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Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Organic Geochemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/orggeochem

Geochemical characteristics and genetic types of the crude oils from the
Iranian sector of the Persian Gulf
Ahmad Reza Rabbani a,⇑, Maciej J. Kotarba b, Ali Reza Baniasad a, Ehsan Hosseiny a, Dariusz Wieclaw b
a
AmirKabir University of Technology, Faculty of Petroleum Engineering, Tehran, Iran
b
AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environmental Protection, Karkow, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Comprehensive geochemical study shows genetic relationships among 33 crude oils from Iranian sector
Received 14 November 2013 of the Persian Gulf and suggests the ages and paleoenvironments of their source rocks. The samples were
Received in revised form 5 February 2014 collected from Jurassic to Tertiary reservoirs of 17 developed oil fields where about 15 billion barrels of
Accepted 6 February 2014
recoverable oil have been reserved. The oil density varies in rather wide range, between 12.2° and 39.2°
Available online 20 February 2014
API. Asphaltene contents ranged from 0.8–18.5%, and the maltene fractions are dominated by saturated
HCs (29.3–70.9%) with subordinate proportions of aromatic HCs (22.30–38.30%) and polar compounds
(7–15.70%). Pristane to phytane (Pr/Ph) ratios are variable (0.67–1.41). Sulfur content in crude oil samples
are highly variable (0.65–3.7%). According to the Tissot and Welte’s classification, most of the oils can be
classified as ‘‘high sulfur’’ oils. Statistical and geochemical results indicate that the studied oils belong to
four main genetic groups:
Group I oils (Jurassic to Early Cretaceous reservoirs of the Dorood, Kharg, Aboozar and Foroozan oil
fields in the NW part of the Persian Gulf) originated from Jurassic or older carbonate rich source rocks
deposited in an anoxic environment.
Group II oils (Jurassic to Early Cretaceous reservoirs of the Salman, Resalat, Reshadat and Balal oilfields
in the eastern part of the Persian Gulf) were sourced from Jurassic or older, carbonate source rocks depos-
ited in a relatively oxic environment;
Group III oils (Late Cretaceous to Tertiary reservoirs of the Aboozar, Bahregansar, Souroush, Nowrouz,
Dorood and Kharg oilfields in the north/north-west part of the Persian Gulf) were probably sourced from
Middle Cretaceous calcareous shales.
Group IV oils (Late Cretaceous reservoir of the Sirri A, Sirri C, Sirri D, Sirri E, Resalat and Reshadat oil-
fields in the eastern part of the Persian Gulf) probably originated from mid to Late Cretaceous source rock.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In terms of hydrocarbon resources, the Persian Gulf Basin is the
richest region of the World, holding 57% (715 billion barrels) of the
world‘s crude oil reserves and sizeable reserves (2462 tcf) of natu-
ral gas, accounting for 45% of total proven world gas reserves (Rab-
bani, 2007). More than 51% of recoverable liquid hydrocarbons are
located in Cretaceous reservoir rocks whereas up to 50% of the gas-
eous hydrocarbons were discovered in Permo-Triassic. More than
80% of oil reserves are contained in carbonate rocks and just 20%
are confined to sandstones. For gas reserves, up to 90% of its vol-
ume is concentrated in limestone and dolomites; sandstone is
the reservoir rock for the other 10% (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997).
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 21 64543545; fax: +98 21 64543535.
E-mail address: rabbani@aut.ac.ir (A.R. Rabbani).
There are many parameters which make the Persian Gulf and its
coastal areas one of the world’s largest single source of crude oil
and hydrocarbon accumulations. The presence of repetitive, exten-
sive and rich source rock beds, excellent reservoirs accompany
with impermeable regional seals and huge anticlinal traps lead to
make the richest region in the world. The regional geology and
some of the most important factors contributing to the petroleum
systems of the Persian Gulf and surrounding areas have been dis-
cussed in numerous publications (e.g. Murris, 1980; Alsharhan
and Nairn, 1997; Sharland et al., 2001; Pollastro, 2003; Rabbani,
2008; Bordenave and Hegre, 2010). However, the probable active
petroleum systems in the region, their impacts on charging the res-
ervoirs and relevant extents have not been determined yet. This is
due in part to the contribution of different source rocks in charging
the reservoirs caused by long distance migration from hydrocarbon
generation kitchens towards large-scale low relief regional highs
(especially in the NW) and salt related structures (especially in

