the four experimental conditions with the use of Microsoft PowerPoint.
Static products (or products not in motion) were presented by front, side,
and back photos placed together within one horizontal image in order to
provide a consistent amount of visual information across the two move-
ment conditions. The clarity of the photos was controlled with the use of
Photoshop Premiere. For the product-in-motion condition, the same model
wearing the same khaki pants was smoothly rotated on a round plate and
videotaped on a digital video camcorder. To transfer the rotated images
to PowerPoint, the videotaped images were transferred into Media Player
software and reorganized and imported into PowerPoint. The number of
pieces of verbal information associated with each garment also was con-
trolled and consistent across the mock Web sites. This information
included fiber content, fabric construction, color, price, item care, item
quality, sizing availability, item measurement, country of origin, tex-
ture/fabric hand, and quantity available. The product information pro-
vided was typical for an on-line retailer (Park & Stoel, 2002).

Materials and Procedure. A laboratory setting was established in a

computer lab furnished with Pentium III computers. The use of Power-
Point software eliminated the effect of speed of picture downloading. Par-
ticipants were randomly assigned to treatments in groups; they were
first asked to rate their current mood (premood) and then to answer
some general questions regarding the extent of their Internet shopping.
After completing these items, they were asked to read general instruc-
tions about the experiment on the computer screen. Participants were

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 705

then presented with a scenario asking them to browse with the intention
of purchasing. They were exposed to two pairs of khaki pants under the
exact same treatment condition and were allowed to browse for 2 min (1
min for each product) in the same treatment combination (e.g., product
in motion and small image for two pairs of khaki pants). The length of
browsing time allowed was based on observations and estimations of
Web-site browsing time. Each Web site was timed for a 1-min exposure,
but participants could move forward by clicking during that minute or
wait for the automatic transition to the next Web site. Moving backward
to the prior Web site was not allowed, so that the participants were
exposed to each Web site only once. In the product-in-motion condition,
the product movement continued for the full minute unless the partici-
pant forwarded to the second Web site. After exposure to the treatment
condition, participants rated their mood again (postmood), completed
manipulation checks, completed the dependent variables, and provided
some demographic information.

Instrument
Scales for Hypotheses. Mood was assessed with the use of a six-item
mood scale (e.g., happy, delighted) developed by Izard (1972). Izard reported
two subscales, Joy and Distress, with reliabilities of 0.80 and 0.90, respec-
tively (Izard, 1972). In the current study, scores from the three negative
mood items (discouraged, sad, downhearted) were reversed; then scores
from all six mood items were summed for an overall positive mood score.
A 24-item perceived risk scale, developed for television shopping by M. Kim
and Lennon (2000), was revised for the on-line shopping context. M. Kim
and Lennon factor analyzed the scale and reported reliabilities ranging
from 0.74 to 0.91. In the current study, the scores of the 24 items were
summed for an overall measure of perceived risk. Three items originally
designed to assess purchase intention (Okechuku & Wang, 1988) were
revised to reflect the Internet apparel-shopping context. The overall reli-
ability found by Okechuku and Wang (1988) was 0.82. Four additional
items tapping purchase intent in a television apparel-shopping context (M.
Kim & Lennon, 2000) and revised to reflect an Internet shopping context
also were used to measure purchase intention in this study. M. Kim and
Lennon reported a reliability of 0.90. These seven items were summed
for an overall measure of purchase intent. All mood, perceived risk, and
purchase intention items used 5-point Likert-type scales ranging from 1
(strongly disagree or unlikely) to 5 (strongly agree or likely). Attention was
measured in an attempt to determine the mechanism by which product
presentation might affect mood. To measure attention, a free-recall meas-
ure developed by A. Y. Lee and Sternthal (1999) was adopted and used to
assess the number of pieces of information recalled. Participants were
asked to “list and describe what you saw on the Web sites.” The number
of pieces of information recalled was summed.

