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Syllabus Outline:
https://www.slps.org/cms/lib/MO01001157/Centricity/Domain/2503/IB%20HoA%202%20Syllabu
s.pdf
FOR PAPER 2 CONTENT REFER TO THIS DOCUMENT! IT IS DESIGNED TO ANSWER
EXAM QUESTIONS AND IS VERY DETAILED!
Important Note to DP History Students 3
SL Topic 1: Stalin 4
Stalin’s Rise To Power, Ideology and Aims 4
Consolidation of Power 6
Domestic Policy 8
Foreign Policy 11
SL Topic 2: Hitler 14
Impact of WWI & Treaty of Versailles 14
German Revolution 1918-1919 & Weimar Republic 1919-1933 17
Hitler’s Rise to Power & Consolidation of Power 22
Domestic Policies 26
Foreign Policy 28
SL Topic 3: Mussolini 32
SL Topic 5: Mao 46
Overview 46
Timeline 46
Birth of the CCP 48
Nanjing Decade 1927-37 50
The Long March October 1934-5 51
The Communists at Yanan (1935-45)- Red Army and Rectification Campaign (1942-3) 52
Japanese Occupation of China & Second United Front 53
Chinese Civil War 1945-9 54
P2 - Mao’s Rise to Power 54
P2 - Mao’s Consolidation of Power - Ary 56
Economic and Social Policies 58
HL Topic 1: China 61
Nature of Qing Rule 61
Internal Rebellions 62
Chinese Tribute System and Western Trade/Diplomatic Missions 62
Taiping Rebellion (1854 - 1864) 63
First and Second Opium War (1856 - 1860) 63
Self Strengthening Movement “Tong Zhi Restoration” from 1861 - 1864 64
Acceleration of Imperialism - Sino-Japanese War (1895) 65
100 Day Reform 65
BOXER REBELLION 66
Xinhai/1010 Revolution (1911) 67
Post Mao 68
HL Topic 2: Japan 73
Tokugawa Shogunate 73
Meiji Restoration 1868 & Era (1868 -1912) 79
Taisho Democracy 1912-1926 86
Japanese Imperialism 88
HL Topic 3: Korea 94
Korea: Isolation to Annexation 94
Korea under Japanese Rule 101
Important Note to DP History
Students
Hi there! This study guide was created for the IB History HL & SL programme, for the 2017-
2025 sessions. The following are included in this study guide:
● Standard level units
○ Move to global war (paper 1)
■ Hitler
■ Mussolini
■ Japan
○ Authoritarian leaders (paper 2)
■ Stalin
■ Hitler
■ Mao
○ Cold war (paper 2)
● Higher level units (paper 3):
○ Challenges to East Asian societies (1700-1868)
○ Early modernisation and imperial decline in East Asia (1860-1912)
○ China and Korea (1910-1950)
○ The People's Republic of China (1949-2005)
For paper 1, I highly recommend studying all the topics, as it has been unpredictable which
topics will come up (with japan appearing as the main topic for a couple exams in a row).
For paper 2, we highly recommend using this document, as some of the tables we
created came up on our final exam for May 2018. The document linked is more detailed
(for certain aspects of paper 2 such as domestic policies, conditions/factors in the rise to
power etc.), and is designed to answer potential exam questions.
For paper 3, please note that some of the SL Mao content can be on paper 3, so it is important
that if you’re an HL student doing PRC, that you know your stuff for Mao in depth!
We hope this helps with revision! Enjoy, bookmark this page as well as this document, and
share these resources with friends and peers!
SL Topic 1: Stalin
Stalin’s Rise To Power, Ideology and Aims
What methods did Stalin employ to overcome his rivals in the leadership struggle?
● Stalin portrayed himself as Lenin's follower in Soviet propaganda in an effort to justify his
efforts to take power - Lenin was widely revered by the Russian working class and class-
conscious workers world wide, particularly those in the communist parties of Europe.
● His theory of Socialism in One Country rather than Permanent Revolution was in stark
contrast to the principled socialist stand of Lenin and his internationalist outlook.
● Stalin played one side against the other to take power: First, he allied with Zinoviev and
Kamenev to cover up Lenin’s Will and to get Trotsky dismissed (1925). Trotsky went into
exile (1928). Then, he advocated ‘Socialism in one country’ (he said that the USSR
should first become strong, then try to bring world revolution) and allied with the Rightists
to get Zinoviev and Kamenev dismissed (1927). Stalin put his supporters into the
Politburo. Finally, he argued that the NEP was un-communist, and got Bukharin, Rykov
and Tomsky dismissed (1929).
Consolidation of Power
The Great Terror
● Purge: Stalin’s way of getting rid of.:
○ Undesirable, lazy and drunk members
○ All potential threats
○ ‘Radishes’ – red outside, white inside
● Reasons to purge
○ Unpopular policies – as a distraction
○ Stalin’s pathological distrust - paranoid
○ Find scapegoats - kulaks
○ Find slave labour – sent to remote regions
○ Ensure continuous support for himself – loyal followers
○ NKVD wanted to increase their own power
● Timeline
○ 1932 – Ryutin Platform
■ Expelled from Party for circulating 200-page document, denouncing Stalin
○ 1933 – Communist purges
■ 20% of party expelled
■ Forced to confess to ‘impossible’ crimes
■ Put on show trials
○ 1934 – Kirov’s murder
■ Killed as he gained more votes than Stalin in elections
■ Kirov also spoke out against him about Ryutin’s document
○ 1936 – Trial of 16
■ 16 ‘old Bolsheviks’ were put on trial for Kirov’s death and Trotskyite
conspiracy
○ 1937 – Trial of 17
■ 17 tried for plotting with GE
○ 1937 – torture, execution and purges
■ These were legalised Scientists, priests, administrators, writers,
musicians executed
○ 1938 – Trial of 21
■ ‘Trotskyite Rightist’ put on trial – namely Bukharin and Rykov
○ 1939 – NKVD purged
■ NKVD agents executed Knew all Stalin’s secrets
● Effects
○ Creation of “ Little Stalins” Brutal hardcore ruthless communists
○ 600 000 Party members lost lives
○ Weak army – removed half of senior officers (worst idea bcoz of WW2)
○ Millions of innocent people in Gulags
○ Fear gripped Soviet people – obedient
○ Damaged industrial force o Stalin’s personality cult expanded
■ Seen as ‘father figure’
Cult of Personality
● Uplift and unite people
● Uses himself as a distraction
○ Make himself God-like
○ ‘father of nations’
○ Constantly craved adoration and attention
○ Streets, buildings, songs, poetry, statue, prizes, national anthems
■ Named after him – Stalingrad
● Timeline
○ 1924-1929:
■ Stalin assumes modest image ‘
■ Stalin is the Lenin of today’
■ City renamed Stalingrad
○ 1929-1933:
■ Received 350 greeting for 50th birthday
■ Length of applause increase after speeches
■ Huge portraits of Stalin with 3 important men
○ 1933-1939:
■ Art style: socialist realism
■ Stalin’s image everywhere – reassure people of strong leader
■ History reinterpreted in Stalin’s favour
○ 1940-1945:
■ Stalin’s imagine everywhere
● His success as war leader, increase in power
● Portraits show him in god-like solitude
● His 70th birthday crazily elaborate
Domestic Policy
Collectivisation
● Intro
○ 1920s USSR remained a backward state
○ 1930s tremendous change
■ Stalin wanted to build a Communist Utopia in USSR
○ Methods used:
■ Collectivization
■ Industrialization
■ Kulaks
■ ‘enemies of people’ killed off
● Reasons for Collectivisation
○ Achieve socialism in countryside
■ 1/125 = communist in countryside
○ Control and transform ‘backward peasantry’
■ Peasants were seen as ‘primitive’ and ‘uneducated’
○ Solve problems of food shortage
■ Serious problems in 1927-8: peasants and states at loggerheads
○ Industrialization
■ Provide surplus manpower, food and $$ for rapid industrialisation ‘war
scare’ highlight RU need to catch up with West
○ Prove communism = way forward
■ Could eliminate kulak
■ Collectives were run by party – peasants firmly under party’s control
NEP
● Economic growth slow
● Capitalist way
● Stages of Collectivisation
○ Collectivization
■ Voluntary basis not effective
■ Confiscating grain by force
○ Urals-Siberian Method
■ Denounce kulaks
■ Revelation of kulaks – 25% reward
○ Implementation
■ Forced collectivization
● All forced to join collective farms
● If oppose, labelled as kulaks and face consequences
■ Dekulakization
● Divided into 3 categories
○ Most dangerous – imprisoned/shot
○ Transported Siberia
○ Least dangerous – given poor land outside collective farms
■ Peasant opposition
● Kulaks – difficult to identify
● ‘we have no kulaks here’ = common reply to squads
● Collectivization squad
○ Seen as anti-Christ
○ Took peasant possessions and properties
○ Exaggerated – killed more than target to impress
● Churches turned into barns
● Religious holidays renamed
● Women led opposition
● Peasants destroyed own possessions
○ Halt to Collectivization
■ Article written by Stalin: “Dizzy with Success”
● Accused party officials of excessive force
● Brigade “too enthusiastic”
○ Collectivization resumed
■ Peasants had limited concessions
● Small plot of land + some livestock
■ Allowed to retain any surplus if quota met
○ Famine
■ 4 to 6.5 million died
■ Ukraine – most deaths
■ State took higher % of harvest, leaving peasants to starve
■ “Stalin’s revenge on the peasants.” – R. Conquest
○ Consolidation
■ Legalized private plots
■ Allowed to keep animals
■ State/collective farms produced less than private plots
● Successes
○ Party had greater control over peasants and countryside
○ State had greater control over grain supply
○ Increase grain supply, more food for industrial workforce
○ Massive increase in urban population
● Failures
○ Grain production increased only marginally
○ Peasants lacked incentive to work hard
○ Collectives ineffective in long-term
Industrialisation
● Reasons for Industrialisation
○ Only 20% were the working class
■ Unskilled illiterate ex-peasants
○ NEP wasn’t working
■ Insufficient food and jobs
■ Low wages
○ Need to prepare for war
● GOSPLAN
○ Set targets for industries
■ Each region → each factory → each worker
○ Main focus: HEAVY INDUSTRY
■ Steel
■ Iron
■ Coal
■ Oil
○ Expectations exaggerated to meet Stalin’s high expectation o Usually
unachievable
■ If quota not met – lie, bribe, trade
○ 10 million people recruited from countryside – including women
■ Problem: Uneducated, illiterate, no discipline
○ Factories opened 24/7
Social Changes
● Religion
○ Bolsheviks believed that religion = intervention to distract poor from reality
■ Many churches closed
■ 1/40 churches left (1939)
■ Worship could only take place in licensed place
■ Recorded if one goes to church
○ All other religions attacked: Islams, jews, etc.
○ Despite this, people continued to pray in private
○ Stalin wanted to replace religion with Stalin’s cult
● Education
○ Primary education made compulsory = 7 years
○ Literacy rate increase
○ Girls and boys
○ School seemed ‘bourgeoisie’
■ No more exams
■ No competition
○ BUT this was ineffective → returned to traditional system
■ Uniforms
■ Exams and tests
■ Teachers = rigorous communists
■ Focused on Stalin’s history
○ Young had to join Comm groups:
■ “Young Pioneers” U -14
■ “Komosol” U -28
● Family Life
○ Women given more equal rights
○ Children-family bonds eliminated
■ Children spied on their own parents
○ No necessity to get married
■ Problem: No stability – men had too many gfs
○ Divorce was cheap and easy
○ Abortion legalized
○ Solution
■ abortion illegal ‘Divorce more difficult
■ Homosexuality banned
■ 6+ children from 1 mum – got $$
● Soviet Culture
○ Radio = most important way to communicate with population
○ Cinema
■ Films – very patriotic/based on historical figures
○ Art = socialist art o Literature – socialist realism
○ Music suffered
● Rebuilding Moscow
○ World’s first communist state
○ Monuments built
■ “Stalinist baroque”
Overview
● USSR became a ‘quicksand society’ bcz people disappeared all the time
● Women gained many more opportunities
● Suicides increase – poor standard of living
● Sense of optimism
○ A shared sense of struggle to build world’s first Comm society
Foreign Policy
Background
● After WW1, a lot of economic hardship for FR, GE, etc
● BR – dominant & US = isolationism
● USSR hit very hard. Romanov kicked out and communist takeover
● 1920s, Lenin wanted Permanent Revolution
○ Have other countries to be communist
● Stalin’s main idea: Socialism in One Country
● Lenin set up
○ Comintern – intl comm org – aimed at spreading communism
○ Comecon – communist economic intl org
Overview
● 1934: USSR asked to be part of L.O.N.
