ARTICLE IN PRESS

Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020

www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv

Estimation of particle resuspension source strength

on a major London Road
Alistair J. Thorpea, Roy M. Harrisona,, Paul G. Boulterb, Ian S. McCraeb
a
Division of Environmental Health and Risk Management, School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences,
University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
b
TRL Limited, Crowthorne House, Nine Mile Ride, Wokingham Berks RG40 3GA, UK
Received 12 December 2006; received in revised form 11 May 2007; accepted 3 July 2007

Abstract

Non-exhaust particles from road traffic arise from both abrasion sources and the resuspension of particles from the road
surface. This paper reports a new combination of existing methods for indirect estimation of resuspension emission factors
for Marylebone Road, London, a busy multi-lane highway in a street canyon. The method involves firstly estimating the
total source strength of coarse particles (PM2.5–10) arising from the road by calculating the roadside incremental
concentration of coarse particles above the urban background. This is converted to a source strength by its ratio to NOx
whose source strength is estimated from the knowledge of the traffic mix and mean speed. This coarse particle source
strength is assumed to represent the sum of resuspension emissions and the coarse particle component of abrasion
emissions. Using information on the traffic mix and speed, the abrasion emissions have been calculated from the EMEP/
CORINAIR emissions factor database, the result subtracted from the total coarse particle emissions in order to yield
resuspension emissions, and combined with traffic count data to derive fleet-average emission factors. Using the fact that
the traffic mix differs substantially between weekdays and weekends, separate average emission factors for light- and
heavy-duty vehicles have been estimated. In addition to traffic mix, the influence of wind speed and the time elapsed since
the last rainfall upon resuspension have been estimated. Wind speed was found to have by far the larger influence, although
this was still secondary to the number of heavy-duty vehicles. Uncertainties arising from the choice of urban background
site and poor data quality are discussed.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: PM10; Coarse fraction; Resuspension; Non-exhaust particles; Particulate matter

1. Introduction potential influences on climate change. The Eur-

The study of airborne particulate matter (PM)
continues to be an area of research interest owing to
the recognised implications for human health and
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 121 414 3494;
fax: +44 121 414 3709.
E-mail address: r.m.harrison@bham.ac.uk (R.M. Harrison).
opean Union First Daughter Directive to the Air
Quality Framework Directive requires that 24-h
mean PM10 concentrations do not exceed 50 mg m3
on more than 35 occasions per year, and that annual
mean PM10 does not exceed 40 mg m3. In urban
areas road transport is the predominant source of
PM10 emissions (APEG, 1999; AQEG, 2005).
Consequently, compliance with the EU limit value,

