Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.

, 1994,13 (2), 443-451

Traditional veterinary medicine in India

G. M A Z A R S *

Summary: A tradition of veterinary therapy developed very early in India and

this has survived to the present time. Based on the Ayurveda ('knowledge
concerning longevity'), a medical art which had its roots in the literature of the
Veda (1500-1000 BC), Indian veterinary medicine is known for its specialised
literature, which provides information on ancient methods of preventing and.
treating diseases of animals before the advent of modern medicine. Some of
these treatments, little known outside India, are still practised today.

KEYWORDS: Animal diseases - Âyurvedic medicine - Disease control -

Elephants - History - Horses - India - Traditional medicine - Veterinary
medicine.

INTRODUCTION

The earliest information on the art of caring for animals in India is provided by the
sacred texts of the Vedic religion. These texts, written between 1500 and 600 BC, were
transmitted orally from g e n e r a t i o n to generation, over the centuries, before being
written down. T h e oldest Vedic literature consists of collections of hymns, liturgical
chants and sacrificial or magical formulae, mainly in verse, which constitute the Veda
proper (1500-1000 BC).
In these ancient times, knowledge already existed of how to prepare a number of
remedies to counter prevailing ailments in human beings and also in animals. Thus, the
Atharvaveda (IV, 9,2) hails the benefits of a protective ointment for human beings, cows
and horses. The concepts developed during this period formed the basis of subsequent
medical doctrines. In fact, concepts incorporated in the Veda, sometimes retaining Vedic
names, formed the basis of some of the most characteristic anatomical and physiological
concepts of Indian medicine. T h e s e included the observation and recording of the
behaviour of sick animals. For example, the Atharvaveda (VIII, 7, 23) states that 'the
wild boar knows the herb which will cure it, as does the mongoose'. This example recalls
the shepherd Melampus who, according to Theophrastes (327-287 BC), discovered the
purgative p r o p e r t i e s of hellebore by observing its action on goats. Such references
illustrate the importance of observation in the choice of medicinal plants (18).

Towards the end of the Vedic period, Indian medicine began to adopt observation
and rational procedure, which developed into a coherent system known as Ayurveda
(from knowledge [veda] concerning longevity [Âyur]) (16,17). This knowledge served as
a model for veterinary medicine, the history of which is still little known, producing a

* Université Louis Pasteur, 4 rue Blaise-Pascal, 67070 Strasbourg Cedex, France; and Ecole
e
Pratique des Hautes Etudes, IV section, 45-47 rue des Ecoles, 75005 Paris, France.
444

specialised literature in Sanskrit and in the o t h e r languages of India. Some of this

literature was even translated into Tibetan, A r a b i c and Persian ( 4 , 1 2 , 1 8 , 20). The
surviving texts are concerned mainly with the treatment of horses and elephants.
The legends incorporated in these texts present knowledge regarding the medical
treatment of horses and elephants as being directly revealed by the gods. This may be
explained partly by the need to provide veterinary medicine with an origin similar to
that of the Âyurveda, which is also presented as 'divinely-inspired' knowledge. In fact,
this veterinary medicine developed from the Âyurvedic model over the seven or eight
centuries which preceded the Christian era. It is also known, from the inscriptions of
A s o k a in the middle of the 3rd century BC, that this Buddhist sovereign opened
hospitals for animals (25). Unfortunately, no actual veterinary records exist from this
period.

SANSKRIT TREATISES O N V E T E R I N A R Y M E D I C I N E

T h e oldest existing veterinary text from India is a treatise entitled

Asvâyurvedasiddhânta ('Complete Âyurvedic system for horses') attributed to a certain
Sâlihotra (20,24). A person of the same name was mentioned in the Mahâbhârata, the
great Indian epic (apparently written b e t w e e n 300 BC and AD 300). However, the
treatise is definitely more recent, although probably earlier than the 10th century AD.
There also exists a Tibetan version written at the beginning of the 11th century, and the
text was translated into Persian in the 14th century. The same author apparently wrote
two books on horses: Asvalakshanasâstra ('Treatise on the marks of h o r s e s ' ) and
Asvaprasamsa ('In praise of horses'). Subsequently, various treatises on horses and
diseases of horses were composed. A m o n g the best k n o w n works of this specialist
literature are Asvacikitsita ('Therapeutics of horses'), written by Nakula around the
year 1000 (20, 21), and Asvavaidyaka ('Medicine of horses') by Jayadatta, probably
originating in the 13th century (14).