○ Diplomatically accepted and acknowledged USSR as a country
■ Everyone willing to trade
■ Huge step forward
○ Collective security – avoid WWs
■ Stalin part of it
■ Some people distrust USSR (communism) but feared fascism (in GE)
from spreading more
● 1936-39: Spanish Civil War
○ Left-winged govt came to power in Spain
■ Not particularly popular
■ Military generals grouped together to overthrow them
○ Other countries got involved
■ IT & GE support military generals
■ USSR support left-winged
○ IN THE END, right-winged won – due to a lot of help from Hitler and Mussolini
○ Led to tension between Hitler and Stalin
● 1939: Nazi-Soviet Pact
○ Stalin not ready for war
○ Hitler knows BR & US will help USSR
○ Signed an agreement
■ Promised not to attack each other
■ H allowed S some territory
■ Divided Poland between them
● Stalin – east
● Hitler – west
■ Didn’t last forever. GE attacked USSR
● 1941: Operation Barbarossa (WW2)
○ Invade western part of RU
○ Stalin caught off-guard
○ Sent military troops over
○ HOWEVER, GE took over easily
■ Lots of deaths
■ Dramatic loss
○ Stalin steps down temporarily
○ Then, took charge again
● 1945: War won
○ Russia
■ Harsh military threat if retreated
■ More men
■ More resources
■ Favourable climate
○ This boosted Stalin’s popularity
SL Topic 2: Hitler
Impact of WWI & Treaty of Versailles
- 1914 germans were proud – kaiser celebrated for achievements, one of finest armies,
people seemed prosperous
- WWI changed this picture – a proud army was defeated, german people were surviving
on turnips and bread, flour mixed with sawdust
Birth of Weimar
- Autumn 1918 allies won WWI – germany in a state of chaos
- Proposed peace on strict conditions – Germany had to be more democratic
- When Kaiser refused, sailors in North Germany mutinied and took over
town of Kiel (triggered other revolts and uprisings)
- Kaiser left Germany November 1918
- Soon following the socialist leader Friedrich Ebert became new leader
- Immediately signed armistice
- New republic giving freedom of speech worship and better working conditions
Historiography
Nikki Christie (author of history textbooks (not a historian but well researched))
- ToV provides significant explanation to start of WWII
- Loss of german land, redrawing of german borders and burden of reparations
– meant that Germany would challenge foreign powers at some point
German Revolution 1918-1919 & Weimar Republic 1919-
1933
Problems Faced by Weimar
Socio-economic Left-wing Right-wing Military
opposition opposition
‘Golden Years’ Under Stresemann – What allowed this recovery and boom? Was it
superficial or did it have long term prosperity?
● Gustav Stresemann appointed Chancellor August 1923 and his policies helped
transform the fortunes of the republic
● Dawes Plan 1924
○ First act was to call off the strikes in the Ruhr as he thought the occupation les to
political instability and severe strain on the German economy
○ Issues a new currency, the Rentenmark, to stabilize inflation and negotiated with
reparations committee
○ April 1924 → Had plan for reparations payments under American banker Charles
Dawes
■ Plan left total sum undecided but saved Germany two years of delay on
reparations and laid down instrument of graded installments
○ International loans granted to speed up Germany’s recovery and make it possible
to speed up payments
○ Recovery after the Dawes plan and ‘Golden Years’ was dependent upon foreign
loans and investment → fragile
○ Main source of aid came from USA and at any time they could withdraw aid and
demand that Germany pay it back (wall street crash)
● Young Plan 1929
○ Led by Owen Young – international commissions reduced reparations to 1850
million pounds that had to paid in 59 years after complaining
○ However many germans had discontent for the Young Plan as they were still
required to pay 30 million to allies annually until 1988
■ Nazis launched violent campaigns
○ Before plan came into action, world was hit by great depression and Germany
was unable to pay
Weimar culture - to what extent did it undermine the support for the regime?
● Modern culture
○ Greater sexual freedom and tolerance, and development of mass culture
○ Street theatre developed to take political drama to a mass audience: ‘a theatre
that makes no contact with the public is nonsense’ - brecht
○ Some women broke traditional norms – short hair, smoking, liberation – greater
expansion of employment opportunities for women in growing professional
sectors
○ 1920s theatre developed as a form of mass entertainment for the democratic age
● German’s reactions
○ Nazis organised disruptions of “unpatriotic” films and performances, prominence
of jews during this cultural thaw was seen by right as proof of harm of Weimar
○ Many welcomed atmosphere of optimism and experimentalism but for others it
reinforced fears that Germany was collapsing
○ Many conservatives blamed govt. For allowing traditional German culture to be
undermined
■ Some left wing also felt this way, as they wanted a more dynamic
communism
○ Abroad Germany’s culture became well known & attracted many across the
world
○ Experimentations limited to cities
○ The culture itself did not undermine the republic, but all that was wrong with
Germany was largely associated with Weimar
How did the Great Depression lead to the collapse of the Republic?
● No growth in industrial production in 1928-9 and unemployment rose to 2.5 million
● American demands for imports collapsed → german economy collapsed
● American banks called back loans
● Industrial production fell → was 40% below 1929 level
● Unemployment rose to 6.12 million in February and huge slums were created in the
industrial cities
● Crime and suicide rates rose sharply
● People deserted democratic parties and turned to the extreme left or right
● CHancellor Bruning (1930-2) followed a policy of economic austerity in which govt
spending was cut in order to keep inflation under control and German exports
competitive → high taxes and reduced unemployment assistance
● Given Bruning’s unpopularity of his policies, he found it difficult to get a majority and
relied on article 48 → undermining democracy
● Bruning replaced with Von Papen – equally unpopular
● In Jan 1933 Hitler appointed chancellor in an attempt by Hindenburg to crush democracy
– WR gone
Conditions of Weimar
Economic Conditions Political Conditions
Long-term Factors
● Political problems
○ Weak constitution
■ Article 48 → Hitler used this to establish a dictatorship
■ Proportional representation → led to weak coalition governments which
undermined credibility and made it hard to agree upon decisions → 6
coalition governments between 1925-9
○ Legacy of defeat in WWI and ToV
■ Weimar had to take on blame and humiliation
■ ‘Stabbed in the back myth’
● Economic weaknesses of Weimar
○ 1920s Germany had been exhausted by WWI and treaty deprived Germany of
natural resources
■ 75% of iron ore resources lost when Rhineland occupied
○ Reparations
○ Money system broke down and hyperinflation
○ Dependent on foreign loans
○ Weak economy made more workers support radical political parties
● Nazi exploitation of Stab in the Back Myth
○ Right wing nationalists believed Germany was defeated in WWI because
socialists, catholics and jews had stabbed Germany in the back by their
revolution in 1918
■ Hitler used this in election campaigns, gained support
Mid-term factors
● Impact of Great Depression
○ 1928 foreign capital dried up as US went into great depression
○ 1929 banks forced to close and by 1932 6 million people unemployed
○ Coalition government deeply divided and failed to agree on measures to be
undertaken
■ Beginning of 1930s, government agreed to cut government expenditure
on welfare to cope with the falling tax revenue
○ Bruning set up public work schemes, to counter the high unemployment rates –
too little too late
■ Public deeply discontented with the handling of the economic depression
and began to look to more radical parties such as the Nazis
● Hitler’s Use of Effective Propaganda
○ Hitler made use of propaganda to increase his support
○ 1932, he got 37% of all votes
○ Nazi party put much effort into educating some of its key members to hold
speeches to ensure the quality of party campaigns
○ In contrast to other parties, the Nazis used of the new technology such as radio
and the Cinema to attract support
Immediate Causes
● Political Intrigue
○ In 1932 General von Schleicher replaced von Papen as Chancellor as von Papen
had fallen out of favour with the people and the Weimar republic
○ Von Schleicher’s policy of land reform worried the conservative President
Hindenburg
○ In January it was decided to get rid of von Schleicher and to try and bring the
Nazis into government to try to stabilize German politics
○ In 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor by Hindenburg
○ Hindenburg and his conservative allies thought that they could control Hitler, but
they were wrong
○ When Hitler was appointed chancellor he called fresh elections for March
○ The SA began to attack their political enemies especially the Communists and
Social Democrats
○ Their papers were closed down their offices raided, their meetings attacked and
their members beaten up. In order to ensure that the military would not intervene,
Hitler promised the army that he would tear up the military clauses of the Treaty
of Versailles. The Nazis could now act as they pleased.
● The Reichstag Fire
○ In February in 1933 a young Dutch communist Van der Lubbe set fire to the
Reichstag building. Hitler took advantage of this act and announced that it was a
signal for a communist revolt. An emergency law was passed. It allowed the
chancellor to suspend the parliament. This law formed the basis of police power
in Germany and helped to create a totalitarian state. Hitler had now control over
the Weimar republic.
● The Enabling Act
○ The elections held in March saw the Nazis and their allies receive 52% of the
vote and a majority in the Reichstag. Hitler passed now passed the emergency
law called "the Enabling Act". To gain the support needed for the law, SA mobs
surrounded the parliament and threatened any politicians that voted against the
law. Hitler succeeded to pass the law and it allowed Hitler as chancellor to pass
laws without seeking the approval of parliament or the President. It formed the
legal basis of the Nazi dictatorship. The Nazis could now close down the other
opposing political parties, arrest political opponents etc. They could crush all
opposition. In 1934, Hitler was the sole leader of the Nazis and he could start
build the Nazi dictatorship.
Historiography
G. Ritter, the Weimar republic collapsed in 1933 to due its inability to win the confidence of the
general public. The popular resentment towards Weimar republic was a major factor in
helping Hitler seizing power in 1933.
I. Kershaw, chance, luck and tragic miscalculations were a major factor bringing Hitler to
power, and causing the downfall of the Weimar republic. There was nothing inevitable about
Hitler’s triumph in 1933.
E. Anderson, A major factor contributing to the collapse of the Weimar republic was the
shrewdness of the political leaders in the Nazi party. The government believed they could
control Hitler in his new position as chancellor in 1933. However, they were wrong Hitler
managed to outmanoeuvre the government and establish a single party state thanks to his
position as chancellor.
Domestic Policies
Aims
● "Volksgemeinschaft" (people's community) → Build a classless society by replacing
individual liberty with securing the greater good of the nation
● Remove non-Nazi influences
● Shaping attitudes of population to support Hitler's aims
● Focus on foreign policy and militia
● Successes: Hitler succeeded given that he managed to impose his ideology onto the
people. Also, through a harsh way of rule, Hitler managed to keep receive the support he
needed to pursue his foreign interests
● Failures: Hitler was only in power for 12 years, 6 of which were spent in war. Essentially,
after the end of the Second World War including Hitler's suicide, Germany no longer
pursued Nazi ideology as a way of rule! Suggests Hitler was not effective enough in this
domestic policies to leave an impact on his Reich after his death, as he aspired to do.
Youth
● Aims
○ Indoctrinate with Nazi ideology
○ Create loyalty and willingness to sacrifice to greater good of nation →
nationalism/anti-individualism
○ "Separate spheres" → boys were to be strong fighters & girls were to bear
children
○ 1933 - Government takes over and increases in supporters → expansion of
movement
○ 1936 - Membership and all other youth organizations banned
○ Camping outdoor activity, fun games → intimidation and oath to loyalty
○ Later, greater focus on military drills and Nazi ideology → separate for boys and
girls
● Successes
○ 95% loyal to Hitler
○ Rapid membership increase after 1933, plus compulsory membership
○ Brainwashed kids → students prepared to sacrifice themselves for Nazi loyalty
○ Hitler Youth became the dominant monopoly over German's Youth's spare time
● Failures
○ Many youth managed to escape the "compulsory memberships" and rival groups
emerged
○ Many turned away from Hitler Youth in later 1930s
○ The Hitler Youth became less successful with more military training and Nazi
lectures etc.