706 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

Demographic Information, Internet Shopping Behavior, and
Manipulation Checks. Participants provided some demographic infor-
mation, including age, ethnic background, and sex. Participants also indi-
cated whether or not they had previously purchased apparel or other
products from the Internet, the type of apparel they had previously pur-
chased, the amount of money they had spent for apparel on the Internet
in the last 6 months, and the number of apparel items they had pur-
chased via the Internet in the last 6 months.1
There were two manipulation checks. First, the perception of image size
was assessed on a 5-point scale with end points strongly disagree (1) and
strongly agree (5). Second, four 5-point items (active, dynamic, static, and
passive) in the same agree/disagree format were used to assess the per-
ception of product movement. After reversing the scores for static and pas-
sive, scores from the four items were summed for the measure of per-
ceived movement. Finally, the 11 attributes of garment style (e.g., garment
attractiveness, fashionability) were also assessed with the use of the
same 5-point unipolar scales (e.g., fashionable–not fashionable) (D. Cox
& Cox, 2002) that were used in the pretest.

RESULTS

Preliminary Analyses
Sample. The mean age of the 244 participants was 22 years. Approxi-
mately 70% of participants were Caucasian Americans, 13% were
Asian/Asian Americans, 12% were African Americans; the remaining 5%
self-identified as Hispanic American (3%), Native American (0.4%), or
other. Approximately 78% of participants had purchased something from
the Internet, which supports the M. Lee and Johnson (2002) observation
that college students are likely to be Internet shoppers. About 53% (n ⫽
130) of participants had purchased apparel via the Internet and of those,
95% had purchased women’s clothing over the Internet. In terms of
apparel purchased from the Internet, 20% of those 130 apparel pur-
chasers had not purchased in the last 6 months, 47% had spent less than
$100 in the last 6 months, and 32% had spent from $100 to $500 in the
last 6 months. In terms of number of apparel items so purchased, 21%
had purchased one apparel item, 39% had purchased from 2 to 4 apparel
items, 16% had purchased 5 to 7 apparel items, and 2% had purchased
more than 10 apparel items in the last 6 months.

Reliability Analysis. With the use of Cronbach’s alpha, reliabilities for

the 6-item measure of positive mood were found to be 0.81 (N ⫽ 244) for
premood and 0.76 (N ⫽ 244) for postmood, respectively. Reliability for the

1
There is some discrepancy in numbers because not everyone completed all items.

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 707

24-item measure of perceived risk was 0.88 (N ⫽ 244). Reliability for the
7-item apparel purchase intention measure was 0.89 (N ⫽ 244). Those
reliabilities were considered adequate.

Manipulation Checks. Manipulation checks provided evidence of suc-

cessful manipulations of image size and of movement. With the use of uni-
variate analyses of variance, main effects were found for (a) image size
on size perceptions [F(1, 243) ⫽ 46.211, p ⬍ .001, Eta2 ⫽ 16%] and (b)
product movement on the summed measure of perceived movement [F(1,
243) ⫽ 43.700, p ⬍ .001, Eta2 ⫽ 15.3%]. Those exposed to large images
perceived them to be larger (M ⫽ 3.56, SD ⫽ 0.93) than those exposed
to small images (M ⫽ 2.70, SD ⫽ 1.02). People exposed to moving images
perceived more movement (M ⫽ 13.63, SD ⫽ 2.89) than people exposed
to nonmoving images (M ⫽ 11.14, SD ⫽ 3.00).