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2014.02.010
0146-6380/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Author's personal copy
30 A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43
the SE) and vertical migration, remigration caused by the severe
tectonics in the region as well as lack of data. Genetic relationship
investigation could be used in order to classify crude oil samples
into generic families (oil–oil correlation) to define their numbers
and respective extents, both regionally and stratigraphically, infer-
ring depositional environment, lithology, organic matter input, age
and maturity of the probable source rocks that the samples are
originated from as well as the area where these source rocks have
been effective.
The objectives of this geochemical study were to use high-res-
olution geochemical analysis and statistical methods (HCA and
PCA), to evaluate genetic relationships among 33 crude oil sam-
ples collected from Jurassic to Tertiary reservoirs of 17 oilfields
in the Iranian sector of the Persian Gulf, their probable source
rock age, lithology, paleoenvironment and their relative thermal
maturity.
2. Geology of the Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf Basin is located at the junction of Arabian and
Eurasian lithospheric plates. Several structural elements originated
at the end of Paleozoic in the basin, including Gotnia Trough in the
north (Iraq and Syria), Arabian Trough in the central part of the ba-
sin (Saudi Arabia, northern branch of the Persian Gulf and Bahrain),
and Rub-Al-Khali in the United Arabian Emirates (U.A.E.) (Fig. 1).
The importance of these restricted intra-shelf basins are due to
their impacts on the petroleum systems of the region. Most of
the petroleum in Saudi Arabia and Iraq is sourced from cyclically
bedded Jurassic shales and carbonates accumulated in these basins
formed on the passive margin platform of the Tethys sea (Ayres
et al., 1982). At the early Late Cretaceous (Turonian) the series of
events resulting in the closure of Tethys ocean at the Mesozoic/
Cenozoic boundary have occurred (Ziegler, 2001). This series of
events led to the formation of Mesopotamian Foredeep which con-
sist of the Zagros Basin (Lurestan, Dezful, and Khuzestan provinces
in Iran and adjacent areas in Iraq), the Fars Block (Fars Platform) in
the southwest of Iran, the northern slope of the Qatar Arch and the
most part of the Persian Gulf area, including the Rub-Al-Khali
Basin. At the end of the Early Miocene (later stage of collision),
the Zagros block was thrust over the eastern edge of the Arabian
plate (Konyuhov and Maleki, 2006).
There are more than 36 formations (Cambrian–Quaternary) in
the Persian Gulf stratigraphic column. This study focused on Meso-
zoic–Cenozoic petroleum systems and corresponding formations
(Fig. 2).
Jurassic and Cretaceous horizons are of immense importance
because of the remarkable richness of hydrocarbons in the Persian
Gulf carbonate platform. On the northern margin of the Arabian
plate, an immense passive margin developed during the Jurassic
through Late Cretaceous which led to the deposition of ideal se-
quence of petroleum system elements. The thick Callovian–Kim-
meridgian Surmeh/Arab formation is considered as the most
important carbonate reservoir rock in the Jurassic (Bordenave,
2002). The Hanifa-Tuwaiq and Diyab formations extended on both
side of the Qatar Arch in Arabian and Rub-Al-Khali basins, respec-
tively, and are the main feeders of the Late Jurassic to Early Creta-
ceous petroleum system (Pollastro, 2003). It seems that the Diyab
as well as the Hanifa-Tuwaiq Formation, mostly located outside of
Iran, have contributed to charging some of the Iranian oil fields in
the east and west of the Qatar Arch, respectively.
Approximately 16% of the world‘s hydrocarbon reserves accu-
mulated in the Cretaceous carbonate (Scott et al., 1988) which
consists of Fahliyan (Yamama), Gadvan and Dariyan (Shuaiba) for-
mations. These reservoirs are mostly sealed by regionally continu-
ous marine shales or anhydrites. The lower part of Kazhdumi
Formation and its equivalent Nahr-Umr shale acts as a major regio-
nal seal for the Lower Cretaceous reservoirs.
Throughout the Persian Gulf region, Upper Cretaceous Ilam-Sar-
vak (Mishrif) formations and Oligo-Miocene Asmari/Ghar Forma-
tion are the most important and proliferous reservoirs. These
reservoirs are probably charged by the two main source rocks of
the Albian Kazhdumi Formation and Paleocene Pabdeh Formation.
Moreover, there is a locally extended source rock, Ahmadi Member
of the Sarvak Formation (Cenomanian), which is considered as the
third source rock for the Middle Cretaceous to Early Miocene
petroleum system. Most of the hydrocarbons generated by these
source rocks have migrated vertically through fractured layers to-
ward the reservoirs capped by the thick evaporites of Early Mio-
cene Gachsaran Formation (Bordenave and Hegre, 2005).
3. Material and methods
The following methods were conducted on the 33 oil samples
collected through the Iranian part of the Persian Gulf.
The oils were analyzed for API gravity with an Anton Paar
DMA5300M density meter and for sulfur content with a Leco SR-
12 analyzer. Before the deasphalting, oils were topped under nitro-
gen (for 5 h) at 60 °C. The asphaltene fraction was precipitated
with n-hexane. The remaining maltenes were then separated into
compositional fractions of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic
hydrocarbons and resins by column chromatography, using alu-
mina:silica gel (2:1 v:v) columns (0.8  25 cm). The fractions were
eluted with n-hexane, toluene and toluene:methanol (1:1 v:v),
respectively. Oils and their individual fractions for the measure-
ment of stable carbon isotope composition were combusted in an
on-line system. The stable carbon isotope analyses were performed
using the Finnigan Delta Plus mass spectrometer. The stable carbon
isotope data are presented in the d notation relative to V-PDB stan-
dard (Coplen, 1995), with the analytical precision estimated to be
±0.2‰.
High resolution gas chromatography was used in order to ana-
lyze the whole oil. For this purpose 1 ll of sample diluted in CS2
was introduced into a splitless injector of a Hewlett Packard
5890 series II GC held at a temperature of 300 °C. From there the
sample passes through a 50 m  0.2 mm Agilent DB1 column
(0.5 lm film thickness) using a constant flow 0.3 ml/min of nitro-
gen as the carrier gas. The column oven was programmed to hold
at 30 °C for 5 min and then to increase to 320 °C at 3 °C/min, at
which point it was held for 20 min. Components eluting the col-
umn were detected by a flame ionization detector (FID) held at
325 °C.
The isolated saturated hydrocarbon fractions from the oils were
diluted in isooctane and analyzed by GC–MS for determining bio-
markers. The 5b-cholane was used as internal standard. The anal-
ysis was carried out with the Agilent 7890A gas chromatograph
equipped with the Agilent 7683B automatic sampler, an on-col-
umn injection chamber and a fused silica capillary column
(60 m  0.25 mm i.d.) coated with 95% methyl/5% phenylsilicone
phase (DB-5MS, 0.25 lm film thickness). Helium was used as the
carrier gas. The GC oven was programmed: 80 °C held for 1 min,
then increased to 120 °C at the rate of 20 °C/min, then increased
further to 300 °C at the rate of 3 °C/min and finally held for
35 min. The gas chromatograph was coupled with a 5975C mass
selective detector (MSD). The MS was operated with an ion source
temperature of 230 °C, the ionization energy of 70 eV, and a cycle
time of 1 s in the mass range from 45–500 Da. In the selected ion
mode (SIM) the dwell time was set to 30 ms for each ion.
The aromatic hydrocarbon fractions of the oils were diluted in
toluene spiked with terphenyl standard and analyzed by the
GC–MS using the same equipment as for the saturate hydrocarbon
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A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43
Fig. 1. Tectonic scheme and hydrocarbon generation kitchens of the Persian Gulf region. Compiled after Ziegler (2001) and Konyuhov and Maleki (2006).
fraction. The GC oven was programmed from 40–300 °C at the rate
of 3 °C/min. The MS was operated with a cycle time of 1 s in the
mass range from 40–600 Da.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Oil bulk properties
The bulk composition is shown in Table 1. The studied samples
have API gravity ranging from 12.2–39.2° and therefore can be
classified in the range of heavy to light oils. Asphaltene contents
ranged from 0.8–18.5%, and the maltene fractions are dominated
by saturated HCs (29.3–70.9%) with subordinate proportions of
aromatic HCs (22.30–38.30%) and polar compounds (7–15.70%).
Accordingly, the samples can be categorized as paraffinic to paraf-
finic-naphthenic oils (Tissot and Welte, 1984).
Table 1 shows that sulfur content in crude oil samples varies
from 0.77% in the Resalat (Dariyan/Shuaiba reservoir) to 3.7% in
31
the Kharg (Asmari reservoir) oil field, indicating that most of the
oils have a medium to high content of sulfur (Fig. 3). Based on
the sulfur contents, most of the oils can be classified as ‘‘high sul-
fur’’ oils (Tissot and Welte, 1984).
According to Table 1, the pristane/phytane (Pr/Ph; 0.52–1.41)
are <1 for most of the samples. High sulfur content as well as
low Pr/Ph are definitive indicators that most of the samples
probably originated from marine carbonate source rocks bearing
a type II-S kerogen (Tissot and Welte, 1984; Moldowan et al.,
1985; Connan et al., 1986; Lewan et al., 2006).
4.2. Statistical study
Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was applied to establish dif-
ferent oil groups in the Persian Gulf oil province for all 33 samples.
It was performed based on 14 source related biomarker and isoto-
pic parameters not significantly affected by biodegradation, ther-
mal maturation and migration. The selected biomarkers as well
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32 A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43
Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphic cross section of the Persian Gulf through Jurassic to Quaternary from west to east in Iranian sector which shows extensive and rich source rocks,
excellent reservoirs accompanied with great impermeable seals.
as compound identifications for components in the biomarker ra-
tios are given in Appendix A. The hierarchical cluster analysis
was complemented by autoscale preprocessing, Euclidean metric
distance and incremental linkage (Ward, 1963) computed with
Matlab Software (MathWorks, Inc.). Apparently, oils from the same
group show genetic affinities to each other and it can be concluded
that they originated from the same source rocks or different source
rocks with similar organic matter type.
The result of the statistical analysis is represented in Fig. 4,
which shows clear separation of 4 main oil groups (I–IV). Accord-
ingly, group I (Foroozan, Aboozar, Kharg and Dorood) and group
II (Balal, Resalat, Reshadat and Salman) oil fields in west and
south-east of the Persian Gulf, respectively, are located in the
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous reservoirs, including Shuaiba (Dari-
yan), Yamama (Fahliyan), Manifa (Fahliyan), Arab (Surmeh), Bur-
ghan (Kazhdumi) and Khatiyah (Sarvak). However, the Ghar
reservoir sample of Aboozar oilfield in group I has a Tertiary age.
Groups III and IV in the west and south-east of the Persian Gulf
consist of Late Cretaceous to Tertiary Burghan (Kazhdumi), Asmari,
Mishrif (Sarvak) and Ilam reservoirs of the Aboozar, Kharg,
Bahregansar, Dorood, Nowrouz, Souroush, Hendijan (west of the
Persian Gulf) and Resalat, Reshadat, Sirri (A, B, C, D) and Nousrat
(south-east of the Persian Gulf) (Fig. 5). The results of HCA analysis
are further supported by principal component analysis (PCA), star
diagrams and Galimov curves.
Eigenvector analysis known as PCA (principal component anal-
ysis) is used to reduce complex data with n variables into a new,
smaller number of variables. PCA was based on 14 source related
biomarker and isotope ratios for all 33 samples (Appendix A).
The data were autoscaled as in HCA analysis, then a minimum of
three principal components calculated (Table 2) and plotted to
identify different oil groups. The results indicated four different
oil groups consistent with the HCA results (Fig. 6). Group I and IV
samples represent the best correlation among the studied samples,
which is evident in the star diagrams and Galimov curves (Fig. 7).
4.3. Depositional environment
Geochemical evidence indicates that most of the studied sam-
ples in the Persian Gulf were generated from marine carbonate
source rocks bearing type II and II-S kerogen deposited under dys-
oxic to anoxic, normal salinity conditions. The principal facts sup-
porting the conclusions of the depositional environment, source
facies and organic matter type are summarized below.
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A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43 33

Table 1
Bulk oil composition, API gravity, sulfur content, GC and carbon isotope data for saturated hydrocarbon fraction of crude oils from the Persian Gulf.

