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Concrete
INSIDE: SR 99 Tunnel, Seattle 22
Coupling Beam Types 8
Improving School Buildings 14
Northridge: 25 Years Later 18
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4 STRUCTURE magazine
Contents JANUARY 2019
Cover Feature
SR 99 TUNNEL
IN SEATTLE
By Yang Jiang, Ph.D., P.E., S.E.,
22
and Andrew Herten, P.E.
Publication of any article, image, or advertisement in STRUCTURE® magazine does not constitute endorsement by NCSEA, CASE, SEI, the Publisher, or the Editorial Board, Authors, contributors, and advertisers retain sole responsibility for the content of their submissions.
J A N U A R Y 2 019 5
EDITORIAL
Okage Sama De: I am What I am Because of You
By Corey M. Matsuoka, P.E., Chair CASE Executive Committee
As one of the most critical members in RC buildings, coupling beams building design. In low seismic risk areas, conventional RC coupling
should exhibit excellent energy dissipation capacity with only modest beam are sometimes sized wider than the connecting shear wall piers
stiffness and strength degradation under cyclic loading. Good ductile in flat-slab buildings.
hysteretic performance is usually achieved by providing sophisticated However, the conventional RC coupling beam does not preserve
detailing, which induces construction difficulties. By varying rebar good energy dissipation capacities under high cyclic shear stresses and
layout schemes and exploring different materials, various types of significant pinching phenomena present in its hysteresis response.
coupling beams are considered in searching for a balance between Diagonal shear failure and sliding shear failure are not avoidable in
ductile hysteretic performance and construction practicality. this type of coupling beam even with closely-spaced transverse rein-
Currently there are five commonly-used types of coupling beams forcing detailing. Research indicates that conventional RC coupling
which are adopted by building codes and the design industry: beams only exhibit satisfactory performance when the nominal gross
—
• Conventional RC coupling beams section shear stress is below 3√ f´c (psi) and when the beam behavior is
• Diagonally-Reinforced concrete coupling beams flexure-controlled, although the nominal maximum allowable shear
—
• Steel coupling beams stress limit is 10√ f´c (psi) in ACI 318.
• Encased steel composite coupling beams
• Embedded steel plate composite coupling beams
Diagonally-Reinforced Concrete Coupling Beams
In the 1960s, a diagonal rebar layout in concrete coupling beams
Conventional RC Coupling Beams was proposed to effectively arrest the coupling beam sliding shear
Conventional RC coupling beams refer to coupling beams reinforced failure at the face of the coupled shear wall piers (Figure 2). To date,
with horizontal rebars and closely-spaced stirrups. The design and the diagonally-reinforced concrete coupling beams are recognized
detailing requirements for conventional RC coupling beams are the as the most effective type of reinforcing details to provide ductile
same as those for RC special moment frame members and are well performance with excellent energy dissipation capacity, especially
provisioned in building codes, such as ACI 318 (Figure 1). Due to its when the span/depth ratio is less than 2. The well-established design
relatively simple detailing and ease of construction, the conventional provisions and details for diagonally-reinforced coupling beams can
RC coupling beam is the most extensively used coupling beam type in be found in the Section 18.10.7 of ACI 318-14, Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete.
In the design of a diagonally-reinforced concrete coupling beam, the
shear forces are resisted by the diagonal rebars only and the moment
capacities are automatically provided by the diagonal “truss” members.
—
The nominal maximum allowable beam shear stress limit, 10√ f´c (psi),
is capped to ensure the coupling beam ductility and deformability.
Although diagonally-reinforced coupling beams exhibit excellent
stiffness and highly-ductile energy dissipation capacities, there are
some constructionability issues that limit their application:
• The practical width of diagonally-reinforced concrete coupling
beams is at least 14 inches (16 inches or more is preferable) to
accommodate all reinforcement meeting the minimum code-
Figure 1. Typical conventional concrete coupling beam. allowed spacing requirements.
8 STRUCTURE magazine
Figure 3. Typical encased steel composite coupling beam. Figure 4. Typical embedded steel plate composite coupling beam.
• The on-site placement of diagonal reinforcement is difficult and beam should be maintained to ensure the appropriate composite action
labor-intensive. of the encased steel composite coupling beam. Similarly, a maximum
• The effectiveness of diagonal reinforcement decreases significantly allowable nominal shear stress limit for the encased steel composite
when the span-to-depth ratio is larger than 2 and the diagonal rebar coupling beam is desirable for concrete encasement cracking control,
inclination angle becomes small, while most architecturally practical while no value is yet available in the literature.
coupling beam dimensions in high-rise buildings fall in this range. The most important item in the design of steel coupling beams
and encased steel composite coupling beams is the embedment of
Steel and Encased Steel the steel members. The embedment length design of these two types
of coupling beams is usually based on the rigid Mattock-Gaafar
Composite Coupling Beams embedment model by satisfying the expected coupling beam-shear
Steel coupling beams and encased steel composite coupling beams wall connection shear strength (Eq. H4.1 & H5.1 in AISC 341-16).
are used as viable alternatives to avoid the construction difficulties Appropriate detailing along the clear span and the embedment regions
inherent in diagonally-reinforced concrete coupling beams. The steel of the coupling beams are important as well for ductile performance
members for the two coupling beam types are implicitly wide-flange and good energy dissipation capacity.
steel members, although steel tubes were continued on next page
also used in early research (Figure 3).
Extensive experiments indicate that both
steel coupling beams and encased steel
composite coupling beams can provide
excellent ductility and energy dissipa- 2018
tion capacities, which are comparable to
those of diagonally-reinforced concrete ENR SW
BEST
coupling beams. ANSI/AISC 341-16,
Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel
PROJECT
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Buildings, adopts both types of coupling
beams in composite shear wall systems
with design and detailing provisions.