Hypotheses Testing
Multivariate Analysis. The effects of product presentation on mood,
perceived risk, and purchase intention (Hypotheses 1–3) were tested by
multivariate analysis of covariance. The covariate in each case was the
measure of premood. Bonferroni’s test was used to adjust for multiple
comparisons, when post hoc comparisons across product size and move-
ment were performed. In this analysis, the covariate was significantly
related to the dependent variables; F(3, 237) ⫽ 21.57, p⬍ .001. After the
effects of the covariate were removed, a significant multivariate main
effect for product movement on the dependent variables was found; F(3,
237) ⫽ 14.00, p ⬍ .001. However, there was no significant multivariate
effect for image size on the dependent variables; F(3, 237) ⫽ 1.17, p ⫽
.32. Thus, H1(b), H2(b), and H3(b) were not supported. Image size and
product movement interacted to affect the dependent variables, F(3, 237)
⫽ 3.71, p ⬍ .05. Next, univariate analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) were
calculated with premood as a covariate to determine which dependent
variables contributed to the significant multivariate effects. Effects that
were nonsignificant at the multivariate level were not probed at the uni-
variate level. In what follows, the term mood was used to mean postmood.

Univariate Analyses: Product Presentation and Mood. Univariate

analysis of covariance was performed to test H1(a). After adjustment for
premood, there was a significant main effect for product movement on
mood; F(1, 243) ⫽ 37.480, p ⬍ .001, Eta2 ⫽ 0.136. The results revealed
that people who were exposed to Web sites with products in motion (M
⫽ 22.98, SD ⫽ 3.63) exhibited more positive mood than people exposed
to Web sites with products not in motion (M ⫽ 20.55, SD ⫽ 3.90). There-
fore, H1(a) was supported. In addition, univariate analysis of covariance
was performed to test H1(c). After adjusting for premood, there was no
significant interaction effect for image size and product movement on

708 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

mood, F(1, 243) ⫽ 0.032, p ⫽ .859, Eta2 ⫽ 0.000. Therefore, H1(c) was not
supported.

Univariate Analyses: Product Presentation and Perceived Risk.

Univariate analysis of covariance was performed to test H2(a). After
adjustment for premood, there was a main effect for product movement
on perceived risk; F(1, 243) ⫽ 7.364, p ⬍ .01, Eta2 ⫽ 0.030. The results
revealed that people who were exposed to Web sites with products in
motion (M ⫽ 79.41, SD ⫽ 14.35) exhibited less perceived risk as compared
to those exposed to Web sites with products not in motion (M ⫽ 84.51, SD
⫽ 14.10). Therefore, H2(a) was supported. In addition, univariate analy-
sis of covariance was performed to test H2(c). After adjustment for pre-
mood, the interaction for image size and product movement on perceived
risk was nonsignificant; F(1, 243) ⫽ 2.654, p ⫽ .105, Eta2 ⫽ 0.011. There-
fore, H2(c) was not supported.

Univariate Analysis: Product Presentation and Purchase Inten-

tion. Univariate analysis of covariance was performed to test H3(a).
After adjusting for premood, there was a main effect for product move-
ment on apparel purchase intention; F(1, 243) ⫽ 6.950, p ⬍ .01, Eta2 ⫽
0.028. The results revealed that people who were exposed to Web sites
with products in motion (M ⫽ 18.13, SD ⫽ 6.21) exhibited greater apparel
purchase intention compared to those exposed to Web sites with products
not in motion (M ⫽ 15.97, SD ⫽ 5.99). Therefore, H3(a) was supported.
In addition, univariate analysis of covariance was performed to test H3(c).
After adjusting for premood, there was a significant interaction for image
size and product movement on apparel purchase intention; F(1, 243) ⫽
9.943, p ⬍ .01, Eta2 ⫽ .040. Therefore, H3(c) was supported.
Bonferroni’s test was performed for post hoc multiple comparisons to
examine differences in purchase intention across the four treatment com-
binations of image size and product movement. Results revealed signif-
icant differences in purchase intention (a) between people who saw large
images with movement and those who saw large images without move-
ment (mean difference ⫽ 4.46, p ⬍ .001), (b) between people who saw
large images with movement and those who saw small images with move-
ment (mean difference ⫽ 3.43, p ⬍ .01), and (c) between people who saw
large images with movement and people who saw small images without
movement (mean difference ⫽ 3.09, p ⬍ .05). No other comparisons were
significantly different.