○ Growing opposition to Hitler Youth - rejection of it + non-Nazi ideas
Education
● Aims/overview
○ Nazifying - an attempt to control the teachers
○ 97% of teachers joined the Nazi Teachers’ League in 1937
○ Purge and discuss unreliable teachers
○ Politicize the curriculum to reflect Nazi ideology – control textbooks → History,
Biology, Physical Education (2h per day) Anti-intellectual, pro-strong/healthy →
future Aryan race
○ Greater focus on needlework for girls, music and home crafts
● Successes
○ Control over teachers - 1937
○ Effective way of spreading Nazism
● Failures
○ Poor quality of students
○ Created ignorant individuals who could not think for themselves - very much
dependent on Nazi ideology
Racial Policies
● The Nazis believed:
○ Blonde-haired, blue-eyed Nordic Germans (or Aryans) were a Volk, or a race.
○ Were the master race – other inferior races arranged in hierarchy beneath them.
○ Near the bottom of this hierarchy came black peoples, and beneath them 'non-
people' such as gypsies and Jews.
○ It was their duty to keep the German race 'pure' by having children only with
fellow Aryans and restricting what other races could do, especially with Jews.
○ It was their destiny to conquer the lands of inferior races, such as the Slavs to the
east, and use them to provide resources and living space for the master race.
● Persecution if minority groups – Nazis persecuted undesirable minority groups:
○ Homosexuals - sent to concentration camps
○ Gypsies - sent to concentration camps, shot or gassed
○ The mentally ill - sent to concentration camps
● The Euthanasia Programme in 1939
○ Hitler introduced this programme to kill people with mental or physical disabilities
who the Nazis judged to lead worthless lives at the expense of the State
○ 5000 children were killed by starvation or lethal injections
○ 71,000 adults were killed by injections or gassing
○ 1941, Hitler stopped programme in the face of protests started by the Catholics
● The persecution of Jews
○ Through the use of propaganda, Hitler blamed the Jews for:
■ Germany's defeat in 1918
■ The inflation of 1923
■ The economic collapse of 1929-1932
■ In schools children were taught to hate Jews, and textbooks put across
anti-semitic ideas.
■ Nazi-controlled newspapers and magazines bombarded adults with anti-
semitic articles and cartoons
Foreign Policy
1933-36 Revisionist Phase
- February 1933, Hitler informs his Generals about his Lebensraum planes
- influenced by Japanese invasion of Manchuria because this aggressive act of
war went unpunished.
Disarmament Proposal
- In 1933 Hilter proposes the League of Nations that all nations disarm –or that Germany
be allowed to rearm to France's level
- France refuses and quits the League
- France forms an alliance with Poland, but this is undermined by the Nazi Non-
aggression Pact with Poland
1935
- Hitler announces that the Luftwaffe is rebuilt
Stresa Front
- Alliance between Britain and France (Mussolini is a part of this for a while to get on good
terms with Britain and France so they won't interfere with his planned invasion of
Ethiopia in 1936.)
- Alliance is undermined by Britain's Naval Agreement with Germanu
November
- Anti-Comintern Pact signed with Japan at same as Britain, France and Poland sign to
solidify the Allies despite high tension between France and Britain
Maginot Line
- Extremely good French foritifications…unfortunately they fail to extend the Maginot line
to their border with Belgium.
1937
5 November
- Hossback Memorandum
- Hossback wrote this the day following a meeting in which Hitler, according to
Hossback (not 100% credible as it was written with no notes taken during the
meeting) revealed plans to take Austria and attack first in the East.
1938 Anschluss
- Austria becomes "Ostmarck" province
- 9 March the Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg opposed the Anschluss, but on 12 March
Nazi trrops cross the border and occupy Austria
Munich Conference
- Take back the Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia that was practically surrounded by
Germany after the Anschluss.
- Hitler said that the Sudetenland was "all he wanted"
- Appeasement: Chamberlain writes that they will see "peace in this era."
3 September
- France and Britain declare war
- Poland falls in 3 weeks because the allies are too far away, have inferior tanks and are
vastly outnumbered by Germany and Russia.
1940
8 April
- Hitler invades Norway to get control of the fjords to attack England
10-12 April
- England sinks 9 Nazi destroyers, and isolates Nazi land force. The Nazi's eventually
wind and pose a huge threat to Britain's Atlantic coast.
1942
Battle of Stalingrad
- Turning point in the war –now Germany is losing
1945
30 April
- Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide in the Führerbunker as Soviet troops reach Berlin
1 May
- Goebbels commits suicide
SL Topic 3: Mussolini
For this question focus on:
Mussolini Rise to Power
Abyssinian Crisis (Context to Invasions)
Mussolini Foreign Policy, Appeasement and Invasions
● Seizure of Fiume, newly created Yugoslav State (this is not a big deal)
○ Mussolini invaded Fiume to undermine French influence in the region. He was
upset with France because France controlled Italian territories of Corsica, Nice
and Sardinia. France also controlled Balkan region, which Mussolini wanted to
dominate
○ LoN tried to step in, issued warnings, but Mussolini ignored them.
● August 29, 1923 – September 27, 1923 Invasion of Corfu (Greece)
○ Mussolini wanted to invade Corfu, extract a fine of 50m lira. Mussolini also
bombarded Kofu, killing 16 civilians in the process. Mussolini also occupied Corfu
for a few weeks.
○ Eventually, Italy was forced to back down as Great Britain entered the matter,
forced Mussolini to leave Corfu. Mussolini realised that he could only “bully”
smaller states, but could not intimidate powerful nations like GB.
○ However, Mussolini still obtained the 50m lira fine, and a few territorial
concessions - portrayed to be a huge victory in Italy.
○ Once again, LoN tried to step in, issued warnings, but Mussolini ignored them.
● 1926 - Protectorate State established in Albania, intended to prelude to greater
conquests in the Balkans
Abyssinian Crisis
● Mussolini was frustrated with Italy’s defeat the hands of the Abyssinians in the Battle of
Adowa in 1896
○ Extremely embarrassing defeat, since Abyssinia had tribal forces whereas Italy
had armed men with rifles
● Mussolini triggered Walwal Incident in 1928 - a border skirmish between Italian forces
and Abyssinians. 50 Italians and 100 Abyssinians were killed.
○ Abyssinian government appealed to the LoN for help in mitigating tension
following the skirmish, but Mussolini kept saying Abyssinia was intent on
“provocation”, and threatened and all-out invasion
○ The LoN didn’t take Italy’s threats seriously, told Abyssinia that LoN could not
intervene
● Mussolini was keen to increase Italy’s prestige, provide jobs, more resources, and more
land to fight off the effects of the Great Depression and flailing Italian economy following
WWI. Used the Walwal Incident as a reason to invade Abyssinia.
● Italy used chemical weapons against Abyssinia, but LoN didn’t budge. In fact, USA
increased arms sale, while UK/France didn’t take any serious action.
○ UK and France, in 1935, approached Italy to propose the Hoare-Laval Pact,
which would have ended armed conflict but would still give Italy parts of
Abyssinia. The Pact was leaked to the public, and cancelled due to public outcry.
■ Still went to show how France/UK weren’t serious about LoN intervention
■ Consistent with policy of Appeasement - Appeasement, arguably, really
began with the Abyssinian Crisis
○ Mussolini turned to Hitler, who wanted to march into Rhineland (banned by ToV).
France panicked, allowed Italy to take all of Abyssinia as long as Italy fights
against Germany. Mussolini at this point was basically unchallenged in
Abyssinia, but also not loyal to French/UK since he’d realised that they were
weak (as was the LoN).
○ Pushed Mussolini and Hitler together - both distrusted France/UK, realised the
LoN was powerless
Historiography:
Pollard: “Fascism was the agent of reaction” to the ToV
De Grand: “WW1 pushed Italy towards Crisis”
De Felice: Support for Abyssinian Invasion from Middle Class was evidence of Mussolini’s
success in promoting Fascism
Taylor: Mussolini was a “vain blustering boaster without either ideas or aims”
Containment
● In response, Allies employed policy of “Containment” and enact the Berlin Airlift
● Over 200,000 planes flew over the blockade, supplying Eastern Germany.
● Seen as a huge propaganda victory, Soviets eventually gave in
Impacts
Korean War
● USA believed in and worried about the “Domino Theory”
● 1949: USSR and USA pulled troops out of Korea. However, South Korean leader (Rhee)
boasted he would attack the North. North attacked, took Seoul in 3 days
● 1950: USA raised matter in UN. USSR was not present (sulking over China’s absence
from UN)
● 1950: UN forces (aka America) attacked North Koreans. American forces force North
Koreans past the 38th Parallel, into in the Yalu River (right next to China). This brings
China into the Korean War, as they felt Americans were being unnecessarily aggressive
● Korean War set stage for Vietnam War, USA rearmament (300% military spending), 4
million dead, increased tension, showed American desire to stop Communism. Initiated
globalisation of the Cold War
Containment
● Japan
○ Americans recognised Japan’s strategic importance, needed a strong anti-
Communist Ally
■ Decided to re-modernise Japan. Introduced a “Bill of Rights” and a
“Renouncing War Forever” clause in the Constitution
■ Decided to introduce Democracy, felt that a focus on “the individual”
would move Japanese people away from their militaristic/nationalistic
ideas
■ US forces were allowed to be stationed in Japan, Japan’s economy grew
rapidly (Nintendo, Sony, Toshiba all grew under American help). Japan
was no longer at risk of Communism
● Taiwan
○ Placing the 7th Fleet to Taiwan Strait to keep peace was seen as (initially) a
success of Containment
○ USA gave substantial military and economic aid to Taiwan, it developed far faster
than the mainland China. Eisenhower was allowed to take whatever military
action he saw fit to defend Taiwan, as stipulated through the Fermosa Resolution
(1955)
■ These were in-line with policies of Massive Retaliation and
“Brinkmanship”
Vietnam War
Cuba
Truman Doctrine
Peaceful Coexistence
● Under Stalin, relations were usually not very warm - Stalin was wary of Mao’s rise to
power and didn’t want Mao to be the face of Communism. Stalin supported KMT, Mao
did not trust Stalin as he felt USSR wanted a weak and divided China
○ A Sino-Soviet Treaty of Alliance was signed in 1950, when CCP won the Civil
War. This treaty took 2 months to sign, and was biased towards the Soviets. Mao
was extremely unhappy, said it was “Unfriendly treatment”.
○ During Korean War, Soviets demanded the Chinese pay for all military
equipment
● Under Khrushchev, relations improved till the infamous “Split”. This was the result of:
○ Khrushchev’s Secret Speech, which Mao saw as an attack on his leadership
○ The Hungarian Uprising which the Soviets took time to crush (Mao thought this
was a weakness)
○ Peaceful Coexistence - Mao saw this as a deviation from true Communist
ideology). He called on the USSR to abandon this “Revisionism”. When
Khrushchev visited Mao to ease tensions, Mao made things extremely
uncomfortable for K (asking him to swim, for example). These talks were
unproductive.
● USSR’s criticism of GLF failure angered Mao. USSR’s handling of CMC also angered
Mao, who felt that Khruschev was a weak cowardly leader.
Detente
● Khruschev fell out of favour in USSR, due to his liberal policies and co-operation with the
USA. Hardline conservatives never trusted K.
● K was replaced by Brezhnev, who enacted the Brezhnev Doctrine. Brezhnev Doctrine
was essentially that the Soviet Union reserved the right to use deadly force to protect
Soviet interests, and to ensure strict governing in nearby Communist states
○ Brezhnev wanted to extend Peaceful Coexistence however, did so through
Detente
■ Pressure to do so mainly came from spending (20% of government
budget on military was unsustainable), iron curtain acting as an economic
barrier, failing relations with PRC, desire to prevent Sino-American
relations, chance to share technological advancements
■ At this time, the USSR was starting to collapse - it had become an
inefficient bureaucracy
● USA accepted Detente, Nixon realised they needed Soviet help in exiting Vietnam, and
could curb USSR expansionism.