Oilfield Reservoir Depth Pr/n- Ph/ Pr/ API S SAT ARO NSO ASP d13C d13C d13C d13C d13C CV
(m) C17 n- Ph (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) SAT (‰) ARO RES (‰) ASP (‰) OIL (‰)
C18 (‰)
Foroozan Shuaiba 2150 0.17 0.29 0.69 25.3 2.10 46.9 33.7 12.2 7.2 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.7 27.2 3.47
Foroozan Yamamma 2756 0.18 0.29 0.77 37.3 1.87 53.0 32.5 11.4 3.1 27.2 27.2 27.2 27.6 27.2 3.22
Kharg Manifa 3565 0.18 0.31 0.70 13.2 2.17 39.2 31.6 11.6 17.6 27.3 27.0 26.9 27.5 27.2 2.52
Foroozan Manifa 2711 0.16 0.25 0.74 31.5 1.52 56.0 31.3 9.8 2.9 27.3 27.1 27.2 27.7 27.2 2.74
Dorood Manifa 3565 0.18 0.31 0.67 21.9 2.67 41.9 35.1 11.8 11.2 27.4 27.2 27.0 27.6 27.3 2.71
Dorood Yamamma 3543 0.16 0.29 0.64 25.0 3.30 41.6 38.6 12.2 7.6 27.4 27.2 26.9 27.5 27.2 2.71
Kharg Yamamma 3565 0.20 0.32 0.75 29.9 2.30 55.2 31.0 11.4 2.4 27.3 26.9 26.8 27.2 27.0 2.3
Aboozar Ghar 820 0.36 0.47 0.94 22.2 2.81 40.9 33.5 14.3 11.3 27.7 27.4 27.2 27.7 27.4 2.4
Foroozan Arab 2810 0.16 0.23 0.79 35.6 1.53 62.1 27.3 8.1 2.5 27.0 26.7 27.1 27.6 27.0 2.61
Foroozan Burghan 2096 0.17 0.31 0.67 15.3 2.05 49.6 31.5 9.1 9.8 27.4 27.2 27.1 27.6 27.2 2.71
Balal U. Arab 1685 0.27 0.32 1.01 39.2 1.06 70.9 21.3 7.0 0.8 27.3 26.6 27.1 27.3 27.0 1.63
Balal Khatiah 1057 0.30 0.39 0.92 26.3 1.53 40.1 38.3 13.5 8.1 27.1 26.8 26.9 27.3 27.1 2.58
Resalat L. Arab 2264 0.24 0.32 0.88 32.9 0.95 55.0 32.0 11.0 2.0 27.2 26.5 26.5 26.9 26.7 1.66
Reshadat Shuaiba 1520 0.25 0.32 0.90 34.8 0.96 61.3 27.2 9.4 2.1 27.1 26.6 26.6 27.0 26.9 2.14
Salman U. Arab 2324 0.27 0.34 0.93 30.5 1.37 62.3 27.5 8.6 1.6 27.2 26.3 26.3 26.8 26.9 1.22
Salman Buwaib 1868 0.27 0.34 0.93 34.4 1.05 63.4 26.9 8.3 1.4 27.2 26.4 26.4 27.0 26.9 1.44
Salman L. Arab 2365 0.24 0.35 0.82 27.6 2.29 54.5 31.5 9.4 4.6 27.1 26.7 26.2 26.5 26.8 2.36
Resalat Shuaiba 1671 0.17 0.25 0.78 33.7 0.77 58.6 30.1 9.1 2.2 26.3 26.0 26.3 26.5 26.3 2.83
Aboozar Burghan 2584 0.88 0.72 1.41 15.9 1.54 43.3 25.6 12.6 18.5 28.5 27.1 26.9 27.3 27.5 0.29
Dorood Asmari 1821 0.47 0.59 0.98 20.0 3.32 35.3 32.1 15.7 16.9 27.3 27.0 26.9 27.6 27.2 2.52
Kharg Asmari 1837 0.33 0.43 0.92 22.4 3.77 38.0 33.0 15.0 16.0 27.3 27.1 26.8 27.6 27.1 2.74
Bahregansar Ghar 2063 0.36 0.52 0.80 33.5 2.41 64.5 22.3 8.4 4.8 27.34 27.08 26.68 26.87 27.27 2.6
Nowrouz Nahreomr 2193 0.18 0.95 0.52 16.4 2.23 29.3 32.7 19.7 18.3 27.87 27.54 27.37 27.72 27.61 2.28
Souroush Burghan 2059 0.69 0.86 0.79 12.2 1.89 43.6 32.0 7.6 16.8 28.11 27.6 27.42 27.78 27.79 1.8
Bahregansar Sarvak 2747 0.81 0.82 1.01 21.8 2.38 53.1 23.6 9.8 13.5 28.21 27.06 26.73 26.74 27.63 0.35
Hendijan Sarvak 3121 0.76 0.76 1.11 21.7 3.16 48.9 25.7 16.5 8.9 28.33 27.08 26.54 26.76 27.55 0.09
Resalat Mishrif 1948 0.29 0.58 0.57 28.7 1.99 46.9 34.7 13.1 5.3 27.0 26.4 26.1 26.5 26.6 1.95
Reshadat Mishrif 1255 0.41 0.59 0.78 26.7 1.52 47.0 33.6 15.3 4.1 27.3 26.2 25.9 26.2 26.6 0.74
Sirri D Mishrif 3045 0.39 0.60 0.74 27.8 2.17 48.5 34.8 12.0 4.7 27.1 26.2 25.9 26.4 26.6 1.25
Nousrat Mishrif 2587 0.38 0.59 0.74 26.1 2.05 60.6 27.0 8.9 3.5 27.1 26.5 26.2 26.4 26.7 1.92
Sirri E Mishrif 2767 0.40 0.58 0.80 27.7 1.58 54.1 31.5 11.4 3.0 27.2 26.2 25.7 26.1 26.5 1.0
Sirri A Mishrif 2444 0.39 0.55 0.82 31.4 1.26 54.9 30.2 12.1 2.8 27.1 26.0 25.6 26.1 26.6 0.81
Sirri C Mishrif 2389 0.40 0.61 0.76 27.2 2.24 45.8 34.5 15.2 4.5 27.1 25.9 25.6 26.3 26.5 0.59

Fig. 3. Histogram of sulfur distribution in the studied crude oils.

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34 A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43

Fig. 4. Hierarchical cluster analysis of the Persian Gulf oil samples. Four general oil groups can be differentiated statistically based on 14 source related biomarkers and
isotopic parameters.

Fig. 5. Different oil groups and their probable extent in the Iranian part of the Persian Gulf.

The distribution of n-alkanes and isoprenoids in the all crude
oils are similar, mono-modal, with a distinct maximum in the short
chain hydrocarbon range (Fig. 8), characteristic of hydrocarbons
generated from marine algae deposited under anoxic conditions.
The values of Pr/n-C17 versus Ph/n-C18 in Fig. 9 (Connan and
Cassou, 1980) indicate that most of the samples are sourced from
kerogen type II deposited in reducing conditions.
Relative amounts of steranes (C27, C28, C29) in oils are controlled
by the types of photosynthetic organisms that contributed to the
organic matter and used in determination of petroleum origin,
depositional environment and relationship between oil and source
rock (Peters and Moldowan, 1993). The C27 sterols predominate in
marine organic matter and C28 steranes originate from marine
phytoplankton and lake algal, whereas C29 sterols predominate in
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A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43 35

Table 2
Saturate and aromatic biomarker ratios of crude oils from the Persian Gulf.