For these two types of coupling beams, Higher Education/Research
both shear forces and flexural moments
are assumed to be entirely resisted by the
steel member. The benefits of the con-
crete encasement are currently ignored
due to a lack of data. The concrete Seattle Long Beach
Tacoma Irvine
encasement provides higher beam stiff- Lacey San Diego
ness and acts as a fire proofing layer for Portland Boise
the encased steel beams. Eugene St. Louis
Different from reinforced concrete Sacramento Chicago
San Francisco Louisville
coupling beams, the code-specified
Los Angeles New York
maximum allowable shear stress limit
—
for concrete beams (e.g. 10√ f´c (psi) in
ACI 318) can be relieved for the encased KPFF is an
Equal Opportunity Employer
steel composite coupling beam. Although
no research on the interaction between www.kpff.com
the steel member and the RC concrete
ASU Biodesign Institute C
encasement is carried out, a practical size Tempe, AZ
range of the steel beam to the coupling
J A N U A R Y 2 019 9
Redi.
Set.
Go.
REDICOR SIMPLIFIES AND ACCELERATES THE
CONSTRUCTION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE CORES.
Conventional methods of constructing reinforced concrete shear
cores can be a challenge. Unpredictable onsite construction
timelines frequently delay framing, and unacceptable concrete
tolerances or improperly located steel embed plates often bring
production schedules to a halt.
www.redicor.com
Table summary of the five types of coupling beams in RC buildings.
Code-Specified Suggested Energy
Practical Shear Force
Coupling Maximum Applicable Span- Effective Stiffness Construction Dissipation
Maximum Shear Vertical
Beam Type Allowable Nominal To-Depth Ratio in Structural Feasibility Capacity and
Stress (Psi) Distribution
Shear Stress (Psi) Analysis Model Ductility
Conventional 10√(f c´) 2.0 ≤ ln /h 4√(f c´) 0.35Ec Ig Easiest Poor No
Diagonally-
10√(f c´) ln /h ≤ 1.5~2.0 8.5√(f c´) 0.35Ec Ig Most Difficult High Yes
Reinforced
Steel N/A ln /h ≤ 4.0 N/A 0.6Es Isteel Difficult High Yes, max 20%
0.06 . ln /h . EsItrans
Encased Steel
N/A ln /h ≤ 4.0 N/A (0.35EcIg lower Difficult High Yes, max 20%
Composite
bound)
Embedded Steel
≈ 18√f c´ 1.0 ≤ ln /h ≤ 4.0 ≈ 18√f c´ 0.35EcIg Medium Moderate Yes
Plate Composite
Compared to the diagonally-reinforced concrete coupling beam, in defects in the protected zone of the encased steel composite
the construction of the steel/encased steel composite coupling beam coupling beam. Further, embedded steel members complicate any
is much more feasible and the disturbance of the construction sleeves that may run laterally through the coupling beam, often
schedule can be negligible once the contractor becomes famil- required for sprinklers.
iar with the construction procedure. However, the wide flange
steel members tend to interfere with vertical and confinement
reinforcement in the coupled shear wall piers, especially those
Embedded Steel Plate Composite Coupling Beam
in the boundary element zones of special shear wall systems. To To alleviate the conflict between steel members and shear wall
accommodate both the shear wall rebar detailing requirements reinforcement, designers can consider the use of embedded steel
and steel beam embedment, wider or barbell-shaped wall piers plate composite coupling beams. As shown in Figure 4 (page 9),
and special detailing must be used. The practice of coping the steel headed studs are welded to both vertical faces of the steel plate
beam flange is not recommended since reducing the flange width in a typical embedded steel plate composite coupling beam and
will increase the steel beam embedment length and may result pose much less disturbance to shear wall vertical reinforcement,
800.633.6668
www.larsenproducts.com
J A N U A R Y 2 019 11
although special detailing is still needed for the horizontal/confine- the stiffness difference between the embedded steel plate coupling
ment rebars. The headed studs are necessary to provide appropriate beam and the associated conventional RC coupling beam is not
anchorage and transfer forces between the concrete portion and significant (Su & Lam, 2009), therefore 0.35EcIg is a reasonable
the steel plate. Research indicates that the presence of the steel reduced stiffness value for the embedded steel plate composite
plates can effectively hinder the development of diagonal cracks coupling beam ultimate design.
and prevent brittle failures of concrete coupling beams, and the For both steel coupling beams and the encased steel composite coupling
embedded steel plate composite coupling beam exhibits much beams, the effective bending stiffness needs to be adjusted through
better ductile performance and deformability than comparable iteration since the steel member size is unknown until designed.
conventional RC coupling beams.
Similar to the encased steel composite coupling beam, proper
embedment design of the steel plate is critical to ensure good ductile
Beam Shear Force Vertical Distribution
performance of this type of coupling beam. The rigid Mattock-Gaafar In high-rise building design, engineers often apply controlling beam
embedment model can be used to determine the embedment length design results to multiple floors, avoiding minor changes on a story-to-
of the embedded steel plate by assuming uniform bearing stress from story basis, i.e. the coupling beam design reinforcements are “grouped”
steel plate and headed studs. for multiple adjacent floors depending on the variation of beam design
In the capacity design of this composite coupling beam, contribu- shear forces over the building height. Designers may also justify a
tions from both the concrete and steel plate need to be considered. redistribution of overstressed beams to understressed beams above
The steel plate is used to supplement the capacities of the reinforced and below to alleviate rebar congestion. This practice is equivalent
concrete section. Considering the different strain distributions in the to using smaller effective stiffness for coupling beams in analysis and
RC concrete portion and the steel plate due to their interaction, Su whether it is allowable depends on the ductility and deformability
& Lam (2009) proposed a unified design approach for this type of of the coupling beam types.
coupling beam. The design rules of thumb are: (a) the ratio of the For conventional RC coupling beams, the deformability and ductility
steel plate depth over the composite coupling beam depth should be are poor when the beam is under high cyclic shear stress; therefore,
limited to be 0.8~0.95; (b) the practical span-to-depth ratio range shear force vertical redistribution is not recommended. While the
is 1.0~4.0; (c) minimum shear reinforcement must be provided; (d) other four types of coupling beams exhibit much better ductility
minimum embedment length is dependent on coupling beam span/ and deformability, the lower bound of coupling beam stiffness or
depth ratio and can vary from 0.35~0.7 times of the beam clear span; shear force vertical distribution can be reasonably applied in build-
(e) The maximum nominal shear stress of the composite coupling ing design during the process of designing coupling beams in order
— —
beam is capped to be 1.5√ f cu Mpa (18 √ f´c psi), and the shear force to alleviate rebar congestion. For steel coupling beams and encased
resisted by the steel plate should be less than 0.45Vu, which limits the steel composite coupling beams, AISC 341-16 explicitly permits shear
use of this coupling beam. force vertical distribution up to 20%.
