Tangent Galvanometer

Published on Jan 07, 2019

Abstract

Tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument for small electric currents. It consists
of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. Its working is
based on the principle of the tangent law of magnetism. When a current is passed through the
circular coil, a magnetic field (B) is produced at the center of the coil in a direction
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The TG is arranged in such a way that the horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field (Bh) is in the direction of the plane of the coil.

Objective

1. To determine the reduction factor of the given tangent galvanometer (K).

2. To find out the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (Bh).

Theory

Tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument for small electric currents. It consists
of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. Its working is
based on the principle of the tangent law of magnetism. When a current is passed through the
circular coil, a magnetic field (B) is produced at the center of the coil in a direction
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The TG is arranged in such a way that the horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field (Bh) is in the direction of the plane of the coil. The
magnetic needle is then under the action of two mutually perpendicular fields. If θ is the
deflection of the needle, then according to tangent law,

Let I is the current passing through the coil of radius a with n turns, then the field generated
by the current carrying circular coil is,
The left hand side of equation (4) is a constant and is called the reduction factor (K) of the
given tangent galvanometer.

Now from equation (3) & (5), the horizontal intensity of earth’s magnetic field Bh is,

Materials Required:

• Key

• Battery

• Ammeter

• Rheostat

• Commutator

• Tangent Galvanometer
Procedure:

Connections are made as shown in the figure given below, where K is the key, E the battery,
A the ammeter, R the rheostat, C the commutator, and T.G the tangent galvanometer. The
commutator can reverse the current through the T.G coil without changing the current in the
rest of the circuit. Taking the average of the resulting two readings for deflection averages
out, any small error in positioning the TG coil relative to the earth’s magnetic field Bh .

The initial adjustments are done as follows:

• The plane of the coil is made vertical by adjusting the levelling screws.

• The compass box alone is rotated so that the 90-90 line in the compass box is in the plane of
the coil.

• The T.G as a whole is rotated till the Aluminium pointer reads 0-0.
• Note down the number of turns in the coil.

• A suitable current is allowed to pass through the coil.

• Note down the currrent as well as the deflection in T.G.

• Reverse the current and note the deflection again.

• Repeat the procedure for different values of current.

• Measure the radius of the coil from its perimeter.

• Determine the reduction factor and horizontal intensity of earth's magnetic field.

Observations:

Number of turns in the coil =....

Circumference of the coil, «math

xmlns=¨http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML¨»«mn»2«/mn»«mi»§#960;«/mi»«mi»a«/mi
»«/math»=......cm

Radius of the coil, a =....cm

1. To determine the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (Bh):

The Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field (Bh) can be calculated using the formula,

2. To determine the reduction factor of T.G:

Note: Take deflection between 30 and 60 degrees.

From graph:

Reduction factor K of the tangent galvanometer can be detremined.

From the graph drawn as,

K = AB / BC
Result:

The reduction factor of the given tangent galvanometer, K =............A

Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field, Bh =...........T

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3. To Construct an Amplifier Using a Transistor

To Construct an Amplifier Using a Transistor

Published on Jan 07, 2019

Abstract

An Amplifier is a device which is used for multiplying the Amplitude of variation of

alternating voltage or current or power. An Amplifier, may have two inputs , one from the
external world as a microphone or an antenna or a TV camera, and another input obtained
from its own output. The input obtained from the output is normally small but the input from
the external world may be larger so that the output would follow the form of the input from
the eternal world to the amplifier, unlike the oscillator which has an internal world of its own
apart from it energy supply system as all amplifiers need an external energy supply. With
amplifiers one needs to be careful what input to apply and also how much and what polarity
one applies feedback from the output otherwise one can finish with, an oscillator, or a
constant voltage or constant current power supply and not a signal amplifier that gives out a
larger form or a quantity, proportional to waveform of the input.

Objective

To construct amplifier using n-p-n transistor and study its current gain and identify its active
region
Theory

An Amplifier is a device which is used for multiplying the Amplitude of variation of

alternating voltage or current or power.

Here’s a diagram of how an amplifier works:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and

electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with three terminals for
connection to an external circuit.

Emitter (E): It is the left hand side thick layer of the transistor which is heavily doped;
Base (B): It is a central thin layer of transistor which is lightly doped;

Collector (C): It is the right hand side thick layer of the transistor which is moderately doped;

A p-n-p junction transistor is obtained by growing a thin layer of thin layer of n-type semi-
conductor in between two relatively thick layers of p-type semi-conductor.

A n-p-n junction transistor is obtained by growing a thin layer p-type semi-conductor in

between two relatively thick layers of n-type semi-conductor.

In this experiment, we will use a n-p-n transistor.

The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage (Vin) changes
the small current through the base of the transistor; the transistor's current amplification
combined with the properties of the circuit mean that small swings in Vin produce large
changes in Vout.

Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some providing
current gain, some voltage gain, and some both.
From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound
reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing. The first discrete-transistor audio
amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually
increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved.

Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively
inexpensive.

Materials Required:

1. A n-p-n transistor;

2. Two battery eliminators;

3. Two High resistance Rheostats;

4. Connecting Wires;

5. Two One Way keys;

6. Two Ammeters

7. Two Voltmeters;

Circuit Diagram

Procedure:

• Connect the apparatus accordingly as shown in the circuit diagram.

• Determine the least count and the zero errors of voltmeters and ammeters.

• Keep the potential of the battery Vb at a low voltage

• Make all the connections neat, clean and tight.

• Note the Least count

• Increase the voltage from input battery Vb from 0 to 0.6 V.

• Note the input current at this point.

• Now increase the input current by changing the resistance of rheostat and record the
corresponding output current.