Oilfield Reservoir aaa 20 R C28/ C27 Dia/ C29 bb/ C29 aaa 20S/ abb 20(R + S) Steranes/ C19t/ C22t/ C24t/ C26t/
C29 (Dia + Reg) (aa + bb) (S + R) Terpanes C23t C21t C23t C25t
% C27 % C28 % C29 % C27 % C28 % C29
Foroozan Shuaiba 39.01 22.15 38.84 0.57 0.22 0.57 0.53 31.56 22.98 45.46 0.15 0.22 1.02 0.26 0.43
Foroozan Yamamma 41.84 21.32 36.83 0.58 0.01 0.58 0.54 32.16 23.13 44.71 0.17 0.25 0.94 0.29 0.48
Kharg Manifa 40.01 22.59 37.40 0.60 0.21 0.57 0.55 31.16 23.13 45.71 0.19 0.21 0.77 0.29 0.43
Foroozan Manifa 36.19 22.35 41.46 0.54 0.28 0.56 0.54 31.10 21.08 47.82 0.14 0.25 0.92 0.28 0.43
Dorood Manifa 38.10 21.26 40.64 0.52 0.20 0.55 0.54 30.58 22.90 46.52 0.16 0.21 0.92 0.30 0.39
Dorood Yamamma 42.60 22.63 34.77 0.65 0.10 0.56 0.57 31.71 24.33 43.96 0.16 0.17 1.09 0.25 0.38
Kharg Yamamma 41.39 20.23 38.38 0.53 0.25 0.57 0.53 29.39 25.24 45.37 0.22 0.23 0.83 0.32 0.40
Aboozar Ghar 33.17 25.18 41.65 0.60 0.30 0.55 0.49 30.63 25.51 43.86 0.24 0.18 0.69 0.41 0.41
Foroozan Arab 42.75 16.33 40.92 0.40 0.30 0.58 0.50 29.39 20.55 50.06 0.13 0.24 1.04 0.30 0.46
Foroozan Burghan 40.70 18.42 40.88 0.45 0.27 0.52 0.55 31.51 22.24 46.25 0.16 0.16 1.10 0.39 0.16
Balal U. Arab 43.20 22.00 34.81 0.63 0.75 0.58 0.53 41.56 17.21 41.23 0.30 0.83 0.42 0.53 0.50
Balal Khatiah 34.51 20.45 45.04 0.45 0.44 0.55 0.53 33.21 18.44 48.35 0.16 0.30 0.75 0.37 0.48
Resalat L. Arab 36.21 21.08 42.71 0.49 0.57 0.57 0.53 35.65 18.93 45.42 0.20 0.39 0.72 0.38 0.40
Reshadat Shuaiba 35.36 19.59 45.05 0.43 0.64 0.56 0.54 35.11 18.43 46.46 0.19 0.58 0.65 0.46 0.37
Salman U. Arab 34.24 23.34 42.41 0.55 0.67 0.57 0.54 36.51 18.43 45.07 0.25 0.55 0.62 0.46 0.45
Salman Buwaib 31.13 21.75 47.12 0.46 0.69 0.56 0.51 36.62 17.76 45.62 0.24 0.56 0.57 0.47 0.48
Salman L. Arab 30.43 16.41 53.16 0.31 0.61 0.53 0.56 34.29 18.86 46.85 0.17 0.35 0.79 0.66 0.59
Resalat Shuaiba 34.38 22.85 42.76 0.53 0.29 0.46 0.40 29.55 20.79 49.66 0.14 0.38 0.95 0.29 0.65
Aboozar Burghan 34.33 28.70 36.97 0.78 0.54 0.55 0.53 33.66 26.95 39.39 0.30 0.13 0.35 0.56 0.48
Dorood Asmari 31.00 29.78 40.30 0.74 0.35 0.53 0.52 28.90 27.31 44.00 0.35 0.14 0.56 0.46 0.42
Kharg Asmari 33.24 29.06 37.70 0.77 0.34 0.54 0.52 28.94 26.11 44.94 0.34 0.19 0.74 0.39 0.40
Bahregansar Ghar 28.83 24.75 46.42 0.53 0.41 0.54 0.50 28.16 27.22 44.62 0.33 0.24 0.57 0.46 0.67
Nowrouz Nahreomr 40.00 20.00 41.00 0.49 0.21 0.49 0.40 31.57 22.66 45.78 0.14 0.17 1.10 0.26 0.77
Souroush Burghan 30.46 20.98 48.56 0.43 0.36 0.51 0.43 31.95 25.54 42.51 0.22 0.13 0.73 0.36 0.80
Bahregansar Sarvak 34.47 30.73 34.8 0.88 0.57 0.57 0.51 36.27 30.50 33.23 0.36 0.09 0.41 0.65 0.81
Hendijan Sarvak 35.00 27.00 38.00 0.71 0.60 0.57 0.47 36.18 29.63 34.19 0.41 0.10 0.39 0.74 0.74
Resalat Mishrif 39.55 26.21 34.25 0.77 0.28 0.54 0.53 35.68 27.94 36.37 0.23 0.04 0.97 0.29 0.39
Reshadat Mishrif 35.08 29.91 35.01 0.85 0.35 0.55 0.51 34.70 28.85 36.45 0.25 0.10 0.58 0.43 0.43
Sirri D Mishrif 34.56 31.52 33.92 0.93 0.33 0.56 0.54 34.51 30.38 35.11 0.24 0.07 0.58 0.40 0.43
Nousrat Mishrif 34.54 30.11 35.34 0.85 0.38 0.52 0.57 35.45 29.67 34.88 0.24 0.09 0.57 0.44 0.42
Sirri E Mishrif 36.15 31.90 31.96 1.00 0.36 0.56 0.55 34.53 30.44 35.03 0.22 0.10 0.49 0.43 0.44
Sirri A Mishrif 33.78 31.62 34.60 0.91 0.38 0.56 0.52 34.87 30.38 34.75 0.26 0.13 0.47 0.47 0.40
Sirri C Mishrif 34.39 31.51 34.10 0.92 0.33 0.55 0.51 35.02 30.32 34.66 0.25 0.09 0.56 0.41 0.39