12 STRUCTURE magazine
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14 STRUCTURE magazine
windows, leaving very few short wall piers to resist
earthquake loads. The buildings also typically lack an
effective diaphragm, as the light-framed roof is not
detailed to act as a diaphragm and not well-connected
to the building walls. This is especially problematic
in cases where the building has a masonry gable end
wall, which remains poorly braced over a much taller
height than the rest of the building.
Most of the classroom buildings of this type are
built by local builders who may have more experience
in construction of smaller non-engineered build-
ings, like houses, and construction activities are not
typically observed by the designer or inspected by
local authorities in detail. It is common for smooth Collapse of gable end wall in a classroom building. Courtesy of Educational Department Aceh Tengah.
reinforcing bars to be used in the concrete elements,
for the brick strength to be low, for the concrete quality to be in the world. Seventy-five percent of Indonesia’s schools are in disas-
poor, and for construction details like adequate concrete cover, ter risk areas; the nearly 800,000-square mile country is exposed
reinforcing hooks and splices, or mortar quality and placement to large earthquakes, tsunamis, high winds, volcanoes, landslides,
to be overlooked. and floods. From these numbers, it is estimated that there could
Considering the incomplete confinement and the problems with be between 250,000 to 400,000 buildings of this type within the
configuration and construction quality, the performance of these country at risk from earthquakes.
buildings has been poor in recent earthquakes, characterized by
significant damage, partial collapse, and total collapse in some cases.
The problem is not localized; many more vulnerable buildings of
Finding a Solution
this type exist in earthquake-prone areas across Indonesia. Indonesia New school buildings are continuously added to the educational
is the fourth most populated country in the world, following the infrastructure in Indonesia in an attempt to keep up with demand.
United States, and with over 50 million students attending more However, it is not economically feasible to demolish and replace
than 300,000 schools, it also has the fourth largest education system all existing vulnerable buildings as a universal solution. Many of
RECORDS
“An NCEES Record makes it
fast, easy, and convenient to
apply for additional P.E.
licenses in other states.”
Alexander Zuendt, P.E.
Zuendt Engineering
Record holder since 2011
J A N U A R Y 2 019 15
the existing buildings will remain indefinitely, so cost-effective
options for improving them are needed. At the same time,
improvements in new building construction methods are
urgently needed. This is something the authors are also work-
ing with the Ministry of Education to achieve.
To explore solutions for existing classrooms, Build Change
worked with the local Education Department in Padang to
select a representative school, of the one-story confined masonry
type, as an example for developing cost-effective retrofit options
using locally-available materials and labor. The authors and their
Indonesian colleagues gathered information relevant to the retrofit
design to consider various techniques. Information was derived
from the Indonesian building code, from existing national and
international guidelines, from research performed by others and
by Build Change, and from the authors’ own experiences. Due to
the common use of low-strength, single-wythe brick in Indonesia,
several researchers in Indonesia and Japan had already developed
and tested retrofit techniques to strengthen the slender masonry
for in-plane and out-of-plane loading successfully. Solutions Plan view of the retrofit scheme.
included using a cement-plaster overlay or banded steel wire mesh
combined with a cement-plaster overlay.
The authors selected a shear wall system for the retrofit, although
several other schemes were considered including a moment frame
Piloting the Retrofit
system and a cantilevered column system. The resulting retrofit scheme Two single-classroom buildings in the example school were selected
targeted life-safety performance for the code-prescribed design earth- for piloting the retrofit construction project. One of these had been
quake and was composed of several key components: lightly damaged by the 2009 earthquake and was no longer in use.
• Infilling select wall openings in the longitudinal walls to create Construction quality supervision was provided throughout the
sufficient length of the wall and installing confining elements at duration of the work to ensure that the contractor followed the
their boundaries. construction documents. Additionally, experienced builder trainers
• Overlaying walls with steel wire mesh and cement-plaster and, frequently visited the site to provide pointers and support to the
in some cases, rebuilding the wall pier to be thicker masonry to workers to achieve a good quality construction. Bricks were purchased
improve in-plane and out-of-plane strength. from suppliers that offered tested and certified-strength bricks.
• Adding reinforced concrete The construction started in January 2016 on one of the two buildings
strongbacks to the trans- and the second building was completed in May 2016. Most of the
verse walls for out-of-plane retrofit techniques were familiar to the local builders, except installing
bracing. the mesh-plaster overlay; however, the required level of construction
• Installing a new continuous quality was higher than the builders were accustomed to and this led
ring beam at the top of the to some delays. For new techniques, like the wire mesh overlay, extra
wall. care was taken in the detailing and on-site supervision of the mesh
• Installing a horizontal bracing installation, which the builders were able to master after an initial
system just above ceiling level period of familiarization.