○ Nixon and Kissinger came up with American policy of “retrenchment and
maneuvre”, which was essentially to avoid military conflict and co-operate with
the Soviet Union, treat it as an equal power (it had the same number of nukes as
the US did anyway)
○ Also introduced policy of “Triangular Diplomacy” - which allowed the US to
become allies with USSR/PRC, but to make USSR/PRC enemies
● SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) 1 happened in 1969 - 5 year freeze on ICBMs,
was significant progress in relieving Cold War Pressure
● During Moscow Summit in 1972, countries agreed to improve commercial and economic
ties, have joined space ventures, and work together for Science research.
● Detente began to collapse due to the Helsinki Agreement (signed in 1975), where all
nations including the USSR pledged to protect Human Rights.
○ Soviet Union did not abide by the agreement (inside Russia and in
Czechoslovakia), angering the West. Congress refused to co-operate with the
USSR till human rights violations were accounted for and avoided in the future.
○ By 1975, USA also doubted that the USSR was abiding by SALT I as well.
● President Ford took over after Nixon, was not allowed to use the word detente and
Congress refused to co-operate or spend money on improving ties with USSR till Human
Rights violations were adequately addressed
● In 1977, SALT II talks were held. These did not materialise to much as President Carter
was angry that Brezhnev attempted to cut trade-links over human rights violations
Afghanistan
Gorbachev
USSR Internal Problems: Political tension due to Peaceful Coexistence, heavy spending on
Nuclear weapons research, death of Stalin (and consequent disputes over his legacy), quality of
life decreased (due to unsteady economy following WWII), political instability in Eastern Europe
(numerous anti-USSR uprisings ex Hungary), Gorbachev, “Gerontocracy” (essentially all Soviet
leaders were old and ill), Chernobyl,
External Problems: Success of USA Containment policy (this includes Marshall Plan, Massive
Retaliation, prevention of ‘Domino Theory’ in Korea) and Afghanistan.
SL Topic 4a: Japanese Imperialism
International Response to Japanese Nationalism
● America’s reaction was limited in the 1930s as President Roosevelt were bound by the
Neutrality Acts - which said that the US could not intervene in issues not directly
concerning them (re Sino-Japanese War)
● Public opinion in 1937 was overwhelmingly in favour of isolation - 70%
○ Roosevelt did nothing more than give a speech which suggested the world
“quarantine” Japan
○ In the meantime however, USA traded with Japan - giving them a total of 40% of
funds needed to win the Sino-Japanese War through economic trade
● By 1938, Japan declared that it wanted a new “East Asian World Order” prompting
American action - started by giving 25 million USD of oil to KMT
○ Americans also wanted to limit Soviet influence in China
● By 1941, USA began giving China millions of dollars in funding, placing a total trade
embargo in 1941 along with Britain and the Netherlands
○ USA froze Japanese assets, also forced Japan to hunt elsewhere for their oil
supply
● Pearl Harbour pushed the USA into engaging with Japan through warfare
Timeline
1900: The Boxer Rebellion
1911: The “Double Ten” Rebellion
1912: China becomes a Republic
1912 - 1916: Presidency of Yaun Shikai
1916 - 1927 Warlord Era
1919: May Fourth Movement
1926: The United Front
1926 - 1927: Northern Expedition
1928 - 1934: Jiangxi Soviet
1930: The Futian Incident
1930 - 1934: The Five Extermination Campaigns
1934 - 1935: “The Long March” (CCP)
1934: The Zunyi Conference
1936: The Xian Incident
1937: The Second United Front
1937 – 1945: Sino-Japanese War (WWII)
1945: GMD-CCP Race for territory formerly held by the Japanese
1946 – 1949: Chinese Civil War
1945 - 1947: GMD Supported by the U.S. military
1946: Red Army renamed People’s Liberation Army (PLA)
Jan. 1949: Chiang Kaishek fled to Taiwan - declares it as “Republic of China”
Oct. 1949: People’s Republic of China (PRC) established
KMT and CCP were ideologically similar, initially. Why did they split?
● Big part of it boils down to death of SYS. SYS was a figure respected by both the KMT
(he founded the KMT) and the CCP. In 1940, even Mao payed homage to SYS and
declared to put forward his 3 Principles of Nationalism, Socialism and Democracy
● When SYS died, the KMT had to re-organise themselves since he was at the centre of
many of their operations. There was an internal power-grab within the KMT, and
increased tension with the CCP as to who was the “true child” of SYS
● These power-grabs and arguments led to the backstabbing to follow during the First &
Second United Fronts. The failure of these fronts to sustain dialogue and co-operation
with the KMT and CCP ultimately destroyed their relationship.
Historiography:
Franz Michael
- The descent into Warlordism can be traced back to the regional armies the Qing used
to defeat the Taiping Rebellion
Historiography:
Michael Dillon
- "The CCP could not have been formed without the example of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union (Bolshevik), the CPSU (B) which is more commonly known as either
the CPSU, or just the Bolsheviks."
Rana Mitter
- "Li Dazhao, one of the founders of the Chinese Communist Party, declared in 1918:
‘The victory of Bolshevism is the victory of the new spirit of enlightenment that all
mankind can share in the twentieth century."
Historiography:
JAG Roberts
- the roots of the nationalist defeat and the communist victory in 1949 lie in the failings
of the GMD during the Nanjing decade
● CCP had been chased by KMT for 1 year following Shanghai Massacre. Long March
was a glorified retreat.
● CCP was outmanned, outgunned, had lost 60,000 troops by October 1934. Needed to
escape and rethink strategy (later adopted guerrilla warfare)
● CCP noticed:
○ That 50% of peasants owned no land, sought to promise them land
■ By 1930s CCP had 2.5 million chinese under control
○ War-lords were too powerful and still had their own militaries
○ Chiang Kai Shek was busy fighting the Japanese in Manchuria
○ If peasants were treated correctly, CCP could have massive support base
1. Escape from Jiangxi was ok, till they reached Xiang River and got battered by Nationalist
forces (86k soldiers → 36k survived)
2. Mao realised CKS wanted to destroy read army in Hunan, where Mao’s forces were
supposed to meet up with He Long’s forces. So Mao changed direction and went to
Guizhou (where CKS was weak)
3. Zunyi Conference → CCP Politburo discussing how not to lose battles
a. Local warlords didn’t want to help out GMD because they didn’t want to lose
forces. CCP, apart from being bugged a little, never really had problems with
local warlords.
4. April 1935: CCP was marching through the mountains. Approximately 9000 soldiers
were killed (lack of food, clothes and adjustment to high altitude)
5. CCP used guerilla tactics. Split up army into different smaller groups, move through
different provinces and bring smaller groups together at later point.
a. Used young boys as messengers.
b. Moved during nighttime
Historiography:
Larry Wortzel
- Nobody in Red Army really knew what was going on
- Mao didn’t have a plan, he just knew where he wanted to go
- Chose a particularly difficult route (through the Mountains)
- GMD seemed confident that the CCP wouldn’t survive the cold mountains.
- GMD was corrupt, bad relationship with peasants.
Historiography:
Michael Lynch
- suggests the CCP did not gain followers through ideological conversion; instead, “the
peasants followed the Reds because of the way they were treated by them”
- While some of the growth in party membership was driven by coercion, “the fact
remains that Yan’an marked a major propaganda victory for the Chinese Communists”
Historiography:
Marc Blecher - weaknesses of GMD
- GMD base began to crumble rapidly - couldn’t finance forced, corruption, unbeneficial
taxes (to neither capitalists or landlords), inflation etc.
- Workers joined shop keepers in staging riots and strikes in Shanghai to protest at the
rising cost of food and declining standard of living
- Peasant unrest grew - CHiang responded with repression which alienated many
- Key liberals withdrew support
Economic Factors
Mao, through his policies, combatted economic inequality and widespread poverty through land
distribution, collectivization, and the removal of heavy taxation
● After war against Japan during WWII, Chinese economy collapsed
● GMD received lots of economic support from American and British
○ “Not patriotic”
● Heavy taxes on people, widespread poverty
○ Only 4% of the population controlled 50% of the land!
● Land distribution, education, collectivization can be discussed here as well
War/Political Factors
Mao capitalised on discontent within the Chinese population regarding the GMD in order to
promote their ideology and practical policies for China, winning over tremendous support
● During WWII CCP fought against invaders (Japanese) whereas GMD kept retreating to
preserve forces
○ CCP were recognised as true patriots, GMD = traitors
○ GMD even attacked the CCP while Japan was invading. GMD people were seen
as backstabbers.
○ CCP were better fighters because of guerilla tactics
● GMD extremely corrupt, treated the peasants/farmers very poor
● Following death of SYS, China began to split apart → GMD allied itself with Warlords
● Mao had less competition for power within the CCP
● CCP kept gained favour by redistributing land, controlling rent, raising literacy, stamping
out corruption, constructing homes/schools, hospitals and factories
● GMD losing Civil War
● Mao had support of Zhou En Lai and Peng De Huai (during Zhunyi conference 1935)
○ Used organisation and their military ability to further communist cause
○ Guerrilla tactics and organization of the PLA achieved under Zhu De → vital
○ Lin Biao transformed the PLA into a conventional army in 1947, led the CCP to
deliver blow to GMD in series of victories eg. The 1948-49 Huai Hai campaign
○ Party also assisted in winning over peasants for Mao through propaganda
○ Party was vital in providing Mao with the support for him to rise to power
● Personality was shrewd and opportunistic: 1935 Zunyi Conference during the Long
March to deliver a blistering attack on military leadership of 28 Bolsheviks
● Mao himself came from a humble, working-class background. Abusive father.
● Long March made Mao look like a father-figure for China. Mao regularly visited farmers
in the countryside to maintain his “humble father” persona
● Adaptable/perceptive visionary: adapted Marxism-Leninism to suit China’s socio-
economic landscape in defiance of the Comintern, changing its emphasis on urban rev.
to one with a rural focus
○ Land reforms/land distribution attracted a core group of supporters to the CCP
with more than 80% of them being peasants; would form the bulk of the PLA to
defeat Jiang. Yenan Rectification and Nanjing Decade won him popular support.
Use of Force
Crush internal and external opposition
● Following Futian Incident and 1942 Yenan Campaign, Mao forced unity through force (to
eliminate internal opposition). 10,000 individuals killed
● Winning the Chinese Civil War (guerilla tactics vs GMD’s large, well equipped but poorly
trained army). Gave CCP, and thereby Mao, power over China
● Claimed anti-Bolshevik league had infiltrated communists, purged 2,000 party members
in late 1940s
Propaganda
Mao and the CCP relied heavily on propaganda to gain support from the rural peasants.