Oilfield Reservoir C24Tet/ C28BNH/ C29H/ C30DiaH/ Oleanane/ Gam/ C35HS/ Moretane/ DBT/ MPR MPI- Calc. Principal Component
C23t C30H C30H C30H C30H C31HR C34HS C30H P 1 Rr
1st 2nd 3rd
(%)
Foroozan Shuaiba 1.44 0.02 1.34 0.01 0 0 1.17 0.07 2.39 1.0 0.71 0.82 2.72 1.32 0.08
Foroozan Yamamma 1.37 0.02 1.36 0.03 0 0 1.15 0.07 2.28 1.2 0.78 0.87 2.18 0.88 0.10
Kharg Manifa 1.42 0.02 1.40 0.01 0.01 0.13 1.12 0.08 2.59 1.0 0.66 0.79 1.63 1.00 0.13
Foroozan Manifa 1.30 0.02 1.42 0.01 0 0 1.02 0.08 2.40 1.0 0.67 0.80 2.81 0.68 0.07
Dorood Manifa 1.49 0.02 1.46 0.01 0 0 0.90 0.07 2.71 1.0 0.70 0.82 2.68 0.90 0.43
Dorood Yamamma 1.51 0.01 1.53 0.01 0 0.04 1.01 0.08 2.92 1.0 0.65 0.79 2.68 1.55 0.28
Kharg Yamamma 1.52 0.02 1.48 0.01 0 0 0.91 0.07 2.72 1.0 0.68 0.81 2.05 0.80 0.07
Aboozar Ghar 1.49 0.02 1.14 0.01 0 0 0.83 0.08 1.31 0.9 0.63 0.78 0.61 0.64 0.98
Foroozan Arab 1.31 0.03 1.52 0.01 0 0 0.80 0.07 2.70 1.0 0.65 0.79 3.54 0.15 0.49
Foroozan Burghan 1.29 0.02 1.36 0.01 0 0 0.67 0.07 1.32 1.1 0.65 0.79 2.66 0.37 0.29
Balal U. Arab 2.22 0.07 1.00 0.23 0.01 0.25 0.65 0.11 2.66 0.8 0.75 0.85 2.07 7.41 0.64
Balal Khatiah 1.65 0.02 1.03 0.02 0 0.10 1.04 0.09 2.38 0.7 0.55 0.73 1.53 0.67 0.25
Resalat L. Arab 1.75 0.02 1.03 0.05 0 0 0.93 0.08 2.53 0.8 0.55 0.73 1.11 1.71 0.06
Reshadat Shuaiba 2.08 0.03 0.90 0.06 0.01 0 0.85 0.08 2.75 0.8 0.65 0.79 1.12 3.08 0.04
Salman U. Arab 2.03 0.03 1.03 0.05 0.01 0 0.97 0.09 2.59 0.7 0.57 0.74 0.54 2.86 0.04
Salman Buwaib 2.06 0.03 1.06 0.06 0 0.12 0.81 0.09 2.62 0.7 0.53 0.72 0.27 3.25 0.51
Salman L. Arab 1.74 0.02 0.97 0.04 0 0 0.62 0.08 2.45 0.7 0.56 0.74 0.68 2.17 1.04
Resalat Shuaiba 1.89 0.04 1.21 0.04 0 0 0.97 0.10 2.55 0.8 0.63 0.78 3.06 1.25 1.40
Aboozar Burghan 1.09 0.04 0.96 0.09 0 0 0.69 0.11 0.17 0.8 0.69 0.81 2.64 0.90 1.17
Dorood Asmari 1.08 0.04 1.00 0.03 0.01 0.24 0.83 0.09 1.53 0.9 0.68 0.81 1.45 0.39 0.11
Kharg Asmari 1.26 0.03 1.21 0.02 0.01 0.24 0.83 0.08 2.11 0.9 0.73 0.84 0.23 0.71 0.55
Bahregansar Ghar 1.25 0 1.00 0.03 0 0.13 1.20 0.07 0.48 0.9 0.40 0.64 0.91 1.53 1.90
Nowrouz Nahreomr 1.66 0 1.18 0.01 0 0.15 1.22 0.06 0.10 1.0 0.12 0.47 1.70 2.18 2.83
Souroush Burghan 1.29 0 1.07 0.03 0 0.16 1.15 0.07 0.05 0.8 0.17 0.50 0.54 2.08 3.15
Bahregansar Sarvak 0.53 0 0.68 0.05 0 0.23 0.97 0.06 0.42 1.0 0.39 0.64 5.36 1.27 2.52
Hendijan Sarvak 0.49 0 0.59 0.06 0.02 0.19 0.97 0.06 0.12 0.8 0.20 0.52 5.81 0.81 2.72
Resalat Mishrif 0.34 0.04 0.98 0.01 0.01 0.14 1.03 0.08 1.56 0.9 0.71 0.82 0.96 1.39 2.55
Reshadat Mishrif 0.58 0.03 0.93 0.02 0 0.14 0.86 0.08 1.40 0.9 0.70 0.82 2.14 0.57 1.68
Sirri D Mishrif 0.56 0.04 0.86 0.02 0 0.09 0.97 0.08 1.57 0.9 0.69 0.81 2.15 0.78 2.48
Nousrat Mishrif 0.55 0.04 0.94 0.02 0 0.08 0.86 0.08 0.44 0.8 0.75 0.85 2.02 0.57 1.98
Sirri E Mishrif 0.60 0.03 0.89 0.01 0.01 0.06 1.10 0.08 1.40 0.8 0.73 0.84 2.10 1.07 2.19
Sirri A Mishrif 0.66 0.05 0.78 0.02 0 0.12 1.22 0.08 1.19 0.8 0.66 0.80 2.81 0.47 2.89
Sirri C Mishrif 0.57 0.04 0.84 0.02 0 0.11 1.38 0.08 1.45 0.8 0.71 0.82 2.38 1.21 3.15
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36 A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43
Fig. 6. PCA plot for 33 oil samples from the Persian Gulf which shows four different oil groups. Dispersion of group III and some samples in group II are evident.
terrigenous organic matter. Accordingly, C27–C29 steranes amounts
(Table 2) demonstrate that all the source rocks were probably
deposited in open marine environment (Grantham and Wakefield,
1988). The group II oils are enriched in C29 steranes compared to
most other samples in the study, suggesting that their source rock
received greater higher plant input and have more clay compared
to other samples. This is supported by higher values of diasterane/
sterane ratios and high C23 tricyclic terpane.
Carbon isotope ratios depend on the depositional environment,
type of kerogen, migration pathways as well as oil types and the
age of the source rocks. They can be used to establish a genetic
relationship between numbers of oil types (Galimov, 1973; Rab-
bani and Galimov, 2000; Galimov and Rabbani, 2001; Rabbani,
2001; Rabbani and Kamali, 2005).
The Persian Gulf oil fractions isotopic composition data for each
group are summarized in Table 1. Saturated and aromatic
hydrocarbon d13C values range from 28.50‰ to 27.10‰ and
27.60‰ to 25.90‰, respectively, suggesting that all the oils
were derived from algal dominated marine organic matter (Sofer,
1984) (Fig. 10).
Canonical variable (CV) is defined by difference between marine
and terrigenous equation used to determine the depositional envi-
ronment. CV > 0.47 is the indicator of organic matter with terrige-
nous source, while < 0.47 is the indicator of marine organic matter
(Sofer, 1984). The CV for the studied oil samples range from 3.47
to 0.29 (Table 1) which represent marine environment. Therefore,
most of the samples were generated from carbonate marine source
rock, although the oil samples of Aboozar (Burghan reservoir) as
well as Hendijan and Bahregansar (Sarvak reservoir) from Group
III show a higher CV than the other oil samples, suggesting that
their source rocks may have received more terrigenous organic
matter.
The dibenzothiophene/phenanthrene (DBT/P) ratio is an excel-
lent indicator of source rock lithology with carbonates having ra-
tios > 1 and shales having ratios < 1 (Hughes et al., 1995). The
DBT/P ratio in the studied oils is in the range from 0.12–2.99,
which indicate that most of the oil samples have been derived from
carbonate lithofacies. A plot of DBT/P versus Pr/Ph indicates, the
group III, contribution of shaly source rocks to some extent, the
other groups indicate carbonate source rocks (Fig. 11).
The C19 and C20 tricyclic diterpanes were reported to be derived
mostly from higher plants (Reed, 1977; Simoneit, 1977; Alberdi
et al., 2001) and extended tricyclic terpanes (C21+) appear to have
bacterial and algal sources (Ourisson et al., 1982; Aquino Neto
et al., 1983; Moldowan et al., 1983; Zumberge, 1983). Therefore,
marine sourced oils have low C19/C23 ratios while terrigenous
sourced oils have ratios about 1 or greater. The C19/C23 ratios for
studied oil samples in the Persian Gulf are < 1, which indicates
low contribution of terrigenous organic matter (Table 2).
Oils generated from terrigenous source rock have low C29/C30
hopane ratios (0.4–0.75); in contrast, oils generated from mainly
carbonate source rocks have ratios about 0.7 or greater (Zumberge,
1984; Connan et al., 1986; Clark and Philp, 1987; Fan et al., 1987;
Ten Haven et al., 1988; Peters and Moldowan, 1993). All the sam-
ples show relatively high amounts of C29/C30 (Table 2) which indi-
cate the carbonate depositional environment. Hendijan and
Bahregansar samples (Sarvak reservoir) in group III show low
amounts of 0.59 and 0.68, respectively, which probably indicate
the contribution of shaly facies in oil generation. The identified
lithology of the probable source rocks are further supported by
the C22/C21 tricyclic terpanes.
High C22/C21 tricyclic ratios as well as low C24/C23 tricyclic ter-
pane ratios imply that the studied oil samples originated from car-
bonate source rocks (Peters et al., 2005). Most of the samples have
C22/C21 ratios > 0.5 assumed to be from marl-carbonate source
rocks. Some oil samples from group III like Bahregansar, Hendijan
and Aboozar, seem to be derived from marine source rocks with
contributions of terrigenous organic matter (Fig. 12).
The C35/C34 homohopane ratio is used to evaluate redox condi-
tions of source rocks during deposition (Peters and Moldowan,
1991). Whereas C35/C34 > 1 indicates the source rock deposition
under anoxic conditions, the C35/C34 < 1 suggests an oxic to dysoxic
depositional condition (Curiale et al., 1985; Mello et al., 1989).
According to Table 2, most of the samples have been generated
from the source rocks deposited in dysoxic to anoxic conditions.
Gammacerane/hopane ratio is an indicator of salinity condi-
tions prevailed during source rock deposition (Moldowan et al.,
1985; Jiamo et al., 1986). Table 2 shows that the gammacerane/ho-
pane ratio is low for all the Persian Gulf samples indicating normal
salinity conditions during source rocks deposition.
4.4. Source rock age
The evolution of the proportion of C28 steranes according to the
age of the source rock is used for refining the oil-source rock cor-
relation. Previous studies have pointed to a general increase in
the relative content of C28 steranes and a decrease in C29 steranes
in marine petroleum through time (Grantham and Wakefield,
1988). Moldowan et al. (1985) showed that the ratio of C28 regular
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A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43 37