T h e principal surviving ancient text dealing with elephant medicine is a treatise

which tradition ascribes to Pâlakâpya, a legendary person, also known as Dhanvantari,
the father of Indian surgery (20, 23). The text, entitled Hastyâyurveda ('The Âyurveda
of elephants') is divided into four parts. The first part is devoted to general diseases, the
second to localised and minor ailments, the third to surgery and anatomy, and the last to
the feeding of elephants and medicinal preparations. The text cannot be earlier than the
Middle Ages, but it contains medical concepts and veterinary practices of long standing.
The Greek Megasthenes, who lived in India for many years circa 300 BC as ambassador
to Chandra Gupta (Sandrocottus), confirmed the existence of medical aid for elephants,
and provided precise indications which agree with Indian sources. In particular, his
evidence of care provided for elephants d e m o n s t r a t e d that the state of veterinary
medicine was already as advanced as in the Hastyâyurveda and other more recent texts,
such as the Mâtangalîlâ ('Elephant sport') by Nîlakantha (11, 22). In Assam, at the
beginning of the 18th century, the Hastividyârnava ('Ocean of knowledge concerning
elephants') was written. This has survived as a single manuscript, rendered valuable
mainly by its illustrations: unlike older manuscripts which have survived to our times,
this text on elephants is adorned with numerous miniatures illustrating the different
chapters on the varieties of elephants, their capture (Fig. 1), habits, training procedures
and care (Fig. 2). T h e text also incorporates p o p u l a r beliefs and magico-religious
practices (7,10).
 445

FlG.l
An éléphant which has just been captured
(Miniature illustrating the Hastividyârnava, edited by P.C. Choudhury, p. 165 détail)
(7)

FiG.2
Médicinal herbs are rubbed on the foot of an éléphant
(Miniature illustrating the Hastividyârnava, edited by P.C. Choudhury, p. 37 détail)
(7)

OTHER SOURCES
Specialised treatises are not the only source of existing information. The treatises of
the Âyurveda sometimes refer to veterinary treatments. Thus, a passage in
Carakasamhitâ (Siddisthâna, XI, 20-26) contains a list of ingrédients for preparing
446

e n e m a s for elephants, camels, cattle, horses and sheep (26). A small collection of
t h e r a p e u t i c formulae from the 11th century, the Râjamârtanda, contains a chapter
devoted to the treatment of domestic animals (19).
In addition, certain non-medical texts contain information on the veterinary art.
Some information regarding veterinarians is contained in the Arthasâstra, a treatise of
government traditionally attributed to Kautilya, possibly an adviser to Chandra Gupta
(313-289 BC), founder of the M a u r y a dynasty. T h e Arthasâstra (II, 32) reveals that
veterinarians accompanied armies to 'treat the beasts w e a k e n e d by travel, disease,
work, rut or age' (15). Veterinary medicine also features in a falconry treatise, the
Syainikasâstra, which might have been written in the 15th or 16th century AD, and also
in the Sivatattvaratnâkara, an encyclopaedic work of the 18th century. In the latter,
Âyurvedic medicine and associated topics occupy some thirty chapters. Three chapters
are devoted to veterinary medicine: a treatise on elephants and their medical treatment;
one on horses and diseases of horses; and the third on the care of cattle and other
domestic animals (27).