Mood and Perceived Risk. Simple regression analysis was used to

determine the relationship between perceived risk and mood. Results of
the analysis revealed that mood was significantly related to perceived
risk; F(1, 242) ⫽ 5.284, p ⬍ .05, R2 ⫽ 2%. People in a more positive mood
perceived less risk associated with purchasing apparel from the Internet,
b ⫽ –0.146, p ⬍ .05. Therefore, H4 was supported.

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 709

Relationship of Apparel Purchase Intention to Mood and Per-
ceived Risk. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used to assess
relationships among mood, perceived risk, and apparel purchase inten-
tion. A significant negative relationship between perceived risk and
apparel purchase intention was found; F(1, 242) ⫽ 20.606, p ⬍ .001, R2
⫽ 7.8%, b ⫽ –0.11. Mood was positively related to purchase intention; F(1,
241) ⫽ 18.307, p ⬍ .001, R2 ⫽ 5.4%, b ⫽ 0.37. Thus, perceived risk and
mood were related to apparel purchase intention, indicating that people
who felt less perceived risk and were in a more positive mood were likely
to have greater apparel purchase intention. Therefore, both H5 and H6
were supported by this analysis.

Post-Hoc Test 1: Testing Mediating Relationships

The integration and synthesis of existing empirical studies in psychol-
ogy and marketing suggest additional mediating relationships to the
tested hypotheses above. Several studies have found that marketing
stimuli such as salient moving objects or product display influenced
positive or negative mood states (e.g., Bitner, 1992; Fiore et al., 2000) and,
in turn, increase or decrease perceptions of risk (e.g., Johnson & Tver-
sky, 1983). Following Schwarz (1990), a positive mood induced by prod-
uct movement may serve as a source of information that replaces the
evaluation of the objective information of the product. If a person feels
good, he or she may attribute this positive feeling to characteristics of
the present situation and thus evaluate a risky situation more favorably
(e.g., Gorn et al., 1993). As a result of positive mood states and less per-
ceived risk induced by product movement display, consumers may spend
extra time shopping and purchase more products (e.g., Babin et al.,
1994; Swinyard, 1993). This implies not only a direct relationship
between product movement and purchase intention but also an indi-
rect relationship through mood and perceived risk. Furthermore, a
sequence of those linear relationships among variables can yield three
possible mediating relationships: (a) both mood and/or perceived risk
mediate the relationship of product movement and purchase intention,
(b) mood mediates a relationship between product movement and per-
ceived risk, and (c) perceived risk serves a mediating role in the rela-
tionship between mood and purchase intention (see Figure 2). Therefore,
mediating analyses were conducted to assess the nature of the rela-
tionships among the variables.
As in Baron and Kenny (1986), mediating regression analyses were
used to test if mood and perceived risk mediated the relationship
between product movement and purchase intention. In this analysis,
the independent variable was product movement and the dependent
variable was purchase intention. Mood and perceived risk were treated
as mediators. This requires three steps: (a) regressing mood and per-
ceived risk separately on product movement; (b) regressing purchase

710 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

 Note. The dotted line indicates a relationship supported by the MANCOVA, but not by the mediating analysis.

Figure 2. Supported hypotheses among product movement, mood, perceived risk, and
purchase intention.