1352-2310/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.07.006
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8008 A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020
particularly near to heavily trafficked roads, is
problematic (Charron and Harrison, 2005).
Emissions from road transport arise from both
exhaust and non-exhaust sources. The most sig-
nificant sources of non-exhaust PM are abrasion of
brake and tyre components of motor vehicles and
abrasion of the road surface itself. A further non-
exhaust source is the suspension or resuspension of
previously deposited material from the road surface
road dust by vehicle-induced turbulence, tyre shear
and the turbulent action of the wind.
PM of exhaust origin tends to be in the fine
(PM2.5) fraction of PM10, whereas non-exhaust
traffic-related processes tend to generate particles
in the coarse (PM2.5–10) fraction (APEG, 1999),
although brake wear, for example, generates parti-
cles in both size ranges. Historically, the major
traffic-related emission source was considered to be
vehicle exhaust, and emission-reduction strategies
specifically targeted this source. Furthermore, ad-
verse effects on human health have been tradition-
ally linked to exposure to exhaust emissions. As a
result of the reduction in exhaust emissions, the
relative importance of the non-exhaust sources has
increased. Non-exhaust PM accounts for a signifi-
cant proportion of traffic-related PM emissions, yet
at present the sources are unregulated. In a number
of European cities exhaust and non-exhaust sources
have been shown to contribute equally to total
traffic-related emissions (Querol et al., 2004). A
study conducted in Berlin concluded that around
half of the observed elevation above urban back-
ground levels in PM10 at roadside locations could be
attributed to vehicle exhaust and abrasion emis-
sions, with the remaining half as arising from the
resuspension of road dust particles (Lenschow et al.,
2001). Harrison et al. (2001) found that vehicle-
induced resuspension, including other traffic-related
coarse particles (such as brake and tyre wear
emissions) provides a source strength which is
approximately equal to that of exhaust emissions.
In many Nordic countries winter road maintenance
procedures, such as the use of studded tyres and
road sanding, result in high PM concentrations due
to the increase in the road dust layer available for
resuspension (Omstedt et al., 2005), and the non-
exhaust fraction of PM10 has been shown to be up
to 90% in such regions (Forsberg et al., 2005).
These studies highlight the importance of non-
exhaust emission sources, and illustrate the need to
regulate both exhaust and non-exhaust emissions if
compliance with EU legislation is to be achieved.
The present understanding of the chemical and
physical properties of non-exhaust PM is rather
limited, as are estimates of emission factors. A
number of studies have aimed to quantify emissions
from brake wear (Garg et al., 2000; Sanders et al.,
2003), tyre wear (Pierson and Brachaczek, 1974;
Stalnaker et al., 1996; Councell et al., 2004) and
road surface wear (Lindgren, 1996; Kupiainen et al.,
2005). Despite the growing number of studies that
have attempted the quantification of resuspension
emissions, estimates are very variable and remain
uncertain largely due to the difficulties in making
direct measurements. Furthermore, previous studies
to quantify resuspension emissions have been
conducted in environments where road sanding
and use of studded tyres during winter is common
practice (Omstedt et al., 2005), or along particularly
dusty roads (Abu-Allaban et al., 2003). Estimates
from these studies are therefore unlikely to be
representative for the situation in the United King-
dom (APEG, 1999). For example, Abu-Allaban
et al. (2003) reported PM10 resuspension emissions in
the range of 40–780 mg km1 for light-duty vehicles
(LDVs), and 230–7800 mg km1 for heavy-duty
vehicles (HDVs), whilst the work of Omstedt et al.
(2005) arrived at a value of 205 mg km1. Other
studies, such as that of Areskoug et al. (2004) and
Gehrig et al. (2004) have calculated emission factors
for total non-exhaust PM10 emissions, and do not
separate the resuspended component.
Recent research has sought to identify elements
or combinations of elements characteristic of
specific non-exhaust traffic-related sources. Copper,
antimony and barium have been suggested as likely
indicators of brake wear particles (Sternbeck et al.,
2002; Lough et al., 2005; Birmili et al., 2006), whilst
a number of organic compounds (Rogge et al., 1993;
Kumata et al., 1997, 2002) and zinc (Fauser et al.,
1999; Councell et al., 2004) may indicate particles
from tyre wear. The road dust complex, which
serves as the source for resuspension emissions,
contains a mixture of deposited material from a
wide range of sources, including road traffic and
more distant sources. Consequently, at present,
there are no definitive tracer species for the
identification and quantification of resuspended
road dust material, and so other methods have to
be employed to determine resuspension emissions.
The principal aim of the present study was to
utilise a comprehensive dataset of atmospheric
measurements and traffic fleet data collected at a
busy roadside location in London for estimation of
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020
the magnitude of emissions due to road dust
resuspension. An auxiliary objective was to assess
the relative importance of factors believed to exert
an influence on the magnitude of resuspension,
namely heavy-goods vehicle (HGV) volume, wind
speed and precipitation. The method involved the
estimation of the total source strength for coarse
particle emissions from the atmospheric measure-
ments, and then the subtraction of the source
strength calculated using emission factors for brake,
tyre and road surface wear. The data utilised were
from London, Marylebone Road (roadside, street
canyon), London Bloomsbury (central London
background site) and Bexley (outer London back-
ground site).
2. Methodology
Daily mean PM10, PM2.5 and NOx (as NO2)
concentrations were calculated using hourly TEOM
data from Marylebone Road, London Bloomsbury
and London Bexley for 2000–2003. All TEOM
concentration measurements were converted to
gravimetric equivalent concentrations by applying
the interim scaling factor of TEOM  1.3, now
routinely adopted for adjustment of UK TEOM
data (AQEG, 2005). It is accepted that the scaling
factor used may vary between background and
roadside locations, and PM10 and PM2.5 concentra-
tions, but due to the lack of available data for
the sites used here, it was decided to use a consistent
scaling factor. PM2.5–10 concentrations were
calculated by subtraction of PM2.5 concentrations
from PM10. Roadside increments of PM10, PM2.5,
PM2.5–10 and NOx were calculated by subtracting
the background concentrations measured at Lon-
don Bloomsbury and London Bexley from the
roadside concentrations observed at Marylebone
Road. Two background sites were used to calculate
roadside increments to assess the sensitivity of the
resuspension emission factor estimates to the back-
ground site data used.
It was assumed that PM10 and NOx at Maryle-
bone Road share a common source (road traffic)
and that the two pollutants display similar beha-
viour in the atmosphere. Scatter plots of roadside
increment PM10 (D PM10) and NOx (D NOx)
concentrations were constructed and linear regres-
sion performed. Such plots showed a high correla-
tion and negligible intercept. For example, a plot of
daily data gave: PM10 ¼ 0.080 NOx0.18 mg m3
(R2 ¼ 0.88). In order to obtain the best relationship
8009
between D PM10 and D NOx, days with missing or
negative D PM10 values were omitted, as were days
with missing NOx data. Furthermore, on a number
of days the observed D PM10:D NOx ratio was
anomalously high, and this was taken to indicate a
source of PM other than road traffic emissions.
Preliminary examination of the data suggested
D PM10:D NOx ratios larger than 0.1 represented
obvious outliers. Consequently, days with a
D PM10:D NOx ratio larger than 0.1 were removed
from the analysis. Mean D PM10:D NOx ratios were
then determined from the regression analyses.
The D PM10:D NOx ratios were coupled with NOx
exhaust emissions from the traffic (E NOx ) to
estimate total traffic-related PM10 emissions
(E PM10 ), as follows (1) (Lohmeyer et al., 2002):
 