 Y U R V E D I C PRINCIPLES FOR A N I M A L S

In the field of anatomy, the knowledge of Indian veterinarians in ancient times seems
to have been quite extensive, and possibly more precise than corresponding knowledge
on the human body. Observations on animal carcasses were favoured by sacrifices, wars
and other events. For example, equestrian texts provide a rich anatomical
nomenclature, but the concepts derived from this were quite rudimentary in the case of
visceral anatomy. The value of dissecting carcasses was recognised. O n e of the oldest
Âyurvedic treatises in Sanskrit, the Susrutasamhitâ ('Collection of Susruta', from the
beginning of the Christian era) even describes a dissection procedure for the study of
the human body. Veterinarians, like surgeons, had to be aware of vulnerable regions
(marman) in which any injury would be fatal or particularly severe (3,20). The marman
concept, which was an innovation of Ayurvedic surgery, is found in veterinary medicine
and is known to have originated in a Vedic concept. The word is derived from the root
MR (signifying death) and was used particularly to designate a vital region of the body.
In animals, as in h u m a n beings, the location of the marman shows that they often
coincide with highly vascular regions, and also tendons and major nerve trunks, where
any injury is serious because of the risk of heavy bleeding, incapacity or paralysis. In the
absence of detailed knowledge of the internal anatomy of animals, anatomical
knowledge was confined to empirical observation of the body surface, enabling
operations to be performed without harming vital organs.
The physiopathological concepts contained in Sanskrit texts are those of the classical
Âyurveda. According to these concepts, the health of both animals and human beings
depended on the equilibrium and good functioning of the three vital principles: 'wind'
(vâyu), 'bile' (pitta) and 'phlegm' (kapha or sleshman). Each of these three principles
was supposed to act, embracing the secondary forms which corresponded to various
functions and manifestations of life. The most important of the three primary principles
seemed to be 'wind', which referred to various organic fluxes and governed ingestion,
digestion and assimilation of nutrients, the differentiation of organic substances and
their distribution, and also the internal circulation of fluids, respiration and general
motor functions, thus including numerous aspects of body functioning which modern
medicine attributes to the central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems (16,17).
 447

Generalised diseases and localised ailments were linked to imbalance in these

principles, or disturbances in the secondary forms of a single principle. Consequently,
the name tri-dosha ('three troubles') was given to this triad of elements. Disorders in the
functions governed by the three principles were themselves the outcome of multiple
causes related to behaviour, character, feeding, m o d e of life, season, habitat, etc. In
particular, e q u e s t r i a n texts often invoked a nutritional cause: food poisoning or
unbalanced feeding.

Classification of diseases was broadly similar to the principles applied to h u m a n

diseases but differed in detail, except in certain cases such as the diseases common to
horses and h u m a n beings. T h e various conditions were classified according to their
supposed origin, their apparent seat, or the nature of the symptoms. In the first category
were diseases attributed to a disorder of 'wind', 'bile', etc. 'Diseases of wind' were the
most n u m e r o u s , totalling 76 in the case of elephants. In the second category w e r e
diseases of the skin and the head, chest pains, etc. T h e last category notably included
fevers, which were differentiated into many types according to the involvement of
'wind', 'bile' or ' p h l e g m ' , and according to the other symptoms which accompany
hyperthermia. O n e of the most detailed classifications is that of the Hastyâyurveda,
which placed diseases of elephants in two b r o a d groups (23). T h e first group was
endogenous disease, including diseases attributable to disturbance of the vital
principles. T h e second g r o u p was exogenous disease, mainly t r a u m a t i c injuries:
accidental wounds and those caused by weapons, bites of wild animals, etc. However,
identification of the diseases listed in the texts is often uncertain, and sometimes even
impossible, due to a lack of information.

P R O P H Y L A X I S OF A N I M A L D I S E A S E S

As in A y u r v e d i c h u m a n medicine, p r e v e n t i o n occupied an i m p o r t a n t place in

veterinary medicine in ancient India. Prevention was based on general hygiene and food
hygiene. Texts insist on the cleanliness of animals, giving details of the location and
maintenance of stalls and stables, the qualities and defects of different sorts of feed, and
husbandry rules to be observed. The texts also stress the importance of moderation in
feeding domestic animals, and enumerate the disadvantages of overfeeding.