● The CCP managed to turn the Long March, a 6,000 mile historic trek in a retreat from
Jiang’s forces from 1934-35,into a major propaganda victory
● Although a military defeat with 90% of CCP members eliminated, Mao manipulated the
mythic significance of the Long March to turn the communists into heroes
● Used events like the Luding Bridge incident to emphasize the bravery of the CCP
● The heroism attributed to the Long March inspired many young Chinese to join the CCP
during the late 1930s and early 1940s
● Would eventually form the PLA to fight against the GMD during the Chinese Civil
War•Used the Long March to discredit the GMD and raise its own prestige
● Managed to present what had begun as a military defeat as an epic journey to fight their
way to their base in Yenanto engage the Japanese threat•Assume the role of the true
nationalists in China and allowed it to gain tremendous support
Others
● Weakness of opposition: Jiang only had 8% of land, 25% of population under check
● Background: China just came out of warlord period, peasants were sick of warlords,
high-taxes and socioeconomic inequality
● 2nd United Front: GMD and CCP united to defeat Japanese. GMD Backstabbed, front
collapsed, GMD is unpopular
● Used Zunyi Conference (1935) to attack Bolshevik leadership, cement his own
● During Long-March, Zhang (Mao’s closest rival with larger army) was forced to come
under Mao after he ran into GMD at Shaanxi
● Mao and the CCP capitalized on the discontent of the Chinese population with the GMD
in order to promote their ideology and practical policies for China, winning over
tremendous support
Historiography:
Immanuel Hsu:
- Was a giant step in his quest for supreme power by enabling him to emerge as the
undisputed leader of the CCP
Collectivization (1953-1957)
● Feared private ownership would lead to class divide, capitalist tendencies = against
Mao’s vision
● Collectivization allowed Mao to have control over richer and poorer portions of the
population, act as a kind of great equalizer
● Jung Chang: failures of Collectivization, and the following pursuit of steel-production, in
some ways undermined Mao
○ NOT TO BE MENTIONED IN ESSAY, but Collectivization failed as people over
promised and lied about their actual progress to cover up failure. State prioritised
accordingly, didn’t focus on agriculture since they thought it was under control
(when really it wasn’t). Nobody was willing to say they weren’t achieving,
everybody starved
● Military went around taking over territory (Tibet, Xinjiang, and Guangdong (KMT base))
● Terror tactics
○ Purges against Democratic Leagues, GMD supporters
● 130,000 bandits and 28,000 others were killed in battles against triads
● Spying
○ Neighbors spying on neighbors, children reported on their parents, workers
snooped on other workers
○ Dissent was not tolerated. Bourgeois elements weren’t allowed
● Mao wanted to wipe out the middle-class (the bourgeois), he only wanted the proletariat
to be in power - the working class
● Property of landlords was confiscated and redistributed. Most landlords were put on trial,
some were allowed to become peasants
● Peasants were given land, millions of landlords were killed. Mao called them Kulaks
● Happiness for peasants only lasted for 2 years. Mao took back the land given to them to
push for collectivization of the peasantry
Others:
● Political Structure: claimed to have “elections” for each official, when really they were all
hand-picked. Politburo was filled with people loyal to Mao, they would just rubber stamp
his policies
○ Military Commander and Political Commissar for each of the 6 sections China
was divided into were always from PLA - giving Mao control, regardless of who
the Chairman was, of each region and bureau
● Reunification campaigns: take back Tibet, Xinjiang and Guangdong. Stir up nationalism,
distract nation from internal issues
Great Leap Forward: failure, but a testament to Mao’s control since nobody opposed him
Historiography:
Jung Chang: Failures of Collectivization, and the following pursuit of steel-production, in some
ways undermined Mao
Hsu: Propaganda cemented Mao’s control over China
Foreign Policy
Actions
● Education reforms (took out eight legged essay, asked about current socio-economic
issues so that kids were more creative and aware of current events vs just
memorisation)
○ Modern military practice instead of swordsmanship at schools
○ Exam on political economy
○ University in Peking was founded - medical school
○ Publication of official newspaper
● Government
○ Abolition of sinecure posts and unnecessary offices, and some regional roles
○ Progressive minded officials appointed
○ Stricter anti corruption measures
○ Reform suggestions from private citizens
● Military
○ Military institutions created
○ Military structure reorganised
○ Built railways for better infrastructure
● Diplomatic improvements
● Restructuring of law
○ Based on Western Reform Examples
Consequences
● Guangxu fired officials and undermined Cixi’s power
○ Government was a reactionary force now
● Cixi heard people were plotting to kill her
● Arrests people, executes 6 officials
● Vast majority of emperor’s reforms revoked, court now full of conservatives
● Progressive development now impossible
● Reactionary court didn’t know how to do anything
○ Leads to anti-foreignism and Boxer Rebellion
● More people realise only viable solution is a revolution. Reform was bs
● Conservatives back in power
● Beginning of mass political movements in China (establishment of Study Societies)
Why Fail?
● Many of reforms were just on paper not put in practice
● Reformers were opposed by some chinese people AND intellectuals
○ People thought government wanted to destroy chinese culture
○ Thought reforms were an excuse for Cixi to gain more power lol
● Manchus thought that Government was against them because there were few
conservative Manchus left in government who hadn’t been dismissed
● Lack of political leadership
○ Cixi was a really powerful figure, nobody stood up to her
○ Even though she retired in 1889, her followers controlled things for her
● Regional decentralisation from Taiping rebellion
● Reformers were inexperienced, knew little about West
● Lack of popular support
BOXER REBELLION
● Lost Sino Japanese War
○ Increased foreign resentment. Foreigners were about to slice up China.
● Flood in yellow river, famine, local industries suffering because westerners sold stuff for
cheaper, banditry, poor harvest.
● Number of secret organisations
● Boxers were one “support the qing, eliminate the foreigners” was their motto
● Foreign leaders wanted Qing to fight boxers. Cixi eventually supported Boxers though,
thought they could help her rid China of foreigners.
○ Cixi wanted to vent anger against foreigners, stir up patriotism, remove foreign
military presence and eliminate foreigners who might’ve seen Qing crimes.
● May 1989 Boxers were organised, attacked Christians mainly. Looted and killed them.
● 50,000 troops from foreign countries came to crush Boxers
● Battle of Beijing = foreigners won
● Cixi left, 130k dead. Foreigners stayed in BJ for a year, were pretty mean.
Consequences:
● Loss of life, more taxes, stopped foreigners from dividing up China, more nationalism
● Showed Cixi/Qing were incompetent, stressed demands for reform/revolution.
● Qing Dynasty was overthrown in 1911 basically because of this. People thought Qing
lost their “mandate from heaven”. Sparked KMT/SYS 1010 Revolution.
● Qing Decadence (laziness and incompetence) was highlighted, bannermen were no
longer strong warriors.
● Power was decentralised further. Chinese government could no longer protect its people
(warlords and treaties)
Consequences
● Abdication of Puyi on February 1912, ended 2 millenia of Imperial rule in China
● Essentially, a new beginning for China. Imperial China had disappeared, they were a
new country, a new republic.
● Brief civil War on whether YSK or SYS should be in control. SYS “resigned” after
realising China needed a military leader - YSK was one, SYS was not.
● New republic with a national assembly and a provisional coalition was founded, however
later it became clear that YSK was monopolising the system, trying to become an
Emperor on his own.
● Success of Xinhai Revolution, but failure to capitalise on newfound momentum led to
eventual rise of CCP in China
Post Mao
● Following the end of Mao’s era, there was a power-struggle between the right-CCP and
the left-CCP
● Zhou En Lai emerged as the supreme leader of the CCP (from the right)
○ Zhou had served with Mao since the Xinjiang Soviet, but was known to be more
pragmatic than Mao.
○ He believed that revolutionary ideology was not always a sound guide for
economic policies, that a nation’s current status and progress needed to be
assessed as well (rather than blindly following Marxist-Lenninism or similar).
Zhou recognised that the GLF had failed China.
● Zhou En Lai was very close with Deng Xiao Peng and Liu Shao Qi - they were
“moderate” Communists who supported the Cultural Revolution
○ Zhou felt it was suitable for peasants to form a smaller commune, and farm on
their own plots of land. His beliefs backfired, CCP felt he was a traitor and was
“working against the CCP from the inside”. Deng was sent to Jiangxi and placed
under house-arrest, but was allies with Deng.
○ Zhou knew that Deng was rising to power quickly, and that Deng would ensure
more realistic and pragmatic policies.
● From the Left we had the Gang of Four, thought to be favoured by Mao
○ Dedicated group of four revolutionaries, more adherent to Mao’s ideology than
Mao himself was
○ Jiang Qing – Mao’s 4th wife, was the leader:
■ Former actress, became famous during the Cultural Revolution
■ Replaced traditional opera and ballet with productions that celebrated
the communist revolution and proletarian culture
■ Extremely fearless and tactful
○ Yao Wenyuan:
■ Based in Shanghai, Yao became an important figure of the party and the
Politburo
■ It was Yao’s criticism of a play in 1966 that helped start the Cultural
Revolution
■ Known for his radical interpretation of CCP ideology
○ Zhang Chunqiao:
■ Also based in Shanghai
■ Played a role in purging the Rightists
■ Wrote several articles denouncing the return of the Rightists
■ IN 1989, at the trial of the Gang of Four, he would not respond to
questions and seemed to spend much of the time sleeping
○ Wang Hongwen:
■ He was a prominent trade union leader
■ He was responsible for the ferocity of the Cultural Revolution in Shanghai
■ His nickname was ‘Helicopter Wang’ because of his very rapid rise from
factory worker to Party leadership
● Gang of Four ferociously enacted Cultural Revolution in Shanghai, quoting Mao’s little
red book and making it hard for anybody to challenge them.
○ They weren’t necessarily a strong force, since they lacked connection to the PLA,
but were big political and cultural players.
● Gang of Four were trialed and sentenced (based on 48 different offenses), only four
years after the CR since the right-CCP wanted their powerbase to dwindle. During the CR
the Gang of Four wielded significant power which CCP did not want to challenge
4 Modernisations link
Causes
● Initially established by Zhou En Lai in 1975. Wanted to develop national defence,
agriculture, science and industry to match the West.
● Deng Xiao Ping was a far-sighted realist, he would say “it does not matter if the cat is
white or black, if it catches the mouse, it is a good cat”
○ Deng Xiao Ping believed that ideology could not lead to economic success,
GLF/Great Famine alarmed him
○ Communism vs Pragmatism
● Open door policy was implemented, opening China to foreign investment (success of
Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan motivated Deng)
○ Government spent 40 billion for 100,000 construction projects
Results
● Economic:
○ Steel production increased by 300% from 1985 to 1999
○ Coal production doubled
○ Electricity production increased 10% a year
○ State owned enterprises changed to collective ownership, were allowed to sell
any surpluses over and above their quota for a profit on the open market
○ Special Economic Zones (Zhuhai, Shenzhen, Xiamen) allowed for exports to
increase by 250%
○ Open Door Policy
● Agricultural
○ Household Responsibility system was introduced (land remained public, but each
peasant received a plot of land and negotiated a contract with the commune
production team. Each household controlled the land and could sell surplus for a
profit)
○ Rise/wheat yield increased by 50%
○ China’s grain harvest topped 400 million tons
○ Land could be leased out for 50 years
● Science and Technology
○ 800,000 professional researchers
○ Up to date research centers
○ State funds available for researchers, patent laws were introduced
● Military Modernisation
○ Army’s leadership was restructured, improved salaries
○ Spent 300 billion USD on military equipment by 1985
Successes of 4 Ms Failures of 4 Ms
Famine and poverty reduced (estimated Emergence of new classes (new prestige to
30%), but rural areas still quite poor scientists, engineers, plant managers, writers
and artists)
Generally greater quality of life in urban areas Income inequality - industrial workers earned
(disposable income rose by 11%) 40 a month + bonus, peasants earned 5-7.