D PM10
E PM10 ¼ E NOx . (1)
D NOx
Daily E NOx values were calculated, according to
vehicle type and mean speed, using emission factors
provided by the NAEI (NAEI, 2002) and daily
traffic count data from Marylebone Road, with
correction factors being applied to the emission
factors for improvements in vehicle emission-con-
trol technology and changes in fuel composition
with time (NAEI, 2003).
Total PM10 emissions were apportioned between
exhaust and non-exhaust sources on the assumption
that exhaust-emitted particles are confined to
PM2.5 and the coarse fraction approximated to the
non-exhaust component. The ratio of the roadside
increment PM2.5–10 concentration to the roadside
increment PM10 concentration (D PM2.5–10:D PM10)
was used to estimate total emissions in the
coarse fraction (E PM2:5210 ), i.e. the non-exhaust
component. Daily mean emissions calculations were
performed using measured PM10 and an assumed
PM2.5–10:PM10 ratio of 0.4, based on values quoted
in the literature for PM2.5–10:PM10 ratios (Harrison
et al., 2001; AQEG, 2005; Charron and Harrison,
2005). When dealing with roadside increments,
particularly where daily mean values are used,
the PM2.5–10:PM10 ratio is observed to be fairly
constant.
Daily PM2.5–10 emissions arising from brake wear
(EBRAKE), tyre wear (ETYRE) and road surface wear
(EROAD) for five vehicle classes—cars, light-goods
vehicles (LGVs), buses, rigid HGVs and articulated
HGVs—were derived using the EMEP/CORINAIR
methodology, as detailed in EEA (2005), combined
with traffic counts and average vehicle speed data.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8010 A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020
The database uses emission factors for total
suspended PM but mass fraction data are provided
to enable emission factors to be calculated for
different size fractions. The resuspended component
ERESUS was calculated by subtracting the sum of the
abrasion emissions from the total PM2.5–10 emis-
sions, as (Omstedt et al., 2005)
E RESUS ¼ E PM2:5210  ðE BRAKE þ E TYRE þ E ROAD Þ.
(2)
All total daily emissions (Eqs. (1) and (2)) were
finally converted to traffic fleet-average emission
factors by dividing the values by the total number of
vehicles per day passing along Marylebone Road.
In addition to the estimation of fleet-average
emission factors for resuspension, an attempt was
made to apportion resuspension emissions between
LDVs and HDVs. Cars and LGVs were categorised
as LDVs, whilst buses and coaches, rigid HGVs and
articulated HGVs were categorised as HDVs. Daily
resuspension emission estimates, and the corre-
sponding traffic data, were separated into weekday
and weekend values to allow for differences in
traffic composition, and simultaneous equations
(Eq. (3)) were constructed and solved to determine
the emission factors (x and y). This enabled the
relative contributions of the two vehicle classes to
resuspension emissions to be evaluated.
Resuspension ¼ x LDV þ y HDV: (3)
2.1. Investigation of factors affecting resuspension
Previous studies on PM resuspension have
suggested that a number of factors affect the
magnitude of emissions, including HDV traffic
number (Abu-Allaban et al., 2003), wind speed
(Charron and Harrison, 2005) and rainfall (Omstedt
et al., 2005). To investigate the factors controlling
resuspension at Marylebone Road, the relationships
between resuspension, HDV number, wind speed
and the time which had elapsed since the last rainfall
were examined.
Preliminary analyses using daily resuspension data
revealed no clear dependency between resuspension
and wind speed. However, it was suspected that the
averaging of resuspension over the daily period may
have resulted in short-timescale variations arising
from wind speed being masked by other influencing
factors, most notably traffic-related effects. There-
fore, hourly values of resuspension were calculated
using data from 2003 (as this represented the most
complete dataset of the 4 years), and following the
same method as for daily data. However, total non-
exhaust emissions were calculated using the observed
PM2.5–10:PM10 ratios for each hour, as opposed to a
fixed constant value, since the ratio of coarse to fine
particles is observed to vary with factors such as
wind speed (Charron and Harrison, 2005) and
direction (Harrison et al., 2004). Hourly mean wind
speed data were taken from Heathrow. The resus-
pension data were sorted according to the wind speed
data (in 0.5 m s1 size bins) to smooth the variability
of other controlling factors. Median resuspension
emission factors were calculated and plotted against
each wind speed size bin.
In a study on Swedish roads, Omstedt et al.
(2005) presented a comprehensive method for
modelling resuspension of road dust, with particular
emphasis being placed on the importance of dust
moisture content, precipitation and evaporation. An
attempt to link resuspension to rainfall at Maryle-
bone Road was therefore undertaken, with hourly
mean and median resuspension data being plotted
against the time elapsed since the previous rainfall
event.
Having considered each of the three influencing
factors individually, multiple linear regression ana-
lysis (MLRA) was performed to determine which of
the factors exerted the greatest influence on the
magnitude of the resuspended component. Using
hourly data for 2003, hourly resuspension emissions
were entered into a MLRA as the dependent
variable, and total HDV number, wind speed and
hours elapsed since the last rainfall were entered as
independent variables. MLRA was first performed
by entering all the independent variables into the
regression. A second MLRA, using a stepwise
method, was then carried out. In the stepwise
approach the independent variables were entered
into the regression one at a time, based on statistical
considerations, in order to determine which
combination of independent variables provided
the best predictive model. The independent variable
best correlated with the dependent variable
was entered first. The next-best correlated indepen-
dent was then entered, whilst controlling the
dependent for the first independent. The process
was repeated until the R2 value of the model was not
significantly improved by addition of more vari-
ables, or all independent variables were entered
(Kinnear and Gray, 2004). This also resulted in
variables that were not significant being excluded
from the regression.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020 8011

3. Results and discussion Bexley resulting in larger roadside increments being

calculated when background concentrations are
3.1. PM10 and PM2.5– 10 emission factors subtracted from the Marylebone Road kerbside
concentrations. PM10 emission factors calculated
Summary statistics of the calculated daily mean using the Bloomsbury data for background correc-
PM10 emission factors for 2000–2003, using both the tion indicate a decrease in emissions from 2000 to
Bloomsbury and Bexley background sites, are shown 2002, before an increase in 2003 to values higher
in Tables 1 and 2. Also shown are the corresponding than those of 2000 (Table 1). The fleet-average
data for PM2.5–10 emissions, based on the application emission factors obtained using Bexley as a back-
of a PM2.5–10:PM10 ratio of 0.4. The use of a constant ground site are more consistent from 2000 to 2003
ratio was deemed sufficient for the present analysis, (Table 2). Ambient concentration data from Mar-
since daily mean values were used. Over shorter ylebone Road (Table 3) indicate a reduction in the
timescales the PM2.5–10:PM10 ratio can vary signifi- annual mean PM10 concentration of 8% between
cantly due to the influence of changing traffic volume 2000 and 2001, which supports the possibility
and meteorological factors; in such instances the use of a reduction in emissions per average vehicle,
of ratios based on observed airborne concentration observed using both background sites. Examination
data should be considered. of mean daily traffic volume along Marylebone
On comparing the fleet-average total PM10 Road (Table 4) reveals a reduction between 2000
emission factors calculated using the Bloomsbury and 2003, providing an alternative explanation for
and Bexley data, it is apparent that for all years the observed PM10 concentration trend. The in-
Bexley yields higher values. This is a consequence of creased emission factors apparent for 2003 com-
the lower annual mean PM10 concentrations at pared with 2002 for both datasets suggest a change
in vehicle fleet composition or driving pattern. This
Table 1 trend possibly reflects the introduction of the
Summary statistics of calculated total PM10 and PM2.5–10
emissions at Marylebone Road, 2000–2003 (background-cor-
rected using Bloomsbury)
Table 3
2000 2001 2002 2003 Annual daily mean pollutant concentrations measured at
Marylebone Road kerbside, 2000–2003
Fleet-average PM10 emission factors (mg km1)
10th %ile 64.5 62.2 57.9 70.4 Marylebone Road airborne concentration
90th %ile 102.9 99.6 95.5 113.3
Arithmetic mean 89.0 84.7 81.0 97.7 PM10 PM2.5 PM2.5–10 NOx (as
1 (mg m3) (mg m3) (mg m3) NO2;
Fleet-average PM2.5– 10 emission factors (mg km )
mg m3)
10th %ile 25.8 24.9 23.1 28.2
90th %ile 41.1 39.9 38.2 45.3 2000
Arithmetic mean 35.6 33.9 32.4 39.1 10th %ile 21 13 5 105
90th %ile 82 55 28 804
Mean 48 33 16 404
Table 2 2001
Summary statistics of calculated total PM10 and PM2.5–10 10th %ile 20 13 4 86
emissions at Marylebone Road, 2000–2003 (background cor- 90th %ile 74 53 23 669
rected using Bexley) Mean 44 31 13 343