Ancient Sanskrit texts on veterinary medicine discuss every variety of edible

products and indicate their different properties, which were suitable for animals of a
given 'temperament', comportment and state of health, taking into account the climatic
conditions, time of the day, etc. For example, a feed which may be given safely to a
healthy animal may complicate a diseased state. The feeding of grass was ruled out, as it
weakened the vitality of horses. However, barley, beans and butter were particularly
recommended for mares during pregnancy. Sea salt should be added to feed in the case
of diseases caused by 'wind' disorders and venous diseases, or for a horse with sleeping
difficulties. However, sea salt was not recommended for very old or very young horses,
etc. (4,24).

In addition, as in Âyurveda, the veterinary tradition of India placed an emphasis on

procedures which would enhance the general state of health, notably the administration
of tonics and stimulants (rasâyana), and aphrodisiacs (vâjîkarana). T h e latter,
containing various constituents which have been the object of little study to d a t e ,
augmented the strength of enfeebled animals and those of poor virility. Sanskrit texts
448

provide various recipes for potions enabling a stallion to mate repeatedly. The rasâyana
('elixirs of long life') were prescribed to strengthen animals and were recommended for
preventing all sorts of illnesses. For example, a mixture based on aconite and three
peppers was recommended for extending the life span of horses. The following plants
were main constituents of such elixirs: Asparagus racemosus Willd., Emblica officinalis
Gaertn., Terminalia bellerica Roxb., Terminalia chebula Retz., Tinospora cordifolia
(Willd.) Miers and Zingiber officinale Rosc. Buffalo horn was also a valued ingredient.

VETERINARY THERAPEUTICS

Veterinary medicine is theoretically divisible into eight branches, corresponding to

the eight divisions set out in the Âyurveda. Thus, equestrian matters were divided into
general surgery, general therapeutics, ophthalmology and otorhinolaryngology, care of
foals (corresponding to Âyurvedic pediatrics), toxicology, fortifying t r e a t m e n t s ,
demonology, and the use of aphrodisiacs.
A p a r t from surgical interventions, therapeutics usually consisted of the
administration of medicinal p r e p a r a t i o n s by different routes and in various forms:
mixtures of p o w d e r s , decoctions, electuaries, o i n t m e n t s and snuff. T h e principle
remedies cited by the texts were based on plants, but some substances of animal or
mineral origin were also used. All these natural ingredients served to prepare thousands
of remedies, often of very complex formulation.

T h e complexity of p r e p a r a t i o n s is explained by the care t a k e n to combine

ingredients in o r d e r to c o u n t e r b a l a n c e , e n h a n c e or prolong the effects of some
ingredients through the effects of others. There are basic preparations to which various
other ingredients are added to adapt the treatment to a given species. For example, the
passage in the Carakasamhitâ (Siddhisthâna, XI, 20-26) concerning e n e m a s for
elephants, camels, cattle, horses and sheep provides a basic formula composed of the
following plants: Acorus calamus L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Piper longum L., Randa
spinosa Poir., Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke. A dozen other plants may be added to these
basic ingredients for elephant enemas. For cattle preparations, addition of decoctions of
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze, Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) L o u d . and Terminalia
chebula Retz. was recommended. Other plants were indicated for horse enemas, such as
Baliospermum montanum Muell.-Arg. or Croton tiglium L. (26).

For hippiatric purposes, various procedures were available for making horses sweat,
in addition to the use of cauterisation techniques, bleeding and several kinds of enemas
(18). Eight procedures for inducing sweating were used to treat diseases due to 'wind'
and 'phlegm'. Texts distinguish violent and mild sudorific agents for use in horses. The
mode of use and the best time for treatment were specified.
Cauterisation with a red-hot iron was reserved for conditions which could not be
cured by nutritional means, 'errhins' or enemas. The cauterisation site, and the type and
n u m b e r of cauterisations d e p e n d e d on the particular case. A m p l e information was
available on post-operative care and precautions for the days following intervention.
Reference was also made to the use of caustics.
T h e hippiatric treatises also describe the veins to be chosen for blood-letting in
particular cases. T h e r e was also information on contra-indications, on feeding to
'reconstitute' the blood, and on remedies to be administered following major bleedings.
 449

The texts emphasise the benefits of medicinal b u t t e r oils for feeding, e x t e r n a l

applications and enemas.