connected to the ring beam to In addition to the construction work, engagement of the school
act as a diaphragm. community was a component of the pilot project. Early retrofit plan-
• Eliminating any unreinforced ning was accompanied by significant efforts to involve and increase
masonry above window and the disaster-risk awareness of the school community. Training materi-
door openings by extend- als on the retrofit were developed, and a retrofit awareness workshop
ing the opening upwards to was held for representatives of the school council, the Education
the ring beam and filling Department, and the Regional Disaster Management Agency. During
the space with light-weight construction, Build Change Indonesian staff and members from the
materials instead. school council jointly performed the construction supervision, with
• Eliminating the masonry discussions on good construction practice and review of construc-
gables and replacing them tion quality checklist items. The pilot retrofit was also used as an
with light-weight materials. opportunity to raise the topic of disaster-risk and prevention with
In addition to these structural students and teachers. Presentations on how earthquakes affect
improvements, new braced buildings were given to the students and the materials were shared
ceilings were proposed for with teachers for future use.
the classroom interiors, and The construction of the retrofit improved these two buildings and
additional natural light and also permitted the validation of construction cost estimates and
Installation of the mesh plaster overlay ventilation were proposed for constructability of retrofitting details. The total cost of the project,
during pilot construction. the transverse end walls. including the construction costs, the design, the construction quality
16 STRUCTURE magazine
One of the classroom buildings before and after retrofitting.
supervision and support, and the school community outreach was Lizzie Blaisdell Collins is the Director of Engineering at Build Change, a
approximately $32,000 total for both buildings or approximately non-profit social enterprise that works with people in emerging nations to
$27 per square foot. design, build, finance, and regulate disaster-resistant houses and schools.
(lizzie@buildchange.org)
Plans for Scale James Mwangi is the 2017-2018 Simpson Strong-Tie Fellow for Excellence
in Engineering with Build Change during his sabbatical year from California
After the completion of the pilot project, the authors and their Polytechnic University in San Luis Obispo where he is a professor of Architectural
Indonesian colleagues have completed the design and construc- Engineering. Through the fellowship, he spent two months in Padang focused on
tion of a retrofit for the other, larger classroom building at the improving school infrastructure in Indonesia. (jmwangi@calpoly.edu)
same school. The larger building has four classrooms and an
administrative office. The overall retrofit scheme is the same, with Mediatrich Triani N. is an Architect and the Program Manager for Build
small adaptations. By repeating the retrofit design process and Change in Indonesia. (triani@buildchange.org)
incorporating lessons from the pilot retrofit, the team refined the
retrofit design and detailing. The next
step is to develop simple guidelines
that could be used at a larger scale
for the application and adaptation
of the retrofit scheme to many more
buildings of the same type. This would
allow a more prescriptive approach
to retrofitting many of the vulnerable
classroom buildings in Indonesia, as
long as the characteristics of the build-
Immediately afterward, Caltrans wrote construction change orders Concerns about the bridge damage prompted the California gover-
requiring more transverse reinforcement and continuous main rein- nor to create a Board of Inquiry that found that Caltrans was doing
forcement in bridge columns and eliminating a vulnerable lap splice a good job addressing seismic issues but needed to accelerate the
connecting the footing to the column. Also, the minimum seat length seismic retrofit program. The Board of Inquiry recommended that a
at expansion joints, abutment seats, and hinges went from 12 inches standing board of experts should be created to advise Caltrans on its
to 18 inches (and later to 24 inches). Other changes included the earthquake engineering practices. Thus, the Caltrans Seismic Advisory
development of a site-specific ground shaking hazard for designing Board was formed and continues to advise Caltrans on seismic issues.
bridges and a capacity-based design method that relied on structural The need to quickly complete the retrofit program was demonstrated
column fuses to limit seismic forces. Caltrans also started a seismic again when the 1994 Northridge Earthquake occurred before the
retrofit program to address the many existing bridges that had been program was completed. Seven bridges, five of which were designed
under-designed for earthquakes. The San Fernando Earthquake was before 1971, were severely damaged during the earthquake but all
also the start of the practice of Caltrans sending out a reconnaissance 60 bridges in the Los Angeles area that had been retrofitted after the
team of licensed engineers to study the damage and write a report with Loma Prieta Earthquake performed very well.
lessons learned, a practice that has continued for every subsequent
large earthquake.
The 1987 Whittier Narrows Earthquake was another turning point
I-5: Gavin Canyon Bridge
in Caltrans seismic design of bridges. The previous retrofit program These two parallel 741-foot-long bridges (53 1797L/R) built in 1955,
relied on cable restrainers to limit displacement and prevent column were designed with table-like center frames that supported the canti-
damage, but shear damage to the short columns on the Route 605/5 levered spans of the four end frames on highly skewed, 8-inch-long
Separation (53 1660) generated enough concern to begin a new hinge seats. A retrofit in 1974 added restrainers at the hinges. During
retrofit program to wrap bridge columns in steel (or fiber-reinforced the earthquake, the outer frames rotated, failing the restrainers, fol-
polymer) casings on older bridges. lowed by unseating and collapse of the cantilevered spans. In Figure 1,
Unfortunately, the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake occurred before many the demolition crew has already started removing the bridge before
bridges were retrofitted. The earthquake damaged the double-deck Cypress the reconnaissance team could inspect the damage (the team started
Viaduct (33 0178), built in the 1950s, that had been designed with vulner- in Sacramento and were escorted by the California Highway Patrol
able pinned connections to make it structurally determinant and easier to down I-5 through various detours to a hotel in Pasadena). Among the
analyze. The main reinforcement in these connections was not sufficiently lessons learned was that the fundamental mode during an earthquake
developed, and the shear reinforcement was inadequate. This resulted in for a bridge may be rotational, not translational; that long seats, not
the collapse of a mile-long segment of the viaduct during the earthquake. restrainers were needed to prevent unseating; that high skews make it
Several other double-deck viaducts around San Francisco sustained severe easier for bridges to become unseated by moving normal to the skew;
damage to the superstructure-to-column connections that resulted in their and, that the anchorage for restrainers is often the location of failure.