2000 2001 2002 2003 2002

10th %ile 22 13 6 88
Fleet-average PM10 emission factors (mg km1) 90th %ile 72 44 30 571
10th %ile 74.4 69.6 71.6 72.4 Mean 45 28 17 302
90th %ile 119.5 115.5 117.0 119.6
2003
Arithmetic mean 102.7 96.4 98.3 101.1
10th %ile 21 10 8 82
Fleet-average PM2.5– 10 emission factors (mg km1) 90th %ile 81 44 40 615
10th %ile 29.8 27.8 28.6 29.0 Mean 48 25 23 314
90th %ile 47.8 46.2 46.8 47.8
Arithmetic mean 41.1 38.6 39.3 40.5 Note: Statistics calculated in Table 3 are based on filtered data
set.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8012 A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020
Table 4
Annual daily mean traffic volume statistics for Marylebone
Road, 2000–2003
2000 2001 2002 2003
(veh day1) (veh day1) (veh day1) (veh day1)
10th %ile 75,115 61,696 68,529 66,858
90th %ile 90,765 88,471 78,741 78,671
Arithmetic 83,775 77,087 74,017 73,483
mean
congestion-charging scheme on roads adjacent to
Marylebone Road.
The trends in PM10 emission factors are dupli-
cated in the corresponding PM2.5–10 values, which
highlights a limitation of the use of a constant
PM2.5–10:PM10 ratio. However, preliminary calcula-
tions using measured annual mean concentration
ratios offered no improvement in the derived
estimates of resuspension emission factors, and the
use of a constant value was retained. An examina-
tion of annual-mean daily PM2.5 concentrations
revealed a decrease of approximately 23% at
Marylebone Road from 2000 to 2003 (Table 3).
This would be anticipated for PM2.5, which is
considered to arise predominantly from vehicle
exhaust emissions, due to improvements in emis-
sion-control technology with time. PM2.5–10 con-
centrations, by contrast, display a decrease of 18%
between 2000 and 2001, before increasing sharply in
2002 and 2003. The 2003 annual daily mean coarse
particle concentration represents a 46% increase
over the corresponding concentration for 2000. The
percentage of PM2.5–10 comprising PM10 increases
from 32% in 2000 to more than 47% by 2003. This
is consistent with PM2.5–10 arising largely from non-
exhaust emissions, which are unresponsive to
changes in emission-control technology. However,
such trends were not reflected in the calculated
PM2.5–10 emission factors, even when measured
roadside incremental PM2.5–10:PM10 ratios were
used. This would suggest that non-traffic sources
affect the PM concentration measurements at the
background sites. These other sources may include,
for example, construction activity, but they are not
readily quantified.
Two factors that may have contributed to
increases in PM2.5–10 concentrations in 2002 and
2003 are the introduction of bus lanes in August
2001, and the implementation of the congestion
charging scheme in February 2003.
Following the introduction of the bus lanes, total
traffic volumes along Marylebone Road were
observed to decrease (AQEG, 2004). More impor-
tantly, there was a change in the distribution of the
traffic fleet across the six lanes, with only buses and
taxis being allowed to use the kerbside lanes. Since
resuspension of PM has been shown to increase with
vehicle weight (Gillies et al., 2005), it might be
expected that the proximity of buses to the
monitoring instruments would lead to an increase
in coarse particle concentrations at Marylebone
Road.
The continued increase in the coarse particle
concentration in 2003 may relate to the implemen-
tation of the congestion-charging scheme. It has
been reported that since the congestion-charging
scheme was introduced total traffic volumes along
Marylebone Road have continued to decrease,
whilst the number of buses has increased. This
increase in buses may contribute to elevated coarse
particle concentrations during 2003, and recent
findings suggest that elevated PM2.5–10 concentra-
tions have persisted in 2004 and 2005 (Carslaw
et al., 2006).
3.2. Abrasion source emission factors
Table 5 contains data pertaining to coarse particle
emissions from abrasion sources, calculated using
traffic data for Marylebone Road and emission
factors given in the EMEP/CORINAIR database.
The abrasion emission statistics shown are calcu-
lated using traffic data only for days when all
necessary data were available for the calculation of
resuspension, i.e. roadside and background NOx,
PM10 and PM2.5. The data shown are for the Bexley
background-corrected dataset. The fleet-average
abrasion emission factors corresponding to the
Bloomsbury background-corrected dataset (not
shown) differ slightly due to incomplete PM and/
or NOx data on different dates for the two sites.
Despite the small differences in the magnitudes of
the emission factors, the relative contributions of
the three abrasion processes to total abrasion
emissions are the same for both background sites.
Brake wear is the largest contributor, accounting for
more than 55% of total abrasion emissions. Tyre
wear and road surface wear account for 27% and
18%, respectively. Closer inspection of the data
indicates consistency in the fleet-average emission
factor values for years 2000–2002. An increase in
abrasion emission factor values is apparent for
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020 8013