R E M E D I E S STILL IN U S E

Since India gained its independence in 1947, the Indian Government, recognising the
services rendered by traditional medicine, has given a new impetus to these practices.
The study and practice of traditional medicine has b e e n regulated, and training is
provided at present by a large n u m b e r of schools with associated hospitals and care
centres. This movement has also benefited traditional veterinary medicine, which has
undergone a revival (2). For example, India still provides leading elephant specialists.

Several Indian laboratories now produce preparations from ancestral recipes, which
are packed under modern conditions and sold throughout India for the treatment of
domestic animals. Traditional formulations produced on a large scale include tonics,
fortifiers and digestives, as well as antiparasitic and antifungal products.

Many of these medicaments are polyvalent, due to the multiplicity of ingredients

used in their preparation. For example, a stomachic and tonic containing 59 ingredients
is produced by a company in Bangalore. This preparation is recommended for treating
digestive disorders (anorexia, dyspepsia, constipation, etc.) in cattle, sheep, goats,
horses and dogs, in doses p r o p o r t i o n a l to the size of these animals. T h e principal
ingredients of vegetable origin include the following: Aegle marmelos Corr., Aquilaria
agallocha Roxb., Butea monosperma (Lam.) Kuntze, Centratherum anthelminticum
Kuntze, Curcuma longa L., Ferula narthex Boiss., Moringa oleifera Lam., Piper longum
L., Punica granatum L., Terminalia bellerica Roxb., Terminalia chebula Retz., Tinospora
cordifolia (Willd.) Miers, Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague and Zingiber officinale
Rosc. These ingredients were prescribed in Âyurvedic medicine for their aperitive,
digestive, stomachic, carminative or anthelmintic properties.

A n o t h e r example is provided by an ointment against sprains and sores, prepared

from the following plants: Abrus precatorius L., Acorus calamus L., Celastrus
paniculatus Willd., Hyoscyamus niger L., Moringa oleifera Lam., Nardostachys
jatamansi D.C., Ocimum sanctum L., Saussurea lappa C.B. Clarke and Vitex negundo L.
To these oils are a d d e d extracts of seven other plants: Anacyclus pyrethrum D.C.,
Colchicum luteum Baker, Curcuma amada Roxb., Gloriosa superba L., Litsea sebifera
Pers., Myrica nagi T h u n b . and Nerium odorum Sol. All these plants have b e e n
investigated and their active principles are known (1,6). Nardostachys jatamansi is often
combined with oil of henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) as an antineuritic. Ocimum sanctum
and Vitex negundo are used as wound dressing. In traditional medicine, the root of
Curcuma amada is applied to contusions and sprains. Extract of Colchicum luteum is
applied externally as an analgesic.

Many plants of the Âyurvedic pharmacopoeia have since been shown to be effective.
Listing and identification of the many plant species used in p r e p a r i n g r e m e d i e s
described in the ancient medical literature was accomplished during the 1970s.
Veterinary applications of these medicines were also taken into account. Despite the
increase in chemical and pharmacological studies in recent years (8,13,28), there is still
much to be done in evaluating the resources of India with regard to medicinal plants
which may be useful in veterinary medicine.
450

CONCLUSION

Long before the development of veterinary medicine in the West, the veterinary
tradition of India had already originated a large body of theoretical and practical
knowledge. Before the advent of modern medicine and the discovery of antibiotics, the
knowledge of veterinarians in the West was not much further advanced than that of
their Indian predecessors. This can be d e m o n s t r a t e d by comparing the information
contained in Sanskrit texts with b o o k s on horses published at the end of the 19th
century or the beginning of the 20th century (4, 5, 9). T h e r e are some striking
similarities, particularly concerning the feeding of horses, daily care, training and
certain operations (bleeding, setons, etc.). Studies have shown that the traditional usage
of Indian remedies was often justified (8,28).

Certain aspects of ancient veterinary medicine in India, neglected or unknown in the

West, merit deeper study. These include the ideas regarding the feeding of animals,
preventive methods and cauterisation techniques. Also of interest are the medicines
derived from plants which are still in use, as well as those medicines which are no longer
used but are fully described (together with indications, and mode of preparation and
administration) in ancient texts.

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