Fig. 7. Star diagrams and stable carbon isotope composition of crude oils and their individual fractions (Galimov curve) of different oil groups in the studied area. Group I and
IV represent the best correlation whereas discrepancies are evident in group II and especially group III.

steranes in marine environments is controlled by facies and in- Fig. 13 (unpublished report of TOTALFINAELF/National Iranian Oil
creases with decreasing age. Company). As it can be seen there are evident differences between
The amount of relative contents of C28 regular steranes for prob- source rocks, as the Jurassic Diyab member has the lowest amount
able source rocks in the Persian Gulf and adjacent areas is shown in whereas, with an increasing trend, Pabdeh Formation (early
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38 A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43

Fig. 8. Bulk and molecular geochemical data for four selected oil samples exemplifying different oil groups in the Persian Gulf.

Paleocene) has the highest ones. The evolution of the C28 regular
steranes according to the age of the source rock could be consid-
ered to perform a correlation between oil samples and probable
source rocks in the region.
Group I oil samples in the west of the Persian Gulf with C28
sterane to 25% show a good correlation with Late Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous source rocks where Hanifa-Tuwaiq, Garau and Gadvan
Formations are the most probable candidates. As Gadvan Forma-
tion in the north-west and west of the Persian Gulf does not show
good source rock properties (lack of organic matter), the Hanifa-
Tuwaiq Formation as well as Garau Formation can be considered
as the most probable source rocks for this group of oil samples.
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A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43
Fig. 9. Pristane/n-C17 versus phytane/n-C18 showing the marine source rock bearing
types II, III kerogen deposited in reducing conditions (Connan and Cassou, 1980).
Group II oils, showing C28 steranes content < 22% probably have
been formed by a Jurassic source rock (Surmeh/Diyab or older). In
this region Surmeh Formation and its stratigraphically equivalent
Diyab Member (Upper Jurassic) with an average C28 steranes con-
tent around 23%, are considered as the most probable source rocks
for this group.
Group III oil samples in the north-west of the Persian Gulf with
C28 steranes to 30% considered to be probably originated from Cre-
taceous source rocks. In this area the Albian age Kazhdumi Forma-
tion shows good source rock properties and is highly regarded as
the probable source rock of this group. Some of the group III sam-
ples (Ghar, Nahreomr and Burghan reservoirs of Bahregansar,
Nowrouz and Souroush oilfields) with average content of C28 ster-
anes about 22% show some similarities with group I whereas the
other samples in this group have average content of C28 steranes
about 29%. The variety of C28 regular steranes in group III revealed
the probable contribution of older source rocks to the reservoirs.
Group IV oils were likely generated by one of the most recent
source rocks among the group (average C28 sterane content around
32% of total steranes). These oils, localized in the south, south-east
part of the Persian Gulf, were probably generated by the marl-car-
bonate Sarvak Formation and its stratigraphically equivalent Khati-
yah and Ahmadi members as well as Kazhdumi Formation, which
show good source rock properties.
Fig. 10. Sofer plot of d13C values for the aromatic and saturate fraction hydrocarbnons in the Persian Gulf oilfields represents different oil groups with marine source rocks,
some samples in group III show contribution of terrigenous organic matter. All d13C values are in ppt (‰) relative to PDB (Sofer, 1984).
39
Fig. 11. A cross plot of dibenzothiophene/phenanthrene (DBT/P) and pristane/
phytane (Pr/Ph) ratios for oils from the Persian Gulf (Hughes et al., 1995),
apparently group III shows the contribution of shaly source rocks.
Carbon isotopes can be used to perform a correlation between
oils and the source rocks they have been generated from (Borden-
ave and Burwood, 1990, 1995). According to previous studies in
adjacent areas, the kerogen of Hanifa-Tuwaiq (M. Jurassic) source
rock contains stable carbon isotope (d13C) composition between
26‰ and 27.5‰ (Carrigan et al., 1995) and Diyab Formation
(Upper Jurassic) in the eastern part of the Persian Gulf has values
between 24.7‰ and 27‰ (Hassan and Azer, 1985). Bordenave
and Burwood (1990) reported 30‰ carbon isotope for Sarchahan
Formation (Silurian) in Gahkom Mountain and values range from
28‰ to 29.2‰ for Sargelu Formation (Jurassic) in Lurestan.
They also stated that Kazhdumi Formation (Cretaceous) in Dezful
Embayment includes carbon isotope values between 25.6‰ and
27.4‰ and Pabdeh Formation (early Paleocene) includes carbon
isotope values between 23.9‰ and 25.3‰. Apparently, Hani-
fa-Tuwaiq, Diyab and Kazhdumi formations can be considered as
the main source rocks of the studied samples in the Persian Gulf.
However, the isotopic composition of Garau and Sarvak formations
as well as its stratigraphic equivalents were not available and the
contribution of other source rocks such as Sargelu Formation can-
not be ruled out in the region (Fig. 14).
The Pabdeh Formation (early Paleocene) cannot be the source
rock of any of the analyzed oils, the C28 steranes content in the oils
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40 A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43
Fig. 12. Plot of tricyclic terpane ratios indicate that most of the samples originated
from marl-carbonate source rocks except for the Balal, Bahregansar, Hendijan and
Aboozar samples which show contribution of terrigenous organic matter (Zum-
berge and Ramos, 1996).
Fig. 13. Amount of relative contents of C28 regular steranes for probable source
rocks in the region, there is an increasing trend from Diyab Member of Surmeh
Formation (Jurassic) with the lowest amount to Pabdeh Formation (Tertiary) with
the highest amount.
being much lower than it is in the Pabdeh extracts. Furthermore,
none of the analyzed oil contains oleanane, one of the characteris-
tic biomarker of this formation (especially in the analyzed cuttings
from the southern part of the Gulf) (unpublished report of TOTAL-
FINAELF/National Iranian Oil Company).
4.5. Maturity
Sterane and hopane biomarkers frequently used for maturity
assessment (Seifert and Moldowan, 1978, 1981; Peters and Moldo-
wan, 1993). The ratio of C29 bb/(aa + bb) increase due to isomeriza-
tion at C-14 and C-17 in the C29 20S and 20R regular steranes from
near zero to values close to ca. 0.7 (equilibrium 0.67–0.71) with
increasing maturity. The C29 20S/(20S + 20R) ratio rises from zero
to ca. 0.5 (equilibrium 0.52–0.55) with increasing maturity due
to isomerization at C-20 in the C29 5a, 14a, 17a (H) sterane (Seifert
and Moldowan, 1986). The ratio of C29 20S/(20S + 20R) sterane >
0.4 is corresponding to vitrinite reflectance of 0.8% and related to
mature oils (Difan et al., 1991). The aforementioned ratios ranged
from 0.46–0.58 for C29 bb/(aa + bb) and 0.4–0.57 for C29 20S/
(20S + 20R) (Table 2) appear to indicate that the studied oils were
generated from high maturity source rocks. However, since the