Table 5 Table 6
Abrasion emissions (PM2.5–10) calculated from vehicle fleet data Estimated daily resuspension emission statistics at Marylebone
at Marylebone Road and emission factors from EMEP/COR- Road, 2000–2003
INAIR database, 2000–2003
Fleet-average emission factors (mg km1)
Fleet-average emission factors (mg km1)
Resuspension Resuspension+road
Brake Tyre Road All wear
wear wear wear abrasion
sources Bloomsbury Bexley Bloomsbury Bexley

2000 2000
10th %ile 8.6 3.0 4.2 15.8 10th %ile 10.1 14.0 14.2 18.2
90th %ile 11.0 3.4 5.3 19.6 90th %ile 21.6 28.2 26.8 33.5
Arithmetic mean 10.2 3.2 4.9 18.3 Arithmetic 17.3 22.8 22.2 27.7
mean
2001
10th %ile 8.7 3.0 4.2 15.9 2001
90th %ile 11.1 3.4 5.3 19.8 10th %ile 8.6 11.9 12.8 16.0
Arithmetic mean 10.2 3.2 4.9 18.3 90th %ile 19.9 26.2 25.3 31.6
Arithmetic 15.4 20.2 20.3 25.1
2002 mean
10th %ile 8.9 3.0 4.2 16.1
90th %ile 11.1 3.4 5.3 19.9 2002
Arithmetic mean 10.3 3.2 4.9 18.4 10th %ile 7.1 12.5 11.3 16.7
90th %ile 18.6 27.0 23.9 32.3
2003 Arithmetic 14.0 20.9 18.9 25.8
10th %ile 9.2 3.1 4.4 16.7 mean
90th %ile 11.5 3.4 5.6 20.5
Arithmetic mean 10.6 3.3 5.1 19.0 2003
10th %ile 11.2 12.4 15.6 16.8
90th %ile 24.8 27.4 30.3 32.9
Arithmetic 19.8 21.4 25.0 26.5
2003. Since the emission factors used for the mean
calculation of the abrasion emissions are identical
for each year, the increase in the fleet-average
emission factors must reflect changes in vehicle fleet using the Bloomsbury data are lower, ranging from
composition, traffic volume, or driving pattern (e.g. 14.8 to 19.8 mg km1 due to higher ambient PM
acceleration and braking events and vehicle speed). concentrations at Bloomsbury, and hence smaller
Daily mean traffic volumes between 2000 and 2003 roadside increments.
were observed to decrease and so total emissions Difficulties exist in distinguishing the resuspended
due to abrasion would be expected to decrease. component of PM2.5–10 emissions from the road
However, reduced traffic volumes alone would have wear component. Therefore, calculated combined
little effect on fleet-averaged emission factors, and a resuspension and road wear emission factors are
more plausible explanation is one of a change in shown alongside the resuspension emission factor
driving pattern or fleet composition. These observa- estimates in Table 6. Mean fleet-average emission
tions support the earlier hypothesis implicating the factors for combined resuspension and road wear
introduction of bus lanes and congestion charging range from 25.1 mg km1 for 2001 to 27.7 mg km1
as influencing emissions at Marylebone Road for 2000 when using Bexley for background correc-
through changes in fleet composition and driving tions. The use of Bloomsbury again yields smaller
pattern. values than Bexley, with combined mean daily
resuspension and road wear emission factors
3.3. Resuspension emission factors between 18.9 and 25.0 mg km1.
The reduction in PM emission factors for
Estimated fleet-average resuspension emission resuspension between 2000 and 2001 is approxi-
factors (shown in Table 6) range from 20.2 to mately 11% for Bloomsbury and for Bexley. This is
22.8 mg km1 based on the Bexley data, decreasing consistent with the decreases in PM10 and PM2.5–10
from 2000 to 2001, before rising steadily between concentrations as measured at Marylebone Road.
2001 and 2003. Corresponding values obtained For 2001–2003, the Bexley data yield resuspension
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8014 A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020
emission factors of similar magnitude; estimates
from Bloomsbury display wider variability, in
particular between 2002 and 2003. This appears
anomalous, given that despite only small changes in
atmospheric PM10 concentrations at Marylebone
Road, the daily mean PM2.5–10 concentration
increased by 46% during the period 2000–2003.
PM2.5 concentrations fell by 23% (Table 3). As a
result of improvements in emission-control technol-
ogy with time, a reduction in PM2.5 concentrations
would be anticipated, since PM2.5 emissions are
assumed to be exhaust-related. PM2.5–10 emissions,
being attributed to non-exhaust sources, and there-
fore unresponsive to changing emission-control
technology, would be expected to remain approxi-
mately constant.
The observed increase in the PM2.5–10 concentra-
tion may reflect the existence of other local sources
of coarse PM which are unrelated to road traffic but
influence the ambient concentrations at either
Marylebone Road or the background sites. The
introduction of the congestion-charging scheme in
February 2003 coincided with an increase in buses
on routes within the charging zone (Beevers and
Carslaw, 2005). Whilst Marylebone Road is not
within the charging zone, increased bus flows are
apparent since February 2003. As discussed earlier,
an increase in bus volume may be an additional
factor resulting in elevated coarse particle concen-
trations.
Applying the assumptions that PM2.5–10 emis-
sions are entirely attributable to non-exhaust
sources and PM2.5 emissions are derived from
vehicle exhaust, comparisons can be made between
the relative contributions from the various traffic-
related sources. In relation to total PM2.5–10
emissions, the abrasion sources are responsible for
44–57% of total coarse particle emissions (Tables 1,
2 and 5), depending on which background site is
used. The highest percentages correspond to the use
of London Bloomsbury (49–57%). By definition of
the implemented calculation method Eq. (2), the
remaining 43–56% of coarse particle emissions are
attributable to resuspension. The percentage of
total PM2.5–10 emissions arising from combined
resuspension and road wear emissions is between
59% and 67%.
Using resuspension emissions and total PM2.5
emission factors allows estimates to be made of the
relative contributions of resuspension emissions and
exhaust emissions. Based on the Bexley back-
ground-corrected data, resuspension emissions are
35–37% the magnitude of exhaust emissions. On
incorporating road surface wear, the range rises to
43–45%. For emission estimates based on the
Bloomsbury background-corrected data, resuspen-
sion emissions alone are 29–34% of exhaust
emissions, rising to 39–43% if combined resuspen-
sion and road surface wear figures are used.
The percentage contributions of resuspension to
non-exhaust emissions and non-exhaust emissions
to total PM10 emissions calculated for Marylebone
Road are rather smaller than the values suggested
by other studies. Harrison et al. (2001) concluded
that the source strengths of vehicle-induced resus-
pension and exhaust emissions were approximately
equal, based on measurements made in London and
Birmingham. However, their work did not explicitly
incorporate abrasion emissions, so the percentage
contribution of resuspension may be considerably
smaller once this is accounted for. From the data
collected at eight locations in Nevada and North
Carolina, USA, Abu-Allaban et al. (2003) con-
cluded that resuspension emissions were a factor of
10 larger than exhaust emissions. In a study in
Stockholm the contribution of road dust emissions
was reported to be more than 8 times larger than
exhaust emissions (Forsberg et al., 2005), although
these data related to the entire PM10 size range,
making direct comparisons difficult. Furthermore,
the use of traction sanding and studded tyres are
common during the winter months in many
Scandinavian countries, and a number of studies
(Kupiainen et al., 2003; Forsberg et al., 2005;
Omstedt et al., 2005) have shown huge elevations
in PM concentrations attributable to increased road
wear, silt loading of the road, and subsequent
suspension or resuspension.
3.4. Apportionment of the resuspended component
between light- and heavy-duty vehicles
Vehicle type has been shown to exert an important
influence on resuspension emissions (Abu-Allaban
et al., 2003). Emission factors for LDVs and HDVs,
obtained from the solution of simultaneous equa-
tions of the form of Eq. (3), are shown in Table 7.
The data suggest that HDVs are almost entirely
responsible for resuspension. PM2.5–10 emission
factors for HDVs range from 17174 to
18278 mg km1 for the Bexley background data,
and 13976 to 16275 mg km1 for the Bloomsbury
background data. The calculated range for LDV
emissions using the Bexley background data is
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020 8015