• Ensure that the input voltage does not exceed 1 V (input and output voltage will change
correspondingly).

• Plot the readings of the current taken in the graph of Current (inp) vs Current (out).

Observations:
 VOLTMETER

1. Least count of Voltmeter (Vi)= 0.2 V

2. Range of Voltmeter (Vi)= 10 V

3. Zero Error of voltmeter (Vi)= 0 V

4. Least count of Voltmeter (Vo)= 0.2 V

5. Range of Voltmeter (Vo)= 10 V

6. Zero Error of Voltmeter (Vo)= 0 V

 AMMETER

1. Least count of Milliammeter (inp)= 2 mA

2. Range of Milliammeter (inp)= 100 mA

3. Zero error of Milliammeter (inp)= 0 mA

4. Least count of Milliammeter (out)= 10 mA

5. Range of Milliammeter (out)= 500 mA

6. Zero error of Milliammeter (out)= 0 mA

Result:

1. As seen from the graph, the active region with maximum current amplification is from
0.41A to 2.0A.

2. Current gain(amplification)(β) =

3. A minimum of 0.6V needs to be provided as activation voltage to input part of circuit, i.e.,
base-emitter (BE) section.

Conclusion

With the experiments carried out in the laboratory to study the characteristics of the NPN
transistor proved the aim defined in the report. The NPN transistor has got current
amplification in the tune of 8.5 in the region of 0.4 to 2 ma.

References

• colorado.edu/physics/phys3330/PDF/Experiment7.pdf

• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor#Transistor_as_an_amplifier
• en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_emitter

• 230nsc1.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/npnce.html

• tedpavlic.com/teaching/osu/ece327/lab1_bjt/lab1_bjt_transistor_basics.pdf

• hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/trans.htm

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Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Published on Jan 11, 2019

Abstract

A Full wave rectifier is a circuit arrangement which makes use of both half cycles of input
alternating current (AC) and converts them to direct current (DC). In our tutorial on Half
wave rectifiers, we have seen that a half wave rectifier makes use of only one-half cycle of
the input alternating current. Thus a full wave rectifier is much more efficient (double+) than
a half wave rectifier. This process of converting both half cycles of the input supply
(alternating current) to direct current (DC) is termed full wave rectification.

Full wave rectifier can be constructed in 2 ways. The first method makes use of a centre
tapped transformer and 2 diodes. This arrangement is known as Center Tapped Full Wave
Rectifier.

The second method uses a normal transformer with 4 diodes arranged as a bridge. This
arrangement is known as a Bridge Rectifier.

Objective

To construct a full wave bridge rectifier and show that that Alternating Current is rectified
into a Direct Current.

Theory

The process of converting AC (which periodically reverses direction) current into DC (which
flows only in one direction) current is known as Rectification.
The electrical device used to so is known as Rectifier.
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies
and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles
other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power.

The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized by pulsating voltages

and currents (although still unidirectional). Depending upon the type of end-use, this type of
DC current may then be further modified into the type of relatively constant voltage DC
characteristically produced by such sources as batteries and solar cells.

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration
that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most
common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into a direct current
(DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave
rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a
rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.

Materials Required:

 Connecting wires

 Step-down transformer

 Diodes (4)

 Capacitor (1)

 LED (1)

Circuit Diagram

Procedure:

Initially when the A.C. is supplied to the transformer, it steps down the 220V main supply to
6 volts. It has a capability of delivering a current of 500mA. The 6 volts A.C. appearing
across the secondary coil is the RMS value and the peak value is 8.4 volts. During the Ist half
cycle of the A.C. input Diode D1 is forward biased and a current ‘I’ flows in the circuit in the
direction ABCDEFGHIJKLM. During this time diodes D2 and D3 are reverse biased. So
they do not conduct any electric current.

During the next half cycle the diode D2 is forward and D1 is reversed. Hence D2 conducts
current in the direction MLKJCDEFGHIA and D1 does not conduct any current.
In subsequent half cycles of the A.C current the above processes are repeated. In both the half
cycles it is clear that current flows through LED in only one direction.

Even though the voltage across LED is unidirectional it will still contain a few A.C
components. This is filtered and made smooth using a capacitor, which filters 99% of the A.C
current.

Capacitor nearly filters all A.C components from the supply. But there will be slight factor of
A.C. current still left in the output but it is negligible. The output Direct Current and voltage
light up the LED.

Observations

Applications
 Because of their low cost compared to center tapped they are widely used in power supply
circuit.

 This can be used to detect the amplitude of modulated radio signal.

 Bridge rectifiers can be used to supply polarized voltage in welding.

 In daily life, rectifier find use in mobile chargers.

Merits

 The rectification efficiency of full-wave rectifier is double of that of a half-wave rectifier.

 The ripple voltage is low and of higher frequency in case of a full-wave rectifier so simple
filtering circuit is required.

 Higher output voltage higher output power and higher TUF in case of a full-wave rectifier.

 In a full-wave rectifier, there is no problem due to DC saturation of the core because the
DC currents in the two halves of the transformer secondary flow in opposite directions.

Demerits:-

 Full-wave rectifier needs more circuit elements and is costlier.

Conclusion

The output voltage of the full wave rectifier is not constant, it is always pulsating. But this
cannot be used in real life applications. In other words, we desire a DC power supply with a
constant output voltage. In order to achieve a smooth and constant voltage a filter with a
capacitor or an inductor is used.

References

 Physics – Textbook for class XII (NCERT)

 Laboratory Manual of Physics

 Encyclopedias

Websites:-

 www.google.in

 www.wikipedia.org

 www.youtube.com