Fig. 14. Stable carbon isotopic range of probable source rocks and studied oils in
the Persian Gulf. The studied samples match greatly with Hanifa/Tuwaiq, Diyab and
Kazhdumi formations.
equilibrium of C29 20S/(20S + 20R) occurs in 0.52–0.55 and some
of the samples have a higher ratio than the reaction endpoints
caused by high maturity, the ratio could not be considered as an
adequate maturity indicator.
Another commonly used thermal maturity indicator is the
methylphenanthrene index (MPI-1) which appears to be as useful
as vitrinite reflectance for maturity assessment. Vitrinite reflec-
tance values of the corresponding source rock (Rr) were calculated
based on MPI-1 data of the oil samples according to Radke et al.
(1982). For most of the samples, except 5 samples in group III,
the values range between 0.72% and 0.86% (Table 2), which indi-
cate that the oils were generated from high maturity source rocks.
Oil samples from Bahregansar, Souroush, Nowrouz and Hendijan
oilfields reveal lower calculated vitrinite reflectance (0.47–0.64%)
in comparison with other samples in the group III (>0.81%). It can
be explained alternatively in two ways. Either these variations
are an impact of generation from a younger source rock with lower
maturity, or a same source rock, but at different stages of maturity
during the burial history. The lower maturity of these samples are
further supported by the ratios of isoprenoids to n-alkanes (Fig. 9).
The moretane/hopane ratio of oils decreases from 0.8 to about
0.05 as maturity increase (Seifert and Moldowan, 1980). According
to Table 2, the moretane/hopane ratio in the studied oil samples
ranges from 0.11–0.06 indicating a high maturity of studied oils.
The conclusion from methylphenanthrene would agree with
aforementioned oil maturity based on sterane and hopane ratios.
However, it should be considered that the original equation for
conversion of MPI-1 to vitrinite reflectance values established by
Radke et al. (1982) was strictly for source rocks bearing type III
kerogen.
In summary, no meaningful trend of maturity can be found in
the studied oil samples. The extent of the studied area, contribu-
tion of different source rock in charging the reservoir, different
stages of maturity and oil expulsion, long distance migration as
well as the impact of reservoir depth, since the studied reservoir
located in different depth from 800 to 3500 TVD, could be con-
sidered as the main reasons for this phenomenon.
4.6. Oil groups
4.6.1. Group I
These oils came from fields located in the NW part of the
Persian Gulf (Dorood, Kharg, Aboozar and Foroozan oil fields).
Reservoirs were of Late Jurassic to Middle Cretaceous age (Upper
Arab/Surmeh, Fahliyan/Yamama, Manifa, Shuaiba/Dariyan, and
Ghar). Group I oils are distinguished by low Pr/Ph ratios
(0.64–0.94) and high sulfur (1.5–3.3 wt%). These oils show high
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A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43
C29/C30 hopane ratios (1.14–1.53), high abundance of the C22/C21
tricyclic terpane ratios (0.69–1.1), and lowest value of C27 Dia/
(Dia + Reg), and sterane/terpane ratios (0.13–0.24), suggesting a
carbonate source rock, which is supported by the high sulfur con-
tent. Maturity parameters i.e. MPI-1 show high level of maturity
(0.63–0.78) for corresponding source rocks. C28 regular sterane
amounts for this group are compatible with Jurassic or older car-
bonate source rock(s). Hanifa-Tuwaiq as well as Garau Formation
can be considered as the probable source rocks for this group of
oil samples.
4.6.2. Group II
These oils were sampled from the Late Jurassic Surmeh/Upper
Arab and the Early Cretaceous Dariyan/Shuaiba, Gadvan/Buwaib
reservoirs at the Salman, Resalat, Reshadat and Balal oilfields in
the south-eastern part of the Persian Gulf.
Group II oil samples characterized by the lowest sulfur and
highest API amounts compared to other groups. This group shows
the higher C27 Dia/(Dia + Reg) ratios (0.29–0.75), and the highest
amount of C19/C23 tricyclic terpanes (0.3–0.83) which may be
caused by high thermal maturity (Seifert and Moldowan, 1978)
or dysoxic to oxic conditions during source rock deposition (Brin-
cat and Abbott, 2001). They are characterized by a dominance of
the C29 steranes and a weaker abundance of the C28 sterane. C28
regular sterane amounts range from 17.2–20.8%, which indicates
that the samples may have been generated by Jurassic or older
source rock(s). In the region, the Surmeh Formation region and
its stratigraphically equivalent Diyab Member are considered as
the most probable source rocks for the group II. In this group Resa-
lat (Shuaiba) and Balal (Upper Arab) oil samples represent different
characteristics which may be caused by high maturity and contri-
bution of terrigenous organic matter respectively. Moreover, locat-
ing adjacent to the Qatar arch and affecting by the active Paleozoic
petroleum system (Bordenave, 2008) in the region may cause the
differences in Upper Arab reservoir of Balal oilfield.
4.6.3. Group III
These oils were sampled from Late Cretaceous to Tertiary reser-
voirs (Asmari, Sarvak, Ghar, Burghan and Nahre-omr) of the Aboo-
zar, Bahregansar, Souroush, Nowrouz, Dorood and Kharg oilfields
in the north/north-west part of the Persian Gulf.
Group III oils show high sulfur content (1.54–3.76 wt%), Pr/Ph
ratios in the range from 0.52–1.41 and API ranged from 12.2–
33.5. Group III oils have highest asphaltene contents (4.8–18.5%)
than the other groups. They are characterized by a higher abun-
dance of C29 steranes, C29 norhopane over the C30 hopane, C24 tet-
racyclic terpane over the C23 tricyclic. Among all the studied oils,
they show the lightest d13C isotope of whole oil (on average
27.4‰). C28 regular sterane amounts in group III oil samples
range from 22.7–30.5% which indicates a wide range of source
rocks contribution. Group III oil samples with C28 steranes to 30%
are considered to be probably from Cretaceous source rocks. In this
area the Albian age Kazhdumi Formation shows good source rock
properties and is regarded as the probable source rock of this
group. Some of the samples (Ghar, Nahreomr and Burghan reser-
voirs of Bahregansar, Nowrouz and Souroush oilfields) with aver-
age content of C28 steranes about 22% show some similarities
with group I whereas the other samples in the group have average
content of C28 steranes about 29%, which can be caused by contri-
bution of older source rock(s) to the reservoirs. In group III oils
DBT/P ratio is < 0.5, except for the Dorood and Kharg oil fields (As-
mari reservoir), which indicates the contribution of terrigenous
facies.
Locating in the vicinity of Dezful Embayment as well as the oil
migration paths from the Hanifa-Tuwaiq Mountain (Arabian Basin)
as well as Sargelu and Garau (Mesopotamian Basin) kitchens
41
towards the Gavbendi High suggested by Bordenave and Hegre
(2010) (see also Ayres et al., 1982; Loutfi and EL Bishlawy, 1986;
Carrigan et al., 1995) may cause the discrepancies among the sam-
ples in this group. Group III can be classified into three genetic
subgroups.
4.6.3.1. Subgroup IIIA. This subgroup consists of Kharg and Dorood
(Asmari) and Aboozar (Burghan) oilfields characterized by the low-
est ratio of C35/C34 homohopanes and C26/C25 tricyclic terpanes.
MPI-1 show high level of maturity (0.68–0.73) which is close to
group I. Generally, these samples have a remarkable resemblance