Table 7 Extensive use of traction sanding and studded tyres

Emission factors for resuspension and combined resuspension during the winter months increases the silt loading
and road surface wear between heavy-duty (HDV) and light-duty of the road, which increases the material available
(LDV) vehicles
for resuspension. Since the use of such winter road
Emission factor Emission factor maintenance procedures is not a common practice
(mg km1), (mg km1), Bexley in the UK it is not surprising that emission factors
Bloomsbury for Marylebone Road are smaller.
HDV LDV HDV LDV
3.5. Effect of wind speed and precipitation upon
Resuspension only resuspension
2000 14577 2.670.8 17879 5.171.0
2001 13972 0.370.4 17174 2.870.7
2002 13976 0.570.6 18378 2.170.9 The effects of wind speed on the resuspension
2003 16275 0.070.5 17277 1.170.6 observed using the Bexley and Bloomsbury back-
ground data are depicted in Fig. 1. The Bloomsbury
Resuspension+road wear
2000 16278 6.070.9 195710 8.671.2 background-corrected data provide evidence of an
2001 15770 3.870.5 18874 6.270.9 increase in resuspension emission factors with wind
2002 15677 2.970.9 20079 5.571.2 speed, with the gradient appearing to diminish at
2003 18075 3.470.7 19077 4.570.8 higher wind speeds. The Bexley dataset suggests a
different dependency of resuspension emission fac-
tors on wind speed, with emission factors appearing
1.170.6 to 5.171.0 mg km1. LDV emissions based to decrease initially with increasing wind speed
on the Bloomsbury background data range from before increasing during periods of high wind speed.
0.570.6 to 2.670.8 mg km1. It should be noted Harrison et al. (2001) presented similar findings, with
that despite the negative value for LDV emissions in coarse particle concentrations decreasing before
2002, within the errors of the calculation this could increasing with wind speed. Charron and Harrison
be a small positive value. The ratios between the (2005) also suggested that PM2.5–10 concentrations
emission factors for HDVs and those for LDVs were elevated as wind speed increased, based on the
clearly illustrate the dominant role of HDVs in the data collected at Marylebone Road. It is encouraging
resuspension of particles. For combined resuspen- that the relationships between resuspension emissions
sion and road wear (Table 7) LDVs have a greater and wind speed presented here are consistent with the
influence than for resuspension alone. The emission previous studies. These similarities provide support
factors for HDVs are typically 30 times larger than for the proposal that resuspension primarily incor-
the LDV values. Using a fleet composition of porates coarse PM. However, it is apparent from
approximately 88% LDVs, 12% HDVs and the inspection of the data that other factors are
resuspension emission factors given in Table 7, influential in determining the magnitude of resuspen-
resuspension emission factors for an average vehicle sion emission factors.
in the fleet of between 15 and 23 mg km1 were The results of the investigation into the effect of
estimated. Nicholson (2000) arrived at a resuspen- precipitation are displayed in Fig. 2 which is based
sion emission factor of 40 mg km1 for all vehicles in on Bexley background data. The corresponding
a study on UK roads, approximately double the graph using Bloomsbury data is very similar.
emission factor obtained for the present analysis. A simple plot of resuspension emission factors
The results for Marylebone Road are consistent against the time elapsed since the previous rainfall
with those presented by Abu-Allaban et al. (2003) in event fails to reveal any association. This observa-
terms of the relative importance of HDVs and tion is surprising, since Charron and Harrison
LDVs. Whilst the absolute values of the emission (2005) reported decreases in both PM2.5 and
factors calculated by Abu-Allaban et al. (2003) are PM2.5–10 concentrations after periods of rainfall
much larger, the values for HDVs are 10 times and elevations during extended drought periods,
larger than for LDVs, which is comparable to the and so it would have been expected for resuspension
Marylebone Road emission factors. Data collected emission factors to reflect similar trends. It appears
at a street canyon location in Sweden yielded an that simply looking at rainfall totals and preceding
emission factor for resuspension of 205 mg km1 for drought periods is inadequate for the purpose of
the whole vehicle fleet (Omstedt et al., 2005). deriving a relationship between precipitation and
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8016 A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020

45

Resuspension Emission Factor (mg/km)

43 y= 0.3176x2- 2.3933x + 41.721
R2 = 0.5871
41
39
37
35
33
31
Bloomsbury background-
29 y = -0.0907x2+ 1.7677x + 29.251
corrected
R2 = 0.4239 Bexley background-
27
corrected
25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Windspeed (m/s)

Fig. 1. Variation of resuspension emission factors at Marylebone Road with median wind speed measure at Heathrow, 2003.