closure and removal after the earthquake. Also, a 50-foot span over Pier 9 However, most of these lessons had been learned during previous
on the East Crossing of the San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge (33 0025), earthquakes. After this earthquake, these bridges were replaced with
built in the 1930s, collapsed due to inadequate 4-inch-wide seats, reiterat- single frame structures.
ing the lesson that seats have to be long enough to support the resulting
displaced bridge members during earthquakes. The Struve Slough Bridges
(36 0088L/R) in Watsonville were T-girder bridges on piles founded on
Route 14/5 Separation and Overhead
very soft soil. During the earthquake, the soil shook violently, dragging This 1582-foot-long bridge (53 1960F) on single column piers was
the piles from their connection with the superstructure which resulted under construction (and was still on falsework) during the 1971
in the pile extensions punching through the bridge deck. San Fernando Earthquake, but it collapsed during the Northridge
18 STRUCTURE magazine
Earthquake (Figure 2). There was considerable speculation as to the
cause of the failure, but it was eventually decided (and corroborated
by analysis) that it was due to the shear damage to short, stiff Pier 2.
Most long bridges have short bents near the ends and tall bents in
the middle. As this bridge moved back and forth during the earth-
quake, the stiffer elements could not displace as much as their taller
neighbors and broke. After Pier 2 broke, the superstructure sagged,
broke around Pier 3, and slid off Abutment 1 (Figure 2) and Pier 4.
After the earthquake, Caltrans instituted standards to ensure that the
columns within a bent, bents within a frame, and frames in a bridge
have similar stiffness or period.
Figure 3. Route 118 Mission Gothic Undercrossing. Figure 4. Route 118 Bull Creek Canyon Channel Bridge.
J A N U A R Y 2 019 19
Table 1. Incentive/Disincentive Contracts used after the Northridge Earthquake. Due to the success of A+B contracting after the Loma Prieta
Earthquake, this type of procurement was used to rebuild all the
Project Incentive/Disincentive
bridges that collapsed during the Northridge Earthquake. Caltrans
Santa Monica Freeway (I-10) $200,000/day economists determined the incentive/disincentive rates based on the
Gavin Canyon (I-5) $150,000/day projected daily cost for each closed highway (Table 1). The Santa
Monica Freeway (I-10) was reopened in 3 months. All of the collapsed
5/14 Interchange $100,000/day
bridges were reopened to traffic by November 4, 1994 (10 months
State Route 118 $50,000/day after the earthquake). While the highways were being repaired, many
frontage roads were cleared and converted to High Occupancy Vehicle
42- #11 bar main reinforcing experienced more damage than the lanes to alleviate traffic congestion.
columns with less main reinforcement. This bridge was far to the The most significant change to seismic design practice after Loma
south of the epicenter (which ruptured to the north), but it was Prieta was that the ‘R’ factor that had been used to estimate the
felt that long period shaking was amplified by the soft soil (La reduced seismic force in ductile columns was abandoned and a
Cienega is Spanish for “The Swamp”). moment-curvature analysis began to be used to determine the dis-
placement capacity of substructure members. The columns’ effective
stiffness was calculated to obtain the period, and the appropriate
Lessons Learned design spectrum was used to get the displacement demand. Caltrans was
Collectively, the bridge damage described in this article was just a able to update its seismic design procedure after writing XSECTION
small part of all the damage that occurred during the Northridge to obtain the displacement capacity of columns, PSSECTION to
Earthquake. A lot of this damage was due to geometric and struc- obtain the displacement capacity of prestressed piles, and WFRAME
tural system issues (high bridge skews, unbalanced structures, to obtain the displacement capacity of bridge frames. Caltrans is
and non-prismatic members) that resulted in unexpectedly large continuing to develop the next generation of earthquake engineering
demands during the earthquake. This gave rise to the develop- tools that will utilize Nonlinear Time History Analysis (NLTHA)
ment of rules and procedures to ensure that bridge members procedures for the seismic design of ordinary bridges.
are well-balanced and that shear-critical members are not used. The methods for generating design spectra have also undergone
Large skews are still used on bridges but are mitigated either by several changes since the Loma Prieta and Northridge earthquakes.
eliminating in-span hinges or by very large seats at hinges, abut- Before Loma Prieta, the design spectrum was obtained based on
ments, and expansion joints. However, abutments with opposing the deterministically-derived Maximum Credible Earthquake of
skews should no longer be used since there is nothing to prevent the controlling fault and the depth of alluvium at the bridge site.
the bridge from moving away from the abutments, as was seen After the Loma Prieta Earthquake, the shear wave velocity of the
at Mission Gothic UC. soil began to be used for obtaining the design spectrum. After the
Procedures, initiated after the Loma Prieta Earthquake, were Northridge Earthquake, it was recognized that near-fault directivity
improved after the Northridge Earthquake. For instance, after Loma effects increased the demands on long period structures. Response
Prieta, Caltrans initiated a practice of accelerating earthquake repairs spectra were increased 20% in the long period range for bridges
with A+B construction contracts. Caltrans determined the societal within 10 miles (15 km) from the fault. Also, the envelope of
cost per day that the bridge/highway segment was not available and deterministic and probabilistic spectra began to be used to obtain
contractors bid on the cost + the number of days required to rebuild the design spectra for bridges (Figure 6).
the bridge. The first A+B contract was to rebuild the Struve Slough The most significant change to seismic design practice after the
Bridges after the Loma Prieta Earthquake. The contractor who was Northridge Earthquake was new rules requiring adjacent columns in
awarded the project had aggressively bid to complete the two parallel a bent and adjacent bents in a frame to have similar stiffness (ki/kj >
830-foot long slab bridges supported on 200 driven piles in just 90 0.75). Moreover, any two bents in a frame and any two columns in
days. He managed to complete the project in 55 days (by working a bent were required to have comparable stiffness (ki/kj > 0.50). The
around the clock) and made a million dollars in incentives. periods of adjacent frames were also required to be similar (Ti/Tj > 0.7)
Figure 5. 1-10 La Cienega-Venice Undercrossing. Figure 6. Probabilistic and deterministic spectra with near fault effects and envelope
used for design.