Demonstrated through Beijing bus drivers
going on strike in 1985
Modern military was loyal to the government Crisis of confidence (youth lost faith in
Socialism), especially critical of classes
● Loses his position in 1986 because he didn’t fire his more liberal partners
● Dies of a heart-attack in 1989. Intense public pressure for a state funeral, 10 mile queue
of public mourners. CCP was caught by surprised
● Zhao Ziyang asked students to end hunger strikes. In tears, he promised that the issues
over which they were protesting would be resolved
● He was dismissed from his post in the same evening, however, the students voted to
end the hunger strikes but continue the protests
Results
● Demonstrators were rounded up
● Zhao was imprisoned for 15 years, remains censored in China
● Peng remains powerful, Jiang Zemin replaced Zhao Ziyang as General Secretary
HL Topic 2: Japan
Tokugawa Shogunate
Tokugawa Isolationism
● By 1600, European missionaries converted about 300,000 Japanese to Christianity
○ Success of the missionaries upset Tokugawa Ieyasu
■ Aspects of the Christian invasion troublesome – Missionaries actively
sought converts ⇒ scorned traditional beliefs & disturbed local politics
■ At first, Ieyasu did not take any action – feared driving off Portuguese,
English, Spanish, and Dutch traders who spurred Japan’s economy
○ By 1612 - shogun had come to fear religious uprisings more
■ Banned Christianity and focused on ridding his country of all Christians
■ Ieyasu died in 1616, but repression of Christianity continued off and on for
the next two decades under successors
○ 1637 - issue came to a head
■ Uprising in southern Japan of 30,000 peasants, led by dissatisfied
samurai, shook shogunate
■ Many rebels Christian – shogun decided Christianity at root of rebellion
■ Began to ruthlessly persecuted Christians
○ European missionaries were killed or driven out of Japan
■ Japanese were forced to demonstrate faithfulness to branch of Buddhism
■ Policies eventually eliminated Christianity and led to an exclusion policy
● Closed Country Policy
○ 1633-9 – 5 edicts were issued that prohibited christianity, forbade travelling
abroad, prohibited Portuguese ships in japanese ports and strict trade
regulations
■ Tokugawa laws forbade travelling abroad as well as restriction of western
ideals – 1630 foreigners were essentially kicked out
■ 1641 – edict issued to confine dutch trading
○ By 1639 → sealed Japan’s borders – “closed country policy.” (Sakoku)
■ Japan in Isolation Most commercial contacts with Europeans ended, one
port, Nagasaki, remained open to foreign traders
■ Only Dutch and Chinese merchants were allowed into the port
■ English left Japan voluntarily, Spanish and Portuguese expelled
○ Shoguns controlled Nagasaki – now had a monopoly on foreign trade, profitable
○ For more than 200 years, Japan remained closed to Europeans
■ Japanese were forbidden to leave, so as not to bring back foreign ideas
■ Japan would continue to develop, but as a self-sufficient country, free
from European attempts to colonize or to establish their presence
● It was Tokugawa Iemitsu who enforced isolation from much of the rest of the world
Commodore Perry
● July 8 1853 Commodore Perry arrives in Japan with a squadron of military ships
● On behalf of the US govt. he forced Japan to enter into trade with the US and demanded
a treaty opening trade to the US and opening ports to US boats/merchant ships
○ “Black ships of evil men” – many leaders wanted to expel the foreigners
○ Abe Masahiro, the head of the bakufu’s Council of Elders, sought to gain
consensus by requesting all the daimyo to express their opinions – showed the
bakufu’s weakness
○ Commodore perry returned in February 1854
■ Forced Iemochi to sign unequal treaties
○ March 31 1854 Kanagawa Treaty of Friendship – a treaty was signed between
the US and Japan to allow trading at two ports
○ 1858 Harris Treaty – another treaty was signed which opened up more ports and
designated cities in which foreigners could reside
● Clear that commodore perry could impose his demands by force – japanese had no
navy to defend their demands causing them to comply
○ Daimyo also displeased as their personal honour had been violated
○ Those in South (Shishi) became restless – saw Japan as sacred, hated treaties,
and didn’t like Iemochi for going ahead with treaties without emperor’s consent
■ Began movement of Sonno Joi: revere the emperor, expel the barbarians
● Japan knew that Perry’s ships were just beginning of change – soon Russia, France,
Britain and Holland followed to set up treaties with Japan and open them up to trade
○ Did not just threaten japan, but also combined forces to defeat and disarm
Japanese forces
● Trade brought a lot of foreign currency into the country, disrupting the Japanese
monetary system
○ Injection of forging currency disrupted the monetary system, resulting in inflation
● Ruling Shogun seemed unable to do anything – Samurai began to demand a change in
leadership
○ Emperor actually interested in treaties – took power away from Shogun
● Weakness of Tokugawa before western imperialism, and the trade itself, is what
ultimately led to the downfall of the Tokugawa regime
● Long term
○ Restrictions on entrepreneurial class and over emphasis on farmers
■ Government ideal of an agrarian society failed to square with the reality
○ Frustration over lack of meritocracy – samurai felt this way
■ Frustration on limits to limit social advancement (peasants in particular)
○ Contempt for Chonin (merchant class) but assumed big role with growing
economy
■ Samurai and Daimyo also depended on them – alliances formed
■ Represented political movement against Tokugawa/feudal system
■ Peasants dependent on money lenders for seed supplies – often couldn’t
afford to pay back
○ Europeans come to Japan – disrupt lifestyle
■ Jesuits destroyed shrines resulting in Hideyoshi prohibiting christian
activities – missionaries expelled, and traders also removed with the
exception of one dutch group
■ Europeans get kicked out – many people were converted but this
challenged previously established customs and religions – disruption of
Japanese lifestyle
○ Economic issues
■ Financial stringency (not enough money to spend)
■ Failure to tax growing sectors
■ Daimyos faced levies on rice – responsible for rebuilding infrastructure
○ Social
■ Daimyo in heavy debt to merchants
● Daimyo converted tax collections of rice into money, by selling it –
at mercy of astute merchants & fell in debt to them
■ Samurai disappointed
● Mistreated by Daimyo, jealous of Gono merchants as they were
getting rich, and frustrated of feudal structure (lacked meritocracy)
● Rise of Gono and Merchant class - despite being at the bottom
● Ideological structure
○ No personal relation to the emperor, despite god-like
status
● Many samurai deprived of land – dependent on stipends
○ Stipends weren’t enough to keep up with the growing
merchant and artisan classes
● Peasant uprisings
● Osaka uprising in 1837
● Outbreaks directed against landlords, moneylenders, and officials
Summary
● As 1867, drew to an end, contingents of armed rebels from Satsuma and Choshu moved
towards Kyoto.
○ January 3 1868, warriors from Satsuma stormed into the royal compound for an
imperial “restoration”
● Later that day, a new Emperor Mutsuhito ascended the throne and took the title of ‘Meiji’
or the “Enlightened One”
○ Resistance continued till May 1869, when the Tokugawa navy surrendered
Historiography:
E.H. Norman
- Geography was an ally of the exclusionist Japan
- Tokugawa family depended on its maintenance on the fruits of self labour, as did the
lesser lords or daimyo – feudal in socio-economic sense
Fairbank
- Described it as ‘centralised feudalism’ – feudal institutions were used to create
centralised political power, which was concentrated at the hands of the shogun. But
his dictatorship was sought to be sustained by furthering a feudal structure which
would include decentralisation (paradoxical)
Rise of Meiji
● Tokugawa Shogunate was officially ended on Nov 9 1867 – imperial rule restored (fully
restored on January 3 1868)
○ Meiji – means enlightened rule
● Arrive of American admiral Perry
○ Exposing the weakness of the Tokugawa Shogunate
● 200 years → ruled by 100s of feudal lords
○ Isolated from the rest of the world
○ No match to Western powers
● Shishi started movement – Sonno Joi
○ Used this phrase “Japanese spirit, Western technology” to defeat Shogun
○ Other Daimyos too felt they didn’t need to listen to Shogunate anymore
○ Yoshinobu (shogun) wanted help to reform, but eventually resigns to serve as
counsellor
○ 15 year old Meiji decided we needed full imperial restoration
■ Wanted to restore emperor who was a puppet
○ All Daimyos convinced to return lands to the Emperor. First time in Japan’s
history to do this – never a centrally controlled country
○ Meiji was still a boy, Meiji’s council was running the country.
○ This was not a public popular restoration – was top down. New government
enforcing new policies for modernisation, there aren’t many people in the streets
demanding that we have conscript army/european warships.
○ Conscript army made samurai obsolete.
■ Break away from feudal hierarchy to a unified
○ Japanable to keep progressing/developing unlike China because they were able
● Abolition of feudal rights and privileges
○ More mobilisation between the classes (choose their occupation)
○ Rapid expansion of education
○ Land taxation
○ Creation of national army
○ Government departments committed to industrialisation
● Zaibatsu → corporate building block
○ Despite poor statistics it was shown that industry had grown
● WW1 → Japan had strong government
○ Powerful army (1894 Sino-Japanese War, Russo Japanese War 1904)
○ Embryonic democratic nation
○ Strong modernised army
● Origin of success → Meiji Emperor
Causes
● 1850 – Restlessness in the ranks, no meritocracy
● Foreign exploitation of resources (whaling)
● Japanese Samurai and commoners were pretty worried by the climate – felt the elite
class was not serving the people of Japan properly
● Capital was moved from Kyoto to Tokyo => move designed to bridge East/West together
● Strong solidarity and clear goal among new leaders
○ Most reformers were middle-ranking Samurai – same socio-economic
background and had lived through foreign imperialism and Shoguns
● Wanted to counter imperialism – unfair treaties and foreign trade (by 1870, foreign
imports 70% of all trade)
● All round total modernisation
● Wanted to avoid national humiliation – saw China struggling
Meiji Constitution
● Enthusiasm at top and bottom of hierarchy, as it ends the feudal social hierarchy
● People’s constitution written by middle class farmers → local constitution to govern
regional/smaller areas (organising themselves) → happened in many different villages
○ Farmers were reading Western political philosophy (i.e. Spencer)
○ Articles were devoted to civil rights, power with the people, not the monarch
○ Modernisation was always carried from the top to the bottom, but for the first time
modernisation was attempted from the bottom to the top
● Late 1870s → democratic ideas were building in the countryside
○ Meiji leaders were pressured to install a democratic system
○ Persuaded to write constitution → assembly of elected representatives for people
● The real power either lies within the emperor or the former senior statesmen (the people
that advise the emperor)
Japan divided socially by rigid Confucian belief system under the In 1869 Japan had an advanced
class/caste system (no Tokugawa Bakufu discouraged change feudal economy but was still based
mobilisation) to social system and Westernisation. on agriculture . Silk was its main
export.
Fixed, hereditary system → no Elements of society hostile to
incentive for people to improve Westernisation and development. No national tax system - lack of
their lives, reform or innovate. government funds for development
Samurai culture/ ‘Bushido’ discouraged and industrialisation.
Samurai stipends 50% Samurai from adapting modern warfare.
government expenditure in 1871. - Samurai way of life no longer Japanese industry faced foreign
upheld in Japanese society competition on unequal terms,
No public school system in 1868. - Large pop. of Samurai no longer unable to protect its own industries
had code of conduct to live by
Women had no rights in society. Japan lacked raw materials for
Japanese national identity weak, many industrialisation.
not committed to emperor
● Social Changes
○ Daimyo and Samurai abolish themselves
○ 1870s government took incremental steps to reduce the power of the Samurai
○ This was necessary in order to reform japanese society from a hereditary status
system to a meritocracy
○ Abolish the hereditary status, install a meritocracy
■ Hereditary status: I’m a samurai because my ancestors were
■ Meritocracy: Merit from the emperor (rewarded), do the job because
you’re best for the job
● End of the Samurai
○ 1869 the Samurai ranks were reduced to two: Upper (shizoku) and lower
Samurai (sotsu)
○ 1872 → large portion of lower samurai reclassified as commoners - Stipends
remain
○ 1873 → Stipends are taxed
■ No more free money → if you want money need to give some back
○ 1873 → Compulsory national conscription
■ Samurais are no longer needed → national army
○ 1874 → voluntary program to convert Stipends to government bonds.