50 500
Mean resuspension emission factor (mg/km)

45 450

Mean hourly HDV number (veh/h)

40 400

35 350

30 300

25 250

20 200

15 150

10 100
Resuspension (mg/km)
5 HDV number 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Hours since last rainfall

Fig. 2. Variation of mean resuspension emission factors at Marylebone Road with length of time since last rainfall, 2003 (background
corrected using Bexley data).

resuspension. Rainfall intensity, the duration of 3.6. Multi-linear regression analysis

events, and evaporation may all need to be
considered in order to describe variations in To confirm the findings presented above in
resuspension with precipitation, as in the model relation to the influence of HDV number, wind
presented by Omstedt et al. (2005). Furthermore, speed and precipitation, a MLRA was carried out
the influence of other factors, such as wind speed on the Marylebone Road dataset, background
and traffic intensity, may serve to mask the corrected using Bexley, from 2003. Initially, HDV
variation due to precipitation. This is supported number, wind speed and hours since rainfall were
by the addition of data corresponding to the HDV entered as independent variables in the regression
number to Fig. 2, indicating that much of the against hourly resuspension emissions.
variability in resuspension is related to variation in As displayed in Table 8, the best regression model
HDV number. predicts a mean value for resuspension emissions of
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020 8017

Table 8
Summary table of statistics predicted by multiple linear regression analysis

Model R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. error of the estimate

All variables entered 0.801a 0.641 0.641 49.0652

Total HDV, hours since last rain 0.798b 0.636 0.636 49.3726
Total HDV 0.795c 0.632 0.632 49.6408
Summarised statistics of predicted values of resuspension (g km1 h1)
Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation

Predicted valued 21.5 288.9 126.2 65.5

Dependent variable: resuspension (measured ratio).

a
Predictors: (constant), total HDVs, hours since last rain, wind speed (knots).
b
Predictors: (constant), total HDVs, hours since last rain.
c
Predictors: (constant), total HDVs.
d
Using best fit model (model a).

Table 9 measured. An insight into the relative contributions

Pearson correlation coefficient data between the dependent and
independent variables used in the all variables entered regression
analysis
Resuspension
(measured ratio)
Pearson correlation Wind speed (knots) 0.189
Hours since last 0.066
rain
Total HDVs 0.795
126765.5 g km1 h1. Examination of the correla-
tion statistics (Table 9) suggests that HDV number
is the most influential factor in the resuspension of
road dust (r ¼ 0.795). Regression coefficient data
from the initial analysis are shown in Table 10,
alongside data relating to the subsequent stepwise
regression analyses. Constructing a regression equa-
tion from the unstandardised B coefficients yields
the equation
Resuspension ¼ 4:032 þ 1:382 Wspd þ 0:073 Rain
þ 0:290 HDV; ð4Þ
where resuspension refers to hourly resuspension
(g km1 h1), Wspd is the wind speed in knots, Rain
the number of hours since last rainfall event, and
HDV the hourly HDV number. The regression
coefficients in Eq. (4) enable the estimation of
hourly resuspension from the other three para-
meters, but they do not provide information on the
relative importance of the independent variables
since all the regression coefficients reflect the units in
which the independent variables were initially
is obtained by focusing on the standardised (Beta)
coefficients in Table 9. It can be seen that HDV
number is the dominant controlling factor on
resuspension, with a Beta value of 0.783. Wind
speed (Beta ¼ 0.070) and hours since the last
rainfall event (Beta ¼ 0.077) have a much smaller
influence, and may be negligible.
To investigate the relative importance of wind
speed and time since the last rainfall event, a
stepwise multi-linear analysis was performed. In this
approach each independent variable is entered into
the regression one at a time, based on statistical
considerations in order to determine which combi-
nation of independent variables provides the best
predictive model. Any insignificant variables are
excluded from resulting regression.
From Table 7 it is clear that the best predictive
model (R2 ¼ 0.64) of resuspension incorporates
all the influencing factors (‘All variables entered’),
but it is observed that entering wind speed
and hours since rainfall into the regression only
provide small improvements in the R2 value.
The model using only HDV number (‘Total
HDV’) yields an R2 value of 0.63 (Table 7),
which is very close to the fit obtained using all
three independent variables. This supports the
suggestion that wind speed and length of time since
a rainfall event have a minor influence on resuspen-
sion. A regression equation, expressing hourly
resuspension only in terms of HDV number and
developed from the regression coefficients presented
in Table 9, is
Resuspension ¼ 19:187 þ 0:294 HDV: (5)
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
8018 A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020

Table 10
Independent variable coefficients and their associated confidence intervals obtained from the regression analyses

Model Unstandardised Standardised t Sig. 95% confidence

coefficients coefficients interval for B

B Std. error Beta Lower Upper

bound bound

All variables entered (Constant) 4.032 1.863 2.164 0.030 0.380 7.684
Total HDVs 0.290 0.003 0.783 97.583 0.000 0.284 0.295
Hours since last rain 0.073 0.008 0.077 9.516 0.000 0.058 0.088
Wind speed (knots) 1.382 0.161 0.070 8.560 0.000 1.066 1.699

Total HDV, hours since rainfall (Constant) 15.047 1.356 11.099 0.000 12.389 17.704
Total HDVs 0.294 0.003 0.795 99.970 0.000 0.288 0.300
Hours since last rain 0.060 0.008 0.063 7.980 0.000 0.046 0.075
Total HDV (Constant) 19.187 1.259 15.237 0.000 16.718 21.656
Total HDVs 0.294 0.003 0.795 99.457 0.000 0.288 0.300

Dependent variable: resuspension (measured ratio).