with group I in some parameters due to probable contribution of
similar source rock(s) or connectivity between older and younger
reservoirs caused by severe tectonic activity in the region.
4.6.3.2. Subgroup IIIB. Subgroup IIIB consists of oils from Bahregan-
sar (Ghar), Nowrouz (Nahreomr) and Souroush (Burghan) oil fields,
characterized by highest ratio of C35/C34 homohopanes implying
anoxic condition during deposition of related source rock(s).
4.6.3.3. Subgroup IIIC. These oils were sampled from Sarvak reser-
voir of Bahregansar and Hendijan oilfields. They are characterized
by lower ratios of norhopane/hopane and C24Tet/C23 tricyclic ter-
pane ratio than the other group III oils. Moreover, the high ratio
of Pr/Ph (>1) and low ratio of DBT/P indicate a contribution of shaly
facies. Toward the NW of the Persian Gulf, the chance of shaly fa-
cies contribution to the oilfields increases due to the existence of
shaly facies source rocks in the region i.e. Kazhdumi Formation.
The contribution of terrigenous organic matter in these samples
is supported by carbon isotopic values (Fig. 10) and C22/C21 tricyclic
terpane ratio (Fig. 12) and high C27Dia/(Dia + Reg) sterane ratio
(Table 2). The terrigenous organic matter contribution in Bahre-
gansar and Hendijan is reasonable since they are located in the
vicinity of the Dezful Embayment where Kazhdumi Formation acts
as a main source rock.
4.6.4. Group IV
These oils were sampled from the Middle Cretaceous (Sarvak/
Mishrif) and Ilam reservoirs at the Sirri A, Sirri C, Sirri D, Sirri E,
Nousrat, Resalat and Reshadat oilfields.
Group IV oils show moderate sulfur content (1.25–2.17 wt%),
Pr/Ph ratios in the range from 0.57–0.82, API ranged from 26.1–
31.4°. These oils have the lowest asphaltene contents (2.8–5.3%)
and higher saturate fraction (45.8–60.6%) than the other groups.
They are characterized by a higher abundance of C27 and C28
steranes, C30 hopane over the C29, of the C23 tricyclic over the C24
tetracyclic terpane, weaker hexacyclic terpanes and methylho-
panes content, a weaker dibenzothiophene/phenanthrene ratio
and the alkylbenzene series dominated by compounds with iso-
prenoid chain. Group IV oil samples with C28 regular sterane
amounts range from 27.9–30.4 may have been generated by mid
to Late Cretaceous source rocks, including Sarvak Formation and
its stratigraphically equivalent Khatiyah and Ahmadi members as
well as Kazhdumi Formation. Among all the studied oil, group IV
oils have the heaviest d13C isotope of whole oil (on average –26.6
‰) and the lowest amount of C19/C23 tricyclic terpanes (0.04–0.13).
Although different oil groups are separated stratigraphically
and regionally, there are still some discrepancies, i.e. positioning
of Tertiary reservoir (Asmari/Ghar) of Aboozar oilfield among the
group I which belong in Mesozoic reservoirs whereas the Creta-
ceous Burghan reservoir of the field positioned among group III
while most of them belong in Tertiary reservoirs; identification
of different source rocks for Asmari/Ghar and Sarvak reservoirs in
Bahregansar oilfield. Despite the fact that occurrence of these dis-
crepancies in the wide petroliferous region like the Persian Gulf is
not entirely unexpected, the probable reasons can be interpreted
 Author's personal copy
42 A.R. Rabbani et al. / Organic Geochemistry 70 (2014) 29–43
by (1) deposition of various active source rocks (mostly from Meso-
zoic to Tertiary), (2) different stage of generation, expulsion, migra-
tion and accumulation from a certain or different facies of a source
rock in addition to oil mixing and overprinting, (3) recharging of
reservoirs during their life time, (4) different migration paths.
5. Conclusions
Thirty-three oil samples were analyzed to understand the origin
of hydrocarbon in the Iranian sector of Persian Gulf. Organic geo-
chemical studies indicate that oils show density varies in rather
wide range, between 12.2° and 39.2° API. Asphaltene contents
are low (0.8–18.5%), and the maltene fractions are dominated by
saturated HCs (29.3–70.9%) with subordinate proportions of aro-
matic HCs (22.30–38.30%) and polar compounds (7–15.70%). Pris-
tane to phytane (Pr/Ph) ratios are variable (0.67–1.41). Sulfur
content in crude oil samples are highly variable (0.65–3.7%).
According to the Tissot and Welte’s classification, most of the oils
can be classified as ‘‘high sulfur’’ oils. Based on these parameters
most of the oils were generated and expelled from a marine car-
bonate source rock bearing type II-S kerogen. Thermal maturity
assessment of the studied oils suggests that high maturity corre-
sponding to oil window zone.
Four main oil groups were identified from statistical analysis,
and correlated with different source rocks using age-specific bio-
markers and isotope data. The different groups categorized by
stratigraphical and geographical location. Group I and II oils were
sampled from the Jurassic to Early Cretaceous reservoirs rocks,
whereas Group III and IV from the Late Cretaceous to Tertiary res-
ervoir rocks. Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous reservoirs (group I
and II) represent the probable generation from Jurassic or older
source rocks whereas Late Cretaceous to Tertiary reservoirs (group
III and IV) represent to be generated from Cretaceous or younger
source rocks. Hanifa-Tuwaiq, Garau and Diyab member of Surmeh
formation consider as the most probable sources for group I and II.
Moreover, Kazhdumi and Sarvak formations as well as Khatiyah
and Ahmadi member may have acted as primary sources for group
III and IV.
Acknowledgments
This research has been supported by the Iranian Offshore Oil
Company (IOOC) in Tehran and the Polish National Science Center
(Ministry of Science and Higher Education). All isotopic and bio-
marker analyses were performed at AGH University of Science
and Technology in Krakow. Analytical work by Adam Kowalski
and Tomasz Kowalski is gratefully acknowledged. The authors
are sincerely grateful to the two anonymous reviewers for con-
structive comments and corrections on an early version of this arti-
cle, greatly improving the quality and readability of the article.
Special thanks go to Associate Editor Maowen Li for thorough
and constructive reviews.
Appendix A. Geochemical data
Hierarchical cluster and principal component analysis included
14 source related biomarker and isotope ratios. The parameters
included 10 terpane ratios: C19/C23, C22/C21, C24/C23, and C26/C25
tricyclic terpanes, C24 tetracyclic terpane/C23 tricyclic terpane
(C24Tet/C23t), 28,30-bisnorhopane/hopane (C28BNH/C30H), C29 30-
norhopane/hopane (C29H/C30H), C30 diahopane/hopane (C30DiaH/
C30H), gammacerane/C31 homohopane 22R (Gam/C31HR), C35
homohopane 22S/C34 homohopane 22S (C35HS/C34HS); four ster-
ane ratios: Steranes/Terpanes, %C27, %C28, and %C29 steranes (e.g.
%C27 = %C27/[%C27 to %C29]), and two stable carbon isotope ratios
(d13C saturated, d13C aromatic). Many of these parameters are dis-
cussed in Peters et al. (2005).
 CV: Canonical Variable = 2.53 d13C Sat +2.22 d13C Aro – 11.65.
 MPR: Methylphenanthrene Ratio = 2-MP/1-MP.
 MPI-1: Methylphenanthrene Index = 1.5([2-MP] + [3-MP])/
([P] + [1-MP] + [9-MP]).
 Calc. Rr (%): Calculated vitrinite reflectance = 0.60 MPI-1 + 0.40
(for MPR < 2.65).
Associate Editor—Maowen Li
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