■ Bonds promised 5 -15 years of income with 5-7% interest
■ Few accepted as Stipends were less
○ 1877 → Satsuma Rebellion
■ Samurais rebel due to lack of benefits and downfall of their class
■ Imperial army defeat them comfortably
● Other Social Changes
○ 1870 → all non samurai in Japan were classified in legal terms as commoners
○ 1870 - Tokugawa restrictions on modes of travel, clothes (i.e. they could not wear
their hair in a bun) finished
○ 1871 → Daimyo summoned before the emperor where it was declared that land
would return back to the emperor
■ 300 domains turned over, and put under control of a state governor, and
renamed as districts
■ 1888 → several districts had merged to turn reduce to only 75
○ Class distinctions removed
● Changes to Education
○ Mass schooling → like military conscription, a source of the economic and
military strength of the West
○ 1872 → National system of elementary middle school and university education
established
■ 4 years compulsory national schooling
○ Emphasised practical and technical learning (math and science)
○ Taught children how to be patriotic to the emperor – moral training
■ Ex. success of Japanese patriotism → WW2 Kamikaze (suicide missions
to save the nation)
○ 1905 - 95%
● Cultural Changes Westernisation
○ 1870s there was a fashion for anything western from ball-room dancing to beards
and top hats
○ Books, essays and novels all discussed western ideas, especially after Iwakura
■ Dutch books unbanned
● Cultural Changes - Eastern Spirit
○ Shintoism was re-established as the state religion and personified in the
emperor and a new Shinto shrine for the nation was built in Tokyo
■ A way of uniting the people → all believe in the same Gods, morality
■ Making us more Japanese
○ Bushido was re-invented as the soul of japan
■ Make it applicable to everybody
● Cultural Changes - Emperor Worship
○ A mixture of western ideas and Japanese traditions was symbolised by the
emperor himself
■ He is still emphasised as a living god in a modern way
○ The emperor became a unifying force for this new nationalism, and he came to
represent the social and national identity of japan
● Economic Changes - Financing Growth
○ Samurai costs reached 50% of total government expenditure
○ 1983 → National Land Tax was introduced for the first time (money instead of
rice)
○ Raw Silk Production and Export from 1868-1913 – increased by ⅓
○ Rice production grew 30% 1880-1894
● Economic Changes - Industrialisation
○ Build new industries and model factories to imitate
○ Shipping, railways etc. → modern technology brought in
○ Not enough money → sell industries to private businesses and in return they
receive special privileges
Satsuma Rebellion
● Revolt of disaffected samurai in 1877 against new imperial govt. 9 years into Meiji
● Comes from Satsuma domain, which had been influential in restoration and became
home to unemployed samurai
● Samurai no longer needed
● Rebellion lasted from Jan 29 1877 – september
○ Crushed as Saigo Takamori, the leader, ended his life
Foreign Policy
● Wanted to guarantee the existing treaties pending revision
● British agreed to a new and equal treaty 1894
○ Other powers quickly followed suit – terminated situation of inequality
○ Meiji govt. decided to negotiate a revision rather than denouncing them – showed
commitment to open diplomacy
● New attitudes symbolised by the Rokumeikan – a pleasure pavilion built by 1880 where
PM Ito Hirobumi entertained westerners
○ Many disapproved
● Frontier demarcation and national security – affected relations with China, Russia and
Korea
○ Desire to make economic and strategic use of Korea
● Japan realised that possessions of overseas empire became national greatness
● Relations with Korea were put on a formal footing by the treaty of Kanghwa in 1876
○ 1894 – Japan sent troops into Korean peninsula and denounced the presence of
a Chinese army in Korea and Chinese reluctance to cooperate in reforming the
country’s administration
■ China refused to conciliate, an deas defeated in the war that ensued
○ Under treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 1895, Japan received a large
indemnity and Taiwan
● Korea then found itself exposed to Japanese exploitation and political influence
○ Anti-japanese sentiments in Korea allowed for possible succor to Russia
○ Russia had been following an aggressive expansionist policy with building of
trans-siberian railway
■ 1900 was dominant power in Manchuria
○ Tsar wanted to expand into Korea – contested by Japanese
● With negotiations having failed, war broke out 1904
○ Russo-japanese war 1904-5 – more serious than sino-japanese war
○ 200 000 Japanese and 300 000 Russians lost their lives/were wounded
○ Japanese troops led by General Nogi Maresuke, gradually won
● Emperor Taisho was sick since he was young - contracted cerebral meningitis
○ He had limited political power, and this shifted to power to the Diet of Japan
● Despite lack of political stability, modernisation efforts continues
● Japanese citizens asked for more voice in the government and for more social freedoms
○ Most open they had ever been as a society
■ Literary societies, mass-audience magazines, and new publications
■ University cities like Tokyo witnessed a burgeoning culture of European-
style cafés, with young people donning Western clothing
■ Thriving music, film, and theater culture grew
● Until WW1 Japan enjoyed record breaking economic prosperity
○ People had more money to spend, more leisure, better education, and
development of mass media
○ Increasingly more people lived in cities, which caused them to experience
influence from abroad
■ Industrialisation undermined traditional values
● Within this period, Japan experienced mass society – similar to the roaring 20s
○ Japanese people demanded universal manhood suffrage – won in 1925
○ Political parties increased their influence, becoming powerful enough to appoint
their own prime ministers between 1918 and 1931
● At end of WW1, Japan entered a severe economic depression
○ Bright optimism of Taisho era ended
■ Party government was marred by corruption
■ Labor unions started large-scale strikes to protest labor inequities,
political injustices, treaty negotiations, and Japanese involvement in
World War I
■ Number of strikes rose from 108 in 1914 to 417 strikes in 1918
■ Post WWI – started with 49 labor organizations and ended with 187 at the
end, with a membership total of 100,000
● 1918 Rice riots – Japan was experiencing wartime inflation and low wages
○ Increase in the price of rice – impact on the entire country
○ August 1918 in the fishing village of Uotsu, fishermen’s wives attempted to stop
the export of grain from their village in protest against high prices – by october
there were more than 30 separate riots documented
■ They refused to load grain, attacked rice merchants, and protested the
continued high prices
■ Inspired other riots
● Great Kanto Earthquake – September 1 1923
○ 7.8 earthquake
○ Earthquake and fires killed more than 150,000 people and 600,000 homeless
○ Koreans living in Tokyo were targeted, as rumors spread that they were
poisoning the water and sabotaging businesses
■ 2,600 Koreans,170 Chinese killed, with 24,000 detained by police
○ Imperial army imposed martial law, and used social unrest as an excuse to
detain political activists
■ After earthquake, relation between emperor and military shifted
■ Prime ministers and cabinet ministers began to make decisions for army
■ Political activists became more vocal, many abducted
■ Local police and army officials who were responsible claimed these so-
called radicals used the earthquake crisis as an excuse to overthrow the
government – more repression and violence soon followed
■ Prime Minister Hara (1918–1921) was assassinated, and a Japanese
anarchist attempted to assassinate Taisho’s first son, Hirohito
● Order was restored when conservative arm of the govt. gained influence and passed the
Peace Preservation Law of 1925
○ Threatened 10 years imprisonment for anyone attempting to alter Kokutai (rule
by emperor and imperial govt, as opposed to popular sovereignty)
■ Curtailed individual freedoms
○ The transition in the emperor’s role began with the death of Emperor Taisho on
December 18, 1926
■ Son Hirohito ascended to the throne and chose the name Showa,
meaning “peace and enlightenment.”
○ Began his reign by performing all the ceremonial duties flawlessly but appearing
in public only for highly orchestrated formal state occasions
○ As the political climate shifted more militaristic, so did the role of the emperor
■ One specific gesture is emblematic of the changes occurring in the role
and power of the emperor
○ 1936 – illegal for any ordinary Japanese citizen to even look at the emperor
● Government and military, consequently, grew stronger, the parliament weaker
○ Industrial sector became controlled by a few giant businesses, the zaibatsu
○ Japan's international relations disrupted by trade tensions and growing
international disapproval of Japan's activities in China
○ Success in competing with European powers in East Asia strengthened the idea
that Japan could, and should, expand influence on Asian mainland by force
○ Japan's need for natural resources and the repeated rebuffs from the West to
Japan's attempts to expand its power in Asia paved way for militarists power
○ Insecurity in international relations allowed a right-wing militaristic faction to
control first foreign, then domestic, policy
○ With the military greatly influencing the government, Japan began an aggressive
military campaign throughout Asia, and then, in 1941, bombed Pearl Harbor
Taishō Growth
● 1914-1919 real growth (inflation adjusted) in manufacturing is 72% – the labor force
grew by about 42%
○ much of this growth is in heavy industry — areas of the economy which had
previously been profitable only because of the government subsidy
■ gross shipping tonnage grew by six-fold between 1915 and 1918
■ production of electric generators increased 10x
● large generators are for domestic consumption (this area was dominated by Mitsubishi
and Kawasaki)
● Japanese manufacturers of smaller generators make headway into Chinese market –
machine tools (lathes, boring machines)
○ domestic production did not exist before the war
○ Demand rose to 17,000 tons by 1918 – modernization of plant in light industry
like textiles
● previously textiles remain based heavily on small, often rural factories
● in 1914 only 8% of these use electric power, 1919 — 26% use electric power
● overall in 1910 about 20% of Japanese factories used electric motors, 1920 about 60%
○ by 1920 only half of the Japanese labor force is the primary sector (agriculture
and forestry) one quarter each in manufacturing and service
Japanese Imperialism
Annexation of Korea
Historiography:
HL Topic 3: Korea
Korea: Isolation to Annexation
Overview
● Korea’s inexperience with the West, Tributary System with China, and pride in Confucian
values were the source of their ultimate downfall when the West did come by
● A few intellectuals understood how complex Korea’s geopolitical situation was, but the
ruling elite didn’t understand. Chinese interference, Japanese expansionism, Russian
intrigue = all contributed to their downfall.
● Greatest threat to Korea was a swiftly modernising Japan
Taewongun reforms
○ In 1864, King Kojong assumed the throne but was only 11. His father, Grand
Prince Yi Ha-eung assumed the role of regent (Taewn’gun).
○ Between 1864-73, he initiated some centralising reforms aimed at curbing
corruption, disciplining Royal Clans and taxing the aristocracy.
○ He also tried to protect Korea through an isolationist foreign policy – no treaties,
no trade, no Catholics, no West, no Japan!
● Kojong Comes of Age
○ In this regard the Taewn’gun had some successes, defeating foreign attempts to
‘open’ Korea: The French and Americans were defeated in 1866 and 1871.
○ However the Taewn’gun was forced into semi-retirement in 1873 when King
Kojong came of age, supported by his influential wife, Queen Min.
○ King Kojong was a weak king who often changed his mind but was open to
modernisation, seeking greater ties with Japan and the West.
● Treaty of Kangwha - 1876
○ However many conservatives, including his wife Queen Min who supported
continuing ties with Qing China, opposed contact with the Japanese.
○ The imposition of the Treaty of Kangwha in 1876 by the Japanese was therefore
hugely divisive.
○ The King had no choice but to sign and his Royal Court was split between pro-
Chinese (Queen), pro-Japanese (King) and anti-foreign (Taewn’gun) camps.
○ The Treaty forced Korea to end its policy of isolationism by opening its ports to
trade with Japan.
○ It exempt Japan from Customs Duties and gave Extraterritoriality Rights to
Japanese Citizens – similar to the Treaty imposed on Japan by Commodore
Perry.
○ The Treaty also angered China. Korea was a tributary state of China but was too
weak to protest – both nations were now competing to control Korea.
● Kojong Reforms and Imo Mutiny 1882
○ Despite the resentment of the Treaty by many conservatives, the King pressed
ahead with reforms, accepting Japanese advice.
○ However the Taewn’gun opposed any reforms and changes to the policy of
isolation.
○ In July 1882, he supported a military uprising in Seoul known as the Imo Mutiny.
Soldiers attacked the palace, over-ran the Japanese legation and killed
government officials including members of the Min Clan.
● Kojong Reforms and Gaspin Coup
○ Queen Min appealed to the Chinese for help, and the Taewn’gun was promptly
arrested. The Koreans apologised to Japan, paid an indemnity and allowed
Japan to station troops at their embassy. The King pressed on, supported by
some Yangban officials, who created the Enlightenment Party in 1882, partly
inspired by the Meiji Reformers. In December 1884, they attempted a revolution,
known as the Gapsin Coup, with the help of the Japanese.
● Tonghak Rebellion
○ Whilst the Tonghak Rebellion started as a religious movement for social change,
it quickly took on the aspect of a national peasant rebellion against the prevailing
system and the foreign influence that plagued Korea.
○ The inability of King Kojong to deal with the rebellion triggered the involvement of
China and Japan, which resulted in the Sino-Japanese War.
○ The end result was that the Tonghak Rebellion weakened Korea enabling Japan
to dominate and finally annex Korea in 1910.
○
○ Consequences
■ Sino-Japanese War - The most immediate consequence was that the
Tonghak Rebellion triggered the involvement of China and Japan.
■ The Treaty of Shimoneski which ended the war in 1895 excluded Chinese
influence from Korea, leaving Japan in a position to control Korea.
■ Having huge influence over the the government enabled Japan to force
reforms on the Korean government, leading to the Kabo Reforms of 1894-
1897 which modernised Korea.
■ The Japanese also consolidated their power by assassinating Queen Min,
who’s family oligarchy were resisting Japanese influence.
■ Finally, in defiance of the Japanese, King Kojong sought closer ties with
Russia, declaring himself Emperor of the Korean Empire – independent of
both China and Japan.
■ This would create tensions, ultimately leading to the Russo-Japanese
War in 1904-05.
● Sino-japanese War
○ In 1894 the Tonghak Rebellion broke-out. The Korea government panicked and
pleaded for Chinese help. China sent over 3000 troops to Seoul led by Yuan
Shikai. Under the Tianjin Convention, Japan should have been informed but was
not. Japan then used this is a pretext to attack China, sending over 7000 troops
to Korea. The Sino-Japanese War had begun.