20 STRUCTURE magazine
earthquake hazards and to develop resilient earthquake resis-
tant bridge systems and details.
• Research showed a smaller role played by vertical acceleration
in bridge damage.
• Caltrans required k-rail at the ends of damaged bridges after
Figure 7. Bridge with isolation casings to achieve a balanced design.
police drove off several bridges.
to prevent large out-of-phase movement between frames. All of these Caltrans has not experienced a large, damaging earthquake since
rules were to prevent the severe damage that was observed after the Northridge. However, Caltrans engineers and managers are confident
Northridge Earthquake. A popular technique that began to be used that all of the efforts spent developing new seismic design
over uneven terrain was isolation casings to give all the bents about criteria and retrofitting existing bridges will yield less bridge
the same stiffness (Figure 7 ). damage during the next design-level earthquake.■
Other changes after the Northridge Earthquake included:
• Establishment of Caltrans Seismic Design Criteria (SDC)
Version 1.0 in 1999 (now completing Version 2.0). A critical element was missing before Caltrans could move from a
• Ground shaking hazards were amplified due to near-fault force-based system to a displacement-based approach for the seismic
effects, basin effects, etc. analysis of new and existing bridges. Three structural analysis programs
• Besides the ground shaking hazard, liquefaction hazards, lateral (XSEC, PSS and WFR) were written by Caltrans’ bridge engineers to
spreading hazards, fault offset hazards, tsunami hazards, and determine the displacement capacity of columns, piles and shafts, and
more began to be considered in the seismic design of bridges bridge frames. For more information, visit https://goo.gl/YLjuBh.
• Memo to Designers (MTD) 20-9 provided rules for reinforce-
ment splices in ductile and capacity-protected members. Mark Yashinsky has spent the last 34 years as a bridge engineer at Caltrans
• New criteria allowed rocking as an earthquake resisting and has worked in the Caltrans Office of Earthquake Engineering since
system for existing bridges. the Loma Prieta Earthquake. Among his many duties is leading the post-
• New criteria were developed for the retrofit of arch, truss, and earthquake inspection team, developing new seismic criteria, and managing
other non-standard bridges.
the seismic retrofit program. He has written a number of books, papers, and
• Caltrans began a robust seismic research program and has
articles on bridges and earthquakes. (mark.yashinsky@dot.ca.gov)
invested over $100 million since 1989 to better understand
• Efficient Construction
• Aesthetics and Performance
• Two Distinct Profiles
www.newmill.com
Geology
The Viaduct has been deteriorating due to age as well as damage Seattle is located adjacent to Puget Sound in the Puget Lowland
resulting from the 2001 Nisqually earthquake. The SR 99 Tunnel between the Olympic Mountains to the west and the Cascade Range
consists of three segments: the South Approach, the Bored Tunnel, to the east. The Puget Lowland has been subject to several glacial
and the North Approach. The South and North Approaches include advances, resulting in a complex stratigraphy of glacial and non-glacial
cut-and-cover tunnels and U-sections. soil deposits. Along its alignment, the tunnel traverses through vari-
The bored tunnel begins south of downtown Seattle in close prox- able glacially over-consolidated soil deposits with high groundwater
imity to the seawall of Elliott Bay, tends north along the existing pressures of up to 5.2 bars (Figure 3). These deposits are often highly
Alaskan Way Viaduct, then crosses under the Viaduct, traverses variable within relatively short distances due to the inconsistency
under downtown Seattle, and emerges north of downtown Seattle in erosion and deposition during the multiple glacial events and
just east of the Space Needle (Figure 1). The bored tunnel is 9,300 interglacial periods.
feet long with an outer diameter of 56 feet and was excavated by an
Earth Pressure Balance (EPB) Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM), named
Bertha, with a 57½-foot-diameter cutterhead. The bored tunnel was
Design
the largest in diameter in the world at the time of design (Figure 2). Design geologic sections were selected to assess the geologic vari-
At its lowest point, the tunnel crown is at elevation -95 feet, and it is ability along the tunnel alignment, as well as topographic/geometric
215 feet deep at its greatest depth below grade. Development along variability and building structure locations. As shown in Figure 3,
the alignment consists of on-grade and elevated roadways, buildings 15 geologic sections (shown in blue) were selected for static design
ranging from single-story to high-rise structures, railroad and sewer and 8 sections (shown in red) for seismic design. For consideration
tunnels, and public and private utilities. of potential future development, the contract required an evaluation
In December 2010, WSDOT awarded the SR 99 Bored Tunnel of a 7,000 psf building surcharge applied at the height and width
Design-Build Project to Seattle Tunnel Partners (STP) based on best limits of WSDOT’s right of way above the tunnel, which are 54 feet
technical solution and cost. STP is a joint venture between Dragados above the crown and 84 feet wide. Existing building and structure
USA and Tutor Perini Corp. The design team includes HNTB foundations vary from spread footings and mat foundations to deep
Corporation, Intecsa of Spain, Hart Crowser, Inc., and EMI Inc. shafts and piles, ranging from 8 to 63 feet long and as close as 16
HNTB was responsible for the design of the lining and approach feet above the tunnel crown. Buildings along the tunnel alignment
structures. After close to two years of design and preparations, TBM range from 13 to 546 feet tall with basement excavations ranging
Bertha was launched and began drilling in July 2013. Only five from approximately 0 to 87 feet deep.
months later, Bertha halted Dual levels of design
drilling due to overheating earthquakes were consid-
of some of her components. ered for the design of the
After two years of repair and tunnel liner. The Expected
preparation, Bertha resumed Earthquake has a 108-year
mining in February 2016 return period and is asso-
and finally broke through ciated with Operational
into the receiving pit in Performance Objectives,
April 2017. Although the while the Rare Earthquake
TBM work was put on hold Figure 1. SR 99 Bored Tunnel and Approaches. has a 2,500-year return
22 STRUCTURE magazine
Figure 2. SR 99 Bored Tunnel configuration. Figure 3. Geotechnical profile and design section locations.