When applying Eqs. (4) and (5) for predictive
purposes, it must be recognised that the confidence
intervals on the coefficients used, and in particular
the constant, are large (Table 9).
3.7. Postscript
It has recently been brought to our notice that the
PM2.5 concentration data from Marylebone Road
used in the present study may represent under-
estimates of actual kerbside PM2.5 concentrations.
As a consequence of space constraints at the
Marylebone Road monitoring station, PM10 con-
centrations are measured at kerbside whilst con-
centrations of PM2.5 are made 2.4 m further from
the road. An investigation conducted by Green and
Fuller (2004) concluded that concentration gradi-
ents in NOx, NO2, O3, PM10 and PM2.5 did indeed
exist between analysers located at kerbside and
roadside. On the basis of hourly measurements, it
was suggested that PM2.5 concentrations were on
average 1.7 mg m3 lower when measured at road-
side as opposed to kerbside. Since PM2.5–10 con-
centrations are calculated by subtraction of PM2.5
from PM10, any underestimation of PM2.5 will
manifest itself as an overestimation of PM2.5–10,
and ultimately in resuspension emission estimates
based on these data. However, adjustment of PM2.5
concentrations to account for the positioning of the
analyser yields coarse particle concentrations that
are unrealistic, with values falling below back-
ground levels; such an observation is not supported
by gravimetric measurements from Marylebone
Road. This indicates that the PM2.5 concentration
gradient reported by Green and Fuller (2004) may
not be as large as suggested. This may be due in part
to the poor agreement between the analysers used to
perform the measurements. Limits of agreement in
hourly PM2.5 concentrations were determined as
75 mg m3 from co-located instruments (Green and
Fuller, 2004), making it difficult to draw quantita-
tive conclusions regarding the magnitude of the
concentration gradient.
Whilst it is accepted that a concentration gradient
probably exists, it is our view that quantitative
recalculations incorporating a correction factor for
PM2.5 would offer no improvement in the estimates
of resuspension emissions. It should be noted that
the resuspension emissions derived may represent
upper estimates, and are highly sensitive to the
quality of the coarse particle concentration data.
This does not apply to our initial calculations that
use an assumed PM2.5/PM10 ratio, rather than the
measured data from PM2.5–10.
4. Conclusions
Emission factors for on-road particle resuspen-
sion have been calculated using a pragmatic
approach, involving the estimation of total PM10
emissions using NOx as a tracer for exhaust PM
emissions. The calculation of the coarse fraction
abrasion emissions and total coarse particle source
strength has enabled resuspension emissions to be
quantified by difference.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
A.J. Thorpe et al. / Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 8007–8020
Previous studies have shown that the resuspen-
sion of road dust is the predominant source of non-
exhaust PM at roadside locations. At traffic-
influenced sites in Berlin, roadside increment PM10
concentrations have been reported to comprise 50%
vehicle exhaust and tyre abrasion emissions, and
50% resuspended road dust particles (Lenschow et
al., 2001). An investigation of the coarse particle
component by Harrison et al. (2001) at five urban
sites in the UK arrived at a similar conclusion, with
PM10 roadside increments being apportioned ap-
proximately equally between vehicle exhaust and
resuspension emissions. In a number of studies from
Scandinavia, vehicle exhaust emissions have been
found to contribute only around 10% to traffic-
related PM10 emissions, with much of the remainder
accountable for by resuspension (Forsberg et al.,
2005; Omstedt et al., 2005).
The results of the present study indicate a much
lower contribution of resuspended road dust to
roadside increment PM10 concentration, with re-
suspension comprising 20–22% of total PM10
emissions. A further 19% can be attributed to
coarse fraction abrasion source emissions, whilst the
remaining 60% arises from vehicle exhaust and fine
fraction abrasion emissions. The large discrepancy
between the results of our study and those
conducted in Scandinavia may be due to the use
of road sanding and studded tyres in Scandinavia
during winter months. Such practices have been
shown to generate large quantities of coarse
particles through accentuation of road surface wear
and the mechanical fragmentation of traction sand
grains (Kupiainen et al., 2003, 2005).
The strong associations observed between HDV
number and resuspension emission factors indicate
that resuspension is predominantly determined by
heavy duty traffic. Weaker associations with wind
speed may be indicative of a two-stage process,
with traffic-generated turbulence and tyre shear
being the mechanisms whereby particles are initially
lifted into the air, and high wind speeds are a
requisite for keeping the particles aloft for longer
periods of time, thus leading to elevated resuspen-
sion emissions and, ultimately, coarse particle
concentrations.
No clear dependency of resuspension on precipi-
tation or the time elapsed since the last rainfall event
is apparent. Omstedt et al. (2005) presented a model
for the prediction of non-exhaust traffic emissions,
in which precipitation and other factors, including
evaporation rate and road silt loading, were key
8019
parameters. Whilst the investigation at Marylebone
Road does not support the work of Omstedt et al.
(2005), it has to be recognised that the attempt to
reveal a relationship between resuspension and
precipitation using the period of time since the last
rainfall event may be too simplistic. Furthermore,
given the fact that there is a strong correlation
between HDV traffic and resuspension, it is possible
that the variability associated with precipitation is
hidden by the traffic influence.
The comparison of the results obtained using
the Bloomsbury background-corrected data with
those obtained using the Bexley background-cor-
rected data illustrate the sensitivity of the present
approach for estimating resuspension to the data
used for background corrections. Where roadside
increments are calculated by subtraction of an
urban background concentration from that ob-
served at kerbside, a rigorous assessment of the
suitability of the background sampling location
must be undertaken. This is integral to ensuring that
the estimates of resuspension emissions are repre-
sentative and reliable.
Acknowledgements
The financial support of the Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the
Devolved Administrations for Scotland, Wales and
Northern Ireland through Contract number CPEA
23 is gratefully acknowledged. Meteorological data
were supplied by the British Atmospheric Data
Centre.
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