intention on product movement; and (c) regressing purchase intention

on product movement, mood, and perceived risk. Results of simple
regression analyses were as follows: (a) both mood [F(1, 242) ⫽ 25.51,
p ⬍ .001, b ⫽ 0.31] and perceived risk [F(1, 242) ⫽ 7.83, p ⬍ .01, b ⫽
–0.18] were significantly related to product movement, (b) a signifi-
cant positive relationship between purchase intention and product
movement was found [F(1, 242) ⫽ 7.55, p ⬍ .01, b ⫽ 0.17], and (c) mul-
tiple regression examined the influence of product movement, perceived
risk, and mood on purchase intention. In that analysis, only perceived
risk (b ⫽ –0.34) and mood (b ⫽ 0.22) were related to purchase intent;
F(1, 242) ⫽ 12.56, p ⬍ .001. Therefore, perfect mediation of the two
mediators (perceived risk, mood) holds because the independent vari-
able (product movement) had no effect when the two mediators were
controlled (entered into the regression equation). Presentation (i.e.,
movement) influenced purchase intent indirectly through mood and
perceived risk.
Next, the second mediating regression analysis was performed to deter-
mine if mood mediated the relationship between product movement and
perceived risk (see Figure 1). In this analysis, product movement was
the independent variable and perceived risk was the dependent vari-
able. Mood was a mediating variable. The results of three regressions
were as follows: (a) a significant positive relationship between product
movement and mood was found [F(1, 242) ⫽ 25.51, p ⬍ .001, b ⫽ 0.31],
(b) a significant negative relationship between product movement and per-
ceived risk was found [F(1, 242) ⫽ 7.83, p ⬍ .01, b ⫽ –0.18], and (c) the
combination of product movement (b ⫽ –0.15) and mood (b ⫽ –0.10) on
risk was significant [F(1, 242) ⫽ 5.01, p ⬍ .001]. However, a comparison
of the standardized coefficient from the second regression for product
movement (b ⫽ –0.18) the one from the third regression for product
movement (b ⫽ –0.15) indicates that mood functioned as a mediator in

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 711

the relationship between product movement and perceived risk, but was
not a perfect mediator. Product movement influenced perceived risk indi-
rectly through mood, but also influenced perceived risk directly.
Last, the third mediating regression analysis was performed to deter-
mine if perceived risk mediated the relationship between mood and pur-
chase intention (see Figure 1). In this analysis, mood was the inde-
pendent variable and purchase intention was the dependent variable.
Perceived risk was a mediating variable. The results of three regres-
sions were as follows: (a) a significant negative relationship between
mood and perceived risk was found [F(1, 242) ⫽ 5.28, p ⬍ .05, b ⫽ –0.54],
(b) a significant positive relationship between mood and purchase inten-
tion was found [F(1, 242) ⫽ 18.97, p ⬍ .001, b ⫽ 0.42], and (c) the com-
bination of perceived risk (b ⫽ –0.11) and mood (b ⫽ 0.37) on purchase
intention was significant [F(1, 242) ⫽ 18.31, p ⬍ .001]. However, the
standardized coefficient from the second regression for mood (b ⫽ 0.42)
was greater than the one from the third regression for mood (b ⫽ 0.37).
Based on the results of these mediating regression analyses, perceived
risk functioned as a mediator in the relationship between mood and
purchase intention, but was not a perfect mediator. Mood influenced pur-
chase intent indirectly through perceived risk, but also influenced pur-
chase intent directly.

Post-Hoc Test 2: The Effect of Product Movement on Recall

Based on the literature, it is possible that movement per se did not affect
the variables but rather that attention as a result of movement had those
effects. Previous research on attention (e.g., Folk et al., 1992; Johansson,
1973; Maljkovic & Nakayama, 1994; Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2000;
Nakayama & Silverman, 1986; Todd & Van Gelder, 1979; Yantis, 1993)
emphasized the importance of stimulus movement in influencing visual
selection and attention in many tasks. Langer (1989) pointed out that
when people were engaged in a complex task such as tennis or sewing
and paid attention to the task, they were likely to be actively involved
in the task and tended to enjoy the task more than when people did not
pay attention to the task. Thus, it is possible that attention due to motion
may influence mood and enjoyment of a task. In this study, because prod-
uct movement captures attention during browsing, participants may not
have attended to other product and/or customer service information avail-
able through the Web site. For example, people who were exposed to the
Web sites with movement may recall less information (except visual
information), as compared to people who were exposed to the static Web
sites. This would provide evidence that attention is responsible for the
effects. Participants listed and described what they saw on the Web sites.
Inaccurate or incorrect information was excluded, as was visual infor-
mation related to product presentation (e.g., “interesting rotation of the
products”). A one-way univariate analysis of variance on number of pieces