J A N U A R Y 2 019 23
Figure 5. Section – Tunnel Interior Structure (TIS). Figure 6. Tunnel interior structure corbel construction.
Figure 7. Skip forming for upper slab of interior structure. Figure 8. TBM delivery during TIS construction.
24 STRUCTURE magazine
One frame.
Countless possibilities.
Structural Steel
Connections.
Streamlined.
AISC 358-16
26 STRUCTURE magazine
early 2000’s. He is currently a Senior Project Manager at
BergerABAM. Barry Arnold had this to say about Steve’s
departure: “Since 2005, Steve has served faithfully on
the Editorial Board. For thirteen years, the readers of
STRUCTURE have benefited from his dedication and
commitment to the magazine and the profession. Steve’s
service is commendable and greatly appreciated, and he
will be missed.” Of his tenure, Steve noted: “I am grate-
ful to have had the opportunity to work on the Editorial
Board since 2005, helping make STRUCTURE maga-
zine the premier source of information relevant to the Jason McCool, P.E. Eytan Solomon, P.E. Charles “Chuck” F. King, P.E.
structural engineering community today. It has been
highly rewarding to work with authors to publish timely We are also pleased to announce Charles King of Urban Engineers and
technical and project articles, and to shepherd articles that help Eytan Solomon from Robert Silman Associates as new members nomi-
the business operation of an engineering consulting office. After nated by CASE. Charles is responsible for operation and management
13 years, it is time to allow a different perspective on the Editorial of their New York City office and has more than 30 years of experience
Board, but I hope to stay active with the magazine by submitting on complex transportation projects. His organizational skills will be quite
worthwhile articles for future issues.” valuable in his new role. Eytan is an Associate in their New York City office
STRUCTURE magazine welcomes three new Board members in and brings well-rounded experience in new construction, adaptive re-use,
2019. The Board is pleased to announce that Jason McCool of Robbins historic preservation, and the use of unconventional building materials.
Engineering, Little Rock, AR, will join the Editorial Board as a Please join STRUCTURE magazine in sending Barry, Greg,
nominee by NCSEA. We know that he will contribute much to the and Steve best wishes in their future endeavors. And welcome to
content and quality of the magazine with special expertise in welding Jason, Charles, and Eytan; their experience, expertise, and
engineering. Jason brings with him experience in writing and editing, input will be wonderful additions to the STRUCTURE
and comes highly recommended by his peers. magazine team.■
Please watch for a message from John Dal Pino about his vision for STRUCTURE magazine
during his tenure. It is anticipated that this will run in the February 2019 issue.
GEOPIER GROUND
IMPROVEMENT CONTROLS
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info@geopier.com
GEOPIER IS GROUND IMPROVEMENT®
J A N U A R Y 2 019 27
structural SUSTAINABILITY
Thermal Breaks in Building Envelopes
Recent Research Findings
By Scott Hamel, P.E., Ph.D., and Kara Peterman, Ph.D.
28 STRUCTURE magazine
Comparison of heat flow rate and thermal-break pad thickness. Results of heat flow tests in the calibrated hot box with various pad materials
and thicknesses.
research has been conducted on covering Structural testing at UAA indicated that improvement for most common solutions.
insulation and more studies are necessary to neoprene pads, despite their prevalence in Test results also demonstrate that some details,
determine its required length, thickness, and some regions, are inappropriate for use in while decreasing the potential for condensa-
appropriate application situations. structural connections. FRP pads, however, tion, actually increases the overall heat flow
central to the NEU work, demonstrated very through the detail when compared
Structural and Thermal high strengths and stiffnesses as shims in snug- to the control condition with no
tight bolted connections. This research led thermal break.▪
Testing and Modelling to design recommendations for incorporat-
Scott Hamel is an Associate Professor of Civil
Two recent studies at the University of ing a range of shims in structural cladding Engineering and the Director of the Trueblood Cold
Alaska Anchorage (UAA) and Northeastern details. These may be accessed via a report Regions Engineering Laboratory at the University
University (NEU) in Boston, MA, highlight published by the Charles Pankow Foundation of Alaska Anchorage. Scott is a member of the
the thermal and structural behavior of some (www.pankowfoundation.org). SEI Thermal Bridging Task Force and is actively
common thermal-break strategies. Various involved in the Structural Engineers Association of
thermal-break details were experimentally Alaska (SEAAK). (sehamel@alaska.edu)
tested in a “Calibrated Hot-Box” to deter-
When to Use a Thermal Break
Kara Peterman is an Assistant Professor in
mine heat-flow and surface temperature Designers must carefully consider the ther- the Department of Civil and Environmental
characteristics, which were used to validate mal conductivity and mechanical properties Engineering at the University of Massachusetts
an extensive series of 3-D Finite-element of the break, the structural application, and Amherst. Kara is a member of the Committee of
thermal models. The models tested included installation approach to adequately mitigate Framing Standards for the American Iron and
various configurations of pad materials, energy loss at the building envelope while Steel Institute, the SEI Thermal Bridging Task
thicknesses, and bolt materials. maintaining the structural integrity of the Group, and the Structural Stability Research
Council. (kdpeterman@umass.edu).
Representative results for thermal breaks connection. Test results show only a minor
with varying materials and thicknesses
indicate that, despite the low thermal
conductivity of the pads, the increased
cross-sectional area of the connection
and the penetrating bolts cause minor
reductions in heat flow. For neoprene
pad thicknesses of less than 25mm (1
J A N U A R Y 2 019 29
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36 STRUCTURE magazine
News from the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations
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J A N U A R Y 2 019 37
SEI Update
Best Wishes from SEI/ASCE for a Happy,
Healthy, and Prosperous New Year!
What’s on your to-do list for 2019?