● Treaty of Shiminoseki
○ Japan soundly defeated China and in the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki, Korea
was declared an independent nation, no longer a tributary state of China. Japan
was now in control and the pro-Japanese government pressed ahead with
reforms. The Gabo Reforms of 1894-95 ended the old class system, ended civil
service exams, ended slavery and reformed the judicial and economic systems.
● Assassination of Queen Min
○ Many conservative Korean officials who opposed these reforms rallied behind
Queen Min, who worked to block them. Japan decided to assassinate Queen Min
in order to remove this barrier to its progress. Some theories suggest the King
and the Taewn’gun were involved! However the assassination triggered
nationwide opposition to the Japanese, and even the King was angered, fleeing
to the Russian legation.
● Brief Westernisation
○ King Kojong blocked Japanese reforms and ruled from the Russian legation for
over a year between February 1896 – February 1897. The King then pursued a
pro-Western foreign policy, allowing Russian and American businesses into
Korea as a counter-weight to Japanese influence. Trade and resource
concessions were given to Russia, and American & European businesses helped
to modernise the economy.
● The Empire of Korea
○ In 1897, King Kojong, with the backing of Russia, announces the ‘Empire of
Korea’ with himself as Emperor and declares the Empire entirely independent of
Japanese influence. This angers Japan who are becoming concerned by the
growing influence of Russia in Korea. Japan begins plotting to destroy Russian
influence in Korea, signing the 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance, aimed against
Russian power.
● The Russo Japanese War 1904-5
○ In 1904 Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian navy at Port Arthur and
eventually beat Russia entirely. In the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia was
forced to acknowledge Japanese control of Korea. The Treaty designated Korea
as a Japanese ‘protectorate’ and Ito Hirobumi was appointed as Japanese
Historiography:
Korean Society
● Factories were also built in Korea in attempt to rapidly industrialise
○ The urban population in Korea grew quickly
○ Though Korea remained agricultural to provide Japan with food
● The Japanese were repressive in their superficial reforms
○ 1919: Koreans took part in peaceful demonstrations for independence
○ Japanese responded by executing and arresting a lot of Koreans → thousands
were killed
● After these demonstrations, the Japanese made some small, yet superficial reforms
again
○ Before the March First Movement, the level of education and length of education
terms/semesters in Korea was much shorter than ones in Japan → education in
Korea was replicated against modern education in Japan after these peaceful
demonstrations
○ Koreans were allowed to print newspapers and hold meetings
○ Also granted religious freedom → more respect towards Korean customs
● 1930s → Japanese tried to assimilate the Koreans
○ Forced them to adopt Japanese names
○ 1938 onwards: Only Japanese education thrived in Korea
○ Schoolchildren were forbidden to speak Korean
○ Shinto (the Japanese state religion) was also forced upon Koreans
○ During WWII, many Koreans were forced to work in Japan
■ However, in 1945 when the Japanese surrendered to the allies, Korea
was no longer under Japanese hegemony
Comfort Women
● Background to the establishment of comfort stations
○ Comfort stations established in various locations in response to the request of
the military authorities at the time
○ Government documents cite as reasons for establishing comfort stations the
need to prevent anti-Japanese sentiments from fermenting as a result of rapes
and other unlawful acts by Japanese military personnel against local residents in
the areas occupied by the then Japanese military, the need to prevent loss of
troop strength by venereal and other diseases, and the need to prevent
espionage
● Timing of the establishment of comfort stations
○ Documents indicate that comfort stations established in Shanghai at the time of
Shanghai Incident in 1932, it is assumed that comfort stations were in existence
since then till end of WW2. The facilities expanded as the war spread.
● Areas with comfort stations
○ Confirmed existence: Japan; China; the Philippines; Indonesia; the then Malaya;
Thailand; Burma; New Guinea; Hong Kong; Macao; and French Indochina.
● Number of comfort women
○ No document has been found which either indicates their total number or gives
sufficient ground to establish an estimate. However, in view of the fact, as
described above, that comfort stations were operated in extensive areas for long
periods, it is apparent that there existed a great number of comfort women.
● Comfort women's place of origin
○ Confirmed that the comfort women that came were: Japan; the Korean
Peninsula; China; Taiwan; the Philippines; Indonesia; and the Netherlands
○ Many comfort women transferred to the war areas were from the Korean
Peninsula
● Operation and management of comfort stations
○ Many run by private operators, some areas Japanese military directly operated.
○ Even where un by private operators, the then Japanese military was involved
directly – by such means as granting permissions to open the facilities, equipping
the facilities, drawing up the regulations that set the hours of operation and tariff
and stipulated such matters as precautions for the use of the facilities.
● Recruitment of comfort women
○ In many cases private recruiters conducted the recruitment of comfort women
○ Pressed by the growing need for more comfort women stemming from the spread
of the war, these recruiters resorted in any cases to coaxing and intimidating
these women to be recruited against their own will, and there were even cases
where administrative/ military personnel directly took part in the recruitments.
● Transportation of comfort women, etc.
○ When the recruiters had to transport comfort and other women by ship or other
means of transportation, the then Japanese military approved requests for their
travel by such means as regarding such women as having a special status
similar to its civilian personnel serving in the military, and the Japanese
Government issued certificates of identification. Many women were transported
to the war areas by military ships and vehicles, and in some cases they were left
behind in the confusion of the route that ensued Japanese defeat.
Historiography:
- The rapid growth of the Korean economy under the Japanese rule, which as historians
note cannot be ignored in the analysis of the later economic success of South Korea,
continues to be the subject of controversy between the two Koreas and Japan. While
the growth is unquestionable, North Korea and South Korea point to alleged long-term
negative repercussions caused by how the acceleration of industrialization under
Japanese occupation was executed.
Characterise Qing
Qing got screwed in the First Opium War (started by Brits to settle trade deficit), signed treaty of
nanking (granted indemnity, extraterritoriality, opening of 5 ports, cession of HK). Treaty of
Whampoa with France and similar countries too .Got screwed again in Second Opium War,
forced to sign Convention of Beijing (military occupation, freedom of religion, opening up more
ports, repatriation). Chinese ships were too noob to put up a fight.
Qing were on brink of collapse after all the shit that happened to them. Decided they needed to
fix it by ripping off Western Science & Tech but still wanted to maintain Confucian ideals. Didn’t
really help much, they didn’t realise it’s the Western ideals that keeps them powerful, not their
technology lmao.
SSM failed because Conservatives were too meh to change. Cixi was corrupt. Emperor Tongzhi
was too young to rule. Scholars didn’t see value in West. Farmers thought building new stuff
ruined Feng Shui (lmao). Qing didn’t have money to spend + officials were idiots.
Sino-Japanese War
in 1895 Japan wrecked China in a war. Territory was conceded, Japanese ships allowed to
move around in Chinese territory. Japan’s prestige rose significantly - tribute system was
dismantled. Massive reparations, 35 million casualties. Korea = Japan’s now. Led to 100 Days
Reform.
Tried to reform, failed again after recent failures with Taiping, Japan and SSM.
This failed too because there were tons of ideas but no action. Also the intellectuals swarmed in
and shat on everything as usual. Also Cixi was still pretty anti change.
Reforms were: education reform (modern military practice instead of swordsmanship),
conventional subjects, publication of a newspaper, establishment of university, abolition of
sinecure posts, progressive minded officials put in. Military was improved (institutions +
spending).
Nothing happened here they all failed.
Boxer Rebellion
Angsty teenage fighters led a revolution. Fighting for same stuff as Taipings basically. Except
Boxers thought they were bullet-proof (legit went into battle thinking guns couldn’t hurt)
Hated famine (duh), local industries were suffering, poor harvest, bla bla.
BUT, they wanted to “support the Qing, eliminate the foreigners”.
Cixi wanted to vent anger against the foreigners, low-key riled up the Boxers and supported
them thinking she could boot out the Foreigners with them.
BOXERS TARGETED CHRISTIANS MAINLY.
THAT backfired, 50k foreign troops came in, crushed Boxers, occupied Beijing.
Cixi left, 130k dead, foreigners were pretty mean to locals.
Resulted in loss of life, more taxes, highlighted Qing decadence, sparked 1010. Further
decentralisation of power.
1010 Revolution
SYS the happy chum comes and wants a new government. Starts a revolution.
Built on SYS and his 3 principles: Nationalism, Socialism and Democracy
1010 Revolution also wanted “sinicization” => making all Chinese follow Han Chinese norms.
New life Movement => crushing of foreign influences in China (Soviet, Western, American),
introduce Confucian ideals.
Resentment towards Manchus
Led to abdication of Puyi, resignation of SYS (eventually). Failure to capitalise on momentum
led to rise of CCP.
4 Modernisations
Causes
● Initially established by Zhou En Lai in 1975. Wanted to develop national defence,
agriculture, science and industry to match the West.
● Deng Xiao Ping was a far-sighted realist, he would say “it does not matter if the cat is
white or black, if it catches the mouse, it is a good cat”
○ Deng Xiao Ping believed that ideology could not lead to economic success,
GLF/Great Famine alarmed him
○ Communism vs Pragmatism
● Open door policy was implemented, opening China to foreign investment (success of
Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan motivated Deng)
○ Government spent 40 billion for 100,000 construction projects
Results
● Economic:
○ Steel production increased by 300% from 1985 to 1999
○ Coal production doubled
○ Electricity production increased 10% a year
○ State owned enterprises changed to collective ownership, were allowed to sell
any surpluses over and above their quota for a profit on the open market
○ Special Economic Zones (Zhuhai, Shenzhen, Xiamen) allowed for exports to
increase by 250%
○ Open Door Policy
● Agricultural
○ Household Responsibility system was introduced (land remained public, but each
peasant received a plot of land and negotiated a contract with the commune
production team. Each household controlled the land and could sell surplus for a
profit)
○ Rise/wheat yield increased by 50%
○ China’s grain harvest topped 400 million tons
○ Land could be leased out for 50 years
● Science and Technology
○ 800,000 professional researchers
○ Up to date research centers
○ State funds available for researchers, patent laws were introduced
● Military Modernisation
○ Army’s leadership was restructured, improved salaries
○ Spent 300 billion USD on military equipment by 1985
Successes of 4 Ms Failures of 4 Ms
Famine and poverty reduced (estimated Emergence of new classes (new prestige to
30%), but rural areas still quite poor scientists, engineers, plant managers, writers
and artists)
Generally greater quality of life in urban areas Income inequality - industrial workers earned
(disposable income rose by 11%) 40 a month + bonus, peasants earned 5-7.
Demonstrated through Beijing bus drivers
going on strike in 1985
Modern military was loyal to the government Crisis of confidence (youth lost faith in
Socialism), especially critical of classes
Characterise Tokugawa
Confucian, feudal system. Japan was one of the most urban countries in the world.
Heavy taxes, corruption, wealth inequality.
Isolationists, but in 1600 Christians invaded and converted people. Bugged the Shoguns.
1630s Samurai began murdering foreigners, especially Christians
Japan was closed again. Foreigners not allowed to come in except for Dutch traders. Japanese
people cannot leave. Shoguns had monopoly over economy.
Daimyo were not taxed
Actions:
Powerful military. Conscript army.
Iwakura and Hirobumi Missions to learn from West.
Daimyo/Samurai classes abolished. Financial rewards given to them = gone.Abolition of feudal
rights/system
Mass schooling (95% by 1905)
Renewal of Boshido and Shintoism. Emperor Worship. Elected parliament.
Industrialisation. All Daimyos returned land to Emperor.Zaibatsu = corporate building block
Japanese Imperialism
Japan deeply affected by WW1 + great kanto earthquake. SEP consequences (37 banks gone)
Showa Resurrection was implemented = make Japan great again. Heavily military.
Outlawed dangerous thoughts, trained military more.
Fought for control over korea in Sino-Japanese War. Started by Tonghak rebellion
Annexing Korea
Modernisation of korea:
(modernisation = wanted by Tonghak). Railways, foreign ministry, moved away from feudal
system. Education. Productivity and output increased (Kabo Reforms)