712 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

of information correctly recalled yielded a significant main effect for
product movement on recall, F(1, 243) ⫽ 6.407, p ⬍ .05, Eta2 ⫽ 2.6%.
The results revealed that people who were exposed to Web sites with
products in motion (M ⫽ 2.12, SD ⫽ 0.16) recalled less information than
people exposed to Web sites with products not in motion (M ⫽ 2.71, SD
⫽ 0.17). These results support the explanation that attention as a result
of movement caused the main effects for movement. This suggests that
product movement had an indirect effect on mood and risk; it captured
attention and in turn, attention influenced mood and perceptions of risk.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

In this study, image size and product movement were manipulated in

the context of simulated apparel Web sites. Both manipulations in the
computer-mediated environment were expected to create virtual expe-
riences affecting mood, perceived risk, and purchase intent in that con-
text. However, none of the main effects for image size was significant.
There are several possible explanations for the nonsignificance. Image
size was based on those currently available on Internet apparel Web
sites, which means that Internet apparel shoppers (53% of participants)
may be familiar with seeing different sizes of images at Web sites. It is
also possible that both the small- and large-sized images were clear
enough to provide a similar amount of information so that participants
perceived a similar amount of risk, regardless of image size. If the small
image size was clear enough for participants to evaluate the garments,
then purchase intention may not be affected by image size. Another pos-
sible explanation for the nonsignificant effects for image size is the
between-subjects design of the experiment. Had participants been exposed
to both sizes of images in a mixed design, for example, it is more likely
that the difference in size might have affected the dependent variables.
The present study provides evidence of a difference in both mood and
perceived risk as a function of product movement on the Web sites. This
supports previous literature (e.g., Folk et al., 1992) that consistently
found a relationship between movement and mood. The analysis of recall
data suggests that the mechanism by which this occurs is through atten-
tion. Thus, apparel e-tailers may find it useful to attract browsers’ atten-
tion and create a positive mood by using product rotation, which this
study shows serves to decrease shoppers’ concern about the uncertain-
ties of on-line apparel product purchase.
Analysis of covariance results show that product movement affected
purchase intent. This is consistent with Swinyard (1993) who found that
an appealing visual display of products increased consumers’ intention
to purchase products. Consumers may experience pleasure from move-
ment, perceive less risk, and have greater intent to purchase. It is pos-
sible that the ability to view garments from various angles may provide

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 713

product information and in turn, may generate higher purchase intent.
However, a mediating analysis indicated that mood and perceived risk
functioned as perfect mediators between product movement and pur-
chase intent. Although product simulations with movement ultimately
create strong purchase intent, such simulations may initially evoke affec-
tive (mood) and/or cognitive responses (perceived risk) that precede pur-
chase intent. Results of the mediating analysis support the model of the
consumer-response system (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982), which posits
that consumers respond to marketing stimuli through a series of sequen-
tial responses with affective and/or cognitive responses preceding cona-
tive responses to marketing stimuli (e.g., product presentation).
The results also showed that perceived risk mediated the relation-
ship between mood and purchase intention. This supports previous
research by Johnson and Tversky (1983), Gorn et al. (1993), Swinyard
(1993), and Bitner (1992). Positive moods led to positive on-line apparel
browsing, less perceived risk, and increased purchase intention. There-
fore, it is important for e-tailers to create a pleasurable on-line shopping
environment that will evoke positive mood. This research suggests that
product presentations using movement attract attention and generate
good mood in on-line shoppers. Future research could investigate the
effects of other attention-getting features such as complementary music
on mood and purchase intent. Future research should also examine the
effect of attention-getting or vivid movement in product presentation
versus movement of other Web-site content (e.g., logos, banners) on mood
and purchase intent. It is conceivable that too much movement on a
Web site could be distracting and could adversely affect mood and pur-
chase intent.
The present study revealed a negative relationship between perceived
risk and apparel purchase intention, which is consistent with
Vijayasarathy and Jones (2000). Internet shopping may be avoided due
to uncertainties and negative consequences. If people feel confident about
their judgments in shopping on the Internet, their purchase intent may
increase. Thus, it is important for e-tailers to make the shopping envi-
ronment less risky to help shoppers make purchase decisions with con-
fidence. Accurate and detailed visual information on the screen (e.g.,
color, clothing from various angles) can be made available to decrease
perceived risk and facilitate decision making.
Finally, image size and product movement were expected to inter-
act in affecting mood, perceived risk, and purchase intent. However,
only purchase intent was so affected. People who were exposed to Web
sites with large moving images exhibited greater purchase intention
than people in any of the other three treatment conditions. Previous
research demonstrates that amount of information positively affects
apparel purchase intent (M. Kim & Lennon, 2000), so it is possible that
the large moving image provided more information to participants than
any other treatment combination, which in turn affected purchase