We invite you to get involved to advance structural engineering and your career: Join an SEI Committee effort (technical, standard develop-
ment, business/professional and more), or an SEI Chapter or Grad Student Chapter to connect and learn in your local area. www.asce.org/SEI
Membership
Join or Renew SEI/ASCE
For innovative solutions and learning, to connect with leaders and colleagues, and to enjoy member benefits such as SEI Member
Update monthly e-news opportunities and resources – visit www.asce.org/myprofile or call ASCE Customer Service at
800-548-ASCE (2723).
SEI Online
Errata SEI Standards Supplements and Errata including ASCE 7. See www.asce.org/SEI-Errata.
If you would like to submit errata, contact Jon Esslinger at jesslinger@asce.org.
38 STRUCTURE magazine
News of the Structural Engineering Institute of ASCE
Learning / Networking
Learn more at —
https://structuresdubai2019.cvent.com
J A N U A R Y 2 019 39
CASE in Point
Did you know?
CASE has tools and practice guidelines to help firms deal with a wide variety of business scenarios that structural engineering firms face
daily. Whether your firm needs to establish a new Quality Assurance Program, update its risk management program, keep track of the skills
young engineers are learning at each level of experience, or need a sample contract document – CASE has the tools you need! CASE has
several tools available for firms to use for recruiting and retaining employees.
962 National Practice Guidelines for the Structural Tool 3-2 Staffing and Revenue Projection
Engineer of Record Tool 3-5 Staffing Schedule Suite
962-B National Practice Guidelines for Specialty Structural Engineers Tool 4-3 Sample Correspondence Guidelines
Tool 2-2 Interview Guide and Template Tool 5-1 A Guide to the Practice of Structural Engineering
Tool 2-3 Employee Evaluation Templates Tool 5-2 Milestone Checklist for Young Engineers
You can purchase these and the other Risk Management Tools at www.acec.org/bookstore.
40 STRUCTURE magazine
News of the Council of American Structural Engineers
CASE Winter Planning Meeting
February 7-8, 2019
Friday – February 8
7:30 am – 8:30 am Shared Breakfast
8:00 am – 12:00 pm CASE General / Toolkit Committee
Meeting
CASE Contracts Committee Meeting
CASE Guidelines Committee Meeting
CASE Programs & Communications
Committee Meeting
The 2019 CASE Winter Planning Meeting is scheduled for 12:00 pm – 1:00 pm Lunch
February 7-8, 2019, in Tampa, FL. The agenda includes: 1:00 pm – 4:30 pm CASE General / Toolkit Committee
Meeting
Thursday – February 7 CASE Contracts Committee Meeting
1:00 pm – 5:30 pm CASE Executive Committee Meeting CASE Guidelines Committee Meeting
6:00 pm – 8:00 pm CASE Roundtable CASE Programs & Communications
Speakers: NCSEA SE3 Committee Committee Meeting
Members 4:30 pm – 5:00 pm Committee Wrap-up Session
If you are interested in attending the meeting or have any suggested topics/ideas from a firm perspective for the committees to pursue,
please contact Heather Talbert at htalbert@acec.org.
J A N U A R Y 2 019 41
structural FORUM
Scope Creep
By Stan R. Caldwell, P.E., SECB
“
nonstructural elements and their attach- on verbal agreements, or they work under
ment. For example, on building projects: the terms of their proposals that were never
”
• Skylight framing, window and cur- formally accepted in writing. Other engi-
tain walls, cladding, and doors The key to controlling neers routinely accept agreements that were
• Window washing systems
• Non-load-bearing interior partitions
scope creep is discipline. drafted entirely by their clients, often with-
out their review or input. When the scope
and ceilings of work is not clearly defined before work
• Anchorages, pads, brackets, and Extra services are services that arise due commences, an engineer is in a poor position
platforms for MEP equipment to unforeseen circumstances during the to request additional compensation later.
• Guide systems for elevators, escalators, design or construction of a project. For Second, many structural engineers are
and conveyors example, extra services on building projects reluctant to request additional compensa-
• Handrails and guardrails may include: tion when they are asked to provide special
• Stage equipment, catwalks, and • Evolving revisions to the size or or extra services. They fear that such requests
acoustical fixtures scope of a project might adversely affect their relationships with
• Sculptures, screens, and decorative work • Changes proposed by the owner, their clients and impair their opportunities
• Retaining walls not attached to buildings architect, or consultants for future projects. Sadly, these fears are not
• Fountains, culverts, tunnels, and other • Changes or substitutions proposed entirely unfounded. However, additional
site work by the contractor compensation is almost never offered except
• Antennas, flagpoles, lighting, and signage • Changes due to undiscovered or in direct response to a clearly stated request
Special services also include certain tasks that unanticipated conditions from an engineer.
are traditionally excluded from a structural • Changes due to newly adopted codes The key to controlling scope creep is discipline.
engineer’s basic scope of work. For example, or other regulations Structural engineers must have the discipline
special services may comprise the following • Changes due to a value engineering to secure a signed professional services agree-
on building projects: exercise ment that clearly defines their scope of work
• Investigation or field verification • Changes due to a construction and compensation before starting every new
of existing conditions cost overrun project. Then, they must have the discipline to
• Coordination of special wind studies • Revisions that are inconsistent with secure an agreement for appropriate additional
and wind tunnel tests prior instructions compensation before providing any special or
• Coordination of special seismic studies • Services necessitated by deficiencies extra services. Discipline can be dif-
and shake table tests in the contractor’s work ficult to maintain on every project,
• Preparation of additional documents • Services necessitated by delays but it is essential to profitability.▪
for phased construction in the contractor’s work
• Preparation of additional documents • Additional representation required Stan R. Caldwell (StanCaldwellPE.com) is a
for fast-track construction at the construction site consulting structural engineer in Plano, Texas.
• Preparation of estimated material • Services as an expert witness in a (StanCaldwellPE@gmail.com)
quantities project-related dispute
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