714 PARK, LENNON, AND STOEL

intent. However, if that explanation were true, then perceived risk
should have been similarly affected, because amount of information
also affects perceived risk.
The nature of the interaction on purchase intent can be explained with
the use of the concept of vividness. Although this research did not set
out to study vividness, the presentation variables can be interpreted in
those terms. Aspects of stimuli that make it vivid include large image size
and movement (e.g., Biocca & Delaney, 1995; Choi et al., 2001; Lombard,
1995). Thus, a large-sized image that is moving would be more vivid (has
two aspects of vividness) than a large-sized image that is nonmoving
(has one aspect of vividness), or a small moving image (has one aspect
of vividness), or a small nonmoving image (has no aspect of vividness).
An interaction of movement by image size is then simply an assertion that
more-vivid imagery has a greater effect on dependent variables than
less-vivid imagery. Because the large moving image has more charac-
teristics of vividness, it might be expected to evoke greater purchase
intent than the other conditions.
This study adds valuable empirical findings to the literature on the
relationship between product movement and mood, perceived risk, and
purchase intention. Because the past literature on movement focused
on theory building in psychology, it may be important to test the effect
for movement in a real shopping situation, especially in the Internet
shopping context. This study also contributes to knowledge about Web-
site design for apparel e-tailers. Because product information immediately
available to on-line apparel shoppers is limited to product presentation
on screen and does not enable shoppers to physically inspect the prod-
ucts, it is important to provide detailed and accurate information on
screen. Products revolving around a Y axis may simulate a shopping
experience at retail stores in terms of judging fit. Product rotation allows
shoppers to see all possible views of a garment and captures the atten-
tion of consumers. However, at the same time, Web-site designers should
control image complexity to minimize download time when product move-
ment is presented.
Although a laboratory experiment has numerous advantages such as
uniformity of procedures, manipulation of selected variables, and con-
trol of environmental circumstances and other extraneous variables (Tou-
liatos & Compton, 1988), it also has limitations. In this study, partici-
pants were homogeneous in terms of age, they were not all real Internet
shoppers, and the situation was simulated. Although a scenario describ-
ing a potential purchasing situation was given to increase the reality of
the experiment, participants were probably aware of its artificial nature.
Several factors related to the experimental procedure, such as sitting in
a computer lab for a limited amount of time and following the instruc-
tions given by the researcher, may reduce reality in the shopping situa-
tion. In addition, motivations to participate in an experiment (e.g., extra
credit, drawings) may also decrease reality.

ON-LINE PRODUCT PRESENTATION 715

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Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to: Jihye Park, Depart-
ment of Apparel, Education Studies, and Hospitality Management, Iowa State
University, 1070 LeBaron Hall, Ames, IA 50011 (park321@iastate.edu).

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